Inclusiveness Short Note

Inclusiveness
Abdulfettah Muzemil (Assistant Professor)
Department of Special Needs and Inclusive Education

Jimma University
2021
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PART ONE
Concepts and Development of Inclusiveness and Special Needs Education
1.1. Introduction
Children with special educational needs are children first and have much in common with other children of
the same age. There are many aspects to a child’s development that make up the whole child, including –
personality, the ability to communicate (verbal and non-verbal), resilience and strength, the ability to
appreciate and enjoy life and the desire to learn. Each child has individual strengths, personality and
experiences so particular disabilities will impact differently on individual children. A child’s special
educational need should not define the whole child.
All children, including children with special educational needs, have a right to an education which is
appropriate to their needs. The aims of education for pupils with special educational needs are the same as
apply to all children. Education should be about enabling all children, in line with their abilities, to live full
and independent lives so that they can contribute to their communities, cooperate with other people and
continue to learn throughout their lives. Education is about supporting children to develop in all aspects of
their lives spiritual, moral, cognitive, emotional, imaginative, aesthetic, social and physical.
1.2. Definition of Special Needs Education
Special needs education is the practice of educating students with special educational needs in a way that
addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and
systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and
accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher
level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and their community, than may be available if the
student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
Special needs education defined as: -
“…a profession with its own tools, techniques, and research efforts, all focused in improving
instructional arrangements and procedures for evaluating and meeting the learning needs of
children and adults with special needs.”
The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs (EPSEN) Act was passed into law in July 2004.
Special educational needs are defined in this act as:
“…a restriction in the capacity of the person to participate in and benefit from education on
account of an enduring physical, sensory, mental health or learning disability, or any other
condition which results in a person learning differently from a person without that condition.”
The EPSEN Act recognizes that special educational needs may arise from four different areas of disability:
 Physical  Mental health
 Sensory  Learning disability
or from any other condition that results in the child learning differently from a child without that condition. It
is also important to understand that a child can have a disability but not have any special educational needs
arising from that disability which require additional supports in school.
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1.3. The Journey of Inclusiveness in Ethiopia
In the early society of Ethiopia, people with disabilities used to earn income by such skills as spinning and
weaving clothes, intertwining basket work, playing some of the traditional and instrumental music and
offering traditional medicine (Bairu, 1967). As the same author observed, the blind, among group with
disability for instance, were in the habit of leasing their lands under an agreement similar to that of
sharecropping to receive a certain amount of crops of the annual production. In addition to the above listed
means of survival, people with disabilities earn their living by teaching BIBLE AND KORAN in churches
and mosque schools respectively. Sometimes, people with disabilities used to serve as private tutors to the
children of the well-to-do to ensure their subsistence (Bairu, 1967; Nebiye Luel, 1962).
With the introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia, therefore, church education took the role of cultivating
children of nobility and with visual, physical and those who are gifted and talented. In this regard, the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church had played a matchless position in enlightening government and church leaders
of that time (Fikru, 2013).
Hence, before the introduction of western education, the country has a long history of church and mosque
education. In the history of Ethiopian church education, hence, people with disabilities had a convincing role
in taking part of scholastic voyage. For this, Francisco Alvarez gave his witness while he paid visit to
Ethiopia in the early 16th century. During the Portuguese visit to Ethiopia in the 1520's Alvarez recorded his
surprise of seeing the inclusion of persons with disabilities in the ranks of the Ethiopian priesthood (Alvarez,
1854). Following his visit to Ethiopia, what Alvarez had seen in the host country regarding the participation
of persons with disabilities in priesthood was quite different from his nation. Alvarez signified his
observation as follow; "a friar had come entirely blind, how was he, who never had eyes, to be made a priest
for the mass: also another entirely paralyzed of the right hand, and four or five who were paralysed in the
legs: these also they made priests" to the contrary of this, the writer denoted European’s particularly what
Portuguese’s' practice about persons' with disabilities (Alvarez, 1854). As Alvarez narrated, persons with
disabilities in Europe particularly in the narrator's country had no opportunity to serve churches and
monasteries. Rather, the fate of people with disabilities was to be captive in large hospitals which were set up
for custodial. To the worst of this, Europeans had horrible experience against people with disabilities. They
used to kill and throw away the group into jangles, rivers, roadsides, even to lakes (Howard and Orlanscky,
1988). Still, with better situation the blind ring bells and blow organs for churches and other spirituals events
(Alvarez, 1854).
After a century, another Portuguese traveler wrote a theological debate that he had made with a well-be
taught Ethiopian blind monk (Fikru, 2013). Even after several decades, as documents compiled by British
expeditionary force from 1867 to 1868 against emperor Tewodros II confirmed what the Portuguese'
travelers reported about the inclusion of persons with disabilities in church schools in the 16th and 17th
centuries. Particularly, the expeditionary force found five up-to six church schools in operation at the town of
Adowa. In these churches, the expeditionary force observed some blind boys among pupils who were
attending church education (Richard Pankhurst, 1990).
In this existed education system people with special needs or with disabilities like, for example, the blind
people have been highly involved as learners and teachers. As Bairu in (1967) well-noted in Braille monitor,
education has for centuries been recognized by most people as the light of the blind. However, it must not be
forgotten that the idea that the blind are exceptionally gifted is often concomitant to the general belief in the
education of the blind. The result is that the failure of a blind person is attributed to his/her reluctance and
laziness rather than his/her disability. The implication of the above cognizant is the astonishment of ancient
Ethiopians that they had for persons with disabilities.
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During the earlier times when the lives and work of Ethiopian society was dominated by the Christian
talented was the responsibility of the Ethiopia Orthodox Church (Fikru, 2013). The church in central and
northern regions where it has been dominant for the last sixteen centuries and the mosque, in strong Muslim
communities, have been the two chief institutions of traditional and formal education in the country (Richard
Pankhurst, 1990). The education in these religious sects had a demand of memorization and the ability of
narrating the Holy Scripture, theological interpretation of the text, composition of sophisticated poetry, and
singing of hymns (Bairu, 1967).
Like their fellow friends, persons with disabilities were expected to pass through all levels of church
education, which requires a long time. However, persons with hearing and intellectually impaired weren't
part of church education because of the nature of schooling. Predominantly, the teaching methodology of
church education was oral. Historically, those who succeeded in their education were able to get positions
and power (Adane, 1991).
Special education program in its modern type was started in Ethiopia in 1925. Before this time, as it is
mentioned earlier, blind people were attending traditional church education, and with that they had high
achievement, especially in oral learning and teaching in the Orthodox Church. (Adane, 1990) reported, “The
Ethiopian orthodox church has a long history of schooling persons with special needs who have advanced to
positions of decision makers in various churches and monasteries. This practice has continued until the
beginning of the twentieths century that is with the coming of 'western education' to the country. Even today,
though their number is insignificant, they are still good witness in many monasteries for what I recognized
above.
As church chroniclers narrate the situation, in Ethiopia, people with disabilities/special needs were
participating in the traditional education earliest than modern education, though few in numbers. There were
students around churches and mosques who were visually and physically impaired. These students were
successful since the education was given orally. This was confirmed by the presence of visually and
physically impaired teachers around mosques and monasteries who teach Koran, bible, poem, and rhythmical
religious songs even today. Religious organizations played a vital role in establishing special schools and
centers in Ethiopia as they did in the development of special schools & individuals are among the ones who
established training centers and special schools as well as in training and teaching people with special needs
(Bairu, 1967; Adane, 1991).
Western education officially commenced in 1908 with the opening of Minilik ii in Addis Ababa. The
introduction of westernized education gave therefore, an alternative education system to the country and
marked a significance step in the history of education of Ethiopia. Seventeen years from here later, the first
institutional school for children with visual impairment was established at the town of Dembidolo in 1925
even though it was interrupted by Italian invasion (Teshome, 2006). The opening of this institutional school
marked a significance step in the history of special needs education in Ethiopia. Therefore, the foreign
missionaries were the first to establish institutional schooling for people with special needs in Ethiopia. For
this, united Presbyterian mission of North America took the credit in introducing other choice of education
for people with disabilities with the existed church education since Christianity. The Swedish Lutheran
mission and the seven day Adventist mission also have used by training teachers and translators who had
different disabilities particularly the blind. Many of these people are equipped with Braille facilities. The
history of Braille in Ethiopia therefore, is as old as the coming of Presbyterian missionaries of North America
to Ethiopia (Bairu, 1967). It was the first to open a modern school for the blind in western part of the country,
in 1925 (Teshome, 2006; Bairu, 1967).
Thereafter, other disability groups were considered for special schools when public schooling were
expanded. The emphasis in the early special schools was on vocational skills. Their curriculum was thus
different from that in public schools. Hence, children with disabilities have to follow a different curriculum
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from that of the regular school. In addition, and as I already mentioned; these early special schools belonged
to private philanthropic organizations. In 1956 and 1959 special schools for deaf children were set up by
American and other missionaries. However, the involvement of the government in the area came in much
later.
For the first time in history, the 1994 education and training policy stated about special needs education even
though it is inadequate. Article 2.2.3 of the policy demands the necessity of special units and class for
students with special needs. Hence, the policy has allowed special units and classes to be established for
students with disabilities in regular schools (education and training policy of Ethiopia, 1994). From 1994
onwards, so many special classes, units within ordinary schools were established for the children with
visually and hearing impaired and for the mentally retarded and are giving service this time. Most of the
above mentioned special schools and units serve children up to grade 8 (MoE, 2012).
Subsequently, nine pilot resource centers have been established in selected six cluster schools and three
special schools in the country to serve children with disabilities in the neighboring and satellite schools
(MoE, 2012) according to this document, campaigns were conducted in all the regions and city
administration and tried to raise the awareness of over 9000 regional and woredas educational heads and
experts, as well as community members on various special needs issues, and data has been collected
regarding children with faith, education of the persons with visually and physically impaired as well as those
who were gifted and disabilities for the first time at national level since 2006/07(MoE, 2012). However, the
collected data focused only on five types of disabilities groups. Namely: visual impairment, physical
impairment, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, and others.
The annual education statistics abstract of MoE for 2010/11 showed that the number of children with
disabilities who have received education in primary schools in the country were 55,492 (ibid,). Hence, the
above figure indicates as school coverage of students with disabilities is still 3-4 percent of the total
population of the group. The rest 96-97 percent are still beyond school gets. Therefore, it is possible to
conclude that the pace of journey of special needs education in Ethiopia is at its infant stage.
1.4. Disability Terminologies
Advocacy groups, and others representing people with disabilities in recent years, have asked that
professionals, the media and schools discontinue the use of disability terminology that devalues people with
disabilities. People with disabilities do not wish to be known as à Down syndrome person’ or `the
handicapped’, or by any such term. They wish to be recognized as valued members of society, that is,
people, who have a disability. People with disabilities therefore prefer terms such as:
☺ A person with a disability ☺ Sione has a physical disability
☺ People with disabilities ☺ Do you have a hearing impairment?
☺ The child with cerebral palsy
The principle to be followed is people first, disability second (Foreman, 2000).
People with disabilities do not wish to be seen as the object of a punishment or blight, or as victims, either.
Nor do they wish to be seen as continually suffering or in need of sympathy. They don’t like terms such as
`suffers from’, àfflicted with’, `physical problem’, etc. They prefer their disability to be referred to as
something that they just have. Foreman (2000, p. 21) provides a list of suggested terms, see table 1.1. In
writing and speaking about, and with, people with disabilities, whether they are young or old, it is most
important to use appropriate terminology. Firstly, it demonstrates to all that we value people with disabilities
as members of our society. Secondly, it educates those who read and hear what we say, about appropriate
terminology, and therefore gives them an opportunity too, to help develop and promote positive, inclusive
and equitable values.
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Table 1.1 appropriate use of language when talking about disability
The World Health Organization (1980) determined the following definitions, which have been generally
accepted throughout the world:
Impairment an abnormality in the way organs or systems function
e.g., a medical condition, eye disease, a heart problem
Disability the functional consequence of an impairment
e.g., an intellectual disability due to brain impairment; low vision; deafness
Handicap the social or environmental consequence of a disability
e.g., a person with a wheelchair is not handicapped when paths and buildings are wheelchair
accessible
In more detail;
Impairment: refers to any loss or lack of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. It
is an abnormality of body structure, appearance, organ or system functioning. Examples of impairment
include: amputations, mental illness, near-sightedness, arthritis (illness where joints are stiff), dementia
(madness) …
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Disability: is any restriction or lack of ability resulting from impairment to perform an activity in the
manner or within the range considered normal for a person of the same age, culture, and education. It
is the consequence of impairment in functional performance and activity.
Simply stated, a disability is a performance deficit within the physical and social environments that is
the result of impairment. Examples of disability: reading, seeing (difficulty seeing), inability moving
…
Handicap: a handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or disability
that limits or prevents the fulfilment of the role that is typical (depending on age, gender, and social
or cultural factors) for that individual.
NB. All impairment does not result in a disability. E.g., paralysis of the lower limbs is a vocational
disability for a dancer, but the same impairment is not a disability for a bookkeeper.
It is the disadvantage which is reflected in interaction with, and adaptation to, the surroundings. It refers to
the societal level, the environmental and societal deficits influenced by social norms and social policy. The
term “handicap” means the loss of limitation to take part in the life of the community on an equal level with
others. It describes the encounter between the person with a disability and the environment. The purpose of
this term is to emphasize the focus on the shortcomings in the environment and in many organized activities
in society, for example, information, communication and education, which prevent persons with disabilities
from participating on equal term.
A handicap is characterized by a difference between what the individual appears able to do and the
expectations of the particular group of which he/she is a member. There are various factors that reinforce
societal expectations that excuse or prohibit a person with disabilities from performing activities of which the
individual is capable: misconceptions (especially underestimation); refusal to accommodate to an impairment
skill level; unwillingness to allow the person to continue to do those tasks which he still can do.
Environments that handicap a person include: inaccessible public buildings, lack of wide-door bath rooms,
lack of accessible public transportation, negative public attitudes towards persons with disabilities … You
can refer to the following example.
When someone is difficulty seeing If she/he is unable
near sighted is to get spectacles
(Impairment) (Disability) (Handicapped)
There are three factors that are important for professionals who work with children with special needs and
teachers to understand regarding needs of students with disabilities:
1. Severity of the impairment: - suggests the extent of involvement of a condition. For students with
sensory impairments, severity relates closely to communication ability and experiential background.
Students with more severe sensory impairments are likely to use different methods of communication
and assistive techniques for mobility.
2. Visibility of a disability: - it brings unwanted attention. Unfortunately, this attention focuses on the
perceived negative features of an individual. For many students, this attention causes them to feel
devalued.
3. Age of onset: -The age at which students acquire a disability has a profound effect on certain skills
and abilities (e.g., language acquisition or concept development). Age also affects how students
handle their condition and how educational personnel should address the condition.
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Three processes are observed at recent times regarding people with special needs.
 Normalization- creation of learning and social environment as normal as possible for the child
with special needs and adult.
 Deinstitutionalization- the process of releasing as many exceptional children and adults as
possible from the confinement of residential institutions into their local community.
 Mainstreaming- the process of bringing children with special needs into daily contact with non-
exceptional children in an educational setting.
1.5. Inclusion
1.5.1. Rationale and Definition of Inclusion
Implementation of inclusion has number of rationales. The major ones include: educational, social, legal,
economic and inclusive society building foundations
Educational Foundations
 Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive settings.
 A more efficient use of education resources.
 Decreases dropouts and repetitions
 Teachers’ competency (knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction, etc.
Social Foundation
 Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.
 All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships and prepare them for life
in the wider community.
 Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect and understanding.
Legal Foundations
 All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
 Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or discriminated against by being excluded or sent away because
of their disability.
 There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education
Economic Foundation
 Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
 Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools across the country.
 Children with disabilities go to local schools
 Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
 Children with disabilities live with their family use community infrastructure
 Better employment and job creation opportunities for people with disabilities
Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
 Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity
 Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation
 Promotion of sustainable development
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Inclusion in education/service refers to ―an ongoing process aimed at offering quality education/services for
all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of
the students and communities and eliminating all forms of discrimination‖ (UNESCO, 2008). Inclusive
services at any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and meeting the diverse needs
of people.
Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all persons through
increasing participation in learning, employment, services, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion
at all social contexts. It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies,
with a common vision which covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility of the social system to
educate all children, employ and provide social services (UNESCO 2005). Besides, inclusion is defined as
having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek to make a reality of the universal right to
quality, relevant and appropriate education and services. It acknowledges that learning begins at birth and
continues throughout life, and includes learning in the home, the community, and in formal, informal and
non-formal situations. It seeks to enable communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to
combat discrimination, celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and
participation for all people. It is part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive development, with the goal of
creating a world where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources, social justice, and where
the basic needs and rights of all are met. This definition has the following components:
1) Concepts about learners
 Education is a fundamental human right for all people
 Learning begins at birth and continues throughout life
 All children have a right to education within their own community
 Everyone can learn, and any child can experience difficulties in learning
 All learners need their learning supported child-focused teaching benefits all children.
2) Concepts about the education system and schools
→ It is broader than formal schooling
→ it is flexible, responsive educational systems
→ It creates enabling and welcoming educational environments
→ It promotes school improvement – makes effective schools
→ It involves whole school approach and collaboration between partners.
3) Concepts about diversity and discrimination
 It promotes combating discrimination and exclusionary pressures at any social sectors
 It enables responding to/embracing diversity as a resource not as a problem
 It prepares learners for an inclusive society that respects and values difference.
4) Concepts about processes to promote inclusion
→ It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers to participation and exclusionary pressures
→ It increases real participation of all collaboration, partnership between all stakeholders
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→ It promotes participatory methodology, action research, collaborative enquiry and other related
activities
5) Concepts about resources
➔ Promotes unlocking and fully using local resources redistributing existing resources
➔ It helps to perceive people (children, parents, teachers, members of marginalized groups, etc) as key
resources
➔ It helps to use appropriate resources and support within schools and at local levels for the needs of
different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition, Braille, assistive devices.
McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have identified inclusion and non-inclusive practices. According to them
inclusion includes the following components:
 Students with disabilities and vulnerability attend their neighborhood schools
 Each student is in an age-appropriate general education classroom
 Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class and the school
community.
 Special education supports are provided to each student with a disability within the context of the
general education classroom.
 All students receive an education that addresses their individual needs
 No student is excluded based on type or degree of disability.
 All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, students, and parents) promote
cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements
 There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all students and programs
 Employed according to their capacities without discriminations
On the other hand, they argue that inclusion does not mean:
 Placing students with disabilities into general education classrooms without careful planning and
adequate support.
 Reducing services or funding for special education services.
 Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few designated classrooms.
 Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting the curriculum for students
with disabilities.
 Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, or academically within the general education
school or classroom.
 Endangering the achievement of general education students through slower instruction or a less
challenging curriculum.
 Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general education classroom.
 Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without careful planning and well-
defined responsibilities.
1.5.2. Principles of Inclusion
The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and live together wherever
possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusive education extends beyond
special needs arising from disabilities, and includes consideration of other sources of disadvantage and
marginalization, such as gender, poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic isolation. The complex inter-
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relationships that exist among these factors and their interactions with disability must also be a focus of
attention.
Besides, inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique characteristics, interests, abilities and
particular learning needs and, further, that all persons have equal access education, employment and services.
Inclusion implies transition from separate, segregated learning and working environments for persons with
disabilities to community based systems. Moreover, effective transitions from segregated services to
inclusive system requires careful planning and structural changes to ensure that persons with disabilities are
provided with appropriate accommodation and supports that ensure an inclusive learning and working
environment. Furthermore, UNESCO (2005) has provided four major inclusion principles that support
inclusive practice. These include:
1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of responding to
diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference and learning how to learn from difference.
Differences come to be seen more positively as a stimulus for fostering learning amongst children and
adults.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that hinders the development of
persons with disabilities. It involves collecting, collating and evaluating information from a wide variety
of sources in order to plan for improvements in policy and practice. It is about using evidence of various
kinds to stimulate creativity and problem - solving.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons. ‘Presence’ is concerned
with where persons are provided and how reliably and punctually they attend; ‘participation’ relates to
the quality of their experiences and must incorporate the views of learners/and or workers and
‘achievement’ is about the outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not just test and exam results.
4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion or
underachievement. This indicates the moral responsibility to ensure that those ‘at risk’ are carefully
monitored, and that steps are taken to ensure their presence, participation and achievement.
1.5.3. Benefits of Inclusion
It is now understood that inclusion benefits communities, families, teachers, and students by ensuring that
children with disabilities attend school with their peers and providing them with adequate support to succeed
both academically and socially.
Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities include:-
 Friendships
 Increased social initiations, relationships and networks
 Peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
 Increased achievement of IEP goals
 Greater access to general curriculum
 Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization
 Increased inclusion in future environments
 Greater opportunities for interactions
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 Higher expectations
 Increased school staff collaboration
 Increased parent participation and Families are more integrated into community
The benefits of Inclusion for Students without Disabilities include:-
• Meaningful friendships
• Increased appreciation and acceptance of individual differences
• Increased understanding and acceptance of diversity
• Respect for all people
• Prepares all students for adult life in an inclusive society
• Opportunities to master activities by practicing and teaching others
• Greater academic outcomes
• All students needs are better met, greater resources for everyone
There is no any research that shows negative effects from inclusion done appropriately with the necessary
supports and services for students to actively participate and achieve IEP goals (Bunch & Valeo, 1997).
Reduced fear of human differences, accompanied by increased comfort and awareness show the following
imperatives as stated by these authors.
• Growth in social cognition
• Improvements in self-concept
o Development of personal principles
o Warm and caring friendships
The following are some of the additional advantages of inclusive schools:
 It is much cheaper than building a lot of separate schools for children with special needs;
 It encourages the integration of children with special needs which helps to build an inclusive society;
 It allows other children in the school learn about the abilities of children with disabilities;
 It encourages the involvement of parents and the community;
 It improves teaching.
1.5.4. Factors that Influenced Development of Inclusion
Inclusiveness originated from three major ideas. These include: inclusive education is a basic human right;
quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability differences, and there is no
clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Therefore, separate provisions for such students cannot be justified. Moreover, inclusion has got the world‘s
attention because it is supposed to solve the world‘s major problems occurring in social, economic, religious,
educational and other areas of the world. For instance, it is supposed to : counteract-social, political,
economic and educational challenges that happen due to globalization impact; enhance psychosocial,
academic and other benefits to students with and without special needs education; help all citizens exercise
educational and human rights; enhance quality education for all in regular class rooms through inclusion;
create sustainable environmental development that is suitable for all human beings; create democratic and
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productive society that promote sustainable development; build an attitude of respecting and valuing of
differences in human beings; and ultimately build an inclusive society.
Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing actors. Some of the major drivers include:
1. Communities: pre-colonial and indigenous approaches to education and community-based programs
movement that favor inclusion of their community members.
2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary stakeholders – representatives of groups of
learners often excluded and marginalized from education (e.g. disabled activists; parents advocating for
their children; child rights advocates; and those advocating for women/girls and minority ethnic groups).
3. The quality education and school improvement movement: in both North and South, the issues of
quality, access and inclusion are strongly linked, and contribute to the understanding and practice of
inclusive education as being the responsibility of education systems and schools.
4. Special educational needs movement: the ‘new thinking’ of the special needs education movement – as
demonstrated in the Salamanca Statement – has been a positive influence on inclusive education,
enabling schools and systems to really respond to a wide range of diversity.
5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a major influence on the development of inclusive
education policy and practice. Major donors have formed a partnership – the Fast Track Initiative – to
speed progress towards the EFA goals. E.g. UNESCO, etc.
6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and campaigns: a wide range of civil society initiatives,
such as the Global Campaign for Education, seek to bring policy and practice together and involve all
stakeholders based on different situations
7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical experiences in education. The current world
situation presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS, political instability, trends in resource
distribution, diversity of population, and social inclusion. This necessitates implementation of inclusion
to solve the problems. On the other hand, practical experiences in education offers lessons learned from
failure and success in mainstream, special and inclusive education. Moreover, practical demonstrations of
successful inclusive education in different cultures and contexts are a strong influence on its development
1.5.5. Barriers to Inclusion
 Though many countries seem committed to inclusion their rhetoric, and even in their legislation and
policies, practices often fall short. Reasons for the policy-practice gap in inclusion are diverse. The major
barriers include:
 Problems related with societal values and beliefs- particularly the community and policy makers’
negative attitude towards students with disability and vulnerabilities. Inclusion cannot flourish in a
society that has prejudice and negative attitude towards persons with disability.
 Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty of family, community and society at large
 Lack of taking measures to ensure conformity of implementation of inclusion practice with policies
 Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their cooperation as well as collaboration for inclusion
 Conservative traditions among the community members about inclusion
 Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers regarding inclusive education
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 Rigid curricula, teaching method and examination systems that do not consider students with dives needs
and ability differences.
 Fragile democratic institutions that could not promote inclusion
 Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of social and physical environments
 Large class sizes that make teachers and stakeholders meet students‘ diverse needs
 Globalization and free market policy that make students engage in fierce completion, individualism and
individuals’ excellence rather than teaching through cooperation, collaboration and group excellence.
 Using inclusive models that may be imported from other countries.
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PART TWO
Types, Causes and Prevention of Disabilities
2.1. Introduction and Rationale
Special needs education professionals and teachers have an important role to play in teaching students with
special educational needs, accessing special education support services, accessing medical or clinical
services, and even providing some medical and therapy services. They also have an important role to play in
educating students and their communities about strategies that can prevent students from becoming with
disability or more disabled.
Children with special needs are those who differ from the average or “normal” child in many characteristics
like: Mental characteristics, sensory abilities, communication abilities, social behavior or physical
characteristics. Kirk attempted to define child with disability as a person who deviates from the normal or
average child in mental, physical, and social characteristics to such a degree that he/she requires a
modification of school practices. It is generally agreed that everybody should get equal opportunity to
develop his/her personality mainly when education is concerned. Therefore, these children should get special
attention and treatment so that they can develop to their full potential and will become contributing member
of a given society. If their potentialities remain undeveloped that would result in great wastage of human
resources. Because of this we need to make special arrangements to meet the needs of children with special
needs.
Rationale
Why do special needs education professionals and trainee teachers need to understand disability types,
causes and prevention?
As a general rule, teachers do not need to know a whole lot of information about disability types. They do,
however, need to be able to recognize what kind of disability a student may have and how to identify
students with less obvious disabilities. Probably the most widely-held myth about teaching students with a
disability is the belief that a detailed knowledge of the child’s disability is needed before a teaching program
can be commenced. Teachers often say; ‘But I know nothing about Down syndrome’ or Ì haven’t studied
cerebral palsy – how could I teach that child?’ Another myth is that teachers need special patience and
special skills to be able to teach children with disabilities. Research suggests that good general teaching
skills and techniques are what are required to teach students with disabilities. There is no need for special
patience or unusual skills. (Foreman, 2001, p.25)
In Ethiopia, because many schools are located in remote areas and don’t have immediate access to special
education support services and some medical services, special needs education professionals and teachers
also need to know what basic treatments of a non-educational nature they may need to use, and how to
educate students and their communities about preventing disabilities. In any case, professionals and teachers
have a natural curiosity about disability types and causes that can help build an interest in special education.
2.2. Types of Disabilities
Some nine major disability types are listed and briefly discussed below.
1. Specific Learning disability: – developmental or academic learning disorders
2. Intellectual disability: – people with low intellectual capability.
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3. Physical and health related problems: – comprise children having physical/motoric related
problems or with health related difficulties
4. Visual impairment: – include those who are decreased ability to see.
5. Hearing impairment: people with disordered hearing.
6. Communication disorders: – are children with language and speech disorders
7. Emotional and behavior disorders: – include children with social maladjustment, emotional
disorder, childhood psychoses, etc.
8. Autism: – involve these with impaired social interaction, verbal and non-verbal
communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior.
9. Vulnerability: - includes people who are being at risk of being harmed.
1. Learning Disabilities/Difficulties (LD)

1.1. Definitions of LD
The students with special educational needs that teachers are most likely to come across in their classes are
students with LD. These are students who do not necessarily have any disability but, for some reason, have
difficulty with learning. Usually, these students have difficulty in only some areas of their learning, such as
literacy, mathematics, and receptive language (understanding instructions or directions, following stories, and
so on). Put simply, students with LD are students who are experiencing significant difficulties with at least
one area of their learning at school.
LD represent a heterogeneous set of neurobiological disorders that include difficulties in several academic
and social domains. It has been recognized as a category of disability under federal law since 1975. The
current legal definition of LD is written into the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA);
however, other organizations have also proposed their own definitions of LD that differ substantially, and
exactly how to define LD has been and continues to be a controversial area. This is in part due to the highly
heterogeneous nature of the students who are defined as LD.
IDEA’s 2007 Learning disability definition

IDEA 2007
(26) SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY-
(A) IN GENERAL- The term 'specific learning disability' means a disorder in one or more of the
basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written,
which disorder may manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do
mathematical calculations.
(B) DISORDERS INCLUDED- Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
(C) DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED- Such term does not include a learning problem that is
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability, of emotional
disturbances, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
Scholars in the area classify LD into two. The first category is developmental LD in which individuals
manifest problems in attention, memory, perceptual-motor, thinking, language, etc. The second group is
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academic LD that include problems in reading, spelling and writing, arithmetic, etc. In general, students with
LD are most likely to have difficulties in the following areas of school learning:
General difficulties
 Difficulties in understanding and following directions
 Difficulties remembering things (short-term and long-term memory problems)
 A short attention span & being easily distracted
 being overactive or impulsive
 Difficulties organizing work and time; difficulties `getting started’
 Lack of confidence; reluctant to attempt difficult or new tasks
 Difficulties with tasks that require rapid responses
 Lack of effective learning strategies
Difficulties in reading
Difficulties in reading are sometimes called dyslexia (which is a Latin word meaning can’t read!) if reading
is the only area that the student has difficulties with. Reading difficulties are by far the largest area of
learning difficulties, with over 80% of students with LD having reading difficulties as their particular area of
need (Vaughn et al, 2000).
Particular areas of need are likely to be:
 Difficulties remembering sight words and patterns
 Difficulties identifying the separate sounds in spoken words
 Difficulties blending sounds
 Confuses similar letters and words (e.g., b and d; man and name)
 Difficulties decoding words (i.e., working out how written words sound and what they might mean)
Difficulties in mathematics
If mathematics is the only area of difficulty, this area of difficulty is sometimes (but rarely) called
dyscalculia (meaning can’t do maths!). Students with mathematics difficulties often have
 Difficulty with counting and sorting groups of objects to match numbers
 Difficulty remembering number facts (e.g., addition facts, times tables)
 Difficulties with arithmetic operations.
Difficulties in writing
Difficulties in reading are sometimes called dysgraphia (which is a Latin word meaning can’t write!). Many
children have difficulty forming letters, holding a pencil correctly, tracing shapes with fingers, recognizing
shapes, copying from the blackboard, drawing, and so on. In careful not to assume that students with poor
handwriting have other difficulties. Teachers also need to judge whether the student has difficulty
understanding what or how to write, or physically forming the letters.
1.2. Consequences and related difficulties

Students with LD sometimes have other difficulties that may be related to their LD or may be a consequence
of their learning difficulties. Some of the frequently occurring difficulties are:
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 Low confidence and self-esteem:- Students with LD often have little confidence and may have a very poor
opinion of themselves and their ability. Often students believe they are less capable than they really are .
 Poor social relationships: - Students with LD can be socially isolated and can have difficulty making
friends. This can be due to their lack of confidence and poor self-esteem.
 Clumsiness, lack of coordination: - Some students with LD are also poorly coordinated, have
difficulties with sports, games and other physical activities. Students who have poor coordination as well
as LD are at high risk of having very low self-esteem.
 Poor expressive skills: - Problems with memory and problems with learning the more subtle skills of
language, can often cause students with LD to be poor communicators.
1.3. Causes of learning disabilities
There are a very large number of possible causes of LD and there are many different theories. In the case of
individual students, it is very difficult to pinpoint the actual reason why that student is struggling at school.
There are likely to be a number of reasons. For some reason, teachers, and parents too, usually look to some
fault or defect with the student when a student experiences learning difficulties. They often look to theories
about possible brain dysfunction, visual problems, hearing impairment, and so on. Some even look at such
things as diet and body chemistry. Sometimes, there is a vision or hearing impairment that can be corrected
(e.g., the student may need glasses, have a hearing disease or ear blockage) but usually the reasons remain
unknown or untreatable. It is often more productive for teachers to focus on possible causes that can be
`treated’, such as:
 quality and type of instruction given
 teacher’s expectations
 relevance of the schoolwork to the student
 classroom environment
 manner in which the teacher treats the student
 ways in which the student is treated by other students
 appropriateness of the curriculum
In general, research identified the following six major contributing factors for learning difficulties:
1. Brain dysfunction: – mind controls every process in an individual. And, any kind of problem in this area
will undoubtedly disturb the whole system thereby causing a problem in mental and other learning
processes.
2. Genetics: –research revealed that identical twins showed highest frequency of dyslexia than fraternal twins.
3. Environmental Deprivation and Malnutrition: – severe malnutrition at an early age can affect the central
nervous system and hence the learning and development of the child. What a child experienced in the home,
community, school, etc can affect attention and other psychological processes related to learning.
4. Motivational and affective factors: – a child who has failed to learn for one reason or another tends to have
low expectation of success, does not persist on tasks and develops low self-esteem. These attitudes reduce
motivation and create negative feelings about school work.
5. Physical conditions: – visual and hearing defects, confused laterality and spatial orientation, poor body
image, etc. can inhibit individual's ability to learn.
6. Psychological Conditions: – attention disorders, auditory and visual memory disorders, perception
disorders, cognitive disabilities and language delay, etc. can be contributing factors to academic disabilities.
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Some researchers have said that students with LD should be called curriculum disabled because they have
found that poor quality curriculum and instruction can be such an important cause of LD. One of the major
known causes of severe LD is a phenomenon known as the failure cycle. If a student experiences difficulty
or failure early in their school life, they can lose confidence, avoid difficult learning tasks, avoid practicing
their skills, avoid school altogether in some cases, and so accumulate a whole lot more reasons to struggle at
school. The following diagram uses literacy to demonstrate this phenomenon:
A Failure Cycle
Adapted from Westwood, 1997, p. 10.

Effective teachers make sure that they find out which students are having difficulties and they try to respond
to their needs as early as possible. Effective teachers do all they can to stop small problems becoming very
big problems that are much harder to address. The longer the time that students experience difficulties at
school, the greater the effort that is required to eliminate or reduce the problem.
1.4. Teaching strategies

Major considerations for teaching students with LD are:
 Use direct, explicit teaching to teach reading, writing, spelling and mathematics.
 Build up the confidence of students by starting with easy tasks that they can already do, move ahead
gradually, introducing harder material very carefully.
 Monitor students’ work regularly and carefully so that you know when students are experiencing
difficulties and you can respond quickly.
 Teach skills in practical, meaningful ways, and use concrete materials frequently.
 Give plenty of attention to phonics and decoding strategies in reading, as well as plenty of attention to
phonemic awareness skills (rhyming games, games involving swapping beginning sounds, ending sounds
and middle sounds in words, clapping out the number of sounds and syllables in words). However, if a
student has a hearing impairment, place more emphasis on sight-word approaches to reading as students
with a hearing impairment may not be able to hear some sounds in words, even at close range.
 Provide plenty of practice and revision of skills and knowledge.
 Use peer tutors and parent helpers to provide extra instruction and practice.
1.5. Prevention
Prevention of LD is all about providing the best teaching that a teacher can provide, so that students do not
experience difficulties, and responding early to problems that do arise so that small problems do not become
major problems.
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2. Intellectual Difference
2.1. Concepts and definition of intellectual disability
The most common definition that was devised and regularly adjusted by American Association on
Intellectual and Developmental Disability (AAIDD) referred to:-
“…significantly sub average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in
adaptive behavior and manifested during developmental period.”
As of this definition, three main components are helpful in describing the developmental stages of children
with intellectual disabilities. These are:
a. Significantly sub average general Intellectual functioning: – Intellectual functioning is the ability or
intelligence used to answer certain questions and to solve problems. Intellectual functioning of
individual is determined through standardized intelligence test. That is through measuring intellectual
Quotient (IQ) of the individual by administering IQ tests. The IQ is obtained by dividing the
individual's Mental Age (MA) by his chronological Age (CA) of individual and then multiplying by
100 to get rid of the decimal. Hence, significantly sub average general intellectual functioning is a score
on standardized intelligence test lower than that obtained by 97 to 98% of persons of the same age.
b. Deficit in adaptive behavior or skill: - refers to failure to meet standards of independence and social
responsibility expected of the individual's age and cultural groups. Adaptive skill areas currently
considered as appropriate in diagnosing intellectual disabilities are: Communication, Self-care, Home
living, Social Skills, Community use, Self-direction, Health and safety, Functional academic, Leisure
c. Developmental period is consistent with AAIDD definition: - this definition states that intellectual
disabilities must manifest before the age of 18.
Intellectual disability is a substantial limitation in cognitive functioning (i.e., thinking skills). People with
intellectual disability usually have limited communication skills, limited self-care skills, poor social skills,
and very limited academic skills. Most importantly, people with intellectual disabilities have great difficulty
with learning and usually require special teaching methods to learn efficiently.
The term intellectual disabilities cover a broad range of children and adults who differ from another in the
severity of developmental delay, in the causes of the condition, and in the special educational strategies that
have been designed for them. It is important to remember these differences. A person with mild intellectual
disability usually has severe learning difficulties, limited or poor conversational skills and would usually have
a history of slow personal development. Most people with mild intellectual disability learn independent living
skills and are usually involved in productive work at home, in the community or in a workplace. Generally, a
child with mild intellectual disabilities has the capacity to develop in three areas:
 Academic subjects - at elementary and advanced grade levels:
 Social adjustment - to the point at which the child can eventually adapt independently in the community.
 Occupational potential - to be partially or totally self-supporting as an adult.
A person with moderate intellectual disability usually has very severe learning difficulties, very poor
communication skills and very slow personal development. For example, it may take a student with moderate
intellectual disability up to several years to learn very simple academic skills such as writing their own name,
recognizing 50 sight words, counting and counting objects, and performing simple arithmetic operations.
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People with moderate intellectual disabilities do not usually learn all the living skills they need to live
independently, without the support of family or other carers. They can typically live in supported settings.
However, people with moderate intellectual disabilities often learn some productive role in their home or
village and some have been able to gain limited employment.
A person with a severe intellectual disability is usually not able to perform academic tasks, is unlikely to
develop or learn self-care skills and may not learn or develop ordinary communication skills. Pictorial
communication systems (using pictures to communicate) have been successful, in some cases, in teaching
students with severe intellectual disabilities to communicate choices and needs. People with severe
intellectual disabilities do not learn to live independently and require ongoing support for their survival.
Teachers are not likely to have a student with severe intellectual disability in a regular school but there are
some students with moderate intellectual disability enrolled in regular schools. It is likely that more students
with moderate intellectual disability will be enrolled schools in the future but it is highly unlikely that there
would ever be more than two or three students in a large primary school. In a community of 1000 people,
there are likely to be three or four people with moderate intellectual disabilities, most of the children with this
disability do not attend school.
Most primary schools would have one or two students with mild intellectual disability but it is not known
how many students with mild intellectual disability there are who do not attend school. With increasing
awareness and more special education training and resources, it is likely that more students with mild
disabilities will attend school in the future. In a community of 1000 people, there are likely to be about 10 –
15 people with mild intellectual disability.
In the past, intellectual disability was called mental retardation, a term that continues to be used in some
textbooks. People with intellectual disability have formed international associations aimed at eliminating
discrimination against people with intellectual disability, and these organizations have asked governments
and others to use the term person with an intellectual disability instead of person who is mentally retarded.
For that reason, most authors nowadays use person (or student, child, etc.) with an intellectual disability.
2.2. Causes of intellectual disability
Intellectual disability is the result of damage to the brain. Damage to the brain can be a result of a
developmental or genetic disorder (such as Down syndrome (see Hall, 1994, pp.40-41), a disease before or
after birth, or a trauma before or after birth. In individual cases it is often not possible to identify the cause of
intellectual disability. Some known causes are:
Genetic conditions: - Abnormalities in genes inherited from parents, errors when genes combine or damage
to genes during or before pregnancy from disease, radiation or poisoning. Examples include Down
syndrome and Fragile X syndrome.
Problems during pregnancy: - Poisoning of the unborn baby from alcohol or other drugs; malnutrition;
illnesses of the mother (e.g., rubella, toxoplasmosis, venereal disease, HIV, cytomegalovirus)
Problems at birth: - Prematurity; low birth weight; injury at birth due to complications
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Problems after birth: - Diseases such as whooping cough, chicken pox, measles, meningitis, malaria,
encephalitis; head injury from accidents or abuse; oxygen deprivation from near-drowning;
poisoning; ingestion of pollutants; malnutrition; high fever.
Some of these causes also cause other disabilities so some people have multiple disabilities. For example,
students with Down syndrome usually have intellectual disability but often also have medical problems.
Students with cerebral palsy, often caused by fever of oxygen deprivation before or during birth, usually have
significant physical disabilities but sometimes also have intellectual disability. Babies born with intellectual
disability due to the mother having rubella during pregnancy, often have deafness or blindness, or both.
2.3. Prevention
Preventative measures that parents and others can take to reduce the risk of intellectual disability include:
Before birth
 Avoid alcohol, smoking and other drugs
 Avoid HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases
 Have a good diet and a healthy lifestyle
 Obtain plenty of rest and avoid strain and overwork
 Seek medical assistance for any illness or infection
After birth
 Eliminate child abuse or neglect
 Avoid accidents and injury
 Obtain proper immunization against disease
 Avoid malaria
 Ensure that the child has a healthy diet and a healthy, active lifestyle
 Avoid dirty or polluted water
 Prevent infections by only using clean food and have good hygiene practices
Many children with mild intellectual disability and even some children with moderate intellectual disability
now find themselves in educational mainstreaming with their age mates. Of course placing these children in
the regular classroom without additional help would be a step-back-ward. The regular classroom is
supplemented with the special services (remedial reading, speech and communication therapy, psychological
counselling) available in the school system.
The most important thing for professionals and teachers to understand about students with mild or moderate
intellectual disabilities is that they will have serious learning difficulties and will not be able to access the
whole school curriculum. They need to discuss the student’s needs with the student’s parents, and work out
some educational priorities for the student.
Resource room: - For children with mild intellectual disability the resource room provides an opportunity to
work with special education teachers and to focus on particular learning problems that are interfering with
their performance in the regular classroom.
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Partial participation: - Effective teachers make sure that students with intellectual disabilities are included in
as many regular school activities as possible but they can only provide instruction on one or two objectives
for each student with a disability each day.
Functional curriculum: - Because students with intellectual disability learn very slowly, what they learn
should be functional (i.e., useful in their daily lives). Functional skills are usually basic communication skills,
self-care skills, personal safety, money management, survival reading skills, social skills and practical skills
for making a living.
Make learning fun: - Setting up listening games and other listening activities, making sure that students are
engaged with other students, and, overall, making the classroom an interesting and busy environment, is a
good set of strategies to use to encourage attentiveness.
Task analysis: - Task analysis is breaking down problems and tasks in to smaller, sequenced components.
Each step is taught in sequence, and individuals move on to the next step only after mastering the previous
one. Breaking simple tasks into smaller, teachable steps, is a very important and useful teaching strategy for
students with intellectual disability.
Peer tutoring: - Students with intellectual disability learn best through regular, daily instruction and the
instruction doesn’t need to be lengthy. Peer tutors or other helpers can provide just a few extra minutes of
instruction for the student each day, and make a very big difference to the student’s rate of learning.
Cooperative learning strategies are also an excellent way to include students with disabilities in learning and
other school activities.
Social skills, self-direction, self-care and health and safety are among the schools adaptive behaviors that are
seen as the preeminent intervention targets for students with intellectual disability. Improving the social
repertoire of any student is not easy, and it is especially difficult for students experiencing adaptive behavior
deficits. Here are some ways to address this area in classroom.
 Reducing Social Isolation: - to reduce social isolation, provide opportunities for sharing experiences.
You first identify special interests and experiences for each of your students and plan group activities
to share this information and allow students to get in to know each other.
 Improving Self-Direction and Self-Management
To do this:
o Provide signals for students. Some students with intellectual disabilities have not learned ways to
let others know they need help. Some teachers create signal system to replace unacceptable alternatives
such as blurting out, wild hand waving, and not asking.
For example raising hand – need help
HELP – sign is a useful way for students to get a teachers attention without distracting others.
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o Have students practice and discuses alternative skill /the best way to react/. Select program situations
and discuss on the best way to react when faced with them.
o Help students keep track of good behavior. Place an index card on the corners of the students’ desks to
keep track of appropriate behaviors such as completing assignments and asking for help.
 Improving Self-Care, Health and Safety Skills: -to do this, have students practice and discuss appropriate
behaviors. Create mock situations and have students generate, discuss and practice appropriate solutions.
 Improving Leisure and Work-Skills: - being successful at work and knowing how to use free time are
important adaptive behavior skills. Work skills include:
✓ Following directions ✓ Staying on task and
✓ Being punctual ✓ Completing assignment.
✓ Beginning assignment promptly
3. Physical Disabilities and Health Problems
3.1. Concepts and types of physical and health related difficulties
Physical/motor related difficulties include children with neurological defects, orthopaedic conditions, birth
defects, developmental disabilities, and conditions that are the result of infection and diseases. It can be
categorized as of the following:
 Neurological based disorders – are those entailed with lesion of central nervous system. They are
of varied type among which seizure disorder, cerebral palsy, spina-bifida and traumatic brain injury
are the most prevalent ones among our community.
 Musculoskeletal related problems – are those difficulties arising in the muscle, joints, joinery
fluids and skeleton. One of the best examples is Hanson’s syndrome, commonly known as leprosy.
Arthritis and different inflammations around joints are the others common around rural Ethiopia.
 Health related impairments – are those problems which occur on the individual frequently or
progressively and always interfere with the individual’s development, education and daily activities.
The most common ones are: Asthma, HIV/AIDS, TB, heart failure, nausea, kidney problem, etc.
 Accident based physical/ motor disabilities – are problems occurring on an individual anytime in
life that hampers development and daily living of an individual at any moment. Most of these types
occur by nature or due to some forms of damage to the body parts. E.g., amputation
Neurological based disorders
Neurological impairments are problems with the structure or functioning of the central nervous system,
including the brain and the spinal cord. The most common neurological disorders include:
• Cerebral palsy, • Spina bifida and spinal cord defects, and

• Seizure disorders,
• Traumatic brain injury.
a. Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy is a disorder of movement and posture caused by a defect in the developing brain. It is
frequently encountered in schoolchildren. The child with cerebral palsy is unable to fully control his/her
movements or motor functions. Many individuals with cerebral palsy have trouble with verbal and
nonverbal communications.
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Cerebral palsy can result from the pregnant mother having an infection, rubella, shingles or diabetes, or
from problems at birth in which the child is deprived of oxygen or suffers a head injury; prematurity; or
problems after birth, such as a very high fever, a head injury, poisoning or a near drowning, a brain tumor
or a circulatory problem. In many cases of cerebral palsy, the cause remains unknown. Cerebral palsy is
one of the most common forms of physical disability. About 1in 300 babies are born with or develop some
form of cerebral palsy but, in most cases, the symptoms are relatively mild.
The major types of cerebral palsy are:
Spasticity: - Very stiff muscles or high muscle tension. Some parts of the body are rigid so movement can
be very awkward.
Athetosis: - Uncontrolled muscle movement. Parts of the body move uncontrollably and inconsistently. If
the muscles needed for speech are affected, the child may have difficulty communicating, even though
their intellectual ability may be normal.
Ataxia: - Poor balance and unusual clumsiness. The child with ataxia may have difficulty walking and
may be teased by other children when clumsy, as children with ataxia may not obviously appear to have a
disability.
b. Convulsive disorders/seizure/epilepsy
The word "convulsion" refers to a general seizure involving rapid spasmodic contraction and relaxation of
the musculature. And, epilepsy or convulsive disorder is the most common neurological impairments
encountered in the school. It is a disorder in which the individual has a tendency to have recurrent
seizures-sudden, excessive, spontaneous, and abnormal discharge of neurons in the brain accompanied by
alteration in motor function, and/or sensory function, and/or consciousness. Epileptic seizures (commonly
called fits) are caused by brain damage or an abnormal brain condition. Seizures in young children can be
a symptom of other serious disease so medical assistance should always be sought if a child has a
seizure.
Some children have major seizures that involve a loss of consciousness and strong uncontrolled movement.
Other children have minor seizures that usually involve a short loss of consciousness; the child may fall
down or just cease movement for an instant. Seizures are usually temporary and the child recovers fully,
although the child may be tired and confused afterwards. In some cases, seizures can cause brain damage
but this is usually only in cases where seizures are frequent and severe. The frequency of seizures may
vary from a single isolated incident to hundreds in a day.
Seizures may be caused by many conditions and circumstances and are divided into two:
• Primary epilepsies- They usually appear at a young age; occur in families where there is some history of
epilepsy.
• Secondary epilepsies- They may appear at any age and result from accidents or child abuse, brain injury,
meningitis, etc
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What to do when a child has a seizure:
 Learn to recognize any known warning signs (e.g., sudden fear or cry) and quickly move the child to a
safe place, free of obstacles or hazards.
 Do not try to move the child if a major seizure has started.
 Remove any sharp objects or obstacles away from the child.
 Do not try to forcefully control the child’s movements.
 Do not put anything in or near the child’s mouth during a seizure.
 Between spasms, gently turn the child’s head to the side to drain away any spit.
 Let the child rest or sleep after a seizure. Give the child paracetamol or aspirin if the child has a
headache.
c. Spina bifida and spinal cord defects
Spina bifida is a developmental defect where the spinal column fails to close properly. The defect's
seriousness depends on how high the defect is along the spinal column (the closer to the neck, the more
serious the impairment) and how much of the spinal cord material is involved in the damage. The causes of
spinal canal defects are not yet clear, although the presence of a virus or an unknown environmental toxin
during early fetal development and genetic factors have been suggested. The defect occurs very early in the
development of a fetus, between the 20th and 30th day of fetal development, before a woman even knows she
is pregnant.
d. Traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury is severe trauma to the head that results in lingering physical and cognitive
impairments. Individuals who have traumatic brain injury can require many years of work to relearn simple
tasks. Fortunately, advances in medical technology are making recovery possible in some cases.
The term 'traumatic brain injury' does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or
brain injuries induced by birth trauma. Rather, it is acquired injury to the brain caused by an external
physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychological impairment, or both, that
adversely affects a child's educational performance. Thus, the term applies to open or closed head injuries
resulting in impairments in one or more areas of these: cognition, abstract thinking, language, problem-
solving, memory, sensory, attention (reasoning, speech, judgment), perceptual and motor abilities
(psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing).
Children with Neuromuscular Diseases

a. Polio
Polio is a muscular disease in which poliomyelitis, viral infection, attacks the nerve cells in the spinal cord
that controls muscle function. The effects of polio infection range from symptoms resembling those of a
cold and fever to mild to severe paralysis. In addition to the paralysis which ranges from mild to severe the
child may be subjected to upper respiratory infections due to improper muscle tones.
Polio is a common disease in many developing countries. Although the disease is mild in most cases, it can
cause permanent and severe paralysis of body parts, usually the legs or feet, in about 30% of cases. Polio
can also be fatal if breathing or swallowing is affected. Polio is a virus, spread by breath, which infects the
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Inclusiveness ABD
central nervous system. Immunization against polio is very effective, if it is available, but if a child already
has polio, medication can make the condition much worse.
b. Muscular dystrophy
It is a progressive muscle weakness that comes from problems in the muscles themselves. The muscle cells
degenerate and are replaced by fat and fibrous cells. The cause of muscular dystrophy is unknown, but it
appears to run in families, usually transmitted by the mother's genes. It mainly affects boys.
Health Related Impairments

Although there are a number of conditions caused by diseases, the main conditions which forces children to
face special problems within the category of health impairments include the following:
• HIV infection
• Asthma
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
a. HIV infection
Human Immuno deficiency virus (HIV) is responsible for the deadly acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) and can be communicated to a child by an infected mother. The effects of the infection in children
include: Central nervous system (CNS) damage, Additional infections, Developmental delay, Motor
problems, psychosocial stresses, and Death. To this effect, there must be a long lasting treatment for children
with HIV infection. The treatment includes medical care, education, and developmental services, or a
combination of these things.
b. Asthma
It difficulty in breathing, with wheezing sounds from the chest caused by air rushing through narrowed air
presages. It is one common type of severe difficulty in breathing. A child with asthma usually has labored;
whet breathing that is sometimes accompanied by shortness of breath and a cough. A combination of three
events causes the wheezing:
• tightening of the muscles around the bronchial tubes,
• swelling of the tissues in the bronchial tubes, and
• An increase of secretions in bronchial tubes.
Nonetheless, the basic causes of asthma are unknown; it is believed to be most frequently caused by an
allergic reaction to certain substances in individuals who have a physical predisposition to asthma. When we
see its prevalence, asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases of children and the leading cause of
school absences among all the chronic diseases. Approximately, 6 percent of all children believed to have
asthma.
c. Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
It is a herpes virus infecting one percent of new born each year. If a fetus contracts this virus, the infection
may lead to brain damage, blindness and hearing loss. CMV can be transmitted through bodily fluids. A
vaccine is not yet available. It appears that pregnant women who work in child care settings may have an
increased risk of infection. Prevention strategies include:
• Washing hands frequently,
• Disposing of papers properly, and keeping toys and play areas clean
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Birth Conditions
About 1 in 100 children are born with conditions such as cleft lip or cleft palate, joined fingers or toes,
extra fingers or toes, or short or deformed limbs. More serious birth conditions include Down syndrome,
cerebral palsy, spina bifida, blindness and deafness. In most cases, the cause of such birth conditions is not
known but the following circumstances can cause them:
 Poor diet during early pregnancy
 Genetic causes (especially if parents are related)
 Exposure of the pregnant mother to some medicines, poisons, pesticides and other chemicals
 Exposure of the pregnant mother to German measles (rubella)
 Older or very young mothers are more likely to have babies with birth conditions such as Down syndrome
Some common birth conditions are:
Cleft lip and palate: - A cleft lip (sometimes called a hare lip) is an opening or gap in the upper lip, often
connected to the nose. A cleft palate is an opening in the roof of the mouth connecting with the canal of the
nose. Cleft lips and palates can be corrected by surgery but even after surgery, children may continue to
have some difficulty with speech. If surgery is not performed, the child may need to use sign language to
help with communication.
Joined fingers or toes: - Surgery can usually separate joined fingers or toes but teachers may need to
encourage students to stretch the skin around areas where surgery has been performed, to help with
flexibility and movement.
Incomplete or missing limbs: - Children are sometimes born missing arms or legs, or with limbs that are
very short or incomplete. Some medicines are known to have caused this kind of problem but often the
cause is unknown. Children without arms can be taught to use their feet for many activities, such as eating,
drawing and writing. Special aids can also be made to help children with missing limbs or with limbs that
do not function fully.
3.2. Identification and assessment of learners with physical and health related
difficulties
In general, children with physical disability show one or more of the following signs or characteristics:
limited vitality or energy, many school absences, the need for physical accommodation to participate in
school activities, poor motor coordination, frequent falls and speech difficulty to understand, etc.
Many children with physical impairment are excluded from school. Most schools remain physically
inaccessible for children who depend on wheelchair, callipers and crutches for mobility. Children who
experience difficulties with verbal or written communication due to their physical impairment are also
often excluded from schooling, or marginalized in school. It is therefore essential that we start making
schools more accessible for children with motor/ physical impairment. According to numerous
international conventions and agreements, all children have the right to access quality education in an
inclusive (or integrated) setting in their home communities.
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Inclusiveness ABD
Curriculum does not usually need to be adapted much for students with physical disabilities, however,
some adaptations need to be made in some cases. Teachers should use common sense in this. For example,
it is inappropriate to expect a student to perform tasks that they simply cannot physically perform, so the
teacher must select a different task that it is possible for the student to do. There have been cases where
students with physical disabilities have been denied passing grades at school because of their inability to
perform physical tasks in subjects such as physical education. This approach is discriminatory and
ridiculous. Effective teachers find ways to accommodate special needs so that the student can learn and
achieve positive educational outcomes.
Effective teachers examine the activities that students need to participate in at school and they examine the
educational outcomes that they want their students to achieve. They work out what practical adaptations need
to be implemented to assist students with disabilities to achieve those very same outcomes. If necessary, they
ask other students, colleagues, parents and other community members to help them with any special
equipment or materials that might need to be built or developed.
Thus, so as to help people with physical disabilities and health impairments, professiionals need to learn
many important things:
• How to assist a child with health care needs;

• How to deal with frequent absences;
• How to assist a child who is having a seizure;
• How to make scheduling accommodations;
• How to address special issues relating to paralysis;
• How to adapt the class activities;
• How to adapt teaching techniques;
• How to promote social integration.
Teachers can help students with physical/motor and health related impairments by adapting the learning
environment to their needs. They also have a responsibility to any exceptional child to create a supportive
atmosphere, one that fosters the child's acceptance, by providing classmates with information about the
students' condition. Thus, if there are children with physical/motor and health related impairments in your
classroom, take the following tips for good:
• Be alert to signs of fatigue in the child.
• Find teaching materials that can be adapted to the physical needs of the student.
• Make sure that all areas of the room and school are accessible.
• Make sure that materials, leisure activities are within the reach of the students.
• Include activities each day that the student can accomplish from a wheelchair.
• Arrange post emergency instructions and telephone numbers.
Classrooms and school facilities (libraries, toilets, sport grounds and play areas) should be made physically
accessible for all children. Children who use wheelchairs, calipers or crutches for mobility, may find it
difficult moving around within a traditional classroom blocked by rows of chairs and desks. It is therefore
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Inclusiveness ABD
important that we “set up” the classroom in such a way that all the children can move about freely.
Children must not just have physical access to their own desk, but also to other parts of the classroom for
group activities or just to fetch something from a shelf or cupboard, or to paste a drawing on the wall.
Children who get easily tired, and need much rest, may find it difficult to come to school on time or to stay
in school the whole day. We should therefore repeat important information once or twice to make sure that
all the children have heard it at least once.
4. Sensory Impairments
Sensory impairments are of varied type among which the auditory and visual impairments are the major
ones. The term “child with sensory impairment” means:-
“…a child evaluated as having . . . a hearing impairment including deafness…a visual impairment
including blindness . . . who by reason thereof requires special education and related services.”
1. Hearing Impairment (HI)

1.1. Definitions and descriptions of HI
Hearing loss (HL), also known as hearing impairment, is a partial or total inability to hear. Hearing
impairment simply means - inability of someone to hear as completely and as adequately as normal
hearing people. Pasanella and Cara (1981) defined Auditory/hearing impairment as
“…a generic term indicating a continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which included
the sub-classifications of the hard of hearing and Deaf.”
A. Hard-of-hearing- a term to describe persons with enough residual hearing, to use hearing (usually
with a hearing aid) as a primary modality for acquisition of language and in communication with
others. This condition can adversely affect the child's educational performance to some extent.
B. Deaf- a term used to describe persons whose sense of hearing is nonfunctional for ordinary use in
communication, with or without a hearing aid. It is so severe that the person is impaired in processing
linguistic information which adversely affects the educational performance.
Some children are born with hearing loss while others develop hearing loss at some time. Many children
have a mild hearing loss while some have severe or profound hearing loss. Severe or profound hearing loss
is known as deafness. Children who are deaf before they learn language (2 to 3 years old) are known as
prelingually deaf. Those whose hearing impairment occurs after they have learned to speak and understand
language are called post-lingually deaf. Deafness is an uncommon disability in children but many children
have a mild or moderate hearing loss. In any case, teachers should expect to have some students with mild
and moderate hearing impairments in their classes and that some students in the local community and
school may be deaf. Prelingual deafness can be caused by a number of different conditions, including
exposure of the pregnant mother to German measles or certain drugs or chemicals, cerebral palsy and some
genetic conditions. However, most hearing loss is caused by ear infections or injury in the early years of
childhood. Mild or moderate hearing loss can be a temporary condition in many children due to ear
infections but ear infections often also lead to permanent damage. Teachers should check regularly to see
whether students have developed ear problems as ear infections can occur very quickly.
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1.2. Classification of HL
Hearing loss is categorized into different types, depending on where or what part of the auditory system is
damaged. Therefore in order to understand the types of hearing loss, we need to understand the parts of the
auditory system. Please look at the picture of the ear given below. The auditory system consists of the
EAR and the AUDITORY NERVE connecting the ear to the auditory cortex in the brain. The ear consists
of three parts:
External ear (outer ear): It consists of the pinna and the ear canal
Middle ear: It consists of the eardrum and the 3 small bones (ossicles)
Inner ear: It consists of the cochlea and the semicircular canals.
The auditory nerve transmits information from the ear to the brain.
Sound is transmitted from the outer ear to the middle ear and then to the inner ear. The inner ear then
transmits the information to the brain through the auditory nerve. Any damage in this pathway results in
hearing loss. Hearing loss is categorized by type, severity, and configuration. Furthermore, a hearing loss
may exist in only one ear (unilateral) or in both ears (bilateral). Hearing loss can be temporary or
permanent, sudden or progressive.
Fig.2.1 Anatomy of the ear
A. Classification by severity of HL
The severity of a hearing loss is ranked according to the additional intensity above a nominal threshold that
a sound must be before being detected by an individual; it is measured in decibels of hearing loss, or dB
HL. Hearing loss may be ranked as slight, mild, moderate, moderately severe, severe or profound as
defined below:
 Slight: between 16 and 25 dB HL
 Mild:
▪ for adults: between 26 and 40 dB HL
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Inclusiveness ABD
▪
for children: between 20 and 40 dB HL
 Moderate: between 41 and 54 dB HL
 Moderately severe: between 55 and 70 dB HL
 Severe: between 71 and 90 dB HL
 Profound: 91 dB HL or greater
 Totally deaf: Have no hearing at all. This is called anacusis.
B. Classification by type of HL
1. Conductive hearing loss: - Conductive hearing loss occurs when sound is not conducted efficiently
through the outer ear and/ or the middle ear. It present when the sound is not reaching the inner ear, the
cochlea. This can be due to external ear canal malformation, dysfunction of the eardrum or malfunction
of the bones of the middle ear. Conductive hearing loss usually involves a reduction in sound level.
This type of hearing loss can often be medically or surgically corrected.
2. Sensorineural hearing loss: - is caused by dysfunction of the inner ear, the cochlea or the nerve that
transmits the impulses from the cochlea to the hearing centre in the brain. The most common reason for
sensorineural hearing loss is damage to the hair cells in the cochlea. It not only involves a reduction in
sound level, or ability to hear faint sounds, but also affects speech understanding, ability to hear
clearly.
3. Mixed hearing loss: - Mixed hearing loss is a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing
loss.
4. Central deafness: - Damage to the brain can lead to a central deafness. The peripheral ear and the
auditory nerve may function well but the central connections are damaged by tumour, trauma or other
disease and the patient is unable to hear.
C. Classification by configuration of HL
1. Flat: thresholds essentially equal across test frequencies.
2. Sloping: lower (better) thresholds in low-frequency regions and higher (poorer) thresholds in high-
frequency regions.
3. Rising: higher (poorer) thresholds in low-frequency regions and lower (better) thresholds in higher-
frequency regions.
4. Trough-shaped ("cookie-bite" or "U" shaped): greatest hearing loss in the mid-frequency range, with
lower (better) thresholds in low- and high-frequency regions.
1.3. Signs and symptoms
Person with HL may show one or more of the following characteristics: -
 difficulty using the telephone
 loss of directionality of sound
 difficulty understanding speech, especially of women and children
 difficulty in speech discrimination against background noise (cocktail party effect)
 sounds or speech becoming dull, muffled or attenuated
 need for increased volume on television, radio, music and other audio sources
 pain or pressure in the ears
 a blocked feeling
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1.4. Causes of HL
Hearing loss has multiple causes, including ageing, genetics, perinatal problems and acquired causes like
noise and disease. For some kinds of hearing loss the cause may be classified as of unknown cause.
a. Age: - There is a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging known as presbycusis.
b. Noise: - Both constant exposure to loud sounds (85 dB(A) or above) and one-time exposure to
extremely loud sounds (120 dB(A) or above) may cause permanent hearing loss.
c. Genetic: - Around 75–80% of all these cases are inherited by recessive genes, 20–25% are inherited by
dominant genes, 1–2% are inherited by X-linked patterns, and fewer than 1% are inherited by
mitochondrial inheritance.
d. Perinatal problems
 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are reported to cause hearing loss in up to 64% of infants born to
alcoholic mothers, from the ototoxic effect on the developing fetus plus malnutrition during
pregnancy from the excess alcohol intake.
 Premature birth can be associated with sensorineural hearing loss because of an increased risk of
hypoxia, hyperbilirubinaemia, ototoxic medication and infection as well as noise exposure in the
neonatal units. The risk of hearing loss is greatest for those weighing less than 1500 g at birth.
e. Disorders
 Strokes; Multiple sclerosis; Perilymph fistula
 Viral infections (Measles, Mumps, congenital rubella (also called German measles), herpes
viruses, People with HIV/AIDS may develop hearing problems due to medications they take for the
disease, the HIV virus, or due to an increased rate of other infections, West Nile virus
 Meningitis may damage the auditory nerve or the cochlea.
 Syphilis is commonly transmitted from pregnant women to their fetuses,
f. Medications: - Some medications may reversibly affect hearing.
g. Chemicals: - hearing loss can also result from specific chemicals: metals, such as lead; solvents, etc.
h. Physical trauma: - There can be damage either to the ear itself or to the brain centers that process the
aural information conveyed by the ears. People who sustain head injury are especially vulnerable to
hearing loss or tinnitus, either temporary or permanent.
1.5. Prevention
It is estimated that half of cases of hearing loss are preventable. A number of preventative strategies are
effective including: immunisation against rubella to prevent congenital rubella syndrome, immunization
against H. influenza and S. pneumoniae to reduce cases of meningitis, and avoiding or protecting against
excessive noise exposure. The World Health Organization also recommends immunization against
measles, mumps, and meningitis, efforts to prevent premature birth, and avoidance of certain medication as
prevention.
The use of antioxidants is being studied for the prevention of noise-induced hearing loss.
A. Hearing protectors
Education regarding noise exposure increases the use of hearing protectors.
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B. Workplace noise regulation
The hierarchy of hazard controls demonstrates the different levels of controls to reduce or eliminate
exposure to noise and prevent hearing loss, including engineering controls and personal protective
equipment (PPE). Other programs and initiative have been created to prevent hearing loss in the
workplace. Companies can also provide personal hearing protector devices tailored to both the worker and
type of employment. Some hearing protectors universally block out all noise, and some allow for certain
noises to be heard. Workers are more likely to wear hearing protector devices when they are properly
fitted. Better enforcement of laws can decrease levels of noise at work.
C. Screening
The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for all newborns. The American
Academy of Pediatrics advises that children should have their hearing tested several times throughout their
schooling: When they enter school, At ages 6, 8, and 10, At least once during middle school, and At least
once during high school. There is not enough evidence to determine the utility of screening in adults over
50 years old who do not have any symptoms
1.6. Communication Options

An effective communication system that permits those using it to exchange information with a high degree
of ease, flexibility, speed and accuracy in a wide variety of circumstances is very essential in the process of
intervention and rehabilitation process of hearing impaired children. According to Schulze, Carpenter and
Turnbull (1991), for people with a considerable hearing loss, the basic approach to communication are
Oral, manual and total communications.
• Oral method /speech communication/ - Oral languages are transmitted and received through oral and
auditory modalities, respectively. The philosophy of oral education is that, hearing impaired children
should be given the opportunity to learn to speak and understand speech, learn through spoken
language in school and later function as independent adults.
Auditory training is meant the maximum utilization of residual hearing. It involves the effective use of
hearing aids through the child's waking hours. Training to listen should be given from early childhood
to develop natural language and speech. Speech reading is the visual interpretation of spoken
communication. Lip reading is unreliable and imprecise. Cued speech is using hand shape and
position while speaking. In combination with certain sound, these hand signals make it possible to
better distinguish those speech sounds that are easily confused because they look the same on the lip.
• Sign language is a formal, socially agreed on; rule-governed symbol system that is generative in
nature. Sign language is a language in its own, with its own linguistic rules and patterns. It is
suggested that after deaf students acquire grammatical and communicative proficiency, teachers can
use sign language to teach and discuss the content of various academic subjects that are introduced in
typical early elementary grades. Sign language is a visual gesture language which consists of shape
and position of specific body parts such as hands, arms, eyes, face and hand. Signs tend to
communicate content words, whereas finger spelling is useful for functional words such as articles,
prepositions. Thus finger spelling plays a complementary role to signs, when it may significantly
increase understanding of the sign language.
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Inclusiveness ABD
• Total communication is a method of communication for hearing impaired which are the simultaneous
or combined methods that present signs, finger spelling, speech (lip) reading, speech and auditory
amplification at the same time. It also includes gestures, reading, writing and any modal that will
result in clarity and ease of communication.
2. Visual Impairment (VI)

2.1. Definitions and descriptions of visual impairment
Vision plays a vital role in school learning and it is essential that teachers understand the visual abilities of
their students. When vision impairment is not addressed at school, it can lead to learning difficulties and
even behavioral problems, as the student misses important information, struggles to keep up with other
students, loses confidence and becomes frustrated.
Visual impairment, also known as vision impairment or vision loss, is a decreased ability to see to a
degree that causes problems not fixable by usual means, such as glasses. Visual impairment as of many
professionals in the field, divides persons with visual loss into two: Low vision and blindness. Formerly,
those with low vision were referred to as partially seeing or partially sighted.
A. Low vision/partially sighted/ is legally defined as
“…a condition in which one's vision is seriously impaired, defined usually as having between
20/200 and 20/70 central visual acuity in the better eye, with correction.”
B. Blind it is
“…a descriptive term referring to a lack of sufficient vision for the daily activities of life.”
When educationally defined, these two sub categories of visual impairments are seen as:
A. Partially sighted /low vision/ pupils-

“…these are pupils who by reason of impaired vision cannot follow the normal regime of ordinary
schools without adaptation to their sight or to their educational development, but can be educated
by special methods involving the use of sight. Such pupils use print materials but may need
modifications such as enlarged print or use of low vision aids (magnification).”
B. Blind pupils-
“…those are pupils who are totally without sight or have little vision, and who must be educated
through channels other than sight (for example using Braille or audio-tapes).”
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Inclusiveness ABD
Fig. 2.2. The outer parts of the eye
Fig. 2.3. The inner parts of the eye
2.2. Classification of visual impairment

The definition of visual impairment is reduced vision not corrected by glasses or contact lenses. The World
Health Organization uses the following classifications of visual impairment. When the vision in the better
eye with best possible glasses correction is:
 20/30 to 20/60 : is considered mild vision loss, or near-normal vision
 20/70 to 20/160 : is considered moderate visual impairment, or moderate low vision
 20/200 to 20/400 : is considered severe visual impairment, or severe low vision
 20/500 to 20/1,000 : is considered profound visual impairment, or profound low vision
 More than 20/1,000 : is considered near-total visual impairment, or near total blindness
 No light perception : is considered total visual impairment, or total blindness
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Inclusiveness ABD
Blindness is defined by the World Health Organization as vision in a person's best eye with best
correction of less than 20/500 or a visual field of less than 10 degrees. This definition was set in 1972,
and there is ongoing discussion as to whether it should be altered to officially include uncorrected
refractive errors.
A. Snellen Chart
A Snellen chart is an eye chart that can be used to measure
visual acuity. Snellen charts are named after the Dutch
ophthalmologist Herman Snellen who developed the chart in
1862. Many ophthalmologists and vision scientists now use
an improved chart known as the LogMAR chart.
B. LogMAR chart
A LogMAR chart comprises rows of letters and is used by
optometrists, ophthalmologists and vision scientists to
estimate visual acuity. This chart was developed at the
National Vision Research Institute of Australia in 1976, and
is designed to enable a more accurate estimate of acuity as
compared to other charts (e.g., the Snellen chart). For this
reason, the LogMAR chart is recommended, particularly in a
research setting. Figure 2.4: A typical Snellen chart that is
frequently used for visual acuity testing.
When using the LogMAR chart, visual acuity is scored with
reference to the Logarithm of the Minimum Angle of
Resolution, as the chart's name suggests. An observer who can resolve details
as small as 1 minute of visual angle scores LogMAR 0, since the base-10
logarithm of 1 is 0; an observer who can resolve details as small as 2 minutes
of visual angle (i.e., reduced acuity) scores LogMAR 0.3, since the base-10
logarithm of 2 is 0.3; and so on.
2.3. Causes and treatment of vision impairment

The most common causes of blindness in 2010 were:
1. Cataracts (51%)
2. Glaucoma (8%)
3. Age related macular degeneration (5%) Figure2.5: LogMAR chart
4. Corneal opacification (4%)
5. Childhood blindness (4%)
6. Refractive errors (3%)
7. Trachoma (3%)
8. Diabetic retinopathy (1%)
9. Undetermined (21%)
About 90% of people who are visually impaired live in the developing world. Age-related macular
degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are the leading causes of blindness in the developed
world.
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Inclusiveness ABD
2.3.1. Intervention Strategies
Many children with visual impairment are retarded in their physical growth and development because of
environmental factors, particularly the early environment of the home parents may be over protective and
fail to provide opportunities to learn. They dispossess the infants and young child's need for many
structured opportunities to learn to use his/her body effectively in exploring his/her world. The academic
needs of students with visual impairments require a dual curriculum perspective that consists of the
traditional academic content taught to their peers as well as the disability specific skills for children and
adolescents who are blind.
The vast majorities of students with visual impairments live at home and attend regular elementary and
secondary schools in their local communities. Many receive the same education as classmates who do not
share their disability. They may receive extra assistance from resource room teachers and other specialists,
particularly in the area of basic skills. Students whose functional use of vision is extremely limited require
specialized instruction on additional topics such as orientation and mobility. Teachers of visually impaired
children are often thought of in conjunction with specialized equipment and materials, such as Braille,
canes, tape recorders and magnifying devices. Media and materials do play an important role in the
education of children with impaired vision.
As a general rule, students with vision impairments need clear, well-marked visual materials (e.g.,
diagrams with important information highlighted or with arrows marking relevant parts), large, clear print
in reading material and good lighting. Teachers should also ensure that the classroom is kept free of
hazards and that chairs, desks, and so on, are not moved around all the time. This is to ensure that students
with very low vision do not trip or stumble but, rather, can learn the layout of their classroom. Teachers
should also compensate for students’ low vision by using more spoken information and asking other
students to help students with vision impairments with their work. Students with vision impairments are
often very poor spellers, as they are not able to recognize the patterns in words or to picture words, in the
ways that students with normal sight do. Teachers need to be sensitive to this particular need and not
assume that the student has a learning difficulty because of their poor spelling.
The following list of additional visual aids represents the types available from various sources;
A. Geography aids
• Braille atlases
• Moulded plastic, dissected and un dissected relief maps
• Relief globs
• Land form model
B. Mathematical aids
• Abacus
• Raised clock faces
• Geometric area and volume aids
• Write forms for matched planes and volumes
• Braille rulers
C. Writing aids
• Raised-line check books
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Inclusiveness ABD
• Signature guide
• Longhand-writing kit
• Script letter-sheets and boards
To assist all students gain more information, the teacher can use both written and oral forms of
communication more precisely. The following suggestions can easily be incorporated into classroom
situations:
✓ Repeat orally information written on a board.
✓ Prepare handouts, using enlarged print, that summarize the important information presented in
lectures.
✓ Address students using their names first to get their attention.
✓ Audiotape lecture so as students can use tapes as study aids at home.
Regardless of those accommodations, teachers should not lower their expectations for students with visual
disabilities. These students should be encouraged to be full class members who share their work and
thoughts with others in inclusive classrooms.
Currently educators believe that the most important visual consideration is functional visual efficiency, or
how well children use their vision, rather than the particular measure of visual acuity.
Teachers of children with visual impairment are often thought of in conjunction with specialized
equipment and materials, such as Braille, canes, tape recorders and magnifying devices. Media and
materials do play an important role in the education of children with impaired vision. Hence, the primary
grown-up of educational programming for the visually impaired involves the modification and adaptation
of educational materials.
Additional and basic visual aids to be employed by teachers of inclusive classrooms are Geography aids,
Mathematical aids and writing aids. Above all, the following are of paramount importance in avoiding
environmental barriers and designing for effective learning atmosphere in assisting leading independent
life.
Orientation and mobility training: – Orientation and mobility training helps those with sever visual
impairments to move around independently. Orientation can be described as the mental map people have
about their surroundings. Mobility is the ability to travel safely and efficiently form one place to another.
Listening skill training: – all students can benefit from improving their listening skills; however, for
students with visual impairment, good listening skills are imperative many of these individuals must rely
heavily on their hearing.
Braille training: – students with very severe visual impairments may need to learn to read and writing
using different methods. Braille uses a coded system of dots embossed on paper so that individuals can
feel a page of text.
Enhanced Image Devices: – many students with vision impairments learn to read using traditional
methods with enlarged print. Close-circuit television systems with a small camera, and 200m lens,
overhead projectors, micro-computers, telescopic aids and other specialized equipment are used to enlarge
text so that it is easier for people with low vision to read.
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Audio Aids: – audio aids allow persons with visual impairments to hear what others can read Talking
books, talking calculators and devices that compress speech are audio aids that help people with vision
impairments to make up for their limited sight.
Optical character recognition (OCR) devices: – some students with vision impairments use a computer
based scanning devices that convert printed words into synthetic speech. Recent advances now include
small sensors that can be attached to microcomputers to help people who are blind or those with low vision
learn from printed text.
For those with visual impairments preschool education is vital. The educational needs of students with low
vision differ from those of students who are blind students. Children with low vision might require some
extra tutorial assistance to learn the same number of phonetic rules as their classmates or additional time to
read their assignment. Students who are blind might require the inclusion of entirely different curriculum
topics. For example, they might need to learn independent life skills so that they can manage an apartment,
shop for food, and cook their meals without assistance from others. Below we discuss some methods of
teaching and specific curriculum suggestions for students with low vision and those who are blind. Keep in
mind that these two groups are not truly distinct since suggestions for students with low vision might well
apply to many students who are blind.
Teaching children with low vision: – some minor modification in teaching style can help students with
visual impairments gain more from the learning environment. One modification is the careful use of oral
language. For example, many of us, when speaking, use words that do not refer to other words (referents);
we say ‘this,’ ‘that’ and ‘there’ without naming the topic we are discussing. Often, teachers write terms on
the blackboard without stating them aloud or explaining their meanings. Research has shown that people
learn more efficiently when they have been given previews of the lesson about what is to be taught.
Unfortunately, few teachers, particularly at middle and secondary schools, provide students with these
previews or advance organizers. Advance organizers are especially useful for students with visual
impairments.
Regardless of those accommodations, teachers should not lower their expectations for students with visual
disabilities. These students should be encouraged to be full class members who share their work and
thoughts with others.
Teaching children who are blind: – many professionals who work with those with visual impairments
recommend that teachers use a consistent daily and weekly schedule so that students will know what is
expected at various times of the day and across the week. Also, a teacher can hand out a weekly schedule
to help students plan their time and study schedule. Other modifications to the classroom can help students
who are blind. Many students with visual impairments need intensive education in addition to the instruction
they receive in the regular classroom.
2.4. Prevention
Many types of vision impairments are inherited and cannot be prevented. However, some vision
impairments can be prevented, as follows:
 Students need to be educated to never throw stones, sticks or other small or sharp objects at other
children.
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 Students need to be educated about keeping chemicals such as lime, cement, petrol, and cleaning
products away from their hands and eyes.
 Students and parents need to be educated about hygiene, especially keeping eyes, faces and hands
clean.
 Eyes should only be cleaned with clean water; no chemicals should be placed in or near the eye.
 Children should always be taken to a health clinic if they have any kind of eye problem or irritation.
 Children and mothers need a diet that is rich in vitamin A. The best foods for vitamin A are leafy
vegetables, cassava, paw paw and other yellow and orange vegetables.
 Girls should be vaccinated against rubella (German measles).
5. Communication Disorder
5.1. Definitions and descriptions of communication and communication disorder
Communication is the transfer of knowledge, ideas, opinions and feelings which is usually accomplished
through the use of language. In some other cases, it is transfer of information through glance of an eye, a
gesture, or of some other nonverbal behavior. Language is the formalized method of communication by
which ideas are transmitted to others. Speech is the vocal production of language and vocal systems are
parts of the respiratory system used to create voice. “Any deviation from using language and speech in
the formal system of communication leads an individual to language or speech disorder which is known
as communication disorder.”
Communication disorders include problems related to speech, language and auditory processing. It may
range from simple sound repetitions such as stuttering to occasional disarticulations of words to complete
inability to use speech and language for communications (aphasia). Children can have communication
problems for a variety of reasons. In many cases, a communication problem is the result of another
disability, such as intellectual disability, neurological disorders, brain injury, drug abuse, severe learning
difficulties, physical disability (e.g., cerebral palsy, cleft lip or palate), deafness or moderate hearing loss,
or an emotional or psychological disorder. In other cases, and for no obvious reason, children have
difficulty learning, understanding or expressing language. There are three types of communication
problems:
1. Expressive problems
Expressive problems are the most obvious communication problems. Children may be unable to sequence
sentences properly so they use incorrect word order or grammar, or just speak in one-word sentences.
Children may have articulation problems, where they cannot physically produce certain sounds or words,
or where they stutter. Some children speak too softly or too loudly and others speak in a monotone,
without using expression.
1. Problems with interacting
Some children lack good social and conversational skills. They don’t know how to take turns when talking,
they don’t know how to begin or end a conversation, or they might not make eye-contact or use
appropriate body language. Some children also cannot pick up the subtle expressions and emphases in
language.
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Inclusiveness ABD
2. Receptive problems
Difficulties with the comprehension and understanding of spoken language - `receptive’ problems, are less
obvious than other speech problems and more difficult to identify than other problems. Nevertheless, they
can have serious consequences for children’s learning and development (Wright & Kersner, 1998).
Children with receptive problems struggle with the meanings of words and the meanings of sentences.
They often have difficulty with the subtleties of language and with abstract concepts. They can have
problems making predictions and inferences in language. Sometimes they appear to have appropriate
expressive skills but this is often just meaningless chatter. Communication problems can lead to problems
in literacy and other areas of school education. Children with language problems often have low
confidence and self-esteem, can be very shy and unwilling to participate in school activities.
Communication disorders fundamentally include disorders of speech and language. Too many people, the
terms communication, speech, and language mean essentially the same thing, but to special educators and
speech-language therapists these are significantly different concepts that require different approaches to
instruction.
Communication is the broadest of the three terms, includes both speech and language. Communication
also includes cues such as intonation, pace of speech, and stress (emphasis), as well as nonverbal
information such as gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact.
Language can be defined as a socially shared code or system of conventions that represents and expresses
ideas through symbols and rules. All language is communication, but not all communication involves
language.
Speech is a particular type of language. Speech refers to language that involves the coordination of oral-
neuromuscular movement to produce sounds. Language can be spoken, written, or signed.
Many children with other exceptionalities also have communication disorders. For example, children with
autism or pervasive developmental disorder are likely to have language delays. The special education
teacher, regular education teacher, and language therapist must work together to design teaching and
learning techniques for these children. Most time communication problems categorized as speech or
language disorders.
A. Speech Disorders
Disordered speech is significantly different from the usual speech of others, and it detracts from the
communicative abilities of the speaker. It is important to point out that difference in speech such as
dialects or accents are not disorders. Only when a child’s speech is significantly different from normal
speech in his or her developmental context should the child be sent for a speech and language evaluation.
The most common developmental speech disorders that interfere with child’s education are the following
three types:
1. Voice disorders: – absence or abnormal production of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or
duration. For example, students with voice disorders may sound hoarse all the time or speak too loudly.
2. Articulation disorder: – abnormal production of speech sounds. E.g., addition, omission, distortion,
subtraction… of sounds in a word: for instance, saying “th” for “s,” or leaving out the “l” sound in
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words like clue (saying “coo” instead), difficulties with the way sounds are formed and strung together
("wabbit" for "rabbit"), omitting a sound ("han" for "hand"), or distorting a sound ("sip for ship").
Articulation disorder account for the majority of speech disorders.
3. Fluency disorders: – are interruptions in the flow, rate, and/or rhythm of verbal expressions
characterized by elongation, repetition and hesitations formed during communication that interrupt the
flow of speech. The two most common developmental deviations of fluency are stuttering and
stammering/“cluttering”.
B. Language Disorders
Language is the expression of human communication through which knowledge, beliefs and behavior can
be experienced, explained and shared. A language disorder is “the impairment or deviant development of
expression and, or, comprehension of words in context.” The disorder may involve the form of
language, the content of language and, or, the function of language as a communication tool.
Language disorder is also defined as “difficulty or inability to master the various systems of rules and
language which then interferes with communication.” It could be delayed or deviant development of
comprehension and/or use of the signs and symbols used to express or receive ideas in a spoken, written,
or other symbol system. The term language disorder also indicates a difficulty in understanding and using
speech, the written word, or another symbol system. According to the American Speech-Language-
Hearing Association (ASHA), a language disorder is ‘the impairment or deviant development of
comprehension and/or use of a spoken, written, and/or other symbol system’ (Bernthal and Bankson,
1993 as cited in US Department of Education, 2000). The disorder may involve any of the following
elements of language:
1. Language form: - includes phonology, morphology and syntax application.
• Phonology: the sound system of a language and the rules that cover sound combinations: in
English, for instance, a short a sounds like “ahhh”; an x usually sounds like “ks”; a ph sounds
like “f.”
• Morphology: the structural system for words and word construction in a language. For example,
the verb run can become the participle running. One way to remember the meaning of morphology
is to think about how words “morph” used into other words when the meaning changes.
• Syntax: the system in a given language for combining words to form sentences. English sentences
typically put the subject first, then the verb, then the direct object, and so on.
2. Language Content: - focuses on the meaning
• Semantics: the meaning of words and sentences in a language. Skill in semantics includes the
ability to visualize or interpret what someone has said or what you have read and to understand it.
3. Language function: -
 Pragmatics: the ability to combine form and content to communicate functionally and in socially
acceptable ways. For example, knowing when to say what to whom.
A student with a language disorder may be unable to understand spoken language or to produce sentences
and share ideas in an age-appropriate way.
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Some communication problems cannot be categorized strictly as speech or language disorders. Rather,
they are broadly classified as auditory processing disorders. This term describes “a general deficit in
processing sensory information from the ears.” A child with a learning disability who has such a disorder
may take longer to “process” a question or direction and can appear to be ignoring you, not attending to the
class activity, or acting disobedient. Because auditory information processing takes longer for such a child,
the information may never reach short- or long-term memory. A child with an auditory processing disorder
needs specific techniques to attend to the important parts of language and speech.
5.2. Identification and assessment of learners with communication disorder

Most children with communication disorders work in the regular classroom and receive special instruction
in speech and language, usually with a speech-language therapist. As a professional/classroom teacher, you
can help identify the child with a communication disorder by listening to how the child speaks and what he
or she says. The key is to look for consistent differences in language use, articulation, and comprehension.
When a child consistently misspeaks you should recommend to the parents that the child be evaluated for
speech-language therapy.
When you invite a speech-language therapist (or any other specialist) into your classroom, it is important
to prepare your students for the visit. Letting the students know that a visitor will be observing the class
can reduce their fears and curiosity. Talk with the student you are concerned about, and let him or her
know that you’ve asked someone to come to help you understand what is going on in the classroom. Try to
make the student comfortable. Avoid giving a special lesson on that day or treating the student differently
than you normally would. Allowing the specialist to observe the normal classroom routine will ensure that
both you and your students receive the help you’ve asked for.
Prior to the classroom observation the specialist may ask you to fill out a checklist like the one shown in
table 2.2. This checklist can help you organize your concerns and focus your own observation of the child.
Again, it is absolutely necessary that you obtain parental permission before you have a student tested or
observed.
Table2.2. A classroom speaking checklists

Uses correct grammar and sentence Structure Always Sometimes Never
Formulate sentences correctly
Uses verbs correctly
Forms plurals correctly
Asks grammatically correct questions
Uses pronouns correctly
Meaning
Uses age appropriate vocabulary
Use concepts of time, location and quantity
Uses humour, sarcasm and figures of speech appropriately
Produces complex sentences
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5.3. Intervention strategies
Once a child has been identified as having a communication disorder, he or she will receive special
instruction, most likely outside the regular classroom. This instruction will include techniques to help the
child with specific needs: for instance, practice in understanding language rules or exercises to teach the
child how to position his tongue while he says a sound.
Biological and socio-cultural factors combine to influence a child’s language socialization. Language
socialization is how children acquire communicative competency to be successful social members of their
cultures. The biological factors are the individual’s inherited capacities and interests. The socio-cultural
aspects include influence from parents, siblings, peers, and society on a child’s language-socialization and
experiences with social interactions. Language socialization occurs through social interactions in which a
child learns appropriate behaviors, thought processes, and norms that fit a specific culture. A child’s
language socialization and acquisition are greatly influenced by what the relevant culture defines as
appropriate communicative partners, body language, and times to communicate. Children learn these
differences in a variety of social interactions beginning early in life. Early parent-child interactions teach a
child cultural norms and can influence how a child interacts with other members of society.
Communication is not only important for making friends, but also for academic achievement. A child’s
social-communicative skills and academic development are influenced by experiences at home as well as
at school. A supportive home environment with frequent verbal interaction with parents, parental
participation at school, and encouragement from parents in social and intellectual skills contributes to a
child’s ability to develop appropriate skills. The school environment, characterized by the frequency of
positive and negative interactions with peers and teachers and by the child’s academic performance, has a
strong influence on social-communicative development and academic achievement.
Treatment of communication disorder will vary depending on the nature and severity of the problem, the
age of the individual, and the individual's awareness of the problem. Speech-language pathologists select
intervention approaches based on the highest quality of scientific evidence available in order to:
☺ Help individuals with articulation disorders to learn how to say speech sounds correctly
☺ Assist individuals with voice disorders to develop proper control of the vocal and respiratory
systems for correct voice production
☺ Assist individuals who stutter to increase their fluency
☺ Help children with language disorders to improve language comprehension and production (e.g.,
grammar, vocabulary, and conversation, and story-telling skills)
☺ Assist individuals with aphasia to improve comprehension of speech and reading and production of
spoken and written language
☺ Assist individuals with severe communication disorders with the use of augmentative and
alternative communication (AAC) systems, including speech-generating devices (SGDs)
☺ Help individuals with speech and language disorders and their communication partners understand
the disorders to achieve more effective communication in educational, social, and vocational
settings
☺ Advise individuals and the community on how to prevent speech and language disorders
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Here are also some recommendations to keep in mind with regard to language and speech development for
any child (with or without an identified communication disorder):
• Modelling - When a child mispronounces a word or is not clear, restate what the child has said. That is,
instead of saying “What?” or “I don’t understand you,” say, “Did you just ask me to ___?” Think of a
one-year-old child you know. When he or she says, “Baa,” you might say “Ball” or “Bottle,” but you
would never say “What?” to a child so young. Help the child by modelling what you think she is trying
to say. It is frustrating for her to repeat herself with no feedback about what you did or did not
understand.
• Making speech clear and easy to understand - Organize your classroom and student seating so that all
students can easily see and hear you. Reduce background noises as much as possible, and eliminate
distractions like an open door into a noisy hallway. Make sure a student knows that you are addressing
him or her before you start speaking. Be sure to speak loudly enough for your students to hear, and if
you know you tend to be a fast talker, slow down!
• Promoting language exchange - Show students you are interested in them by listening. This may
sound simple, but in a typical classroom of twenty-five students we all ignore what someone is saying
from time to time. Let your students know you are interested by making time every day to talk to each
of them - when they arrive at school in the morning, at lunch, recess, or during a small-group activity.
Be sure to encourage students to talk to you and each other and elaborate on their comments and
responses. By creating an environment where all students regularly talk, you will encourage language
development in all children.
• Read to your students - At every level, students can increase their language skills by hearing text read
aloud. Read a news story to your high school students, make time after lunch to read to your first
graders, or read a student’s paper to the class. Although some students will be reluctant to read aloud
during a lesson, all students appreciate a good story, and reading to them is a great way to model
interacting with text. It also helps by differentiating between conversational speech and reading,
increasing vocabulary, and providing a quiet break for everyone in the classroom.
In addition, children who have no speech at all, or whose speech is unintelligible, may need to use a sign
language or pictorial communication system. Teachers are most effective in teaching students with
communication problems when they:
☺ Provide individual assistance in a kindly way,
☺ Check students’ understanding regularly,
☺ Provide all students with memory games, rhyming games, communication games and other word
games frequently,
☺ Encourage students to observe each other making sounds and ask students to feel their own mouths as
they make letter sounds, words and other sounds,
☺ Encourage mouth and tongue exercises, such as blowing bubbles, blowing paper balls, coughing,
yawning and opening the mouth very wide, moving the tongue about and sticking it in and out,
☺ Encourage and praise all attempts at speech and improvements,
☺ Never make fun of or mimic a student’s speech,
☺ Never force a child with a speech problem to speak in front of the class,
☺ Always respect students’ dignity,
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Inclusiveness ABD
☺ Always allow time for students to finish sentences,
☺ Provide as many communication activities as possible,
☺ Do not correct students’ speech all the time but, instead, target one sound or skill to work on over a
period of time, and
☺ Encourage speech practice and exercises at home.
6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

6.1. Definitions and description of EBD
Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD; sometimes called emotional disturbance or serious
emotional disturbance) refer to a disability classification used in educational settings that allows
educational institutions to provide special education and related services to students that have poor social
or academic adjustment that cannot be better explained by biological abnormalities or a developmental
disability.
Behavior disorders are regarded as those behaviors that students sometimes exhibit that are inappropriate
and unacceptable in the classroom or school. Sometimes, students’ exhibit inappropriate behavior because
of emotional disorders but it is often impossible to determine whether or not a student’s behavior is
actually caused by an emotional disorder. For practical reasons, behavioral and emotional disorders can be
grouped as one area of special need. Most students exhibit inappropriate behavior at some time but
students regarded as having behavior disorders perform inappropriate behavior more often and usually
with greater intensity. The behavioral disorders that usually concern teachers most are those that affect
their teaching and other students, such as classroom disturbances, aggressive teasing or bullying, continual
talking and calling out, taking or interfering with other students’ property, inability to work independently
or cooperatively, and refusal to comply with the teacher’s instructions. However, some students have
behavior disorders that are less obvious and only harm their own education, such as extreme shyness, very
low confidence and self-esteem, poor attendance and avoidance of academic work. These behavior
disorders could be called passive behavior disorders.
Children with emotional and behavioral disorders are referred to by a variety of terms such as emotionally
disturbed, socially maladjusted, psychologically disordered, emotionally handicapped or even psychotic if
their behavior is extremely abnormal or bizarre. Such children are seldom really liked by any one worst
still, they do not even like themselves.
The term EBD means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long
period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely affects educational performance.
✓ Inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory and health factors;
✓ An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers;
✓ Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
✓ A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
✓ A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fear associated with personal or school problems.
The term does not include children who are socially maladjusted unless it is determined that they are
seriously emotionally disturbed. Definition and classification of emotional disturbance are necessarily
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Inclusiveness ABD
quite different for children than for adults. A coalition of more than a dozen professional associates and
advocacy organization, provided a definition for behavior disorder which represents the best current
thinking in the field: -The term emotional or behavioral disorder is defined as,
“…a disability characterized by behavioral or emotional responses in school programs so different
from appropriate age, cultural norms that it adversely affects educational performance, including
academic, social, and vocational or inter personal skills.”
Hence, the disorder:

✓ is more than a temporary, expected response to stressful events in the environment;
✓ is consistently exhibited in two different settings, at least one of which is school related and
✓ Persists despite individualized interventions within the education program, unless in the judgment
of the team, the child's or youth's history indicated that such in retentions would be effective.
EBD can co-exist with other disabilities. This category may include children or youth with schizophrenic
disorder, affective disorders, anxiety disorders or other sustained disturbances of conduct or adjustment.
6.2. Classification of EBD

EBD fall into two very broad classifications:
1. Externalizing behavior and
2. Internalizing behavior
1. Externalizing Behaviors: – also called under controlled conduct disorder or acting out. These are
aggressive behaviors expressed outwardly toward other persons. This includes disobedience,
disruptiveness, fighting, destructiveness, temper tantrums, irresponsibility, impertinence, Jealous, anger,
bossiness, profanity, attention seeking, and boisterousness, socialized aggression which includes
association with bad companions or gangs, truancy, stealing, and delinquency, defiance of authority,
irritability and troublesomeness, hostile aggression and hyperactivity…
2. Internalizing Behaviors: – sometimes called over controlled anxiety, withdrawal, or acting in. These
are those expressed in a more socially withdrawal operates. These includes social withdrawal, anxiety,
feeling of inadequacy (or inferiority), guilt, shyness, depression, hypersensitivity, chewing finger nails,
reclusive, infrequent smiling, chronic sadness, immaturity which includes a short attention span,
preoccupation, clumsiness, passivity, day dreaming, sluggishness, drowsiness, giggling, preference for
younger play master, and a feeling of being ‘picked on’ by others. The child worries a great deal and is
timid. Anorexia a tense fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, chronic absence or refusal of
appetite for food, causing severe weight loss; and bulimia a commercially causing oneself to vomit,
limiting weight gain are two special internalizing behavior disorders.
It is important to remember that a given individual can exhibit both externalizing and internalizing behavior
that some individuals vacillate between the two extremes. Since the externalizing behavioral disorders are
so obviously disruptive to other people in the environment, they are often identified more quickly in schools
than behaviors that are internalizing. Because, the problem of children with internalizing behaviors are not
easily identified, and therefore don’t receive appropriate special educational services. Learning problems,
attention problem, hyperactivity, and aggression, for example, are important dimensions of difficulty in
schools. Although these dimensions do not tell a teacher why a student behaves in a certain way or what
should be done about it, they at least communicate clearly how a student behaves. The dimensions, which
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Inclusiveness ABD
are commonly affected by behavior difficulties, are highlighted below which assumed to be helpful for
professionals and teachers:
I. Cognitive - Many cognitive deficiencies are attributed to students with serious emotional disturbance.
These students are said to have poor memory and short attention spans, and to be preoccupied overly
active, and anxious, among other things. In general, students with behavior disorder score slightly
below average intelligence tests, although the scores of individual students’ are over the entire range.
II. Academic - most students with behavior disorders do not do as well academically as one would expect
from their scores on intelligence tests. Students with behavior disorder exhibit characteristics, which
affect educational performance. This means, they perform poorly on measures of school achievement.
It is also found that students with specific learning disabilities also perform poorly in at least one area
of school achievement.
Generally speaking, emotional problems can lead to academic problems, and academic problems can
lead to emotional problems. Students who demonstrate behavioral and emotional problems in school
may be subjected to disciplinary actions (suspension and expulsion), which intern limits their time in
school and exposure to academics. When students so not perform well academically, their perceptions
of this own self-worth suffer. Usually, the behavior disordered child is an acting out in the classroom,
constantly defying the teachers’ instructional and classroom rules and procedures.
III. Physical - most students with behavior disorder are physically normal. The exceptions are those with
psychosomatic complaints (in which the physical illness actually is brought on by or associated with,
the individual’s emotional state). Students who have serious physical problems can develop behavior
disorders, especially when a physical disorder leads others to act negatively toward a student and the
student develops low self-worth that are reflected in behavioral characteristics.
IV. Behavioral - this is the primary area in which students with behavior disorder are said to differ from
others. The brood behavioral characteristics of these students are specified in the definition of
behavioral disorder: an inability to learn, an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships, in appropriate types of behavior of feelings, a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or
depression, and a tendency to develop physical symptoms of fear. Although it is impossible to list all
the specific behavioral characteristics of disturbed children, it is possible to describe some general
types of behavior that tend that, if not corrected, are likely to handicap the child seriously like;
hyperactivity and related problems of aggression, with drawl, and inadequacy or immaturity.
6.3. Identification and assessment of EBD
Often, the first signs of serious emotional disturbance are seen as difficulties with basic biological
functions or social responses (e.g. eating, sleeping, eliminating, responding to parents’ attempts to comfort,
or ‘muddying’ the parent’s body when being held). At the toddler stage, slowness in learning to walk or
talk is a sign of potential emotional difficulty. In short, failure to pass ordinary developmental milestones
with in a normal age range is a danger signal in the case of emotional development, just as in cognitive
development. In fact, cognitive and emotional development tends to be closely linked, and neither aspect
of a young child’s life can be considered in isolation from the other.
Professionals and teachers can identify and help children with EBD by the following behaviors:
a. Aggressive maladjustment
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Inclusiveness ABD
- Doesn’t go along gracefully with the decisions of the teachers or the group;
- Is quarrelsome; fights often; gets mad easily;
- Is bullying; picks on others;
- Occasionally is disruptive of property.
b. Withdrawn maladjustment
 Is noticed by other children,
 Is neither actively liked nor disliked just left out;
 Is one or more of the following; shy, timid, fearful, anxious, excessively quiet, tense;
 Is easily upset; feelings are readily hurt; is easily discouraged.
c. General maladjustment
 Needs an unusual amount of prodding to get work completed;
 Is inattentive and indifferent, or apparently lazy;
 Exhibit nervous mannerisms such as nail biting, sucking thumb or fingers, suffering, extreme
restlessness, muscle twitching, hair twisting, picking and scratching, deep and frequent
signing;
 Is actively excluded by most of the children whenever they get a chance;
 Show failure in school for no apparent reason;
 Is absent from school frequently or dislikes school intensely;
 Seems to be more unhappy than most of the children;
 Achieves much less in school than his ability indicated he should; and
 Is jealous or over competitive.
Assessment of EBD: Like assessment of problems in various academic areas that should help us identify
these students who need special help, planning or having programs to address their problems, and monitor
progress toward reaching their goal is fundamental. An adequate assessment does not focus exclusively on
student’s behavior. Rather, it includes consideration of the student’s social and physical environments and
the student’s and feelings about their circumstances. Assessment should not merely be descriptive of what
is but also should be a process that leads to suggested interventions.
Suffice to say that behavioral assessment may employ rating scales and interviews but relies most heavily
on direct observation for measurement of the particular behaviors that are problematic. Behavior rating
scales may be used to obtain adults’ (teachers’ and parents’) reports of the frequency with which students
exhibit specific characteristics The result of these ratings can then be compared to national or lock norms
to see the extent to which the students’ exhibit specific characteristics The result of these ratings can then
be compared to national or local norms to see the extent to which the students’ behavior differs from that
of other students. Interviews with parents, teachers and students themselves may be used to assess the
perceptions individuals have of the student’s behavior and its context. Their explanations for the students
conduct and motivational factors may be important in designing an intervention programs. Direct
observation of behavior is most useful in assessing exactly what the student and others do and do not do in
specific settings or circumstances. The information obtained from direct observation provides another basis
for planning and monitoring intervention.
6.4. Causes of EBD

In a paint of fact, we know that variety of factors can contribute to the growth and development of behavior
problem, and in the typical case we have good reason to believe that several of these factors are involved.
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Inclusiveness ABD
A youngster's misbehavior may be partly biological in origin, partly attributed to the family's childrearing
practice and/or partly due to mismanagement at school, and partly a function of cultural influences. In
general, there are many reasons why students have behavioral and emotional disorders and it can be very
difficult to identify a specific cause. Some causes can be dealt with and changed but others cannot be resolved
by the teacher. Some typical causes are:
1. Personal Factors
For the vast majority of behavior disordered children, there is no evidence of organic injury or disease i.e.
they appear to be biologically healthy and sound. Brain injury or dysfunction has played a critical role in
the definition of learning disabilities or behavior disorders, particularly in disorders of cognition and
attention.
Emotional or behavioral disorders may arise in part from variety of biological processes, including complex
genetic factors (and the temperament they foster) like: malnutrition, traumatic brain injury, and physical
illness. Typically, however, the biological processes work in combination with environmental factors and
are not the direct causes of specific problematic behaviors. The types of childhood disorders most frequently
linked with suspected biological causes are hyperactivity and childhood psychoses (autism and childhood
schizophrenia). Diet and toxins in the environment are also put toward as possible causative factors of
particularly, hyperactivity.
2. Family Factors
Children undoubtedly learn many of their attitudes and values from their parents and siblings. For example,
a child's family unwittingly teaches him/her undesirable attitudes toward school and academic learning or
toward authority. For decades, it was known that a home environment lacking educational stimulation is
likely to produce children who have learning difficulties. Moreover, decades of research indicates that
parental discipline and other aspects of child rearing can contribute to children's emotional and behavioral
problems. Discipline that is too lax or too restrictive, especially if the parent is generally hostile toward the
child and inconsistent management of the child at home are likely to foster emotional or behavioral
difficulties.
There is little doubt that behavior is largely shaped by social context. Self and stow (1989), identified some
family factors which seemed to be correlated with emotional and behavioral difficulties in children. These
include:
• Basic needs being unmet (physical abuse and neglect) over crowding or large family size; unset
factory housing conditions and poverty can induce psychological stress and health problems.
• Marital disorder or broken home;
• Maternal depression /neuroticism;
• Child "in care";
• Father- any offence against the law;
• Lack of routines that may lead to the child’s overtiredness or restlessness
• Prolonged separation from father may slow down development and can lead to acute distress
followed by apathy.
• Domestic crises and parental disharmony can affect children's emotional well-being;
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Inclusiveness ABD
• Parental illness can adversely affect children if through ill health, parents are erratic or moody or
children are anxious about them; and
• Unsatisfactory parental attitudes and practices.
3. Immediate Socializing Factors
Children’s behavioral development is obviously affected by a wide range of experiences, including
interaction with peers and schooling. These are some of the immediate socializing factors to a child.
a) Peer Groups- opportunities to interact with peers are known to be important for moral behavioral
development but relatively, little is known about how much and what kind of interaction is necessary or
how young children’s peer relations may be a cause of disordered behavior. It might be expected that
children learn inappropriate behavior from their peers; but peer relations also hold great potential for
behavior therapy. For example, peers may effectively improve disturbed children’s behavior thorough
play, tutoring, modelling (providing examples that the disturbed child may imitate), or by giving prompts
or reinforces for desirable behavior as directed by an adult therapist.
b) School factors– certain characteristics of schooling appear in some cases to be causal factors in
troublesome behavior and teachers must be aware of and ready to change those school experiences that
may instigate trouble. That is, before looking to other causal explanations, teachers ought first to make
certain that a student-school experience is not contributing to emotional problems.
4. Cultural Factors
Families and schools have profound influences in behavioral development of a child. But the behavior of
children and youths is also shaped by the standards, values and expectations of the larger culture in which
they live. The mass media, the neighbourhood, one’s social group, religion, and social class all affect
emotional and behavioral characteristics. In some cases, these cultural influences may contribute to
emotional or behavioral problems, particularly of there is conflict between cultures or if a given culture gives
youngsters mixed message.
In short, the contributing factors of EBD can be summarized as follows: -
Home and community factors: -
 difficult or abusive home environment
 conflict at home
 inconsistent management at home
 lack of sleep
 lack of attention, love or care
School factors: -
 disorganized teacher or teaching
 unfair school discipline practices
 conflict with other students
 difficult or confusing schoolwork
 boring schoolwork
 lack of praise for good behavior
 intolerant teacher
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Inclusiveness ABD
 poor relationship between school and home
Student factors: -
 low confidence
 poor self-esteem
Lack of interest: -
5 learning difficulties
5 unidentified disability (e.g., hearing or vision impairment, headaches, other illness)
5 poor training in social skills
5 mental illness
5 need for attention
6.5. Intervention strategies
Students with behavior and emotional disorders have often been excluded from schools in the past.
However, under the international and national education policy, all students are regarded as having a right
to education. This implies that all professionals and teachers in have a responsibility to attempt to address
behavior disorders so that such students can continue to access education and not interfere with the
education of others. It is also the case that students who are excluded from school because of unacceptable
behavior are more likely to develop more serious behavioral problems away from school. If these students’
needs can be met at school instead, all members of society benefit.
It can be difficult for teachers, other students, other parents, and other community members to accept that
students with EBD should receive special assistance. People often regard these students as not deserving
anything except punishment. However, it is the responsibility of professionals and teachers to change and
modify behavior; after all, education is really a process of changing behavior and appropriate social
behavior should really be regarded as just another set of skills to be learned.
Effective teachers separate the student’s behavior from the student, by developing the following
attitude: I like the student but I don’t like his behavior. I’m going to change this student’s
behavior into behavior that I do like. This kind of positive approach can benefit everyone.
Sometimes it’s hard work, but it’s usually worth the effort!
The direct daily measurement of behavior is useful in assessing the extent of the problem and in judging
the success of the methods used to modify it. In the intervention program, the most important
considerations in dealing with students’ difficult behavior in school is balancing concern for behavioral
control with concern for academic and social learning.
In the following paragraphs a review of specific tips to be employed in the learning teaching process are
made available for teachers so that they can make use of the program relevant to learners with emotional
and behavior disorders.
A. Effective, interesting, organized teaching: - Students are much less likely to misbehave when the
teacher makes sure that all teaching is understood, teachers in a way that is interesting and treats
students nicely.
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Inclusiveness ABD
B. Ignoring poor behavior: - Ignoring misbehavior doesn’t always make the behavior go away, but it
very often does. Teachers should try this strategy if they think that the student is behaving badly just to
get attention.
C. Rewarding good behavior: - Praising and giving privileges for good behavior is a very effective
strategy that works most of the time. It can be hard to reward a very naughty child but if you catch
them being good and reward their good behavior, you can replace their bad behavior with good
behavior.
D. Time out: - Removing the student from the classroom or playground for a few minutes or just giving
the student a few minutes to `cool off’ can be an effective response to very disturbing or aggressive
behavior.
E. Punishment: - Taking privileges away, reprimanding, scolding and giving extra jobs can also be very
effective ways to reduce poor behavior. Punishment should always be combined with rewards
however, so that the student is taught what to do as well as what not to do. The aim is always to replace
poor behavior with good behavior.
F. Talking and investigating: - Students behave best when they know that their teacher cares about
them. By talking with students and finding out why they are misbehaving or not working effectively,
teachers can help students solve their problems and improve their behavior. This is particularly
important for students who are very quiet, shy or who lack confidence.
G. Being consistent: - Teachers who are consistent in dealing with misbehavior, and who don’t let their
emotions govern their actions, are more effective in encouraging better discipline. Being consistent is
essential for good behavior management.
H. Make the curriculum meaningful
 Build new learning from the previous knowledge and experience of students by holding
brainstorming sessions with the students on a specific topic and letting them relate what they know.
Giving students a problem and encouraging them to use whatever they already know to get in to the
problem is encouraged. The teacher can then introduce new concepts and skills required to solve the
problem.
 Use a student’s daily experience to clarify new concepts.
 Make learning more functional by giving the students a chance to apply it to everyday life.
 Use stories to raise interest in lesson content.
 Plan field trips and projects
 Introduce games and simulations.
I. Create learning environment conducive
 Emphasize on the importance of meaning and purpose in learning activities;
 Set tasks that are both realistic and challenging;
 Ensure that there is progression in children’s work;
 Provide a variety of learning experiences;
 Give pupils opportunities to choose;
 Have a high expectations of success;
 Create a positive atmosphere for learning;
 Provide a consistent approach;
 Recognize and reward the efforts and achievement of pupils;
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Inclusiveness ABD
 Organize resources to facilitate learning;
 Encourage pupils to work co-operatively;
 Monitor progress and provide regular feedback;
 Help pupils to develop negotiating skills such as listening, managing conflict, assertiveness training,
taking risks, accepting responsibility and dealing with feelings;
 Support the development of a positive self-concept as well as an internal locus of control.
Teachers can ask six questions about their behavior, the classroom, or the school to assess whether the
educational environment might be contributing to students misbehavior;
a) Is my instructional program sound? Sound instructional program is the first defence against emotional or
behavioral problems in school. Instruction offered at the student’s feelings of threat, failure resentment, and
defeat is not successful. We should not expect students to be ever successful if they are not being thought
well.
b) Are my expectations of the students appropriate? Expectations that is too high for a student’s ability
lead to constant feelings of failure. Expectations that are too low lead to boredom and lack of progress. A
good teacher adjusts expectations to meet the student’s level of ability so that improvement is always both
possible and challenging.
c) Am I sufficiently sensitive to the student as an individual? A school environment that is conducive to
appropriate behavior must allow students sufficient freedom to demonstrate their individuality. Teachers
who demand strict uniformity and who are unable to tolerate and encourage appropriate differences among
their students are likely to increase the tendency of some to exhibit troublesome behavior. Finding balance
between conformity to necessary rules and tolerance for difference is a key to building a school and
classroom environment conducive to appropriate behavior.
d) Do I offer reinforcement expertly? In many cases students with emotional and behavior problems are
ignored when they are behaving well and given lots of attention (usually in the form of criticism and reminder
threats) when they misbehave. This arrangement is certain to perpetuate the students’ emotional or
behavioral difficulties. Expert enforcement is typically given frequently, immediately, interestingly, and
contingent on desired behavior.
e) Am I consistent in managing behavior? In consistent management is one factor that is almost certain to
increase the tendency of any student to behave.
f) Are desirable models being demonstrated and used? If the teachers’ behavior is desirable model for
students, then appropriate conduct may be encouraged that students also imitate their classmates.
Although inattentive and disruptive behavior must be controlled in order to teach a child with EBD, the
objective of controlling misbehavior must be balanced with a well-designed and implemented instructional
program to teach academic and social skills. There are several different approaches to educate children
with EBD, each with its own definitions, purposes of treatment, and types of intervention. Based on the
work of Rhodes and Head, 1974; Rhodes and Tracy, 1972; and Kaufman 1985; there are six categories of
models.
1. Biogenetic Model- this model suggests that deviant behavior is a physical disorder with genetic or
medical cause. It implies that these causes must treat the emotional disturbance. Treatment may be
medical or nutritional.
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Inclusiveness ABD
2. Psychodynamics Model - based on the idea that a disordered personality develops out of the
interaction of experience and internal mental processes that are out of balance, this model relies on
psychotherapy and creative projects for the child (and often the parents) rather than academic
remediation.
3. Psycho educational Model - this model is concerned with unconscious motivations and underlying
conflicts yet stresses the realistic demands of everyday functioning in school and home puts as
emphasis on the students emotional development and growth as on academic growth. Intervention
focuses on therapeutic discussions to allow the children to understand their behavior rationally and
plan to change it.
4. Humanistic Model - this model suggests that the disturbed child is not in touch with his/her own
feelings and cannot find self-fulfillment in traditional educational settings. Treatment takes place in
an open, personalized setting where the teacher themselves as a non-directive, non-authoritarian
‘resource and catalyst’ for the child’s training.
5. Ecological Model - this model stresses the interaction of the child with the people around him/her
and with social institutions. This approach considers children’s problem as largely emanating from
social or cultural forces exerting influence on the individual. Treatment involves teaching the child
to function within the family, school, neighborhood, and the large community.
6. Behavioral Model - this model assumes that the child has learned disordered behavior and has not
learned appropriate responses. To treat the behavior disorder, a teacher uses applied behavior
analysis techniques to teach the child appropriate responses and eliminate inappropriate ones.
55

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Inclusiveness

Abdulfettah Muzemil (Assistant Professor)

Department of Special Needs and Inclusive Education

Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities include:-

1. Learning Disabilities/Difficulties (LD)

IDEA’s 2007 Learning disability definition

1.2. Consequences and related difficulties

Adapted from Westwood, 1997, p. 10.

1.4. Teaching strategies

2.2. Causes of intellectual disability

For example raising hand – need help

• Cerebral palsy, • Spina bifida and spinal cord defects, and

The major types of cerebral palsy are:

Children with Neuromuscular Diseases

Health Related Impairments

• How to assist a child with health care needs;

1. Hearing Impairment (HI)

Fig.2.1 Anatomy of the ear

1.6. Communication Options

2. Visual Impairment (VI)

A. Partially sighted /low vision/ pupils-

Fig. 2.2. The outer parts of the eye

Fig. 2.3. The inner parts of the eye

2.2. Classification of visual impairment

2.3. Causes and treatment of vision impairment

5.2. Identification and assessment of learners with communication disorder

Table2.2. A classroom speaking checklists

6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

Hence, the disorder:

6.2. Classification of EBD

6.4. Causes of EBD

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