Network
Network
Network
OSI Model
The OSI model classifies and organizes the tasks that hosts perform to prepare
data for transport across the network. You should be familiar with the OSI model
because it is the most widely used method for understanding and talking about
network communications.
However, remember that it is only a theoretical model that defines standards for
programmers and network administrators, not a model of actual physical layers.
Using the OSI model to discuss networking concepts has the following
advantages:
However, you must remember the following limitations of the OSI model:
OSI layers are theoretical and do not actually perform real functions.
Industry implementations rarely have a layer‐to‐layer correspondence with
the OSI layers.
Different protocols within the stack perform different functions that help
send or receive the overall message.
A particular protocol implementation may not represent every OSI layer (or
may spread across multiple layers).
To help remember the layer names of the OSI model, try the following mnemonic
devices:
Mnemonic Mnemonic
Layer Name
(Bottom to top) (Top to bottom)
Layer 7 Application Away All
Layer 6 Presentation Pizza People
Layer 5 Session Sausage Seem
Layer 4 Transport Throw To
Layer 3 Network Not Need
Layer 2 Data Link Do Data
Layer 1 Physical Please Processing
Have some fun and come up with your own mnemonic for the OSI model,
but stick to just one so you don't get confused.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.2. Lower OSI Layer
The following table summarizes basic characteristics of the lower OSI model
layers.
Layer Description
The Physical layer of the OSI model sets standards for sending
and receiving electrical signals between devices. It describes
how digital data (bits) are converted to electric pulses, radio
Physical waves, or pulses of lights.
Layer Description
The Application layer integrates network functionality into the
host operating system, and enables network services. The
Application layer does not include specific applications that
provide services, but rather provides the capability for services to
operate on the network. These services include:
HTTP
Telnet
FTP
TFTP
SNMP
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.4. OSI Layer Review
The following table compares the functions performed at each OSI model layer.
Session Data
Set up, maintain, and ASP
tear down
RPC
communication
sessions X window
TCP
Reliable (connection‐
(connection‐
Transport oriented) and Segments
unreliable oriented)
(connectionless) UDP
communications (connectionless)
End‐to‐end flow
control
Segmentation,
sequencing, and
combination
Logical addresses IP
Media
connectors
Move bits across
Transceivers
media
EIA/TIA 232 (including
Cables, connectors, (serial signaling) transceivers
pin positions built into
V.35 (modem NICs)
Physical signaling) Bits
Electrical signals
(voltage, bit Modems
Cat5
synchronization)
Repeaters
RJ45
Physical topology
(network layout) Hubs
Multiplexers
CSUs/DSUs
Wireless
Access Points
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MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.5. TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Groups of protocols (called protocol suites or protocol stacks) are designed to
interact and be used together. The TCP/IP protocol suite is used on the Internet
and on most networks. Nearly all computers today use TCP/IP protocols for
communication because it is highly scalable and routable. When learning about
TCP/IP protocols, it is common to use a theoretical layered model called the
TCP/IP model (also known as the Department of Defense (DoD) model). The layers
of the DoD model are as follows:
The Application layer (also called the Process layer) corresponds to the
Session, Presentation, and Application layers of the OSI model.
The Host‐to‐host layer is comparable to the Transport layer of the OSI
model and is responsible for error checking and reliable packet delivery.
Here, the data stream is broken into segments that must be assigned
sequence numbers so that the segments can be reassembled correctly on
the remote side after they are transported.
The Internet layer is comparable to the Network layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for moving packets through a network. This involves addressing
of hosts and making routing decisions to identify how the packet
transverses the network.
The Network Access layer corresponds to the functions of the Physical and
Data Link layers of the OSI model. It is responsible for describing the
physical layout of the network and how messages are formatted on the
transmission medium. Sometimes this layer is divided into the Network
Access and the Physical layer.
Note: The TCP/IP model focuses specifically on the functions in the Internet layer
and the Host‐to‐Host layer. All other functions of the traditional OSI model are
encompassed in the first and fourth layers.
The following table lists several protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
OSI Model
Protocol Description DoD Model Layer
Layer(s)
File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) provides a generic
method of transferring
files. It can include file
File Transfer Application,
security through
Protocol Presentation, Application/Process
usernames and
(FTP) Session
passwords, and it allows
file transfer between
dissimilar computer
systems.
Trivial File Transfer
Protocol (TFTP) is similar
to FTP. It lets you
Trivial File transfer files between a
Application,
Transfer host and an FTP server.
Presentation, Application/Process
Protocol However, it provides no
Session
(TFTP) user authentication and
uses UDP instead of TCP
as the transport
protocol.
The Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) is used
by Web browsers and
Web servers to exchange
Hypertext files (such as Web pages)
Application,
Transfer through the World Wide
Presentation, Application/Process
Protocol Web and intranets. HTTP
Session
(HTTP) can be described as an
information requesting
and responding protocol.
It is typically used to
request and send Web
documents, but is also
used as the protocol for
communication between
agents using different
TCP/IP protocols.
Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) is used
Simple to route electronic mail
Mail through the Application,
Transfer internetwork. E‐mail Presentation, Application/Process
Protocol applications provide the Session
(SMTP) interface to
communicate with SMTP
or mail servers.
Simple Network
Management Protocol
(SNMP) is a protocol
designed for managing
Simple complex networks. SNMP
Network lets network hosts Application,
Management exchange configuration Presentation, Application/Process
Protocol and status information. Session
(SNMP) This information can be
gathered by
management software
and used to monitor and
manage the network.
Remote Terminal
Emulation (Telnet) allows
an attached computer to
act as a dumb terminal, Application,
Telnet with data processing Presentation, Application/Process
taking place on the Session
TCP/IP host computer. It
is still widely used to
provide connectivity
between dissimilar
systems.
The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed to work independently of the Physical
layer implementation. You can use a wide variety of architectures with the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.6. IP Address and Class
IP addresses allow hosts to participate on IP based networks. An IP address:
IP addresses have a default class. The address class identifies the range of IP
addresses and a default subnet mask used for the range. The following table
shows the default address class for each IP address range.
Default Subnet
Class Address Range First Octet Range
Mask
1.0.0.0 1‐126
A 255.0.0.0
126.255.255.255 00000001 01111110
128.0.0.0 128‐191
B 255.255.0.0
191.255.255.255 10000000 10111111
192.0.0.0 192‐223
C 255.255.255.0
223.255.255.255 11000000 11011111
224.0.0.0 224‐239
D n/a
239.255.255.255 11100000 11101111
240.0.0.0 240‐255
E n/a
255.255.255.255 11110000 11111111
When using the default subnet mask for an IP address, you have the following
number of subnet addresses and hosts per subnet:
There are only 126 Class A network IDs (most of these addresses are
already assigned). Each Class A address gives you 16,777,214 hosts per
network.
There are 16,384 Class B network IDs. Each class B address gives you 65,534
hosts per network.
There are 2,097,152 Class C network IDs. Each class C address gives you 254
hosts per network.
Class D addresses are used for multicast groups rather than network and
host IDs.
Class E addresses are reserved for experimental use.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.7. Special Address
You should understand the following special addresses:
Address Consideration
The first octet(s) in an address range is used to identify the network
itself. For the network address, the host portion of the address
contains all 0's. For example:
Two other formats you might see for the broadcast address:
Addresses in the 127.0.0.0 range are reserved for the local host (in
other words "this" host or the host you're currently working at).
Local host
The most commonly‐used address is 127.0.0.1 which is the loopback
address.
The following address ranges have been reserved for private use:
10.0.0.0 ‐ 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 ‐ 172.31.255.255
Private
192.168.0.0 ‐ 192.168.255.255
use
Use addresses in these ranges for your private networks. Routers
connected to the Internet typically filter messages within these
ranges and prevent them from being propagated to the Internet.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.8. Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of breaking a message into packets, adding control
and other information, and transmitting the message through the transmission
media. You need to know the following five‐step data encapsulation process:
The following short descriptions can help you remember the steps of the data
encapsulation process:
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.9. Ethernet Architecture
The following table shows specifics of the Ethernet architecture.
Specification Description
The physical topology is the mapping of the nodes of a network
and the physical connections between them, such as the layout
of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the
interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring
system. The logical topology is the way messages are sent
Topology
through the network connections. Ethernet supports the
following topologies:
Physical bus, logical bus
Physical star, logical bus
Physical star, logical star
Ethernet uses Carrier Sense, Multiple Access/Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) to control access to the transmission medium.
Devices use the following process to send data:
The Ethernet frame size is 64 to 1518 bytes (this is the same for
all Ethernet standards). Four frame types are supported:
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.10. Ethernet Standards
The following table compares the characteristics of various Ethernet
implementations.
Maximum Segment
Category Standard Bandwidth Cable Type
Length
Coaxial
10Base5 10 Mbps 500 meters
(thicknet)
Coaxial
10Base2 10 Mbps 185 meters
(thinnet)
Ethernet
10 Mbps
(half duplex) Twisted pair
10BaseT 100 meters
20 Mbps (Cat3, 4, or 5)
(full duplex)
100 Mbps
(half duplex) Twisted pair
100BaseTX 100 meters
200 Mbps (Cat5)
(full duplex)
100 Mbps
(half duplex) Twisted pair
100BaseT4 100 meters
Fast 200 Mbps (full (Cat5)
Ethernet duplex)
412 meters
100 Mbps (half duplex
(half duplex) multimode cable)
100BaseFX Fiber optic
200 Mbps 2,000 meters
(full duplex) (full duplex
singlemode cable)
1,000 Mbps
220 to 550 meters
Gigabit 1000BaseSX (half duplex)
Fiber optic depending on cable
Ethernet (short) 2,000 Mbps
quality
(full duplex)
1,000 Mbps
550 to 5,000 meters
1000BaseLX (half duplex)
Fiber optic depending on cable
(long) 2,000 Mbps
quality
(full duplex)
1,000 Mbps
1000BaseCX (half duplex) Special 25 meters, used
(short copper) 2,000 Mbps copper within wiring closets
(full duplex)
1,000 Mbps
(half duplex) Twisted pair
1000BaseT 100 meters
2,000 Mbps (Cat5e)
(full duplex)
Most new networking devices that are Fast or Gigabit Ethernet capable also
support 10BaseT standards. Devices autosense the specifics of the network
configuration and set themselves to use the fastest communication method
possible.
If your network uses 10BaseT and has Cat5 cable, you can slowly migrate
from 10BaseT to FastEthernet (remember that FastEthernet uses Cat5
cable). As you replace components such as NICs and hubs with FastEthernet
devices, portions of the network will begin operating at FastEthernet
speeds.
You can begin your upgrade with:
o Critical components, such as hubs, switches, and server NICs
o Segments that service mission‐critical applications
o Workstations that have heavy bandwidth requirements
1.11. Half‐ and Full‐Duplex
With the original Ethernet standards, all devices shared the same cable.
This caused two problems:
Using twisted pair cable, multiple strands of wires are combined into
a single cable. Devices can use different wires to send and receive data
(allowing them to do both simultaneously).
Using switches, devices are given a dedicated communication path.
With a single device connected to a switch port, collisions are eliminated.
With these problems solved, you can turn off collision detection.
Devices can transmit and receive data simultaneously,
and can begin transmitting data as soon as they have data to send.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.12. Bridge
A bridge is a data forwarding device that provides data transfer.
You should understand the following concepts relating to the operation
of bridges.
Bridges connect two media segments that use the same protocol.
Bridges examine the source address to determine the media segment
of network devices.
Bridges operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
Bridges maintain a table of device addresses and their corresponding
segments.
Each segment connected by a bridge can have the same network address.
Messages within a media segment are prevented from crossing over
to another segment.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.13. Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge.
It provides the same functionality, but with a higher port density.
In addition, switches provide features that cannot be found in bridges.
Switches are associated with the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
Switches build a forwarding database in a manner similar to bridges.
Switches examine the source and destination Data Link address in each
packet to build the database and make forwarding decisions.
Switches connect multiple segments or devices and forward packets to only
one specific port.
You can connect a single device to a switch port or multiple devices to a
switch port by using a hub.
Transparent bridges forward packets only if the following conditions are met.
The frame contains data from the layers above the Data Link layer.
The frame's integrity has been verified through a valid
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
The frame is not addressed to the bridge.
How switches forward packets depends on the switch type. The following table
compares the different methods the switch uses to forward packets
(some Cisco switches support all three methods).
Method Characteristics
Store‐and‐forward switches:
Cut‐through switches:
Fragment‐free switches:
Note: Newer switches can monitor each port and determine which switching
method to use. They can automatically change to store‐and‐forward if the number
of errors on a port exceeds a configurable threshold.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757
1.15. Routing
A router is a device that sends packets from one network to another network.
Routers receive packets, read their headers to find addressing information,
and send them on to their correct destination on the network or Internet.
Routers can forward packets through an internetwork by maintaining routing
information in a database called a routing table.
The routing table typically contains the address of all known networks and routing
information about that network such as:
Interface
Routing Path
Next Hop
Route Metric (Cost)
Route Timeout
Regardless of the method used, changes in routing information take some time
to be propagated to all routers on the network. The term convergence is used
to describe the condition when all routers have the same (or correct) routing
information.
1.16. Message Routing
To send a message from one host to another on a different network, the following
process is used:
1. The sending host prepares a packet to be sent. It uses its own IP address for
the source Network layer address, and the IP address of the final receiving
device as the destination Network layer address.
2. The sending host creates a frame by adding its own MAC address as the
source Physical layer address. For the destination Physical layer address, it
uses the MAC address of the default gateway router.
3. The sending host transmits the frame.
4. The next hop router reads the destination MAC address in the frame.
Because the frame is addressed to that router, it processes the frame.
5. The router strips off the frame header and examines the packet destination
address. It uses a routing protocol to identify the next hop router in the
path.
6. The router repackages the packet into a new frame. It uses its own MAC
address as the source Physical layer address. It uses the MAC address of the
next hop router for the destination Physical layer address.
7. The router transmits the frame.
8. The next hop router repeats step 4 through 7 as necessary, until the frame
arrives at the last router in the path.
9. The last router in the path receives the frame and checks the destination IP
address contained in the packet.
10.Because the destination device is on a directly connected network, the
router creates a frame using its own MAC address as the source address,
and the MAC address of the destination device as the destination physical
address.
11.The router transmits the frame.
12.The destination device receives the frame. Inside the packet it finds the
destination address matching its own IP address, with the source IP address
being that of the original sending device.
© Sergey Gorokhod
MCT/MCSE/MCITP/MCTS/MCSA/CCSE/CCSA/CCNA/A+®
E‐mail: [email protected]
Mob: (+972) 526848757