Sph4u Energy Amp Momentum Unit 2 Notes 1

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 36

SPH4U: Energy, Work and Types of Energy

http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/economy-business/energy/energy-general/the-great-2003-north-america-blackout.html

The Northeast Blackout of 2003 was a massive widespread power outage that occurred throughout parts
of the Northeastern and Midwestern United States and Ontario, Canada on Thursday, August 14, 2003, at
approximately 4:15 p.m. EDT (20:15 UTC). At the time, it was the second most widespread electrical
blackout in history, after the 1999 Southern Brazil blackout. The blackout affected an estimated 10
million people in Ontario and 45 million people in eight U.S. states.

What would our lives and societies be like without energy, especially in the form of electricity? We
(especially in sports and the performing arts) talk about lacking energy, or being full of energy. We talk
about food energy, solar energy, wind power, but what is energy?
Brainstorm (in groups): What is energy? What is work? (write some ideas down)

Physics Definitions of Energy and Work: ΔE = W


Energy: Work:
The ability to do work The transfer of mechanical energy; equivalent to a
force acting through a distance

How do we change the energy of an object? (What needs to be done?)

(1) The energy (E; Joules) of an object changes in relation to force (F)

(2) The amount of work (W; Joules) depends directly on the magnitude of the
force (F; Newtons) and the displacement (Δd; metres) of the object along the
line of the force (or parallel to force applied)

Work or no work? Consider the 3 situations below. Is work being done?


Situation #1: Situation #2 Situation #3
You are pushing against a grand You carry a heavy tray of drinks You wind up and throw a
piano. However, due to the to a table of demanding baseball towards a waiting
friction of the surface, the piano customers (physics teachers) and catcher. The ball flies through the
does not move at all. need to exert a force of 100 N air and smacks into the catcher’s
upwards against gravity on the mitt 20 metres away.
tray.

Work or no work? Work or no work? Work or no work?

Reason: Reason: Reason:

*Applying F that doesn’t cause *Applying F that is perpendicular *Uniform motion with
motion to motion applied F
Work Done By, Work Done On:
Work done by (something/someone/a force) and work done on an object = THE SAME THING!

CALCULATING WORK
W = work (J)
Note: when an object moves F = force (N)
at an angle to the applied = distance (m)
force, only the component
of force in the direction of
or cos θ = angle at which a force
the displacement does work is acting
on the object.
1J = 1 Nm (equivalent units)

Work, Energy & Power Introduction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pDK2p1QbPKQ


KhanAcademy: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WS1sG9fhOk&feature=related

Example:
A student pushes a giant salamander with a force of 100 N over a distance of 5 metres at constant
velocity. What is the work done by the student? What is the work done on the salamander?

= (100 N) (5 m)
= 500 Nm (J)

Types of Energy and Energy Transformations


There are 2 main kinds of energy: kinetic energy and potential energy.

1. Kinetic energy: the energy of an object due to its motion

2. Potential energy: energy stored by an object

Consider the following forms of energy and classify them as types of kinetic or potential energy:
Energy Form Description Kinetic or Potential?
Elastic Energy stored by bending, stretching, or
compressing matter
P
Thermal/heat Energy that makes object hot
K
Magnetic Energy stored in the space between magnets
P
Movement Energy of a moving piece of matter
K
Chemical Energy stored in the chemical bonds of matter
P
Nuclear Energy stored in an atom’s nucleus
P
Sound Energy transferred by the collision of particles
K
SPH4U: Graphing Forces and Work Done
Just like in kinematics where we studied objects in reference to their distance, displacement, position,
speed, velocity and acceleration, forces and work done by or on an object can also be represented
graphically. It is important to consider the overall shape of the graph and the steps required to find
work from the graph itself.

Positive Work: Negative Work:

-data above the x-axis -data below the x-axis


-adds energy to the object while in motion -removes energy from the object

AREA
To find work done on a Force-Displacement/Position/Distance graph, find the ____________ under the
graph or the section of the line of interest. Remember that work is directly proportional to product of
force and distance, thus multiplication is involved and not division, unless you are rearranging for an
unknown quantity.

AREA = LENGTH x WIDTH

AREA = ½ BASE x HEIGHT


SPH4U: Forces, Vectors and Work
Recall that work is done in a physics sense if a force is applied to an object so that there is a displacement
in the direction (or along the axis) of the applied force.

What happens in the case that force is applied at an angle to the object over a displacement?

We need to consider the force as a vector and break it into its components. Again, trigonometry can be
used to resolve the F into its components.

a) b)
 
F = 30 N [N 40o E] F = 20 N [E]
y y
Fx =  Fx =

x x
Fy = Fy =

y y
c) d)
 
F = 45 N [S 20o E] F = 7.8 N [S 50o W]
x Fx = Fx =
x
Fy = Fy =

Example Problem:
A student drags a 50 kg giant salamander by a rope with a force of 200 N at an angle of 35 degrees to the
ground over a displacement of 20 m. How much work does the student do?

1. Define a frame of reference and sign convention.


2. Draw an FBD with labelled force at an angle.
3. Break force into components.
4. Use the definition of work to solve (W = FΔd cos θ).

W = FΔd cos θ
F = 200 N
= (200 N) (20 m) (cos 35°)
35° = 3.3 x 103 J

Δd = 20 m
m = 50 kg
SPH4U: Kinetic Energy
The Work-Energy Theorem
Recall that the work done on an object is the change in the object`s kinetic energy by a net force acting on
the object over some distance. This leads to the work-energy theorem, which can be written as:
W  Ek
Deriving an Expression for Kinetic Energy
In groups, discuss and predict how an object`s kinetic energy is affected by its mass and velocity.
Write your predictions and ideas down in the following space. Then, attempt the task below.

Task:
Create an equation which describes the kinetic energy of an object in terms of the object`s mass m and its
velocity v.

Given: object of mass m, initially at rest (i.e. v1  0 ), uniform acceleration for time t to accelerate to
some velocity v2  v
1. Start with the Work-Energy Theorem.
2. Replace work with its definition. (Remember, this is the work done on an object.)
3. Use Newton`s 2nd Law to replace Fnet.
4. Use the definition of acceleration to replace a.
5. Replace displacement with a Big Five equation which uses v1 , v 2 , and t
6. Simplify, using v1  0

1 2 Ek = energy (J)
E k  mv m = mass (kg)
2 = velocity (m/s)

Check Units:

(mass)(velocity)2 = (kg) (m/s)2 = (kg) (m2/s2) = kg (m/s2) m = N m = J

Note: when velocity is squared, it is NO LONGER a VECTOR


QUANTITY
Example #1
A 1200 kg Smart car has a kinetic energy of 50,000 J. What is its velocity?

Example #2
The Smart car in #1 increases its velocity from 12 m/s to 24 m/s. How much does its kinetic energy
increase? What is the work done on the Smart car?
SPH4U: Gravitational Potential Energy
When we lift things, we are doing work against gravity. The energy from our work is stored in the
gravitational field of the earth. This stored energy is called Gravitational Potential Energy. If we let go of
the object, the gravity of the earth does work on it, causing it to accelerate.

Deriving an Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy Eg


Task:
Create an equation which describes the amount of gravitational potential energy that is stored when an
object of mass m is raised from the ground to a height h.

Steps:
7. Start with the equation (definition) for work.

8. Replace the force F with an equation for the force required to lift the object up (i.e. it must be equal
to the weight of the object).

9. Replace d with the change in height ( h  h2  h1 ).
10. Simplify, using h1  0

Eg  mgh Eg = energy (J)


m = mass (kg)
= height (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity
(9.8 m/s2 [down])

Check Units:

(mass)(acceleration)(height) = (kg) (m/s2)(m) = (kg) (m/s2)(m)


=Nm=J
Example #1 – Using the basic equation
A 50 kg giant salamander is lifted 2 m into the air. What is the gravitational potential energy gained by
the long-suffering amphibian?

Example #2 – Defining a reference point


The same salamander as in Example #1 is lifted from the ledge of a tall apartment, 24 m above the
ground, to the ledge of an apartment located 34 m above the ground. What is the change in the
gravitational potential energy of the salamander?

Method #1
 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the salamander on the first ledge.
 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the salamander when it is on the second ledge.
 What is the difference between these 2 numbers?

Method #2
 Calculate the difference in height of the salamander from the lower ledge to the upper.
 Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy due to the difference in height.
 Compare your answer to that obtained in Level #1. What do you notice?
SPH4U: Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The word “conservation” means “saving” or “taking care of”. You frequently hear about the need for
“conservation of fossil fuels and energy” or “conservation of animals in the wilderness”.

As used in physics, conservation means that something remains constant.

Conservation of Energy = implies that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
Energy may change from one form to another, or it may be transformed from one object to another
within the system.

Conservative Force:

*Work done by conservative forces results in energy changes that are independent of the path and are
therefore reversible.

Non-conservative Force:

*Work done by non-conservative forces results in energy changes that are dependent on the path, and
therefore may not be reversed.

Examples of Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces:


Conservative Forces Non-Conservative Forces
Gravity Friction
Electric Air resistance (a specific type of frictional force)
Magnetic Any applied thrust force (a rocket or a motor)
Nuclear
Elastic

We can now state the conditions under which mechanical energy is conserved. This statement is called
the law of conservation of mechanical energy.

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY


“The total mechanical energy of a system always remains constant if work is done by conservative
forces.”

ET  EP  Ek where ET = the total mechanical energy of the system


Ep = the potential energy of the system (usually Eg)
Ek = the mechanical kinetic energy of the system

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that:

“The total amt of E in the universe is conserved. New energy


cannot be created out of nothing, and existing energy cannot
disappear; the energy that exists can only be changed from one
form into another. When an energy transformation occurs,
ideally no energy is lost.” (ET = Efinal – Einitial)

*only true for isolated or closed systems where matter and energy changes are regulated
Example 1
A crane lifts a car with a mass of 1.5 x 103 kg, at a constant velocity, to a height of 14 m from the ground.
It turns and drops the car, which then falls freely back to the ground. Neglecting air friction, find:
(a) The work done by the crane in lifting the car
(b) The gravitational potential energy of the car at its highest point, in relation to the ground
(c) The velocity of the car just before it strikes the ground after falling freely for 14m

*Read: A Closer Look at Roller Coasters and complete additional example questions for HW
SPH4U: Student Power! Name:
Purpose
To determine the amount of power you can generate. RECALL: P = ΔE/t (Units: Watts)

Procedure
1. Measure the height of the steps of the stairs that you are going to scale, and calculate the total height
of the stairs that you will scale.
2. Find the time to run up the stairs one step at a time (no skipping!). Do this twice and take the average.
3. Find the time to climb the stairs at maximum speed (this may be two or three steps at a time). Do this
twice and find the average.
4. Calculate your potential energy (your work done) and your power.

Observations

Height of the stairs (m), show


calculation

Your mass (kg)


Calculate the force of gravity on you, Fg
(N)
Time to run up one step at a time (s), (2 Reading #1 Reading #2 Average
readings, take the average)
Time to run up fast (s), (2 readings, take Reading #1 Reading #2 Average
the average)

Gravitational Potential Energy, Work Done

One step at a time (Joules) W = mgh =


Fast (Joules) W = mgh =
With extra mass (imagine W2 = (2m)gh =
you double your mass)

Power
One step at a time P = W/t =
(Watts)
Fast (Watts) P = W/t =
With extra mass P = W2/t =
(Watts)

Questions

1 My maximum power is _________________

2 My horse power is _____________________ (750 W = 1 HP)

DUE:
SPH4U Questions for Lab Report
Please include the following questions in your lab report write-up. Use full sentences, reference any
information you acquire from outside sources, and pay attention to spelling and grammar. Plagiarism will
not be tolerated nor will copying another student’s work be acceptable. You may need to consult outside
sources for information thus be sure to cite your references.

1. Sources of error generally affect the precision and/or accuracy of a lab investigation or reported
calculations in reference to perceived qualitative and quantitative observations. List two
reasonable sources of error in regards to this activity.

2. Compare your power in walking up the stairs slowly and running up the stairs fast to a 100 W
light bulb. Which process produces the most power: walking up the stairs slowly, running quickly
or using a light bulb? Explain why you think this is the case.

3. Identify the types of muscles engaged as you walk and run up the stairs. How do these muscles
work to allow your body to move up and down? What other organs are involved in exercise?

4. Many strength-training exercises are brief, while cardio-respiratory exercises take much longer.
Explain why this is true.

5. People often find that a workout gets easier over time. In regards to stair climbing and treadmills,
describe two changes that can be made to increase the work done and the power required to make
it each activity more challenging.

APA Referencing (see link below for more details; this will also be helpful for your ISU/project):
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Work, Energy and Power Practice Problems #1

1. How much mechanical work does a store manager do on a grocery cart if she applies a force with a
magnitude of 25N in the forward direction and displaces the cart 3.5m in the same direction?

2. A 25.0N applied force acts on a cart in the direction of the motion. The cart moves 13.0m. How much
work is done by the applied force?

3. A curler applies a force of 15.0N on a curling stone and accelerates the stone from rest to a speed of
8.00m/s in 3.50s. Assuming that the ice surface is level and frictionless, how much mechanical work
does the curler do on the stone?

4. Calculate the mechanical work done by a custodian on a vacuum cleaner if he exerts an applied force
of 50.0N on the vacuum and the hose makes a 30.0° angle with the floor. The vacuum cleaner moves
3.00m to the right on a level, flat surface.

5. How much mechanical work is done on a stationary car if a student pushing with a 300N force fails to
displace the car?

6. A person cutting a flat lawn pushes a lawn mower with a force of 125N at an angle of 40.0° below the
horizontal for 12.0m. Determine the mechanical work done by the person on the lawnmower.

7. The graph below shows the force acting on a cart from a spring. The force from the spring is either
the same direction as the cart’s displacement or in the opposite direction.
(a) Calculate the work done in sections A, B, and C.
(b) Calculate the total work done.
(c) Explain why the work in section C must be negative.

F(N)
5

A B
0
1 2 3 C 4 d (m)

-5

8. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 150g baseball that is travelling toward home plate at a constant
speed of 35m/s.

9. A dynamics cart has a kinetic energy of 4.2J when moving across the floor at 5.0m/s. What is the
mass of the cart?

10. What is the gravitational potential energy of a 48kg student at the top of a 110m high drop tower ride
relative to the ground?

11. A 64 kg student climbs from the ground floor to the second floor of his school in 5.5s. The second
floor is 3.7 m above the ground floor. What is the student’s power?

12. How much power does a swimmer produce if she transforms 2.4kJ of chemical energy (in food) into
kinetic energy and thermal energy in 12.5s?
Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." All objects have
mass; so if an object is moving, then it has momentum - it has its
mass in motion. The amount of momentum that an object has is
dependent upon two variables: how much stuff is moving and how
QUIZ #4: NEXT CLASS (TU) 5MC; 10 marks CALC fast the stuff is moving.

SPH4U Momentum
When Newton first worked out his famous three laws of motion, he considered the tendency of objects to
keep their existing velocity, and noticed that it depended on their mass as well as their velocity. That
combination of mass and velocity is called "momentum" (kg m/s) and is represented with the symbol p.

p = mv
Momentum is a vector and has the same direction as the velocity
. Newton's
Three Laws in terms of momentum are:
1. The momentum of an object stays the same unless there is an external net force applied to it.
2. Force is the rate of change of momentum. F = Δp/Δt
3. When there are forces between the components of a system, but no external forces, the total
momentum of the system remains the same.
Newton's second law can be rearranged as follows:

FΔt = Δp = J
The combination of force and time is sometimes called "Impulse"
with the symbol "J". This
equation has implications in the design of safety equipment: if an accident or impact causes a large
change in momentum, the force can be reduced by increasing the time over which it occurs.

The first and third laws are also called the Law of Conservation of Momentum. This is also a special
case of the second law when all external forces add up to zero.
Combining the Law of Conservation
of Momentum with the Law of Conservation of Energy enables us to solve many problems involving the
elastic collision of objects.

One fascinating demonstration of this is a toy called Newton's Cradle. Newton's cradle, named after
Sir Isaac Newton, is a device that demonstrates conservation of momentum and energy via a series of
swinging spheres.

How does it Work?


When one on the end is lifted and released, the resulting force travels through the line and
pushes the last one upward. A typical Newton's cradle consists of a series of identically sized metal balls
suspended in a metal frame so that they are just touching each other at rest.
Each ball is attached to the frame by two wires of equal length angled away
from each other. This restricts the pendulums' movements to the same plane. If
one ball is pulled away and is left to fall, it strikes the first ball in the series
and comes to nearly a dead stop. The ball on the opposite side acquires most
of the velocity and almost instantly swings in an arc almost as high as the
release height of the first ball. This shows that the final ball receives most of
the energy and momentum that was in the first ball.
In Newton’s cradle 5 ball system, notice one ball is pulled away and is left to
fall it strikes the first ball in the series and comes to nearly a dead stop. The ball
on the opposite side acquires most of the velocity and almost instantly swings
in an arc almost as high as the release height of the first ball. This shows that
the final ball receives most of the energy and momentum that was in the first
*Newton’s Cradle ball (see diagram).
http://www.physics.org/article-interact.asp?id=32 The impact produces a shock wave that propagates through the
intermediate balls. Any efficiently elastic material such as steel will do this as
long as the kinetic energy is temporarily stored as potential energy in the
compression of the material rather than being lost as heat.
SPH4U Collisions
When a collision or interaction occurs between two or more objects, there are many ways in which the
original momentum of the collection of objects can be re-distributed amongst them. There are three
extreme cases that we will analyze:
1. Elastic collisions
2. Inelastic collisions
3. Explosions
In the real world, most collisions are not ideal, but will usually be some mixture of these extreme cases.
However, in all cases, the vector sum of all the objects' momentums just before the interaction will
be equal to the vector sum of all the objects' momentums just after the interaction. For the case of
two objects, this is written as (bold means vector, ' or "prime" means after the collision):

pA + pB = p'A + p'B
mAvA + mBvB = mAv'A + mBv'B
(1) Elastic Collisions
For an elastic collision, we consider the case in which all the kinetic energy of the original set of objects
is also redistributed to the objects after the collision. The energy may be converted to other
forms during the collision, but after the interaction is finished, it is all converted
back into kinetic energy. This kind of collision is called "elastic" because the
objects appear to bounce off each other. To solve problems of this kind, we have an additional equation
concerning kinetic energy:

EKA + EKB = E'KA + E'KB


(1/2)mAvA2 + (1/2)mBvB2 = (1/2)mAv'A2 + (1/2)mBv'B2
One "trick" for solving this kind of problem is to change to an inertial frame of reference that has a
constant velocity such that the total momentum is zero.

*Recoil: interaction that occurs when two objects push against each other (initial) and then move apart
(final).

Playing Billiards (Pool) Video:


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hG4yFSJcBss&feature=fvsr
(2) Inelastic Collisions
For an inelastic collision, we consider the case in which the objects stick together after the collision.
Kinetic energy is usually converted into other forms of energy such as heat,
sound, light or internal motions. To solve problems of this kind, we have an additional equation
concerning the final velocities:

v'A = v'B

(3) Explosions
For an explosion, we consider the case in which the objects begin stuck together and then some other
form of energy (elastic, chemical, magnetic, electrostatic) is converted into kinetic energy
and the objects fly apart. This is similar to an inelastic collision in reverse; the
initial velocities are the same:

vA = vB

Real collisions
In the real world, collisions are usually partially elastic and partially inelastic. Sometimes additional
energy will be released from another source during a collision and it will become partially an explosion.

If the momentums can be measured/calculated immediately before and immediately after the interaction,
then momentum will be conserved. However, in most situations there will be external forces like friction
and air resistance which transfer momentum and energy to the Earth and the surrounding environment.
(Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUpiV2I_IRI)
SPH4U Calculations Involving Momentum
Important Equations:

Momentum Impulse Impulse-Momentum Theorem Force & Momentum


p
p  mv J  Ft J  Ft  mvB  mv A F
t
The Law of Conservation Kinetic Energy Gravitational Potential Energy
of Momentum
1 2
mA v A  mB vB  mA v' A  m B v' B W  E K  mv E g  mgh
2
(before) (after)

Example 1
Determine the momentum of a 0.300 kg hockey puck travelling across the ice at a velocity of 5.55 m/s [N].
(ANS: 1.67 kg m/s [N])

Example 2
Determine the momentum of the following objects:
(a) A 4.00 x 105 kg jet travelling South at 755 km/h
(b) An electron (9.11 x 10-31 kg) travelling North at 6.45 x 106 m/s
(c) A 0.250 kg baseball travelling at 46.1 m/s [E]

Example 3
If a golf club exerts an average force of 5.25 x 10 3 N [W] on a golf ball over a time interval of 5.45 x 10 -4 s, what is
the impulse of the interaction?
(ANS: 2.86 Ns [W])
Example 4
In a crash test, a car strikes a wall with an average force of 1.23 x 10 7 N [S] over an interval of 0.021 s. Calculate
the impulse.

Example 5
A student practices her tennis volleys by hitting a tennis ball against a wall. If the 0.060 kg ball travels 48 m/s
before hitting the wall and then bounces directly backward at 35 m/s, what is the impulse force of the interaction?
(ANS: -5.0 kg m/s in the opposite direction)

Example 6
A 0.35 kg baseball is travelling at 46 m/s toward the batter. After the batter hits the ball, it is travelling 62 m/s in the
opposite direction. Calculate the impulse of the bat on the ball.

Example 7
A 1.75 x 104 kg boxcar is rolling down a track toward a stationary boxcar that has a mass of 2.00 x 10 4 kg. Just
before the collision, the first boxcar is moving East at 5.45 m/s. When the boxcars collide, they lock together and
continue down the track. What is the velocity of the two boxcars immediately after the collision?
(ANS: 2.54 m/s [E])
Example 8
You are in a small canoe with a friend and you decide to change places. The friction between the canoe and the
water is negligible, so while the canoe is not moving in the water, you very carefully stand up and start to take a
step. You suddenly have the sense that the boat is moving under your feet.

Find the velocity of the canoe and your friend at the instant that you start to take a step if your velocity is 0.75 m/s
[forward]. Assume that your mass is 65 kg and the combined mass of the canoe and your friend is 115 kg.
(ANS: -0.42 m/s [backward])

Example 9
A 0.0520 kg golf ball is moving East with a velocity of 2.10 m/s when it collides head on with a 0.155 kg billiard
ball. If the golf ball rolls directly backward with a velocity of -1.04 m/s, was the collision elastic? Recall that
momentum is always conserved in a collision and if the collision is elastic, kinetic energy must also be conserved.
Thus, is the total kinetic energy of the system before the collision equal to the total kinetic energy after the collision?
Example 10
A block of wood with a mass of 0.500 kg slides across the floor toward a 3.5 kg block of wood. Just before the
collision, the small block is travelling at 3.15 m/s. Because some nails are sticking out of the blocks, the blocks
stick together when they collide. Scratch marks on the floor show they slid together 2.63 cm before coming to a
stop.
msb v sb
(a) Find the velocity of the connected blocks by using the equation vcb  (ANS: 0.393 m/s [right])
msb  mlb
(b) What is the coefficient of friction between the wooden blocks and the floor? Consider that W=KE, where
W = Fd, and F=Ff = uFN. (ANS: 0.300)
SPH4U Elastic Potential Energy & Hooke’s Law
The diver approaches the end of the board, bounces a couple of
times, and then arcs out into the air in a graceful dive. The diving
board plays a key role in his action.

The diver useschemical energy to jump,


gaining kinetic energy. His kinetic energy
transforms into gravitational potential
energy and then back into kinetic
Elasticity describes
Khan Academy the ability solid
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVl5zs6Lqy0 energy. When he returns to the board, slows, and stops, his
objects have to stretch. kinetic energy does not transform into gravitational potential energy.
In what form is the energy stored?

accumulates when an elastic object


Elastic Potential Energy (Ee): a form of energy that

is bent, stretched, or compressed.

*The diving board in the above picture is behaving much like a spring
, either stretched or
compressed. The diver exerts a force on the diving board, doing work on the board and causing it to
bend. It is the bent condition that allows the board to store energy, and then
convert it from elastic to kinetic, and back to its original form.

Hooke’s Law (and a little bit of history)


In 1678, Robert Hooke announced the invention of the spring scale and the
relationship for elastic materials that is now known as Hooke's Law. When an object is

acted upon by a force, it can be compressed, stretched or bent. If when the force is

removed, the object returns to its original shape, it is said to be


elastic. Solids that do not return to their original configuration once they have been
distorted are categorized as plastics.

Hooke discovered that not only are certain materials (steel bars, rods, wire, springs, diving
boards, and rubber bands) elastic, but the stretch they experience is directly

proportional to the load that they support.


elastic limit, or yield point. After that point,
Elastic media will stretch until they reach their

they exhibit plastic deformation and will never return to their original shape.
Ductile materials stretch thinner and thinner, while brittle materials break without any plastic
deformation. Eventually all will rupture at their breaking point.
HOOKE’S LAW

The applied force is directly proportional to the extension or compression of a spring and can be
mathematically represented by the equation:

Fa  kx
Where Fa is applied force (N), k is the spring constant (N/m),
and x represents the amount of extension or compression of
the spring (m).

Notes:

(1) Since the applied force varies directly with the extension of a spring, the relationship can be
graphed to produce a straight line (linear relationship) written in the form of

y = mx + b.

Applied Force (Fa) Fa α x


in N or Fa = kx

Extension (x) in m
*the area under the graph is equal to the work done or change in energy
slope of the line describing the properties of a spring is the spring
(2) The

constant, k. Each spring has its own constant that describes the amount of force that is
necessary to stretch or compress it.

restoring force. Often, Hooke’s Law is


(3) The force exerted by the spring is called the

written as F = -kx, where the negative sign implies that the restoring force is
a

always opposite to the direction of the extension or compression of the spring


(Newton’s 3rd Law).

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

The elastic potential energy of a perfectly elastic material is one half the product of the spring
constant and the square of the length of extension or compression; it can be represented by the
equation:
1 2
Ee  kx
2
Where Ee is elastic potential energy (J), k is the spring constant (N/m) and x is the length of
extension or compression of the spring (m).

Example 1
A typical compound archery bow requires a force of 133 N to hold an arrow at “full draw” (pulled back
71 cm). Assuming that the bow obeys Hooke’s law, what is its spring constant? [ANS: 1.9 x 102 N/m]

Look at what information is given 


(Fa = 133 N and x = 71 cm (convert to m))
Fa = kx (rearrange for k)

k = Fa/x = 133 N/0.71 m = 1.90 x 102 N/m

Example 2
A slingshot has an elastic cord tied to a Y-shaped frame. The cord has a spring constant of 1.10 x 103
N/m. A force of 455 N is applied to the cord.
(a) How far does the cord stretch?
(b) What is the restoring force from the spring? (F = -kx)
Example 3
A spring with a spring constant of 75 N/m is resting on a table.
(a) If the spring is compressed a distance of 28 cm, what is the increase in its potential energy?
(b) What force must be applied to hold the spring in this position?

Example 4
An unruly student pulls an elastic band that a spring constant of 48 N/m, producing a 2.2 J increase in its
potential energy. How far did the student stretch the elastic band?

Activity – Testing Hooke’s Law (Homework)


Visit the following website link and complete the online simulation. Look at what happens to the spring
as masses are added.

We will be conducting a lab investigation based on this simulation.

Website: http://www.4physics.com/phy_demo/HookesLaw/HookesLaw.html
SPH4U Energy Transformations & Springs
The law of conservation of energy is one of the most useful tools in physics. Since work and energy are
scalar quantities, directions are not involved. However, direction is important in momentum. Energy
transformations take place all the time, where one form or type of energy is converted into another.

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY (redefined)

The law of conservation of (mechanical) energy states that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
(including gravitational/elastic potential) before a process occurs in an isolated system is equal to
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the system after the process is complete, and is
represented by the equation:

EK  EP  EK'  EP'
(OR EK  Eg  Ee  EK'  Eg'  Ee' )

*All units of energy are in Joules (J)

Recall: The forces we have been dealing with are referred to as conservative forces. This means that the
amount of work being done on a moving object does not depend on the path taken by that object.
A non-conservative force does depend on the path taken.

*When dealing with non-conservative forces the law of conservation of energy still applies but you must
account for the energy exchanged between the moving object and its environment.

Energy Transformations
The mathematical analyses of energy transformations can happen when motion occurs in a
horizontal and vertical plane. We will do a few sample questions to represent these
situations. Keep in mind the following notes when analyzing any question:

(1) Conceptualize the problem to be solved – draw a sketch and


label all known/given information.

(2) Identify the quantity (variable) that you are required to solve
for. Pay attention to the type of potential energy specified.

(3) Check all equations, units, and constants.

(4) Develop a strategy for solving the question. Remember that


equations in physics are related and can be substituted into
other ones and/or derived.

(5) Watch out for significant digits!


*In some cases, there will be 0 J of either Eg, Ek, or Ee, or a
combination of variables (before or after the interaction) if an object
stops moving, begins initially from rest, there is low friction, or the
spring is at normal rest position (neither stretched or compressed),
etc.

*Some instances involve solving quadratics so recall the equation:


 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
*Quadratic equation is in the form: ax2+bx+c = 0

Example 1 (Horizontal Elastic Collision)


A low-friction cart with a mass of 0.25 kg travels along a horizontal track and collides head on with a
spring that has a spring constant of 155 N/m. If the spring was compressed by 6.0 cm, how fast was the
cart initially travelling? [ANS: 1.5 m/s]

Example 2
A circus car with a clown has a total mass of 150 kg. It is coasting at 6.0 m/s, when it hits a large spring
head on. If it is brought to a stop by the time the spring is compressed 2.0 m, what is the spring constant?
[ANS: 1.4 x 103 N/m]
Example 3 (Vertical Elastic Collision)**
A freight elevator car with a total mass of 100.0 kg is moving downward at 3.00 m/s when the cable
snaps! The car falls 4.00 m onto a huge spring (k = 8.000 x 103 N/m). By how much will the spring be
compressed when the car reaches zero velocity? [ANS: 1.18 m]

Example 4
A 70.0 kg person jumps through a window of a burning building and drops to a rescue net held 8.00 m
below. If the surface of the net is 1.40 m above the ground, what must be the value of the spring constant
for the net so that the person just touches the ground when the net stretches downwards?

Example 5 (Challenge)
A roller-coaster car with a mass of 200.0 kg (including riders) is moving to the right at a speed of 4.00
m/s at point A in the diagram. This point is 15.00 m above the ground. The car then heads down a slope
towards point B, which is 6.00 m above the ground. If 3.40 x 103 J of heat energy are produced through
friction between points A and B, determine the speed of the car at point B. [ANS: 12.6 m/s]
SPH4U Energy & Momentum in Space
Gravity and Orbiting Spacecraft
Many people believe that gravity does not act on orbiting space craft. In fact, a satellite such as the
International Space Station Freedom has about 80% of its initial weight. The impression of
weightlessness comes from the fact that weight is being used to hold the space station in its orbit.
If there was no weight, it would simply continue to move off into space!

Video on Gravity in Space vs. On Earth Part I & II: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGh6PUKwHpI


and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BBY71Pp0YI&feature=relmfu

Did You Know?


It takes almost 10 tonnes of fuel for a large passenger jet to take off? It is hard to even imagine the
amount of energy required for a rocket or space shuttle to lift off! How do engineers and scientists
determine these values?

Video off Rocket Lift-Off: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPPN_A1q06M

What Happens During Lift-Off?


Typically when a spacecraft lists off, rockets fire, the craft lifts off and the rockets continue to fire,
accelerating the spacecraft as it rises. The concept ofescape speed can be used to describe the
rocket as it lifts off and just before it leaves a planet and almost never returns. 

ESCAPE SPEED

square root of two times


The escape speed of an object from the surface of a planet is the
the product of the universal gravitation constant (G) and the mass of
the planet (kg) divided by the radius (r) of the planet. It can be represented
by the equation:

2GM
v
rp
SPH4U Rocket Propulsion & Thrust
Rocket Propulsion and Thrust
Newton’s 3rd Law states that if you exert a backward force on an object, that object will exert a
forward force on you. Newton’s 3rd Law also has applications regarding the law of conservation of
momentum. This concept is the basis for all motion and manoeuvring of
astronauts and rockets in space. In fact, spacecraft could be propelled by having an
astronaut stand at the rear of the spacecraft and throw objects backward. This is another example of
recoil. As the astronaut pushed the objects backward, they would push just as hard forward on the
astronaut.

Although this is a general principle on which rocket engines operate, most rely on hot, high-
pressure gas to provide the reaction mass. The burning of this gas takes place in a
combustion chamber. The walls of the chamber exert a backward force on the
gas causing it to stream out backward. The gas in turn exerts a force on the walls of the
chamber, pushing it and the rocket forward.

Developing the expression for rocket thrust involves the application of conservation of
momentum in an accelerating reference frame. It can be developed in an approximate fashion using finite
differences (calculus) and algebra. See the attached pages from the Physics 12 textbook (pg. 252-53).

ROCKET THRUST

the force with which gases ejected from a rocket


Rocket thrust is defined as
push back on a rocket. It is represented mathematically with the equation:
 mgas 
Fthrust   v gas
 t 

*See the board for example problems and calculations


SPH4U The Energy of Orbiting Satellites
What is a satellite?
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human
endeavour. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them
from natural satellites such as the Moon.
The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in
1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth; also some
satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites
originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations.

A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite
fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around
other bodies and become artificial satellites to the
Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Sun.
What are satellites used for?
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth
observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research
satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.
Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of
ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit,
and geostationary orbit. Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled
systems. power generation, thermal
Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as
control, telemetry, altitude control and orbit control.
SPH4U Orbital Energies & Kepler’s Laws
The orbital energy of a satellite consists of two components:
(1) Kinetic energy
(2) Gravitational potential energy
The Earth-satellite system can be treated as an isolated system. Most satellites are either in
circular orbit or near-circular (elliptical) orbit.

Did You Know??


Astronomy began to come to age as an exact science with the detailed and accurate observations of Tycho
Brahe. In 1600, Brahe invited Kepler to be one of his assistants. Kepler discovered three empirical
relationships that describe the motion of the planets in Space. These relationships are known today as
Kepler’s Laws.

KEPLER’S LAWS

(1) Planets move in elliptical rotations, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse (at the centre).

(2) An imaginary line between the Sun and the planets sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.

(3) The quotient of the square of the period of a planet’s revolution around the Sun and the cube of
the average distance from the Sun is constant and the same for all planets.

T2 TA2 TB2
k or  3
r3 rA
3
rB
Where A and B are two planets or celestial bodies in space/in orbit

The numerical value of G, the universal gravitational constant can also be factored into Kepler’s Law
equation(s) above. Remember that a planet travels a distance equal to its circumference of the orbit
during a time interval equal to its period. The equation then takes on the form below:

T 2 4 2
 where mp refers to the mass of the Planet, and G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
r 3 Gmp

*See Example Questions for Practice 


*Be aware of additional terminology related to energy and momentum in space
Example 1
Find the mass of the Sun using Earth’s orbital radius and Earth’s period of revolution.

Example 2
Jupiter’s moon Io orbits Jupiter once every 1.769 days. Its average orbital radius is 4.216 x 108
m. What is Jupiter’s mass?

Example 3
Some weather satellites orbit Earth every 90.0 minutes. How far above Earth’s surface is their
orbit? (Hint: remember that the centre of the orbit is the centre of Earth)
SPH4U Orbital Energies (Alternative Equations)
EK 
GMm The kinetic energy of an orbiting satellite of mass m in reference to a
2r planet with mass M

Ebinding   Etotal Binding energy refers to the amount of additional energy an object
-Etotal = Eg (on Earth) needs to escape from a planet or star; the extra energy needed to free the
object will always be the negative of the total energy since the object
will be free with a total net energy of zero

GMm Total orbital energy or the sum of the mechanical energies of an


Etotal  EK  E g  
2r orbiting body
GMm Gravitational potential energy of an object at a distance r from the
Eg  
r planet or celestial body

Example 4
On March 6th, 2001, the Mir space station was deliberately crashed into Earth. At the time, its mass was
1.39 x 103 kg and its altitude was 220 km. (1 km = 1000 m)
(a) Prior to the crash, what was its binding energy to Earth?
(b) How much energy was released in the crash? Assume that its orbit was circular.

Example 5
A 4025 kg spacecraft (including the astronauts) is in a circular orbit 256 km above the lunar surface.
Determine:
(a) The kinetic energy of the spacecraft
(b) The total orbital energy of the spacecraft
(c) The binding energy of the spacecraft
(d) The speed required for escape
SPH4U Collisions in 2D
Solving momentum problems in two-dimensional situations involves using vector components.
Recall, that when your vectors create a right-angled triangle, trigonometry applies, wherein you
can solve for the resultant or x- and y-components using basic trigonometric ratios, the rules of
similar triangles, and/or the Pythagorean Theorem.

Important Notes:

 A collision in two dimensions obeys the same rules as a collision in one dimension:
o Total momentum in each direction is always the same
before and after the collision

o Total kinetic energy is the same before and after


an elastic collision

 Note that the kinetic energy is not calculated for each direction separately, but
depends on the magnitude of the total velocity of each object.

Example 1 (refer to the diagram)


What is the velocity and direction of puck
B after the collision?

Let’s start by using the law of conservation


of momentum to solve... 

Based on the given information, it helps to write out a table of momenta for each object in the
x and y direction (*sign conventions):
BEFORE AFTER (include angles)
x y x y
Puck A p=mv=(0.1kg)(5 m/s) p= 0 kg m/s p= (0.1)(2)(cos30°) p=(0.1)(2)(sin30°)
=+0.5 kg m/s = +0.17 = +0.10
Puck B p=0 kg m/s p= 0 kg m/s p=(0.1)vbxcosθ p=(0.1) vbysinθ
Total/Change in +0.5 kg m/s 0 kg m/s Puck Aafter - Abefore Puck Bafter - Bbefore
Momentum (p) (total) (total) =0.17-0.5 = 0.33 = 0.10-0 = -0.10
Recall: p = mv *these are components*
Once your chart has been filled out, you can move on to using the x and y components after the
collision to find the resultant momentum: (refer back to diagram)
px = 0.33 kg m/s *Solve using the Pythagorean Theorem
θ
a 2  b2  c 2
ΔpR
px  p y  pR
py = -0.10 kg m/s 2 2 2

Sub-in your number values:


ANS = 0.3448 kg m/s

Use the resultant momentum to solve for the velocity, given mass of Puck B is 0.1 kg:

 p R  mB v B

 p R 0.3448
vB    3.448  3m / s
mB 0.1 (1 significant digit)

Solve for the angled direction using trigonometry (use info. about resultant momentum):

opp p y (0.10)
tan | |   0.3030
adj px 0.33

  tan 1 (0.3030)
 16.85 *absolute values are used – degrees are not negative!

Final Answer: Hmm... = 3 m/s [S 17° E] OR 3 m/s [E 73° S]


Collisions in 2D Practice Questions

1. A billiard ball of mass 0.155 kg is rolling directly away from you to the North at 3.5 m/s.
It collides with a stationary golf ball of mass 0.052 kg. The billiard ball rolls off at an
angle of 15° clockwise from its original direction with a velocity of 3.1 m/s. What is the
velocity and direction of the golf ball after the collision?

[ANS: 2.8 m/s; [32° clockwise from the negative x-axis]]

2. A bowling ball with a mass of 6.00 kg rolls with a velocity of 1.20 m/s toward a single
standing bowling pin that has a mass of 0.220 kg. When the ball strikes the bowling pin,
the pin flies off at an angle of 70.0° counterclockwise from the original direction of the
ball, with a velocity of 3.60 m/s. What was the velocity of the bowling ball after it hit the
pin?

[ANS: 1.16 m/s; [6.1°clockwise from original direction]]

3. Car A (1750 kg) is travelling due South and Car B (1450 kg) is travelling due East. They
reach the same intersection at the same time and collide. The cars lock together and
move off at 35.8 km/h [E 31° S]. What was the velocity of each car before the collision?

[ANS: Car A = 9.53 m/s [S] and Car B = 18.7 m/s [E]]

You might also like