Sph4u Energy Amp Momentum Unit 2 Notes 1
Sph4u Energy Amp Momentum Unit 2 Notes 1
Sph4u Energy Amp Momentum Unit 2 Notes 1
http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/economy-business/energy/energy-general/the-great-2003-north-america-blackout.html
The Northeast Blackout of 2003 was a massive widespread power outage that occurred throughout parts
of the Northeastern and Midwestern United States and Ontario, Canada on Thursday, August 14, 2003, at
approximately 4:15 p.m. EDT (20:15 UTC). At the time, it was the second most widespread electrical
blackout in history, after the 1999 Southern Brazil blackout. The blackout affected an estimated 10
million people in Ontario and 45 million people in eight U.S. states.
What would our lives and societies be like without energy, especially in the form of electricity? We
(especially in sports and the performing arts) talk about lacking energy, or being full of energy. We talk
about food energy, solar energy, wind power, but what is energy?
Brainstorm (in groups): What is energy? What is work? (write some ideas down)
(1) The energy (E; Joules) of an object changes in relation to force (F)
(2) The amount of work (W; Joules) depends directly on the magnitude of the
force (F; Newtons) and the displacement (Δd; metres) of the object along the
line of the force (or parallel to force applied)
*Applying F that doesn’t cause *Applying F that is perpendicular *Uniform motion with
motion to motion applied F
Work Done By, Work Done On:
Work done by (something/someone/a force) and work done on an object = THE SAME THING!
CALCULATING WORK
W = work (J)
Note: when an object moves F = force (N)
at an angle to the applied = distance (m)
force, only the component
of force in the direction of
or cos θ = angle at which a force
the displacement does work is acting
on the object.
1J = 1 Nm (equivalent units)
Example:
A student pushes a giant salamander with a force of 100 N over a distance of 5 metres at constant
velocity. What is the work done by the student? What is the work done on the salamander?
= (100 N) (5 m)
= 500 Nm (J)
Consider the following forms of energy and classify them as types of kinetic or potential energy:
Energy Form Description Kinetic or Potential?
Elastic Energy stored by bending, stretching, or
compressing matter
P
Thermal/heat Energy that makes object hot
K
Magnetic Energy stored in the space between magnets
P
Movement Energy of a moving piece of matter
K
Chemical Energy stored in the chemical bonds of matter
P
Nuclear Energy stored in an atom’s nucleus
P
Sound Energy transferred by the collision of particles
K
SPH4U: Graphing Forces and Work Done
Just like in kinematics where we studied objects in reference to their distance, displacement, position,
speed, velocity and acceleration, forces and work done by or on an object can also be represented
graphically. It is important to consider the overall shape of the graph and the steps required to find
work from the graph itself.
AREA
To find work done on a Force-Displacement/Position/Distance graph, find the ____________ under the
graph or the section of the line of interest. Remember that work is directly proportional to product of
force and distance, thus multiplication is involved and not division, unless you are rearranging for an
unknown quantity.
What happens in the case that force is applied at an angle to the object over a displacement?
We need to consider the force as a vector and break it into its components. Again, trigonometry can be
used to resolve the F into its components.
a) b)
F = 30 N [N 40o E] F = 20 N [E]
y y
Fx = Fx =
x x
Fy = Fy =
y y
c) d)
F = 45 N [S 20o E] F = 7.8 N [S 50o W]
x Fx = Fx =
x
Fy = Fy =
Example Problem:
A student drags a 50 kg giant salamander by a rope with a force of 200 N at an angle of 35 degrees to the
ground over a displacement of 20 m. How much work does the student do?
W = FΔd cos θ
F = 200 N
= (200 N) (20 m) (cos 35°)
35° = 3.3 x 103 J
Δd = 20 m
m = 50 kg
SPH4U: Kinetic Energy
The Work-Energy Theorem
Recall that the work done on an object is the change in the object`s kinetic energy by a net force acting on
the object over some distance. This leads to the work-energy theorem, which can be written as:
W Ek
Deriving an Expression for Kinetic Energy
In groups, discuss and predict how an object`s kinetic energy is affected by its mass and velocity.
Write your predictions and ideas down in the following space. Then, attempt the task below.
Task:
Create an equation which describes the kinetic energy of an object in terms of the object`s mass m and its
velocity v.
Given: object of mass m, initially at rest (i.e. v1 0 ), uniform acceleration for time t to accelerate to
some velocity v2 v
1. Start with the Work-Energy Theorem.
2. Replace work with its definition. (Remember, this is the work done on an object.)
3. Use Newton`s 2nd Law to replace Fnet.
4. Use the definition of acceleration to replace a.
5. Replace displacement with a Big Five equation which uses v1 , v 2 , and t
6. Simplify, using v1 0
1 2 Ek = energy (J)
E k mv m = mass (kg)
2 = velocity (m/s)
Check Units:
Example #2
The Smart car in #1 increases its velocity from 12 m/s to 24 m/s. How much does its kinetic energy
increase? What is the work done on the Smart car?
SPH4U: Gravitational Potential Energy
When we lift things, we are doing work against gravity. The energy from our work is stored in the
gravitational field of the earth. This stored energy is called Gravitational Potential Energy. If we let go of
the object, the gravity of the earth does work on it, causing it to accelerate.
Steps:
7. Start with the equation (definition) for work.
8. Replace the force F with an equation for the force required to lift the object up (i.e. it must be equal
to the weight of the object).
9. Replace d with the change in height ( h h2 h1 ).
10. Simplify, using h1 0
Check Units:
Method #1
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the salamander on the first ledge.
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the salamander when it is on the second ledge.
What is the difference between these 2 numbers?
Method #2
Calculate the difference in height of the salamander from the lower ledge to the upper.
Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy due to the difference in height.
Compare your answer to that obtained in Level #1. What do you notice?
SPH4U: Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The word “conservation” means “saving” or “taking care of”. You frequently hear about the need for
“conservation of fossil fuels and energy” or “conservation of animals in the wilderness”.
Conservation of Energy = implies that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
Energy may change from one form to another, or it may be transformed from one object to another
within the system.
Conservative Force:
*Work done by conservative forces results in energy changes that are independent of the path and are
therefore reversible.
Non-conservative Force:
*Work done by non-conservative forces results in energy changes that are dependent on the path, and
therefore may not be reversed.
We can now state the conditions under which mechanical energy is conserved. This statement is called
the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
*only true for isolated or closed systems where matter and energy changes are regulated
Example 1
A crane lifts a car with a mass of 1.5 x 103 kg, at a constant velocity, to a height of 14 m from the ground.
It turns and drops the car, which then falls freely back to the ground. Neglecting air friction, find:
(a) The work done by the crane in lifting the car
(b) The gravitational potential energy of the car at its highest point, in relation to the ground
(c) The velocity of the car just before it strikes the ground after falling freely for 14m
*Read: A Closer Look at Roller Coasters and complete additional example questions for HW
SPH4U: Student Power! Name:
Purpose
To determine the amount of power you can generate. RECALL: P = ΔE/t (Units: Watts)
Procedure
1. Measure the height of the steps of the stairs that you are going to scale, and calculate the total height
of the stairs that you will scale.
2. Find the time to run up the stairs one step at a time (no skipping!). Do this twice and take the average.
3. Find the time to climb the stairs at maximum speed (this may be two or three steps at a time). Do this
twice and find the average.
4. Calculate your potential energy (your work done) and your power.
Observations
Power
One step at a time P = W/t =
(Watts)
Fast (Watts) P = W/t =
With extra mass P = W2/t =
(Watts)
Questions
DUE:
SPH4U Questions for Lab Report
Please include the following questions in your lab report write-up. Use full sentences, reference any
information you acquire from outside sources, and pay attention to spelling and grammar. Plagiarism will
not be tolerated nor will copying another student’s work be acceptable. You may need to consult outside
sources for information thus be sure to cite your references.
1. Sources of error generally affect the precision and/or accuracy of a lab investigation or reported
calculations in reference to perceived qualitative and quantitative observations. List two
reasonable sources of error in regards to this activity.
2. Compare your power in walking up the stairs slowly and running up the stairs fast to a 100 W
light bulb. Which process produces the most power: walking up the stairs slowly, running quickly
or using a light bulb? Explain why you think this is the case.
3. Identify the types of muscles engaged as you walk and run up the stairs. How do these muscles
work to allow your body to move up and down? What other organs are involved in exercise?
4. Many strength-training exercises are brief, while cardio-respiratory exercises take much longer.
Explain why this is true.
5. People often find that a workout gets easier over time. In regards to stair climbing and treadmills,
describe two changes that can be made to increase the work done and the power required to make
it each activity more challenging.
APA Referencing (see link below for more details; this will also be helpful for your ISU/project):
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Work, Energy and Power Practice Problems #1
1. How much mechanical work does a store manager do on a grocery cart if she applies a force with a
magnitude of 25N in the forward direction and displaces the cart 3.5m in the same direction?
2. A 25.0N applied force acts on a cart in the direction of the motion. The cart moves 13.0m. How much
work is done by the applied force?
3. A curler applies a force of 15.0N on a curling stone and accelerates the stone from rest to a speed of
8.00m/s in 3.50s. Assuming that the ice surface is level and frictionless, how much mechanical work
does the curler do on the stone?
4. Calculate the mechanical work done by a custodian on a vacuum cleaner if he exerts an applied force
of 50.0N on the vacuum and the hose makes a 30.0° angle with the floor. The vacuum cleaner moves
3.00m to the right on a level, flat surface.
5. How much mechanical work is done on a stationary car if a student pushing with a 300N force fails to
displace the car?
6. A person cutting a flat lawn pushes a lawn mower with a force of 125N at an angle of 40.0° below the
horizontal for 12.0m. Determine the mechanical work done by the person on the lawnmower.
7. The graph below shows the force acting on a cart from a spring. The force from the spring is either
the same direction as the cart’s displacement or in the opposite direction.
(a) Calculate the work done in sections A, B, and C.
(b) Calculate the total work done.
(c) Explain why the work in section C must be negative.
F(N)
5
A B
0
1 2 3 C 4 d (m)
-5
8. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 150g baseball that is travelling toward home plate at a constant
speed of 35m/s.
9. A dynamics cart has a kinetic energy of 4.2J when moving across the floor at 5.0m/s. What is the
mass of the cart?
10. What is the gravitational potential energy of a 48kg student at the top of a 110m high drop tower ride
relative to the ground?
11. A 64 kg student climbs from the ground floor to the second floor of his school in 5.5s. The second
floor is 3.7 m above the ground floor. What is the student’s power?
12. How much power does a swimmer produce if she transforms 2.4kJ of chemical energy (in food) into
kinetic energy and thermal energy in 12.5s?
Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." All objects have
mass; so if an object is moving, then it has momentum - it has its
mass in motion. The amount of momentum that an object has is
dependent upon two variables: how much stuff is moving and how
QUIZ #4: NEXT CLASS (TU) 5MC; 10 marks CALC fast the stuff is moving.
SPH4U Momentum
When Newton first worked out his famous three laws of motion, he considered the tendency of objects to
keep their existing velocity, and noticed that it depended on their mass as well as their velocity. That
combination of mass and velocity is called "momentum" (kg m/s) and is represented with the symbol p.
p = mv
Momentum is a vector and has the same direction as the velocity
. Newton's
Three Laws in terms of momentum are:
1. The momentum of an object stays the same unless there is an external net force applied to it.
2. Force is the rate of change of momentum. F = Δp/Δt
3. When there are forces between the components of a system, but no external forces, the total
momentum of the system remains the same.
Newton's second law can be rearranged as follows:
FΔt = Δp = J
The combination of force and time is sometimes called "Impulse"
with the symbol "J". This
equation has implications in the design of safety equipment: if an accident or impact causes a large
change in momentum, the force can be reduced by increasing the time over which it occurs.
The first and third laws are also called the Law of Conservation of Momentum. This is also a special
case of the second law when all external forces add up to zero.
Combining the Law of Conservation
of Momentum with the Law of Conservation of Energy enables us to solve many problems involving the
elastic collision of objects.
One fascinating demonstration of this is a toy called Newton's Cradle. Newton's cradle, named after
Sir Isaac Newton, is a device that demonstrates conservation of momentum and energy via a series of
swinging spheres.
pA + pB = p'A + p'B
mAvA + mBvB = mAv'A + mBv'B
(1) Elastic Collisions
For an elastic collision, we consider the case in which all the kinetic energy of the original set of objects
is also redistributed to the objects after the collision. The energy may be converted to other
forms during the collision, but after the interaction is finished, it is all converted
back into kinetic energy. This kind of collision is called "elastic" because the
objects appear to bounce off each other. To solve problems of this kind, we have an additional equation
concerning kinetic energy:
*Recoil: interaction that occurs when two objects push against each other (initial) and then move apart
(final).
v'A = v'B
(3) Explosions
For an explosion, we consider the case in which the objects begin stuck together and then some other
form of energy (elastic, chemical, magnetic, electrostatic) is converted into kinetic energy
and the objects fly apart. This is similar to an inelastic collision in reverse; the
initial velocities are the same:
vA = vB
Real collisions
In the real world, collisions are usually partially elastic and partially inelastic. Sometimes additional
energy will be released from another source during a collision and it will become partially an explosion.
If the momentums can be measured/calculated immediately before and immediately after the interaction,
then momentum will be conserved. However, in most situations there will be external forces like friction
and air resistance which transfer momentum and energy to the Earth and the surrounding environment.
(Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUpiV2I_IRI)
SPH4U Calculations Involving Momentum
Important Equations:
Example 1
Determine the momentum of a 0.300 kg hockey puck travelling across the ice at a velocity of 5.55 m/s [N].
(ANS: 1.67 kg m/s [N])
Example 2
Determine the momentum of the following objects:
(a) A 4.00 x 105 kg jet travelling South at 755 km/h
(b) An electron (9.11 x 10-31 kg) travelling North at 6.45 x 106 m/s
(c) A 0.250 kg baseball travelling at 46.1 m/s [E]
Example 3
If a golf club exerts an average force of 5.25 x 10 3 N [W] on a golf ball over a time interval of 5.45 x 10 -4 s, what is
the impulse of the interaction?
(ANS: 2.86 Ns [W])
Example 4
In a crash test, a car strikes a wall with an average force of 1.23 x 10 7 N [S] over an interval of 0.021 s. Calculate
the impulse.
Example 5
A student practices her tennis volleys by hitting a tennis ball against a wall. If the 0.060 kg ball travels 48 m/s
before hitting the wall and then bounces directly backward at 35 m/s, what is the impulse force of the interaction?
(ANS: -5.0 kg m/s in the opposite direction)
Example 6
A 0.35 kg baseball is travelling at 46 m/s toward the batter. After the batter hits the ball, it is travelling 62 m/s in the
opposite direction. Calculate the impulse of the bat on the ball.
Example 7
A 1.75 x 104 kg boxcar is rolling down a track toward a stationary boxcar that has a mass of 2.00 x 10 4 kg. Just
before the collision, the first boxcar is moving East at 5.45 m/s. When the boxcars collide, they lock together and
continue down the track. What is the velocity of the two boxcars immediately after the collision?
(ANS: 2.54 m/s [E])
Example 8
You are in a small canoe with a friend and you decide to change places. The friction between the canoe and the
water is negligible, so while the canoe is not moving in the water, you very carefully stand up and start to take a
step. You suddenly have the sense that the boat is moving under your feet.
Find the velocity of the canoe and your friend at the instant that you start to take a step if your velocity is 0.75 m/s
[forward]. Assume that your mass is 65 kg and the combined mass of the canoe and your friend is 115 kg.
(ANS: -0.42 m/s [backward])
Example 9
A 0.0520 kg golf ball is moving East with a velocity of 2.10 m/s when it collides head on with a 0.155 kg billiard
ball. If the golf ball rolls directly backward with a velocity of -1.04 m/s, was the collision elastic? Recall that
momentum is always conserved in a collision and if the collision is elastic, kinetic energy must also be conserved.
Thus, is the total kinetic energy of the system before the collision equal to the total kinetic energy after the collision?
Example 10
A block of wood with a mass of 0.500 kg slides across the floor toward a 3.5 kg block of wood. Just before the
collision, the small block is travelling at 3.15 m/s. Because some nails are sticking out of the blocks, the blocks
stick together when they collide. Scratch marks on the floor show they slid together 2.63 cm before coming to a
stop.
msb v sb
(a) Find the velocity of the connected blocks by using the equation vcb (ANS: 0.393 m/s [right])
msb mlb
(b) What is the coefficient of friction between the wooden blocks and the floor? Consider that W=KE, where
W = Fd, and F=Ff = uFN. (ANS: 0.300)
SPH4U Elastic Potential Energy & Hooke’s Law
The diver approaches the end of the board, bounces a couple of
times, and then arcs out into the air in a graceful dive. The diving
board plays a key role in his action.
*The diving board in the above picture is behaving much like a spring
, either stretched or
compressed. The diver exerts a force on the diving board, doing work on the board and causing it to
bend. It is the bent condition that allows the board to store energy, and then
convert it from elastic to kinetic, and back to its original form.
acted upon by a force, it can be compressed, stretched or bent. If when the force is
Hooke discovered that not only are certain materials (steel bars, rods, wire, springs, diving
boards, and rubber bands) elastic, but the stretch they experience is directly
they exhibit plastic deformation and will never return to their original shape.
Ductile materials stretch thinner and thinner, while brittle materials break without any plastic
deformation. Eventually all will rupture at their breaking point.
HOOKE’S LAW
The applied force is directly proportional to the extension or compression of a spring and can be
mathematically represented by the equation:
Fa kx
Where Fa is applied force (N), k is the spring constant (N/m),
and x represents the amount of extension or compression of
the spring (m).
Notes:
(1) Since the applied force varies directly with the extension of a spring, the relationship can be
graphed to produce a straight line (linear relationship) written in the form of
y = mx + b.
Extension (x) in m
*the area under the graph is equal to the work done or change in energy
slope of the line describing the properties of a spring is the spring
(2) The
constant, k. Each spring has its own constant that describes the amount of force that is
necessary to stretch or compress it.
written as F = -kx, where the negative sign implies that the restoring force is
a
The elastic potential energy of a perfectly elastic material is one half the product of the spring
constant and the square of the length of extension or compression; it can be represented by the
equation:
1 2
Ee kx
2
Where Ee is elastic potential energy (J), k is the spring constant (N/m) and x is the length of
extension or compression of the spring (m).
Example 1
A typical compound archery bow requires a force of 133 N to hold an arrow at “full draw” (pulled back
71 cm). Assuming that the bow obeys Hooke’s law, what is its spring constant? [ANS: 1.9 x 102 N/m]
Example 2
A slingshot has an elastic cord tied to a Y-shaped frame. The cord has a spring constant of 1.10 x 103
N/m. A force of 455 N is applied to the cord.
(a) How far does the cord stretch?
(b) What is the restoring force from the spring? (F = -kx)
Example 3
A spring with a spring constant of 75 N/m is resting on a table.
(a) If the spring is compressed a distance of 28 cm, what is the increase in its potential energy?
(b) What force must be applied to hold the spring in this position?
Example 4
An unruly student pulls an elastic band that a spring constant of 48 N/m, producing a 2.2 J increase in its
potential energy. How far did the student stretch the elastic band?
Website: http://www.4physics.com/phy_demo/HookesLaw/HookesLaw.html
SPH4U Energy Transformations & Springs
The law of conservation of energy is one of the most useful tools in physics. Since work and energy are
scalar quantities, directions are not involved. However, direction is important in momentum. Energy
transformations take place all the time, where one form or type of energy is converted into another.
The law of conservation of (mechanical) energy states that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
(including gravitational/elastic potential) before a process occurs in an isolated system is equal to
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the system after the process is complete, and is
represented by the equation:
EK EP EK' EP'
(OR EK Eg Ee EK' Eg' Ee' )
Recall: The forces we have been dealing with are referred to as conservative forces. This means that the
amount of work being done on a moving object does not depend on the path taken by that object.
A non-conservative force does depend on the path taken.
*When dealing with non-conservative forces the law of conservation of energy still applies but you must
account for the energy exchanged between the moving object and its environment.
Energy Transformations
The mathematical analyses of energy transformations can happen when motion occurs in a
horizontal and vertical plane. We will do a few sample questions to represent these
situations. Keep in mind the following notes when analyzing any question:
(2) Identify the quantity (variable) that you are required to solve
for. Pay attention to the type of potential energy specified.
Example 2
A circus car with a clown has a total mass of 150 kg. It is coasting at 6.0 m/s, when it hits a large spring
head on. If it is brought to a stop by the time the spring is compressed 2.0 m, what is the spring constant?
[ANS: 1.4 x 103 N/m]
Example 3 (Vertical Elastic Collision)**
A freight elevator car with a total mass of 100.0 kg is moving downward at 3.00 m/s when the cable
snaps! The car falls 4.00 m onto a huge spring (k = 8.000 x 103 N/m). By how much will the spring be
compressed when the car reaches zero velocity? [ANS: 1.18 m]
Example 4
A 70.0 kg person jumps through a window of a burning building and drops to a rescue net held 8.00 m
below. If the surface of the net is 1.40 m above the ground, what must be the value of the spring constant
for the net so that the person just touches the ground when the net stretches downwards?
Example 5 (Challenge)
A roller-coaster car with a mass of 200.0 kg (including riders) is moving to the right at a speed of 4.00
m/s at point A in the diagram. This point is 15.00 m above the ground. The car then heads down a slope
towards point B, which is 6.00 m above the ground. If 3.40 x 103 J of heat energy are produced through
friction between points A and B, determine the speed of the car at point B. [ANS: 12.6 m/s]
SPH4U Energy & Momentum in Space
Gravity and Orbiting Spacecraft
Many people believe that gravity does not act on orbiting space craft. In fact, a satellite such as the
International Space Station Freedom has about 80% of its initial weight. The impression of
weightlessness comes from the fact that weight is being used to hold the space station in its orbit.
If there was no weight, it would simply continue to move off into space!
ESCAPE SPEED
2GM
v
rp
SPH4U Rocket Propulsion & Thrust
Rocket Propulsion and Thrust
Newton’s 3rd Law states that if you exert a backward force on an object, that object will exert a
forward force on you. Newton’s 3rd Law also has applications regarding the law of conservation of
momentum. This concept is the basis for all motion and manoeuvring of
astronauts and rockets in space. In fact, spacecraft could be propelled by having an
astronaut stand at the rear of the spacecraft and throw objects backward. This is another example of
recoil. As the astronaut pushed the objects backward, they would push just as hard forward on the
astronaut.
Although this is a general principle on which rocket engines operate, most rely on hot, high-
pressure gas to provide the reaction mass. The burning of this gas takes place in a
combustion chamber. The walls of the chamber exert a backward force on the
gas causing it to stream out backward. The gas in turn exerts a force on the walls of the
chamber, pushing it and the rocket forward.
Developing the expression for rocket thrust involves the application of conservation of
momentum in an accelerating reference frame. It can be developed in an approximate fashion using finite
differences (calculus) and algebra. See the attached pages from the Physics 12 textbook (pg. 252-53).
ROCKET THRUST
A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite
fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around
other bodies and become artificial satellites to the
Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Sun.
What are satellites used for?
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth
observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research
satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.
Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of
ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit,
and geostationary orbit. Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled
systems. power generation, thermal
Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as
control, telemetry, altitude control and orbit control.
SPH4U Orbital Energies & Kepler’s Laws
The orbital energy of a satellite consists of two components:
(1) Kinetic energy
(2) Gravitational potential energy
The Earth-satellite system can be treated as an isolated system. Most satellites are either in
circular orbit or near-circular (elliptical) orbit.
KEPLER’S LAWS
(1) Planets move in elliptical rotations, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse (at the centre).
(2) An imaginary line between the Sun and the planets sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.
(3) The quotient of the square of the period of a planet’s revolution around the Sun and the cube of
the average distance from the Sun is constant and the same for all planets.
T2 TA2 TB2
k or 3
r3 rA
3
rB
Where A and B are two planets or celestial bodies in space/in orbit
The numerical value of G, the universal gravitational constant can also be factored into Kepler’s Law
equation(s) above. Remember that a planet travels a distance equal to its circumference of the orbit
during a time interval equal to its period. The equation then takes on the form below:
T 2 4 2
where mp refers to the mass of the Planet, and G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
r 3 Gmp
Example 2
Jupiter’s moon Io orbits Jupiter once every 1.769 days. Its average orbital radius is 4.216 x 108
m. What is Jupiter’s mass?
Example 3
Some weather satellites orbit Earth every 90.0 minutes. How far above Earth’s surface is their
orbit? (Hint: remember that the centre of the orbit is the centre of Earth)
SPH4U Orbital Energies (Alternative Equations)
EK
GMm The kinetic energy of an orbiting satellite of mass m in reference to a
2r planet with mass M
Ebinding Etotal Binding energy refers to the amount of additional energy an object
-Etotal = Eg (on Earth) needs to escape from a planet or star; the extra energy needed to free the
object will always be the negative of the total energy since the object
will be free with a total net energy of zero
Example 4
On March 6th, 2001, the Mir space station was deliberately crashed into Earth. At the time, its mass was
1.39 x 103 kg and its altitude was 220 km. (1 km = 1000 m)
(a) Prior to the crash, what was its binding energy to Earth?
(b) How much energy was released in the crash? Assume that its orbit was circular.
Example 5
A 4025 kg spacecraft (including the astronauts) is in a circular orbit 256 km above the lunar surface.
Determine:
(a) The kinetic energy of the spacecraft
(b) The total orbital energy of the spacecraft
(c) The binding energy of the spacecraft
(d) The speed required for escape
SPH4U Collisions in 2D
Solving momentum problems in two-dimensional situations involves using vector components.
Recall, that when your vectors create a right-angled triangle, trigonometry applies, wherein you
can solve for the resultant or x- and y-components using basic trigonometric ratios, the rules of
similar triangles, and/or the Pythagorean Theorem.
Important Notes:
A collision in two dimensions obeys the same rules as a collision in one dimension:
o Total momentum in each direction is always the same
before and after the collision
Note that the kinetic energy is not calculated for each direction separately, but
depends on the magnitude of the total velocity of each object.
Based on the given information, it helps to write out a table of momenta for each object in the
x and y direction (*sign conventions):
BEFORE AFTER (include angles)
x y x y
Puck A p=mv=(0.1kg)(5 m/s) p= 0 kg m/s p= (0.1)(2)(cos30°) p=(0.1)(2)(sin30°)
=+0.5 kg m/s = +0.17 = +0.10
Puck B p=0 kg m/s p= 0 kg m/s p=(0.1)vbxcosθ p=(0.1) vbysinθ
Total/Change in +0.5 kg m/s 0 kg m/s Puck Aafter - Abefore Puck Bafter - Bbefore
Momentum (p) (total) (total) =0.17-0.5 = 0.33 = 0.10-0 = -0.10
Recall: p = mv *these are components*
Once your chart has been filled out, you can move on to using the x and y components after the
collision to find the resultant momentum: (refer back to diagram)
px = 0.33 kg m/s *Solve using the Pythagorean Theorem
θ
a 2 b2 c 2
ΔpR
px p y pR
py = -0.10 kg m/s 2 2 2
Use the resultant momentum to solve for the velocity, given mass of Puck B is 0.1 kg:
p R mB v B
p R 0.3448
vB 3.448 3m / s
mB 0.1 (1 significant digit)
Solve for the angled direction using trigonometry (use info. about resultant momentum):
opp p y (0.10)
tan | | 0.3030
adj px 0.33
tan 1 (0.3030)
16.85 *absolute values are used – degrees are not negative!
1. A billiard ball of mass 0.155 kg is rolling directly away from you to the North at 3.5 m/s.
It collides with a stationary golf ball of mass 0.052 kg. The billiard ball rolls off at an
angle of 15° clockwise from its original direction with a velocity of 3.1 m/s. What is the
velocity and direction of the golf ball after the collision?
2. A bowling ball with a mass of 6.00 kg rolls with a velocity of 1.20 m/s toward a single
standing bowling pin that has a mass of 0.220 kg. When the ball strikes the bowling pin,
the pin flies off at an angle of 70.0° counterclockwise from the original direction of the
ball, with a velocity of 3.60 m/s. What was the velocity of the bowling ball after it hit the
pin?
3. Car A (1750 kg) is travelling due South and Car B (1450 kg) is travelling due East. They
reach the same intersection at the same time and collide. The cars lock together and
move off at 35.8 km/h [E 31° S]. What was the velocity of each car before the collision?
[ANS: Car A = 9.53 m/s [S] and Car B = 18.7 m/s [E]]