Discover English

PROPERTY OF
BKC TEACHER TRAINING
Macmillan Books for Teachers

Discover
English
Language analysis for teachers
Rod Bolitho
Brian Tomlinson
~
MACMILLAN
Macmillan Education
Between Towns Road, Oxford OX.J 3PP
A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited
Companies and representatives throughout the world
ISBN 978-1-4050-8003-3
c Rod Bolitho and Brian Tomlinson 1995

Design and illustration c Macmillan Publishers Limited 1998
First published 1980, New edition 1995, This edition 2005
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publishers.
Designed by Mike Brain

Illustrated by Maggie Ling
The P,ublishers and authors would like to thank the following for
permission to reproduce material in this book:
Pelican Books for How Children Fail by John Holt.

Observer Magazine for Delicious Discoveries No. 1: Beenleigh Blue Cheese by Drew Smith.
Longman for English for Electrical Engineers by]. McAllister and G. Madanna.
The Independant for Paueu says 1es1s will go ahead.
The Guardian for Dial M for Murder by M01he1:
Cover photo by c apply pictures/Alamy
Printed in Thailand
2011 2010 2009 2008 2007

10 9 8 7 6 s 4
Contents
Introduction iv
Exercises Commentary
Unitl Myths and misconceptions
1 The English language 58
2 Learning English 2 60
3 Terminology 3 62
Unit2 Common areas of difficulty
1 Basic grammatical terms 7 63
2 Forms and functions 9 65
3 Tense and time 10 66
4 Questions 11 67
5 Future time 12 68
6 Voice 13 69
7 Conditionals and hypothetical meaning 16 71
8 Functions 18 72
9 Teaching functions 18 73
10 Reporting speech 20 75
11 Notions 21 76
12 Modal meaning 23 77
13 Auxiliary verbs 25 79
14 Have and be 26 80
15 Comparisons 27 82
16 Tense and function 1 28 83
17 Tense and aspect 30 86
18 Tense and function 2 31 87
19 Non-finite verb forms 32 89
20 Adverbs and adjectives 33 90
21 Relative clauses 34 9i
22 Word order 35 93
Unit3 Vocabulary and vocabulary teaching
1 Common myths and misconceptions about words 37 95
2 Word fields and lexical relationships 37 96
3 Factors in the teaching of vocabulary 40 100
4 Phrasal and prepositional verbs 43 102
Unit4 Cohesion 45 104
UnitS Coherence 50 109
Unit6 Errors
Some myths and misconceptions about errors 54 113
2 Learners' errors 54 114
Conclusion 120
Index 121
Introduction
What sort of English should we teach?
' ' I want my students to speak only the best English, so I
encourage them to read only the classics of English literature."
Is this a good idea?
How much do we really know about English?

True or false?
• Some is only used in positive statements whereas any is used in negative
statements and questions.
• A verb is a 'doing' word.
• The subject of a sentence is the person or thing that does the action.
What is English really like?

' ' English is illogical and irregular and it follows no rules."
What are the rules of English? How does tense relate to time? What's
the difference between courage and bravery? Is written English the same as spoken
English? How can we explain to students how English works? Can we make
useful generalisations?
How do people learn English?

' ' Learning a language is a question of imitating correct forms."
Does such imitation always produce correct English sentences?
Discover English challenges myths, preconceived ideas and intuitions about

language by raising awareness of these and other questions about the language.
Teachers who understand the language can help their learners by giving accurate
and informed explanations. The exercises in the first part of the book will sensitise
you to the language you are teaching or learning. The commentary in the second
part of the book explore the teaching implications of these insights about language.
lV
To the teacher, trainee or advanced student using the book
independently
You can work through the book in any order. Choose the topics that interest or
perplex you. Whenever you can, discuss the exercises with colleagues and fellow
students. Work through the exercises first, and make a note of your answers
before you look at the commentaries and compare. The commentaries provide
informed views rather than 'correct' answers. We have given top priority to the
teaching implications of the points explored in L~e exercises and we have made
generalisations to help teachers rather than to establish abstract rules.
To the teacher trainer

You can use this book as a resource and choose the topics that most interest
you and your trainees. Wherever possible, we recommend working through the
exercises in a group because the discussion and feedback sessions will be a useful
way to raise awareness. Many of the exercises challenge conventional views of
language so you should be prepared for resistance and for a variety of views to
be aired. Given the open-ended nature of awareness work, the commentaries
are offered as an aid rather than as correct answers.
References
We found these books useful in writing and revising the material and suggest
that those asterisked may prove useful to advanced learners and to trainees
preparing to teach English for the first time.
Arndt, V. eta! 2000 Alive to Language (Cambridge University Press)
Cowie, A.P. and Mackin R. 1993 The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms
(Oxford University Press)
*Leech, G. 1987 Meaning and the English ~rb, 2nd edition (Longman)
Lewis, M. 1986 The English ~rb (Language Teaching Publications)
Sinclair, J. (ed.) 1993 Collins Cobuild English Grammar (Collins)
*Swan, M. 2004 Practical English Usage (Oxford University Press)
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, revised edition 1989
(Longman)
Teacher's resource books which make use oflanguage awareness techni<J..ues:
Frank, C. and Rinvolucri, M. 1991 Grammar in Action Again!, 2nd rev. edition
(Prentice Hall)
Morgan, J. and Rinvolucri, M. 1986 UJcabulary (Oxford University Press)
Language practice books for learners which make use of language
awareness techniques:
Couter, R. eta! 2000 Exploring Grammar in Context (Cambridge University Press)
Hall, N. and Shepheard, J. 1991 The Anti-grammar Grammar Book (Longman)
Woods, E. and Macleod, N. 1990 Using English Grammar (Prentice Hall)
Useful websites
http://www. onestopenglish. com
http://www.hltmag.co. uk
http://www. developingteachers. com
http: //www. bbc. co. uk!worldservice/learningenglish
http://www. etprofessional. com
http://www.iatefl.org v
Welcome to the Macmillan Books for Teachers series. These books are for you if
you are a trainee teacher, practising teacher or teacher trainer. They help you to:
• develop your skills and confidence
• reflect on what you do and why you do it
• inform your practice with theory
• improve your practice
• become the best teacher you can be
The handbooks are written from a humanistic and student-centred
perspective. They offer:
• practical techniques and ideas for classroom activities
• key insights into relevant background theory
• ways to apply techniques and insights in your work
The authors are teachers and trainers. We take a 'learning as you go' approach
in sharing our experience with you . We help you reflect on ways you can
faci litate learning, and bring your personal strengths to your work. We offer
you insights from research into language and language learning and suggest
ways of using these insights in your classroom. You can also go to
http://www.onestopenglish.com and ask the authors for advice.
We encourage you to experiment and to develop variety and choice, so that

you can understand the how and why of your work. We hope you will develop
confidence in your own teaching and in your ability to respond creatively to
new situations.
Adrian Underhill
Titles in the series
Beyond the Sentence Scott Thornbury
Children Learning English Jayne Moon
Discover English Rod Bolitho & Brian Tomlinson
Learning Teaching Jim Scrivener
Sound Foundations Adrian Underhill
Teaching Practice Roger Gower, Diane Phillips & Steve Walters
Teaching Reading Skills Christine Nuttall
Uncovering Grammar Scott Thornbury
700 Classroom Activities David Seymour & Maria Popova
Vl
1 Exercises
Unit 1 Myths and misconceptions

1 The English language
A Comment on the opening statement in the light of the extracts 1-3 that follow.
I want my students to speak only the best English so I encourage them to read only the
classics of English literature.
3
rve tried a long time, and "t'nt got If a Struldbrugg happens to marry one of
better. But thou'st right; 't might mak his own kind, the marriage is dissolved of
fok talk even of thee. course by the courtesy of the kingdom as
soon as the younger of the two comes to
2 be fourscore.
The robbery at the bank had not
languished before, and did not cease Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels
to occupy a front place in the attention
of the Principal of the establishment
Charles Dickens, Hard Tirnes
B Comment on these statements:

I'm an Englishman and I'm proud of our great and ancient language. We must
fight against these modern colloquialisms and the corruption of our language
by vulgar Americanisms. Let's keep our language pure.
2 The use of hopefully except with the meanjng in a hopeful way is unacceptable.
So also is the use of due to in such public announcements as Play stopped due to
rain and Trains delayed, due to ice on the rails. The phrase should be used only
when preceded by a noun or noun plus linking verb, as in The stoppage was due
to rain.
3 Some is only used in positive statements whereas any is used in negative
statements and questions.
4 A verb is a doing word.
5 The subject of a sentence is the person or thing that does the action.
6 The past tenses always refer to the past, eg He was going to the match.
7 Countable nouns refer to things which you can count (eg chairs, books, apples)
whereas uncountable nouns refer to things wruch you cannot count (eg rice,
soap, money).
8 will is never used in clauses which begin with when, after, before or as soon as.
9 People who speak such varieties of English as Nigerian English, I amaican English
and Malaysian English should be taught to use Standard English at all times.
Unit I M yths and misconceptions
10 Kid is not an acceptable substitute for child just as fag and kip are not
acceptable substitutes for cigarette and sleep.
11 I believe in plain English. A house is always a house and never a dwelling. A
sentence is always a sentence and never a speech act.
12 I can understand my teacher very easily but when I talk English to people in the
street they speak too quickly.
13 I've been teaching English for thirty years and I know what I'm doing. I teach
only what has been judged by time and literature to be correct.
14 Only speakers of educated, standard southern English should teach English to
foreigners. People who speak a dialect teach incorrect English.
15 A good English speaker never uses slang so I never allow my students to use
English slang.
2 Learning English
A Comment on the statement in the light of the evidence ( 1-5).
English is a stupid language. It is illogical and irregular and it follows no rules.
1 swimming I dining I sinned I lined I hated I baited I getting I greeting
2 It's hot, isn't it? /She's fat, isn't she? /You didn't come, did you? /I've won,
haven't I? I She'll come, won't she? /He wasn't happy, was he? /The bus is late,
isn't it? I Mary had finished, hadn't she?
3 He bought it. I She grew it. I He brought it. /I showed them. I He wanted it. I
I cleaned it. I I blamed them. I He cheated them. I I went there./ He sold it.
4 Have you got any money? I Have you got some money? I Give me some
books. / Give me any books./We haven't got any more./We haven't got some
more.
5 Well, they're very different, aren't they ... you know . .. one's a sort of personal
view and one is statistics ... it's interesting ... the one about the girl whose
cousin 'had to get married' in 1960 and the difference when she ... 25 years
later had a baby without being married . .. I mean .. . I think there's been a
terrific shift in attitudes in that time ... I don't know if it's true of everywhere in
the country ... I think if we live in the South East ... there's a ... a sort of. ..
belief that people are changing everywhere.*
B Comment on the statement in the light of the evidence ( 1-3).

Learning a language is a question of imitating correct forms.
T eacher: We're having a test today.
Pupil: Please sir, can I be excused? I'm having a bad headache.
2 T eacher: Have you ever been to Manchester?
Pupil: Yes, I've been there last week.
3 Teacher: When will you do it?
Pupil: I will do it when I will get home tonight.
* Extract from H opwood, T. and Rushton, R. r 990 Heinemann Integrated Skills Advanced
( Unit9, p 86.)
2
Learning English I Temzinology
C What contradictions are involved in these statements?

I will always insist that the pupils who I teach will follow the rules of the language
so that they will learn to always speak correctly. I make sure that they always
use 'shall' with 'I', that they always use 'whom' when the accusative form is re-
quired, that they never split an infinitive and that they never use a preposition
to end a sentence with.
2 As I inculcated my amanuensis the sole bona fide mode of indoctrinating a
language is to imbibe ten exotic words before retiring to somnambulance each
evening. If you do not employ exotic words people deem you to be inerudite in
the language.
D Comment on the following statements.

You don't need a teacher to learn a foreign language. All you need is a
grammar book and a dictionary.
2 You don't need a teacher to learn a foreign language. All you need is to read
books written in the language and to listen to native speakers speaking it.
3 Constant repetition of correct forms is the key to learning a foreign language
because it enables the learner to develop correct habits.
4 If you learn the grammar of English you will be able to speak the language well.
5 If you learn the grammar well you will automatically transfer listening and
reading skills from your first language .
6 Listening skills and reading skills are very similar so if you teach learners
reading skills they will be able to use them as listening skills too.
7 It's important to insist that learners of a language speak with the same
correctness as we'd expect when they're writing.
8 As the grammar of good spoken English and of good written English are the
same you can help learners to improve their spoken English by giving them lots
of written grammar practice.
9 The teacher should always correct pronunciation errors or else the students
will develop bad pronunciation.
10 I don't think he's a good teacher. Every time I walk past his classroom the
students seem to be sitting in groups making a noise .
3 Terminology
In this book an attempt has been made to minimize the use oflinguistic termin-
ology. However, sometimes terms are used which may be useful and which are
commonly used in books on language. As a preparation for meeting these terms,
do the following exercises and then check the commentary before going on to
Unit 2.
It might be a good idea to come back and do the relevant exercises in this section
again if when you meet any of these terms you do not understand them . It might
also be useful to revise the whole section when you have completed all the units in
the book.
A Look at the examples of the use of grammatical terms below and then complete
the statements about them.
3
l.Jnit I Myllzsandmisconceptions
1 Form v function
Examples
The verb in the sentence is in a continuous form.
The plural form of knife is knives.
Must never changes its form.
One of the functions of the present perfect tense is to indicate that an action or
event in the past is relevant in the present.
The function of I'm not absolutely sure about that can be to express polite
disagreement.
One of the functions of will is to promise something.
Statements
The form of a word or structure is the parti ............... w ... .... in which it is
repre ............... in wri ......... or spe .......... .
The functions of a word or structure in an utterance are the rol... it pl... .. in the
utterance, the purp ......... it is used to exp .......... .
A word or structure can be in a particular .......... even when it is in isolation but it
can only have a ............... if it is used in an utterance. For example, was going is in
the past continuous .......... , but it does not have a ............... unless we use it in an
utterance (eg I was going to Rome but now I've decided to go to Paris instead).
2 Time reference v tense

Examples
In the utterance I have been to Rome, have been is in the present perfect tense but it
has past time reference.
A verb in the present continuous tense can have future time reference (eg She
is going to Rio for her holiday).
Statement
The tense of a verb is the fo ..... in which it is wri .......... or spo .......... whereas the time
reference is the per.. ........ of ti ..... (ie pa ..... , pre .......... , or fut ........ ) which the verb
refers to in the utte .......... .
3 Full v contracted
Example
In some types of writing you should always use the full forms of verbs but in other
types you should use contracted forms. You should not use contracted forms
of verbs in an academic essay but you should use them in a letter to a good friend.
Statement
The .......... form is I have and the ........ .. .......... form is I 've.
4 Formal v informal
Examples
I anz afraid that I must express some reservations is a very formal way of expressing
disagreement whereas you must be joking is an informal way of expressing a
similar function.
4
Tenninology
Full forms of verbs should be used in formal writing (eg academic essays,
scientific reports, job applications) but contracted forms can be used in
informal writing (eg letters to friends, notes, invitations to friends).
Statement
.......... language is used in situations which are off... ....... or se .......... or which involve
communication with supe .......... or stra .......... whereas ............... language is used in
situations which are rei... ......... or cas ........ or which involve communication
between people who kn ........ each other we ..... .
5 Acceptable v unacceptable
Examples
Gonna might not be strictly correct but it is certainly acceptable in such
utterances between good friends as I'm gonna see him tomorrow. However most
people would find it unacceptable in an official speech.
The American spelling of color is now acceptable to most English people.
Statement
A form of a word or structure which is not normally considered to be cor.. ...... can
be ace ............... in certain situ ........... .... or to certain peo ....... .
6 Context v cotext
Examples
The meaning of a word depends on its context. For example, H e hasn't started
yet can have many different interpretations depending on the topic and the
setting of the conversation and the relationship between the speakers. It could, for
example, mean: Until now he has always started a match as a substitute player, H e is
still practising, H e will do a lot better than this soon, or The lecture has not begun.
To understand a word you also need to relate it to its cotext. You can appreciate
the different meanings of bed in the following examples even if you do not know
anything about the contexts in which they were used.
I'm tired. I'm going to bed.
Put the seeds in that bed over there.
Statement
The .... ........... of a word or utterance consists of the .......... which come be .......... and
af... .. it, whereas the ............... consists of the s ................. in which it is used.
B Match the definitions 1-8 to the linguistic terms in bold type in (a)-(h).
1 It refers to the actual expressions used to communicate particular functions or
notions.
2 A concept or area of meaning.
3 An utterance or series of related utterances used to achieve a specific intended
outcome.
4 A word or group of words used with specific meaning in a particular context.
5 It refers to the ability of one expression to replace another without any loss of
meaning or grammaticality.
6 Communication between people involving the use oflanguage.
7 Relating to the expression of meaning.
8 The actual object, idea, emotion, etc referred to by a lexical item.
5
(a) It is important that students take part in interaction in the language they are
learning.
(b) How about, Would you like to, We'd be happy if and l.Vhy don'tyou can all be
exponents of the function of invitation.
(c) When Sheila says, 'I'm going. I can't put up with his bad temper any more' put
up with is an expression consisting of three words but it is only one lexical item.
(d) A notional approach concentrates on teaching learners how to express
different aspects of the main concepts represented by the language, such as the
notions of time, duration, space and quantity.
(e) Reach and arrive are very similar in meaning but they are not completely
interchangeable.
(f) Her three confident answers to his questions were all part of a speech act
aiming to persuade him to loan her the money.
(g) It is important that students can give a semantic interpretation of the
utterance and not just be able to analyse it grammatically.
(h) You can show students the referent of table, window or chair but it is more
difficult to teach them the referents of respect or duty.
6
Unit 2 Common areas of difficulty
1 Basic grammatical terms

A Classify these words into nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions or
prepositions. (If you already know the basic word classes, as found in most
dictionaries, leave out the exercise.)
window 9 strongly 17 because
2 happiness 10 gnn 18 gargoyle
3 meander 11 him 19 ennui
4 blue 12 iridescent 20 malinger
5 if 13 avoid 21 although
6 under 14 comatose 22 by
7 our 15 courageously 23 aberration
8 be 16 cogitate 24 they
B 1 Divide this list of nouns into three categories, giving a heading to each.
elephant hope September delay Diana humour car marmalade
radio Poland truth telegraph pole mirror oak excitement
2 Divide this list of nouns into two groups, giving a heading to each.
raisin cake carton shop nut milk rice spaghetti sugar
money boot pot butter pound teaspoon water
C D ivide the verbs in these utterances into two categories, stating reasons for your
allocation.
1 You 've finished your tea. 6 I'm repairing the car.
2 T hey are eating cake. 7 Cortez conquered Mexico.
3 T hey are eating at hom e. 8 Many leading politicians have died violently.
4 She wants to watch TV. 9 I can 't think clearly!
5 I'm going to bed . 10 I hate this exercise!
D 1 Identify the direct objects in this passage.

I was hungry after walking a long way and looked round for a restaurant. It took r
me quite a while to find the only one in town and fortunately it was open. I asked t
the waitress a few questions about the menu. She gave me some rather hazy
replies and so I decided to order something safe - a vegetable casserole. She
brought me a beef casserole instead, much to my annoyance. I don't normally eat
red meat and so I asked her to take it back. t
She came back full of apologies and offered me a cheese salad as there was no J
vegetable casserole left. An elderly lady at the next table had just demolished the
last portion! I was so hungry that I accepted the cheese salad but it wasn't very~
appetizing. Contrary to my usual custom I didn't leave this waitress a tip! •
......
2 Identify the verbs with two objects.
3 Give som e m ore examples of such verbs and explain why not all verbs can
have two objects.
7
E Why are these utterances wrong?

X He got up early becau se his work.
2 X He gave she a present.
3 X They ate a quickly breakfast before going out.
4 X D uring they were eating, the doorbell rang.
5 X 'There's something blocking the road .' ' OK, we'll avoid.'
6 X He learns very slow.
7 X They gives her a lot of help.
8 X I want to listen the news at 9 o'clock.
F Why do these nonsense sentences sound acceptable?

He crattled his splat and scrot out a neelyin g groal.
2 They strentered folicly until a magan veened to fam ble them .
G Look these words up in a dictionary. How does the dictionary deal with them ?
sits was swore swam
women loaves sung loafs
spoken bought cats fishes
talked driven drew burnt
H 1 In the following extract, find examples of:

(a) a ditransitive verb (a verb with two objects) (e) a proper noun
(b) an abstract noun (f) an intransitive verb
(c) an uncountable noun (g) a conjunction
(d) an irregular verb form (past simple or past participle) (h) an adverb
If chlldren come to feel that the universe does not make sense, it may be because
the language we use to talk about it does not seem to make sense, or at least be-
cause there are contradictions between the universe as we experience it and as we
talk about it.
One of the main things we try to do in schools is to give children a tool -lan-
guage - with whlch to learn, trunk, and talk about the world they live in. Or
rather, we try to help them refine the tool they already have. We act as if we
thought this tool of language were perfect, and children had only to learn to use
it correctly, ie as we do. In fact, it is in many ways a most imperfect tool. If we
were more aware of its imperfections, of the many ways in whlch it does not fit
the universe it attempts to describe, of the paradoxes and contradictions built
into it, then we could warn the children, help them see where words and experi-
ence did not fit together, and perhaps show them ways of using language that
would to some extent rise above its limitations.
Look at adjectives - some are, so to speak, absolute: round, blue, green,
square. But many others are relative: long, short; thin, truck; heavy, light; hlgh,
low; near, far; easy, hard; loud, soft; hot, cold. None of these have any absolute
meaning. Long and short only mean longer and shorter than something else. But
we use these words as if they were absolutes. In fact, there must be many times
when a child hears a particular thing called long one day and short the next, or
hot one day and cold the next. We use words as if they were fixed in meaning, but
we keep changing the meanings. The soup that has become cold is still too hot
8
Basic grammatical terms/ Forms and functions
-
for the baby. The short pencil today is the long pencil tomorrow. The big kitty's
name is Midnight; but don't be rough with him, he's too little. Horses are big an-
imals; see the little horsie (three times the size of the child). How big you've
grown; you can't have that, you're too little. Children adjust to this kind of con-
fusion; but is it an intellectually healthy and useful adjustment, or just a kind of
production strategy? Would it be useful to talk to first -graders about why we call
a certain mountain small and a certain kitten big? Or is this easy stuff for them?
The conventional teaching of grammar adds to the confusion. We talk about,
and use, nouns and adjectives as if they were very different, but in fact they are
often much alike. A green ball, a green top, a green bicycle, and a green stuffed
animal are alike in that they are green (adjective) and that they are toys (noun).
When we call them green we mean they are members of a class that have in com-
mon the colour green. When we call them toys we mean that they are members
of a class that have in common the fact that children play with them. Why should
a child be expected to feel that there is something very different about these class-
es? Why is the green-ness of a ball different from the ball-ness of a ball? I don't
feel the difference. They are both ways of saying something about the object. We
tell children that the distinction between one part of speech and another is a mat-
ter of meaning, when it really has to do with the way we fit them into sentences.
John Holt (I 969), How Children Fail (Pelican)
2 Discuss this 'child's eye' depiction of the illogicalities of grammatical categories

and meanings. Do you think that young children will find terms like conjunction
and preposition easier or more difficult to understand than adjective and noun?
How can a teacher help a young child to overcome these difficulties) Do you
think a teacher ofEnglish as a second or foreign language is likely to face similar
difficulties with her learners? Give reasons for your answer.
2 Forms and functions
What do the utterances in each of these groups have in common? What distinguishes
the sentences within each group from each other? (If necessary, check in the com-
mentary after doing exercise A to see whether you are on the right track.)
A 1 Willy smokes.
2 Fred's a slow worker.
3 Aggie used to drink.
4 Joe's in the habit of talking in his sleep.
5 He's always making that mistake.
B 1 Pollution is getting worse.

2 It's raining.
3 I'm going out tonight.
4 He's always dropping ash on the carpet.
C Simmer for 15 minutes over a low heat.

2 Come again soon.
3 Halt!
4 Give us this day our daily bread.
9
Unit2 Common areas of difficulty
5 Don't mention it.

6 When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
D 1 See you!
2 The Queen is due to arrive at 4 pm.
3 He's about to arrive.
4 The train leaves at 3 pm.
5 Willy's going to be an engine driver.
6 He's taking his finals in June.
7 I'll be 64 next birthday.
E 1 Ifl were you, I'd stay.
2 It's time you went home.
3 Wish you were here!
4 If only he had worked harder!
5 Suppose someone had seen us.
F I doubt if he'll come.
2 It might rain.
3 There's a 50-50 chance of play today.
4 He's bound to turn up.
5 She's likely to pass her test.
3 Tense and time
A 1 These statements were all made by the same person. Put them into
chronological order as far as you can.
(a) We're going to live in Liverpool.
(b) After we've lived in Liverpool for a few years, we'll move back to Wigan.
(c) We live in Wigan.
(d) We lived in Bradford for 5 years.
(e) We were going to move to London in 1983 but my job there fell through.
(f) By the time we move to Liverpool, we'll have spent 3 years in Wigan.
(g) We lived in Manchester for a while before we moved to Bradford.
How were you able to do this? What were the essential clues?
2 This diagram represents time in a schematic way. Assuming that the speaker is
at point 1 (the present), allocate each of the seven statements (a)-(g) to a
number on the diagram.
1 The Present
2 The Past 3 The Future
4 The past seen 5 The future seen 6 The past seen 7 The future seen
from the past from the past from the future from the future
10
Tense and time I Questions
B Comment on the validity of these statements.

Present tenses are always used to express present time in English.
2 Past tenses are always used to express past time in English.
3 The English tense system is based on, and can be equated with, the Latin tense
system.
4 Different peoples perceive time differently, and these differences are reflected
in the tense systems of their languages.
5 Different languages have developed different ways of referring to concepts of time.
6 The verb is the main marker of time in an English sentence.
4 Questions
A Divide these utterances into two broad categories; state what your criteria are.
1 Where's my pen? 7 That's not your pen, is it?
2 When is the train due in? 8 Would you like coffee or tea?
3 Are you listening? 9 Would you like some more wine?
4 How far is it to London? 10 What's the time?
5 Isn't that my pen? 11 You've been to Liverpool before,
6 Why haven't you done your haven't you?
homework? 12 How are you?
B Divide these questions into categories; state what your criteria are.
1 Is the TV still on? 8 Do you mind ifl smoke?
2 Haven't you finished eating yet? 9 Was Mike at the party last night?
3 Can you lend me £5? 10 Shall I open the door for you?
4 That's not Helen, is it? 11 This can't possibly be right, can it?
5 Have you locked the back door? 12 Do you want some more cake?
6 Has someone opened this letter? 13 You have posted the letter, haven't you?
7 It isn't raining again, is it? 14 Nice day, isn't it?
c Account for these learners' errors.

1 XDoes he plays tennis? 5 XDo you can play chess?
2 XAm not I right? 6 XYou don't like carrots, like you?
3 XDid you went to town last week? 7 XShall you open the door for me, please?
4 XHow often play you tennis? 8 XWe'd better go now, betn't we?
D Look at these conversational exchanges and explain the misunderstandings.
A: How do you do? 4 A: Do you read a newspaper?
B: I do very well, thank you. B: No, I have my tea.
2 A: How are you? 5 A: You've finished that work, haven't you?
B: How are you? B: (impatiently) Of course I have.
3 A: Can you open the door?
B: (not moving) Yes, I can.
11
E Match each of the questions 1-10 with a function from the list (a)-(j).
Questions
What time is it?
2 Is that a stoat or a weasel?
3 You're back rather early, aren't you?
4 What do you mean early?
5 Must you play your harmonica in the living-room?
6 Shall I do that for you?
7 Would you mind holding this for a moment?
8 Why are you late?
9 What sort of car was he driving?
10 What do you think of the new goalkeeper?
Functions
(a) asking someone to distinguish (f) expressing irritation
between alternatives (g) asking for an opinion
(b) expressing incredulity (h) expressing mild surprise
(c) offering assistance (i) asking for an explanation
(d) asking for assistance (j) asking for a description
(e) asking for information
F Food for thought.

1 Why do you think learners of English often find it difficult to form
interrogatives and to ask questions correctly?
2 In the light of your conclusions after the preceding exercises, why do you think
it is important for a language teacher to distinguish between the terms
question and interrogative?
5 Future time
A In many grammars and course books, the future is dealt with as a tense, formed by
shall/ will+ infinitive. It is often known as the pure future . Which of the following
examples could be described as pure future? What do shall or will add to the
meaning in the other examples?
1 Don't worry! I'll help you with your homework.
2 My brother will talk with his mouth full.
3 Pass the mustard, will you?
4 Shall I open the door for you?
5 I'll see you at the party tonight.
6 Shall we go for a drink?
7 Trespassers will be prosecuted.
8 Boys will be boys.
9 Do you think Liverpool will win on Saturday?
10 You shall do as I tell you!
11 Summer will soon be over.
12
Future time / Voice
B Below are examples of different ways of expressing future meaning. Provide a

context for each example. Then comment on why there is no standardized future
tense in English.
1 She'll be 83 nextJuly.
2 A: I'm just going down to the village.
B: Will you be going near the Post Office?
3 A: I've lost my wallet again!
B: What are you going to do about it?
4 There's going to be a crash on that bend soon.
5 What are you doing this evening?
6 We hope to go abroad next year.
7 John is about to resign from his job.
8 You never know what might happen.
9 The film starts at 8.15.
C Which of these statements about shall and will do you accept?

Shall is never used these days.
2 Shall ought always to be used with the first person and will with the second
and third persons.
3 In conversation, the difference between shall and will has become unimportant
(in most cases).
4 Shall ought always to be taught as it is strictly correct in certain cases.
5 There is no real need to teach shall.
Which statements could also apply to should and would?
D Which way of expressing the future would you teach first. Why?
6 Voice
A Where might these statements be found? What do you notice about the verb forms?
On parle franc;:ais. Se habla espaiiol.
Man spricht Deutsch. English spoken.
B Provide appropriate contexts for the following utterances. Give reasons

for your conclusions.
Customers are asked to use the baskets provided.
2 My car's been stolen!
3 200 people are reported to have died in the riots.
4 It's being repaired.
5 You have been warned!
6 Trespassers will be prosecuted.
7 Chris Hani assassinated.
13
C Can you improve this passage, focusing on the verb forms?

Oxygen j,
Joseph Priestley prepared oxygen for the first time in 1774. He prepared it by ~
heating mercuric oxide, but nowadays we produce it commercially in large •
quantities by a process which we call fractional distillation. Both air and water ,
contain it. Plants also give it off in their respiratory process. 4
a
D This exercise is typical of many coursebook treatments of the passive. What will
learners learn from doing it? What will they not learn?
Make these sentences passive.

Example: John wrote that letter.
That letter was written by John.
1 The cow jumped over the moon.
2 Willy ate his sister's porridge.
3 Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
4 Somebody broke into our house last night.
5 Koala bears eat eucalyptus leaves.
6 The Queen has just opened Parliament.
E Compare the effect of active v passive in these utterances.

They went home as there was nothing more to do.
They went home as there was nothing more to be done.
2 There's nothing to see in Scotland.
There was no one to be seen on the streets.
F What do the verbs in these utterances have in common?

1 He was deemed to be the best man for the job.
2 She is reputed to be rich.
3 I was born in the North of England.
4 His past is shrouded in mystery.
5 The tennis tournament was rained off.
G What is the effect of the use of the passive in these mini-dialogues?

1 Soldier: Sorry I'm late, sir. It wasn't my fault.
Officer: You've been warned about lateness before.
Soldier: I know, sir.
2 Interviewer: Can you give an undertaking to keep inflation down?
Prime Minister: It is to be hoped that it will not exceed 10 per cent this year.
3 Interviewer: And where is the General now?
Spokesman: He is believed to be abroad.
4 Professor: Have you read The Unbearable Lightness of Being?
Student: No, but I've read some ofV.S. Naipaul's other books.
Professor: But The Unbearable Lightness of Being was written by Milan Kundera.
5 Willy: What's happened to Joe?
Fred: He's been taken to hospital.
14
Voice
H Why is the passive so common in texts such as these?

1
-
No licence angler caught
/"
100 feared dead as flash flood
sweeps away peasant houses
j
WorldBankHQ
cost questioned } Child in help line appeal sought )
t
Woman, 75, killed at > Farmer cleared
accident blackspot
L
{
of bomb protest (
Diving gear stolen )
~ Patten given Safe radiation
Smith urged to ultimatum on dose levels cut
act now to get school tests J
more women MPs
2
DELICIOUS DISCOVERIES salted and spiked to let in the air which will
mark out the distinctive blue. The cheeses
No 1: Been leigh Blue cheese
are then matured and wrapped in foil for at
Beenleigh Blue was first made only 10 least four months, though the flavours im-
years ago. The milk is from sheep that prove for eight or nine months. By then, the
graze the ancient steep pastures along the taste will be steely blue, tangy, rich and,
banks of the Dart estuary in May and June. unusually, slightly sweet.
After that, mystically, the character of the Been leigh is unpasteurised and organic.
milk changes and Robin Congdon , the sole It is best eaten on its own as an imperial
producer of Been leigh, stops production . finale to a meal. The best, probably by now
Only 1500 cheeses are made each year. at their peak, may still be found in specialist
They are turned six times by hand and kept cheese shops. The first of this year's
for that first day at 22 degrees to allow the cheeses will be available from late
bacteria to continue working. They are then September.
Drew Smith, Observer Magazine, 25 April 1993

3
When we introduced the subject of alternating current we said that the very great use ,
made of a.c. supply systems is due to the ease with which an a.c. supply can be J
stepped up or down in voltage. To do this we use a static transfonner. This device
transforms low-voltage energy into high-voltage energy or vice versa.
Transformers are also required for the operation of most luminous discharge
tubes and for bell systems in the home; they are found in radio and television equip-
ment, with several different types often used in the same circuit; telephone systems t
use large numbers of transformers, as does X-ray equipment: so that we might say J
that where electricity is used, transformers are used too.
Essentially a transformer consists of two independent electric circuits linked with a
common magnetic cir_:t. In particular, it usually consists of two coils or windings of I
.......
15
insulated copper wire around a laminated iron core. An alternating magnetic flux is
produced in this iron core when an alternating current passes through the insulated
conductors. In operation, an a.c. supply is connected to one winding which thereby
becomes the primary winding: the other winding, to which the load is connected, is
called the secondary winding.
The magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit formed by the iron core links the turns of
the primary and the secondary windings. If this flux is the same for each of the two
windings, the e.m.f. induced per tum must be the same in each winding, so that the
total induced e.m.f. in each winding will be proportional to the number of turns on
that winding.
]. McAllister and G. Madanna (1976) , English for Electrical Engineers (Longman)
I Compare these pairs of sentences:

1 He's just had his watch repaired.
He's just repaired his watch.
2 Where can I get this film developed?
Where can this film be developed?
3 He's just had three teeth out.
Three of his teeth have just been taken out.
J Try this exercise and comment on its effectiveness from a teacher's point of view.
Complete each sentence on the lines of the example.

Do you repair you own car or do you have it repaired?
1 Do you cut your own hair or ...
2 Do you do your own gardening or ...
3 Do you fetch your own newspaper or .. ..
4 Do you make your dresses yourself or .. .
5 Do you clean your car yourself or ...
7 Conditionals and hypothetical meaning
A Provide a possible context for each of these utterances and comment on the verb
forms in italics. The first two have been done as examples.
1 If only it would rain!
This might be said by a farmer whose crops are threatened by a drought. It
obviously hasn't rained for a long time. The verb form would rain emphasizes
the hypothetical nature of the wish, which refers to the future.
2 If only it rained more often!
This might also be said by a farmer whose crops don't get enough rain. He
seems to live in an area where the annual rainfall is low, and the verb form
rained, in this context, is not past in meaning, but refers to the present in a
hypothetical way.
3 I wish you were here.
4 Ifl were a rich man, I wouldn't have to work hard.
16
Conditionals and hypothetical meaning
5 Ifl had a hammer, I'd hammer in the morning.

6 It's time you washed your feet.
7 Suppose you were in my position, what would you do?
8 Had you arrived earlier, you'd have had enough to drink.
9 He speaks as if he knew everything about cars.
10 Would you mind if I smoked?
What do the utterances have in common with each other in terms of meaning?
B Which of these utterances might apply to (a) a good student, (b) a lazy student
and (c) an ex-student?
1 If he worked hard, he'd pass.
2 If he had worked hard, he would have passed.
3 He'll pass if he works hard.
C Group these utterances according to the function of would in each.

1 He told me he would pay me back.
2 I wish it would rain.
3 Would you mind helping me?
4 It would be difficult to refuse such an offer if it came.
5 A: I've forgotten my keys.
B: You would!
6 You would do well to take his advice!
7 Queen Victoria would seldom smile.
8 I'd be grateful if you would stop blowing smoke in my eyes.
9 I was hoping you would come.
10 Would that you were here!
In the light of your observations, do you think it is useful to talk about a
conditional tense? or about conditional sentences?
D Divide sentences 1-13 into three groups for teaching purposes. State your criteria.
Providing a context for each utterance may help you to arrive at your decisions.
1 I wish I had more time.
2 If you come tonight, you'll meet her.
3 If only I had worked harder!
4 You'll have an accident unless you slow down.
5 I'd take care ifl were you.
6 There'll be no trouble provided you keep calm.
7 You'd do well to cut down your smoking.
8 There might never have been an accident if the road had been dry.
9 I'd feel better ifl could lie down.
10 Without the millions invested by the oil companies, North Sea oil might never
have been discovered.
11 Given a little luck, we'll succeed.
12 Should you change your mind, I'll be happy to hear from you.
13 Were you to have second thoughts, I'd be glad to re-open negotiations.
17
8 Functions
A What are the possible functions of the words in italics?
1 I have given it to him.
2 (a) How about using glue? (b) Let's go.
3 The water was heated to a temperature of 80°C.
4 You are coming tonight, aren't you?
5 I showed him the book so that he could help me to solve the problem.
6 Do you think you could find time to look through this book?
7 He walked to the window and opened it as far as it would go.
8 I meet him next Tuesday.
9 It's not something I've had much experience in. Nevertheless I'll do it for you.
10 The house is for sale now.
11 It's not only the cost that is the problem; I just haven't got time.
12 It has been discussed many times before.
13 I rang him yesterday at ten.
14 He is always picking his nose .
15 He bought two books and three magazines.
16 I'm not entirely sure that I agree.
B What is meant by function in A?
C Look back at the 16 examples in A and use them to help you to write different
definitions of the termfunction. Then place each example with one of your
definitions.
D What do you think is meant by function in We must teach both the form and the
function of structures?
E What is meant by functional in The Functional Approach puts the emphasis on what
is done through language?
F What is the function of the expressions in italics?

A: Let's go now. 4 A: Press button A.
B: Noway. B: Again?
2 A: I'm sure their offer is a very fair one. 5 A: You ought to get out more.
B: Noway. B: Too true.
3 A: Would you like to come in for a coffee?
B: Thank you very much.
9 Teaching functions
A 1 What do the following utterances have in common?

(a) I'm not quite sure I agree.
(b) You could be right but I think ...
(c) That's your opinion, is it?
(d) I would like to contest that point.
(e) I disagree.
18
Teaching funaion s
(f) I don't think it's right ...

(g) I'm not so sure I would go along with you there.
(h) Nonsense!
(i) That's not true.
(j) I'd like to express my disagreement ...
(k) That's all very well but ...
(I) On the contrary .. .
(m) Noway.
(n) I don't think I agree .. .
2 What are the main differences between the above utterances?
3 If you were going to teach the function of disagreement to a group of post-
elementary adult learners which of the above utterances would you teach?
How would you teach them?
4 List other exponents of the function of disagreement. Would you teach any of
these to the group specified in 3 above?
5 What conclusions can you draw from questions 1-4 about the teaching of functions?
B Two learners of English performed the following impromptu dialogue after being
taught ways of complaining and apologizing.
A: Excuse me, would you mind turning down your radio?
B: Oh, I am terribly sorry. What can I possibly do to put it right?
A: I won't ask you again.
B: Not at all. I really must apologise.
A: I must warn you I won't tolerate it any more.
B: I'm so sorry.
1 What is wrong with the dialogue?
2 What faults in the teaching do you think might have been responsible for the
learners producing such a faulty performance?
3 As a result of your analysis of this dialogue what would you say were the most
important things to remember when teaching functions?
C 1 What is wrong with the following dialogue?

A: Please could you possibly lend me £5?
B: I'm broke.
A: How about lending me your car?
B: I wish I could but it's in the garage.
A: I'd be so grateful if you could find yourwayto lending me your pen for a minute.
B: Noway!
A: Give me a cigarette.
B: If only I could.
2 What two functions are exemplified in the above dialogue?
3 What are the differences between the exponents of the two functions
exemplified in the dialogue?
4 List other exponents of the two functions to teach to a lower intermediate class.
For each exponent say what you think it would be important for the learner to
learn about it.
5 W hat are your criteria for selecting these functions?
19
10 Reporting speech
A 1 Which of the functions listed below would be possible, as interpretations

of the utterance in the cartoon?
ordering cajoling begging reminding inviting persuading advising

insisting requesting permitting recommending suggesting warning
compelling intending approving threatening scolding
2 How might the boy in the picture be able to decide exactly what his mother means?
3 Now turn the same utterance into indirect (reported) speech, once for each of
the functions you have chosen.
B Comment on this typical exercise for learners of English. What might they learn
from doing it? What might they not learn?
Put the following into reported speech:

1 'Go to your room and stay there till I call you! ' he said.
2 'Finish your meat or there'll be no ice-cream,' she said.
3 ' Don't spend all your money in one shop,' he said.
4 'Keep still ,' he said, irritably.
5 'Wait here till the taxi arrives,' she said.
6 'Don't you dare run away again!' he said .
7 'Don't shoot, please,' he said in a quavering voice.
8 'Take your partners for the rumba,' the band leader said.
9 'Listen to me, will you,' said the teacher curtly.
10 'Lead us not into temptation ... ' (The Lord's Prayer).
11 'We'll go tomorrow,' she said.
12 'They arrived this morning, ' he said .
20
Reporting speech I Notions
C 1 Comment on the writer's choice of direct or indirect speech in this

newspaper extract.
Patten says tests will go ahead

THIS summer's national curricu- it has made us unpopular. Sir Ron Dearing, chairman of
lum tests will go ahead, the 'You do not succeed in the the curriculum and assessment
Secretary of State for Education process of reform by stopping. authorities, reiterated his view
insisted yesterday, despite an opin- You simply fall off the bicycle, that evidence from the tests
ion poll in yesterday's Independent and you never get pedalling would help his review of the na-
showing that 62 per cent of parents again,' he told the BBC Radio 4 tional curriculum, but he did
think they should be abandoned, Today programme. not want to take sides 'in what
writes Colin Hughes. The embattled minister has become an industrial rela-
john Patten said he could not af- recognises that testing of 14- tions issue'.
ford to allow the Government's ed- year-olds will be patchy because Sir Ron, speaking in London
ucational reforms to stall: "We are of the teacher boycott, but he at the first consultation confer-
at a critical moment in the intro- believes that some schools and ence for his review of the cur-
duction of education reforms. It is teachers do want to do it. His of- riculum, told teachers that he
extremely easy on the back of the ficials pointed out that many hoped the review would provide
[Newbury] by-election defeat to primary schools had almost them with 'a better tool for their
say we have to stop doing this or completed testing seven-year- job'.
that or the other because clearly olds anyway.
From The Independent, I I May I 993

2 Are there any instances in the article where the conventional 'rules' of reported
speech have been broken?
D What do exercises A- C above suggest to you about the teaching of direct or

indirect speech when reporting?
11 Notions
A 1 What do the expressions in italics in the following sentences have in common?

(a) l'mgoingforamonth.
(b) He's lived here since 1972.
(c) Wewaitedtillten.
(d) Stay here untill come back.
(e) We had to wait a long time.
(f) He was watching television.
(g) We had been waiting for three hours when he arrived.
(h) H ow long did you stay there?
(i) We enjoyed the day immensely.
(j) We spent a week there.
(k) I think he's an honest man.
2 Explain when each of the expressions could be used, eg
(b) To refer to a period of time in the past from the date mentioned to a point
of time established by the situation (ie now) or a previous utterance.
Always followed by an expression referring to a point of time.
3 Write down any other similar expressions you can think of and then either link
them to explanations you have already given or, if this is not possible, give
separate explanations for them.
21
B 1 What do the expressions in italics have in common?

(a) The lorry moved slowly forward. (e) He'sgoneout.
(b) He has gone to Wigan. (f) He ran away from the fire.
(c) Ijustsawhimgoingintothatpub. (g) Go and fetch it.
(d) He was walking towards Linton.
2 Explain the use of the expressions in italics.
3 Write down any similar expressions you can think of and then comment on them.
4 Decide what aspects of the notion of movement you would teach to an element-
ary class and then for each aspect decide which actual expressions you would
teach.
C 1 The following expressions can be used to communicate the notion oflocation.

here outside where on
there this somewhere m
inside that everywhere
Use inside, this and on in sentences in which they communicate the notion of
location.
2 What notion can all of the following expressions communicate?
next to behind beside
between in front of on top of
3 What notion can all of the following expressions communicate?
first had left later on
then afterwards before
D 1 What notions do the expressions in italics communicate?

(a) Do it like this.
(b) He ate so much that he felt ill.
(c) It's not the same thing.
(d) You can open the door with this key.
(e) At the same time the bomb went off.
2 For each notion that you have referred to in 1, list three other exponents (ie
expressions which can communicate aspects of the notion) and comment on
the differences (if any) between the three exponents.
E You have decided to teach the notion of contrast to an intermediate level class.
1 Which expressions/structures would you teach? Why?
2 Which order would you teach them in? Why?
3 Would you teach them together in the same teaching unit or separately? Why?
4 How would you teach them?
F Do you think it is a good idea to devise teaching units in which you teach a range
of different expressions/structures which can be used to communicate aspects of
the same notion? Give reasons for your opinion.
22
Modal meaning
12 hiodalnneaning
A Sort these sentences into (a) those in which the verb in italics carries its own
meaning and (b) those in which the meaning of the verb is modified in some way.
1 Children are noisy.
2 The TV is broken.
3 The TV must be broken.
4 I see my doctor every Monday.
5 You ought to see him more often.
6 I'm afraid I can't see him any more often.
7 Joe was in London yesterday.
8 But he couldn't have been.
9 Why not?- Because I saw him in Liverpool.
10 He'll be 64 next birthday.
11 Will you open the door for me?
12 You'll have to work.
13 Do you thinkJohn is likely to come?
14 I think he might come.
15 But it's essential that he should come.
In what different ways are the meanings of the verbs in category (b) modified?
B We often speak of degrees oflikelihood in terms of percentages.

100%
0%
1 If 0 per cent= out of the question and 100 per cent= absolute certainty, allocate
these utterances to points on the line above which you feel indicate correctly
the degree of likelihood which they express. It will help if you think of an
appropriate context for each utterance.
(a) Willy is definitely in England.
(b) Willy may be in England.
(c) There's an even chance that Willy's in England.
(d) Willy might be in England.
(e) There's no way that Willy could be in England.
(f) Willy's probably in England.
(g) Willy must be in England.
(h) Willy just might be in England.
(i) I doubt if Willy's in England.
(j) Willy may very well be in England.
(k) Willy could be in England.
(I) Willy is likely to be in England.
(m) Perhaps Willy's in England.
(n) Willy's almost certainly in England.
(o) Willy ought to be in England.
2 Which of these would you teach first? Why?
23
C 1 What distinguishes these different ways of asking for permission from each other?
(a) OK ifl go home now?
(b) Would you mind ifl went home now?
(c) Can I go home now?
(d) May I go home now?
(e) Do you think I might go home now?
(f) Could I go home now?
2 Which of these would you teach first? Why?
D Explain the function of the words in italics in each utterance.

It may rain this afternoon.
2 Willy could run fast when he was a boy.
3 May I ask a question?
4 You needn't go if you don't want to.
5 You might have told me you were coming.
6 That can't be true!
7 They must be away. The curtains are drawn.
8 He was told he could re-sit the exam.
9 I've failed!
You could try again next year.
10 I must go.
E Jot down three ways of expressing each of the following.

1 possibility
2 ability
3 imposing obligations on others
4 necessity
5 annoyance at irritating habits.
F What is the difference (if any) between the verbs in italics in the following pairs of
utterances?
(a) I could swim well when I was a boy.
(b) He was able to escape by climbing the prison wall.
2 (a) You mustn't do that.
(b) You don't have to do that.
3 (a) He should see a doctor.
(b) He ought to see a doctor.
4 (a) You needn't come ifyou don't want to.
(b) You don't need to come if you don't want to.
5 (a) I may come.
(b) I might come.
6 (a) I shall do it.
(b) I will do it.
7 (a) I used to enjoy listening to stories.
(b) When I was a boy, my grandfather would take me on his knee and tell me
stories.
24
Auxiliary verbs
13 Auxiliaryverbs
A What is the main difference in function between the verbs underlined once and
those underlined twice?
1 He has gone to the cinema.
2 I must gg!; some work done.
3 No, I didn't see him at the match.
4 Have you met him before?
5 I was waiting for him to come.
6 I can see him now.
7 I am working tonight. I'll ring you tomorrow.
B What is the difference in function between the verbs in italics in (a) and (b)?
(a) I am English.
(b) I am going there tonight.
2 (a) He has four sisters.
(b) He has gone to bed.
3 (a) He does two hours homework every night.
(b) Does he like children?
C 1 What are the similarities and the differences in function between the verbs
underlined once and those underlined twice?
(a) Can you swim? (f) You ought to go home now.
(b) Did you swim? (g) Shall I tell him?
(c) You must go, mustn't you? (h) He doesn't want to come.
(d) You are going, aren't you? (i) They had already finished.
(e) Has the milkman been yet? (j) He couldn't do it.
Yes, he has. No, he couldn't.
2 List other verbs like those underlined twice.
D What are the differences in function between the three verbs in the sentence He
has had to have an operation?
E The verbs in italics are auxiliary verbs. Explain their main functions.
Did you like him? 6 Had he already mentioned it to you?
Yes, I did. 7 They are coming, aren't they?
2 I don't like chips. 8 Are you listening?
Don't you? Yes, I am.
3 They haven't even started yet. 9 He was hoping to go to university, wasn't he?
4 You've lost it, haven't you? 10 Haven't they gone to Brighton?
5 He is doing it tonight. No. But they did last year though.
F 1 Fill in the blanks in the dialogue below with verbs.

Roy: _ _ (a) she wearing that red dress last night?
Sam: No, she _ _ (b). She _ _ (c) bought a black one which _ _ (d)
even more attractive.
25
Roy: _ _ (e) you dance with her?

Sam: Yes, I _ _ (f). Two or three times. But then so _ _ (g) every other
man at the party.
Roy: _ _ (h) there any other attractive women at the party?
Sam: Yes, lots. But none of them _ _ (i) what Mary has.
Roy: I _ _ (j) hoping to take her to the dance like I _ _ (k) last year but
she _ _ (I) already agreed to go with Ian.
2 For each verb that you have added say whether it is an auxiliary verb or not. If
it is, describe its function.
14 Have and be
A 1 Ask the questions which might have prompted these answers. Use have in each
question, except those marked with an asterisk.
*(a) It rang when I was having a bath.
*(b) I was having a bath when it rang.
(c) No, I'm sorry, I haven't.
(d) Yes, I did.
(e) No, he hasn't, he's got three.
(f) I had a boiled egg, two slices of toast and a cup of tea.
(g) An Opel Kadett.
*(h) I'm having a sit-down and a smoke.
(i) No, never.
(j) Yes, I'll be having one next month.
(k) A boy.
(I) Sorry, I don't carry matches.
2 Look at the form of the questions you have made. Any comments?
B Comment on the meanings of be and have.

1 He is having his tonsils out tomorrow. 5 Have a drink on me.
2 Don't be cruel. 6 She's just had her hair permed.
3 He has three cooked meals a day. 7 Our house is being repainted.
4 She's just being stupid.
C One of each of the following pairs is wrong or at least unlikely. Identify it and say
why you think it is wrong or unlikely.
(a) Be careful! 6 (a) We've just had tea.
(b) Be handsome! (b) We've just had a new car.
2 (a) Don't be late! 7 (a) Being British, we were readily accepted.
(b) He's being late. (b) We're being French.
3 (a) She's being stubborn. 8 (a) She's got a brand new coat.
(b) She's being beautiful. (b) She's got her dinner at 8.30 every evening.
4 (a) I'm having three sisters. 9 (a) I don't have coffee every day.
(b) I'm having a bath. (b) I don't always be stupid.
5 (a) Have a cigarette!
(b) Have a headache!
26
Have and be I Comparisons
D Divide these utterances into two categories according to how have and be are used.
He has a cup of tea every morning. 9 Can I have a look, please?
2 He has a cup of tea in his hand. 10 Have a good time!
3 Her eat's just had kittens. 11 Be a good boy!
4 You're stupid. 12 Have a piece of chewing gum.
5 They have three children. 13 We haven't any apples.
6 Being stupid, you wouldn't understand. 14 He's a careful driver.
7 Walls have ears. 15 I've never had malaria.
8 You're being stupid!
E In which of these utterances do be and have function as auxiliaries?

1 He was born in 1940.
2 Having seen The Mousetrap, I don't know why it's so popular.
3 He's 1 just been 2 to London.
4 Being bright, he understood.
5 Our car's 1 being2 repaired.
6 Do you always have a shower before breakfast?
7 Have 1 you had 2 lunch yet?
8 He told her to be sensible.
9 What have you got in your hand?
10 Don't be obstructive!
F 1 We shouldn't teach have got (eg She's got one) as it's too colloquial. Discuss.
2 How did this mistake arise? 3 And this one?
A: Don't be silly! A: Where are my keys?
B: I don't! B: I haven't them.
4 What are the implications of these exercises for the teaching of be and have?
15 Comparisons
A What do the following have in common? What distinguishes them?
1 The Nile is longer than the Zambezi.
2 The Times is a newspaper with a long tradition whereas the Sun is relatively new.
3 Black coal is usually found a long way below the Earth's surface; brown coal,
on the other hand, is generally found on the surface.
4 Willy is not as bright as his brother.
5 Maggie didn't like the flat she was living in. She moved to a different one.
6 His hair is the same colour as mine.
7 I wish you'd speak more clearly!
8 He's less of an extrovert than his brother.
9 More motorists are in the Automobile Association than any other British
motoring organization.
10 I eat more than I should.
11 I hope you'll be as happy as we are.
12 The more, the merrier.
13 It's as cold as ice out there.
14 You can't do better than your best.
27
B 1 The following is a textbook exercise on comparatives and superlatives. What

does it practise and what does it leave out?
Choose the correct comparative or superlative form of one of these

adjectives or adverbs to complete each sentence.
J fast far difficult high old heavy beautiful careful obedient bad
(a) An elephant is __ than a hippopotamus.
(b) Chinese is a __ language to learn than Spanish.
(c) Henry drives __ than his brother.
(d) Henry is __ than his brother.
(e) Drive or we'll be late.
(f) Dogs are generally __than cats.
(g) Mont Blanc is the __ peak in the Alps.
(h) Many people think that Paris is the __ city in the world.
(i) It is __ from London to Edinburgh than from London to Brussels!
Ul His condition is gradually getting __ .
2 What rules useful to learners of English can be generalized from these examples?
16 Tense and function 1
A Write down the verbs in each of the following utterances. For each verb name its
tense and describe its function(s).
1 When they got to the station the train had already gone.
2 I was walking along Church Street when I saw Mary.
3 The programme will have finished by the time you have finished making the
coffee.
4 You're too late. He's just gone home.
5 I see Bill got arrested again yesterday.
6 He walked to work every day when he worked at the station in 1968.
7 When he comes I will let you know.
8 Passenger: Which platform does the London train leave from?
Rail worker (pointing to a train): It's just gone.
9 I've been waiting here for thirty minutes.
10 I meet him tomorrow at ten o'clock.
11 Has he come yet?
B Answer the following questions on A above.

1 In 1 how do we know that the train left before they got to the station?
2 How would substituting walked for was walking change the meaning of 2?
3 (a) Why is the verb in the second clause of 3 in a different tense from the verb
in the first clause?
(b) Would changing the form of the second verb to will have finished making
change the meaning of the sentence?
(c) Would changing the form of the first verb to has finished alter the meaning
of the sentence?
28
Tense and function 1
4 Is the choice of tense in the second sentence of 4 crucial to the meaning of the
sentence? Why?
5 Could the verbs in 5 be put into other tenses without seriously affecting the
meaning of the sentence?
6 How important is the choice of tense in the first clause of 6 in indicating past habit?
7 Does the choice of tense in when he comes contribute to the meaning of the
sentence in 7?
8 In 8 does the rail worker's choice of tense contribute significantly to the mean-
ing of his utterance?
9 Could any other tense be used in 9 without changing the meaning of the sentence?
10 (a) What does the choice of tense in 10 tell us which we could not have deduced
from the other elements in the sentence?
(b) What does it tell us which is also communicated by other elements in the
sentence?
11 How important is the choice of tense to the meaning of sentence 11?
C The following incomplete statements refer to A above. Fill in the blanks.

1 In some utterances the choice of tense is crucial as the use of a different tense
would of the utterance.
2 In some utterances the choice of tense is not absolutely crucial as the_ which
it has been chosen to communicate is also communicated by _ _ in the
utterance and/or by _ _ _ _ .
3 In some utterances the tense does not contribute significantly to the _ _ _
_ as other elements of the_ and the _ _ make the _ _ absolutely _ _ . In
such utterances the tense is chosen mainly for its _ _ rather than for the __
that it can convey and an error in the choice of tense would not necessarily_
D Check your answers to C in the commentary, then complete the following table by
putting each verb from A in the appropriate column. (The numbers at the head of
the columns refer to statements 1-3 inC above.)
1 2 3 I
was walking (2) got (1) I
had gone (1)
E Write two examples of your own in which the choice of tense is crucial to the
meaning of the utterance.
F Write two examples of your own in which the choice of tense reinforces the
function of another element in the utterance.
G Write two examples of your own in which the verb tense is appropriate but is not
crucial because other elements of the utterance or the situation communicate the
same function.
29
H Complete the analysis of tense significance that follows this passage.

The old woman had been moved into the small room where the child had slept and the
man with the red moustache had been shifted into what the nurse now called the conva-
lescence room. In the middle room Jennifer Jay with her eyes closed. They had appar-
ently succeeded in removing the book as it was lying face down on the table.
Analysis
1 had been moved- the selection of the past perfect tense is crucial as it is the only
indicator that the moving had been completed before the arrival of the writer.
2 had slept- the selection .. .
3
I Analyse the tense significance of the verbs in the dialogue below:

Mary: Here it is. It's been in this cupboard all the time we've been looking for it.
Simon: Good. I'll take it to the pub tonight. I'm meeting Arthur at nine; I'll give it
to him then. I was going to buy him another one.
Mary: The phone's ringing.
Simon: I'll get it. Sam usually rings about this time.
Mary: It's stopped ringing. You didn't answer it quickly enough.
J What is the relevance of this unit to the teaching of the tenses of English?
17 Tense and aspect
A Sort these utterances into two categories based on the verbs. Describe your
categories.
1 Fred went to London last week.
2 I was working for a cigarette company in May last year.
3 He's just having dinner.
4 I'll be at the meeting tomorrow.
5 Maggie goes fishing on Sundays.
6 I'll be lying on the beach at Torremolinos this time next week.
7 His house is being painted.
8 He visited India as a child.
B Account for these wrong utterances by learners of English:

Q: What did you do when the telephone rang?
A: ~I wrote a letter.
2 Q: Cigarette?
A: ~No thanks. I'm not smoking.
3 Q: What do you think of the government?
A: ~I'm liking it very much.
4 Q: Where are you going?
A: To town.
Q: ~Will you go to the post office?
30
Tense and aspect I Tense and function 2
5 Q: What were you doing when the doorbell rang?

A: X I got up and opened the door.
6 Q: X Where have you been last night?
7 Q: Who built that wall?
A: X The Romans had built it 2000 years ago.
C In view of these typical and frequent errors, how do you think learners of English
can be helped to understand the difference between tense and aspect?
A Comment on these statements.

The simple past is always used for completed actions.
2 The most common use of the present continuous tense is to express the future.
3 The future tense is formed with will or shall+ infinitive.
4 The past perfect tense is used to express the distant past.
5 Past and present tenses should not be used in the same sentence.
B Provide a context for these sentences, and comment on the meanings of the verbs
in each one:
1 He's always dropping cigarette ash on the carpet.
2 Paul Gascoigne scores for England at Wembley yesterday.
3 Becker serves to Edberg.
4 It leaves at 6.30.
5 We'll wait until they arrive.
6 Pure water boils at 100°C.
7 I never saw Caruso sing.
8 I've never been to a Bob Dylan concert.
9 Hemingway wrote The Old Man and the Sea.
10 Dickens wrote novels.
11 Wim Wenders directed Paris T exas.
12 Margaret Drabble has written a number of successful novels.
13 Gladstone would often take a hot water bottle filled with tea to bed.
14 I used to play football.
C Comment on these errors.

1 X John uses to get up early.
2 X My brother lives in Kent for twenty-three years .
3 X Did you finish your homework yet?
4 X We've been in London yesterday.
5 X Dinosaurs had died out millions of years ago.
31
D Comment on the effectiveness of the following practice exercise for learners.

What will they learn from it? What will they not learn?
Put the verbs in the following sentences into the correct tenses:
1 He (go) to bed late last night.
2 Willy (never be) to Paris.
3 John (drink) heavily but now he's a teetotaller.
4 The Blues (be born) in the Mississippi Delta.
5 Buddy Holly (give) a concertjust before he died.
6 West Germany (win) the 197 4 World cup.
E Some uses of the simple present tense are exemplified in B above. Here is a more
exhaustive list of uses. Match the uses in the left-hand column with the examples
in the right-hand column, and put them in order to indicate teaching priorities.
Give reasons for your decisions.
Expresses habits. (a) Willy gets up at 7 every day.
2 Expresses action happening (b) Sugar dissolves in warm water.
at time of statement
3 Expresses general truths. (c) The Carlisle bus arrives at noon.
4 Expresses predictable, regularly (d) Joe smokes heavily.
occurring events in the future .
5 Expresses routine. (e) Mary speaks fluent Spanish.
6 Used in newspaper headlines and (f) Clinton calls for energy summit.
photo captions to express recent
past events.
7 Expresses facts about the present. (g) Rush passes to Hughes.
8 Expresses the future after certain (h) We'll phone you as soon as we get home.
time expressions.
19 Non-finite verb fonns
A Are the words in italics verbs, adjectives or nouns?

1 Seeing is believing. 6 He watched her crossing the room.
2 He's waiting for a taxi. 7 They've just done a listening exercise.
3 He's playing a waiting game. 8 The school is being redecorated.
4 Few people like going to the dentist's. 9 Being a doctor, he was able to help.
5 I hope you don't mind my asking ... 10 She went upstairs cursing and grumbling.
B 1 Replace the words in italics by a different word (not ending in -ing) which
would fit in grammatically; the meaning is irrelevant.
eg Willy hates dancing.
-Willy hates cabbage.
(a) The kettle is boiling.
(b) The film was exciting.
(c) I'm looking forward to going to London.
(d) We had pork, roast potatoes and sprouting broccoli for lunch yesterday.
32
Non-finite verb forms I Adverbs and adjectives
(e) I'm not accustomed to eating out.

(f) Stop talking.
2 What have you learned from this process of substitution?
C What are the differences between the utterances in these pairs?

He stopped to look at the newspaper.
He stopped looking at the newspaper.
2 Did you remember to lock the back door?
Do you remember locking the back door?
3 Do you like dancing?
Do you like to dance?
4 Do you like dancing?
Would you like to dance?
5 She saw the burglar climb through the window.
She saw the burglar climbing through the window.
6 I regret telling you that your road tax is overdue.
I regret to tell you that your road tax is overdue.
D Comment on the errors in these utterances; put them right.

~ He has great difficulty to speak English.
2 ~I enjoyed to visit Cambridge yesterday.
3 ~ He's used to go to bed late.
4 ~ I'm looking forward to hear from you.
5 ~ He tried starting his car but the battery was flat.
6 ~ I've always been interested to take photographs of old buildings.
7 ~ I don't feel like to go for a walk now.
8 ~ I'm very pleased to seeing you.
20 Adverbs and adjectives
A Ask q uestions to elicit these answers (focus on the word(s) in italics).

1 It's green. 5 Quite frequently- about once a week, in fact.
2 A green one. 6 Badly.
3 The green one. 7 Oh, he's a good dancer.
4 Dangerously. 8 Nearby.
B Account for the errors:

1 ~ Sall y works hardly.
2 ~ My friend speaks very well English.
3 ~ How is the weather today?
4 ~ Aberdeen is very far from London.
5 ~ I've ju st been to visit my ill friend .
6 ~ That's not a very usually colour for a car.
7 ~ My sister is elder than I am.
8 ~ He spoke to her friendlily.
33
c Why do you think foreign learners may have problems with understanding or
producing the words in italics?
1 The baby is rather poorly today. 4 Hold tight!
2 We have been visiting a stately home. 5 My brother isn't very well.
3 You should work hard and play hard. 6 He has an elderly uncle in Cardiff.
D Which of the utterances 1-4 might be made:

(a) by an Eskimo in Zambia 1 It's too hot here.
(b) by an Eskimo in Britain 2 It's rather cold here.
(c) by a Zambian in Britain 3 It's too cold here.
(d) by a Zambian in Greenland? 4 It's quite warm here.
What are the factors influencing the choice of quite, rather and too to modify
adjectives and adverbs?
21 Relative clauses
A 1 Identify the incorrect sentences and put them right.
(a) Peru, which is a very poor country, is known as the homeland of the Incas.
(b) The book, that you lent me last week, is on the shelf over there.
(c) He who laughs last laughs longest.
(d) Can you tell me more about the man you saw last night?
(e) Last week we went to see Top Gun which is a very good film but we couldn't
stay till the end.
(f) Alexander Fleming, whose wife lived in Athens, died some years ago.
(g) Alexander Fleming was the doctor who discovered penicillin.
(h) The Times, that is known internationally as the voice of Britain, was not
printed for several months during 1979.
(i) Dallas was an American TV series, which was very popular in Britain.
(j) Dallas, which was very popular in Britain, was an American TV series.
(k) When I was down in town I bumped into my cousin who told me the news.
(I) The man that did most for race relations in the United States was Martin
Luther King.
2 Why is the comma such an important feature in these sentences?
B In A you encountered two types of relative clause.

1 What is the function of a defining (restrictive) relative clause? Give an example
from A.
2 What is the function of a non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clause:> Give
an example from A.
3 Are non-defining relative clauses common, quite common or fairly
uncommon in spoken English? Why?
C 1 Why was it possible to omit a relative pronoun in the following utterances?

(a) The story you've just told me sounds plausible.
(b) I've told you before to be careful of people offering something for nothing.
(c) Everywhere you go you hear the same complaint.
34
Rela1ive clauses / Word order
(d) Nothing I have heard about him changes my opinion of him.

(e) An ammeter is an instrument used for measuring the strength of an electric current.
2 Why do you think some learners of English find it difficult to understand (and
produce, when appropriate) utterances like these?
D Comment on these utterances in the light of exercises A and C above.

1 The girl in the red dress is from Canada.
2 They have just bought the old cottage on the hill above the village.
3 Please put out your cigarettes in the ashtray by the door.
E What might a learner of English find difficult about the relative clauses in the
following utterances?
He failed his exams again, which naturally disappointed him.
2 She keeps on arriving late, which causes resentment among her colleagues.
F Account for these foreign learner errors.

X The teacher lives opposite is a friend of mine.
2 X The student which you spoke to yesterday is absent today.
3 X The student who you spoke to him yesterday is absent today.
4 X Top Gun? That's the film I got bored during.
5 X She's not the little girl whom I once knew.
6 X Top Gun, that I saw last week, is a boring film.
G What feature(s) do these utterances have in common?

1 It was Clara that you saw waiting at the corner.
2 It could have been Fred that rang you last night.
3 It was last Friday that I first felt ill.
4 Where was it that you spent the weekend?
5 What you see is what you get.
6 What you really believe is what is important.
22 Word order
A 1 What do these utterances have in common?

(a) What do you want to drink?
(b) Can you help me)
(c) Only by using a powerful microscope can you see the intricate cell-structure.
(d) Hardly had he arrived when the phone rang.
(e) You really should pay him back, shouldn't you?
(f) Pop goes the weasel (from a children's song).
(g) Here comes Willy at last!
(h) ... and so say all of us!
(i) Under no circumstances must you contact the police.
(j) So be it.
(k) Willy hasn't finished yet and neither have I.
(I) Preparing to vault now is the world recorder-holder Sergei Bubka.
(m) Were you to ask me again, I might accept.
35
2 Account for the inversion of subject and verb in each of the examples above.
B Explain the difference between these two types of inversion.

Typel Type2
Nor do I. There goes Charlie.

On no condition does he lend money. 'Hey-ho!' says Rowley.
Seldom do you hear such a delightful Down the hill rolls the ball.
rendering of that aria.
C Explain the apparent inconsistency between the sentences in each pair.

(a) Here comes my friend v Here she comes.
(b) Up into the clear blue sky soared the bird v Up into the clear blue sky it
soared.
D Explain what is wrong with these utterances and produce at least one acceptable
version of each one.
1 X They go often to London.
2 X My sister plays marvellously tennis.
3 X I'm giving my daughter a pink cuddly new teddy for Christmas.
4 X Where's your car?- I've lent John and his friends it.
5 X Always I make that mistake!
6 X That's a man's old coat. (But note the ambiguity in your corrected version!)
7 X Nowhere am I going this evening. I'm staying at home.
36
Unit 3 Vocabulary and vocabulary teaching
1 Common myths and misconceptions about words
Write a response to each of the following statements. Indicate to what extent you
agree with the statement and try to give examples to support your response.
1 It is not correct to use words with new meanings. Gay means lively and
cheerful not homosexual.
2 The translation of a word should have exactly the same referent in the second
language as the word does in the first language.
3 The translation of a word should convey the same attitudes towards the
referent in the second language as the word does in the first language.
4 It is not correct to use words from another language when talking in English.
So English skiers are wrong to talk to each other about the piste or the apres-ski
and English people living in Japan are wrong to refer to themselves as gaijins.
5 When we are speaking to somebody it is very important that we use the correct
words with precision and that we never use words vaguely or carelessly (eg
Pass me that thing on the table please).
6 Slang words should never be used in written English.
7 Words referring explicitly to toilet functions or to the sexual act should not be
used in mixed company.
8 Words in a foreign language are best learned through definitions and
translations.
2 Word fields and lexical relationships

A Compare the meanings of pick in the following, then answer questions (a)-(f).
1 Pick that book up, will you?
2 How's Bill?- He's picking up.
3 He's been picked to play for England.
4 Why are you always picking quarrels?
5 He's the pick of a bad bunch.
6 I picked up a hitch hiker at Stumps Cross.
7 I'll pick you up at six.
8 He's always picking his nose.
9 I need to buy a new pick before we go climbing again.
10 He's a pickpocket.
11 Don't pick people to pieces all the time .
12 He got in by picking the lock.
(a) Put the above utterances into groups in which pick has a similar meaning.
(b) Is there a 'core meaning' of pick. If so what is it?
(c) If you were teaching vocabulary to an intermediate group and you were
advised by your syllabus or textbook to teach the word pick, what teaching
decisions would you make?
37
(d) A class were doing a comprehension exercise in which the sentence, I'll pick
you up at ten occurred. A student asked, 'What does pick mean?' and was told
by the teacher to look it up in a dictionary. Comment on the teacher's answer.
(e) What answer would you have given to the student's question in (d) above?
(f) What is wrong with the following method of teaching the word port?
Teacher: I noticed most of you got wrong the question about the ship not being
able to get into port. Copy down the following definitions of port, learn them for
homework and then write five sentences of your own using port.
port = a harbour; a gate or gateway; carriage, bearing; to carry a weapon dia-
gonally across and close to the body; left-hand side of a ship; strong sweet,
dark red wine of Portugal.
B 1 For each of the following pairs of utterances say in what ways the words in
italics are similar and in what ways they are different.
(a) A: Did you know that William has become a rebel?
B: He hasn't. He's become afreedomfighter.
(b) A: I envy Alice. She's really slim.
B: Do you think so? I reckon she's skinny.
(c) A: He really is mean.
B: I wouldn't say that, I would say he was thrifty.
(d) A: He's very fat, isn't he?
B: He is. In fact I'd go as far as to say he's obese.
(e) A: He wears rather feminine clothes.
B: Effeminate would be more accurate.
2 What important vocabulary teaching points do the above pairs of sentences
suggest to you?
C 1 Replace the words in italics in the following utterances with one of the
following: shoes, pen, meat, seat, picture.
(a) Look at this drawing. (h) I like your new moccasins.
(b) I bought a new pair of boots. (i) Is this your fountain pen?
(c) Lend me that biro, will you? (j) I'll have that lamb please.
(d) I think we'll have steak for dinner. (k) Did you do that painting?
(e) Put it on the chair, will you? (I) Sit in that armchair there.
(f) That's a nice photo. (m) That blue ballpoint is mine.
(g) That sofa is not very comfortable. (n) Let's sit down on this bench.
2 What is the effect of these substitutions on the meaning of the utterances?
3 What does this exercise suggest about the teaching of vocabulary to beginners
and to advanced students?
D 1 What is wrong with the following utterances spoken by one friend to another?
What do you think might have caused the speaker to use each of the utterances?
(a) ~I fractured a cup when I was washing up.
(b) ~He ejected the dog from the kitchen.
(c) ~Don'tfeigntome.
(d) ~Be careful. The bridge is feeble.
(e) ~Your ball pierced my window.
38
Word fields and lexical relationships
(f) X I desire an ice-cream.

(g) X Don't worry. I'll manufacture another paper aeroplane for your Willy.
(h) X The buses were on strike so we had to march all the way to town.
2 What conclusions about the teaching of vocabulary does a consideration of the
above errors lead you to?
E 1 What is missing from the following definitions?

mate =friend guy = man
fag = cigarette gear = clothes
bird= girl It's gross= I don't like it at all
boss= master or manager
2 What errors could the learning of such definitions lead to? Give one example
for each word.
3 What important points about the teaching of vocabulary does this exercise
suggest to you?
F What ideas do the diagrams suggest for the teaching of vocabulary?

1
cold
terrible
wicked
G Look at the use and misuse of the words in the following pairs of English words.
Then come to conclusions about:
1 the difference between the words in each pair;
2 the criteria for deciding whether two words are interchangeable;
3 the use of synonyms (or near-synonyms) in the teaching of vocabulary.
reach/arrive
We reached home at ten. X He arrived out his hand.
We arrived home at ten. He reached out his hand
I reached the French border at six. X We reached back at ten.
X I arrived the French border at six. We arrived back at ten.
I reached that conclusion last night. Can I reach you at the office?
I arrived at that conclusion last night. X Can I arrive you at the office?
He has just arrived.
X He has just reached.
39
Unit 3 Vocabulmy and vocabulmy teaching
brave/courageous
That was a brave decision.
That was a courageous decision.
He's a brave man.
He's a courageous man.
He braved the storm.
X He couraged the storm.
Making the decision to resign took great courage.
X Making the decision to resign took great bravery.
Rescuing that boy from the fire was an act of great bravery.
Rescuing that boy from the fire was an act of great courage.
He didn't have the courage of his convictions.
X He didn't have the bravery of his convictions.
Don't lose courage.
X Don't lose bravery.
Hard luck, that was a brave try.
Hard luck, that was a courageous try.
put up/accommodate
Can you accommodate a party often students?
Can you put up a party often students?
Hey, Bill, can you put me up tonight?
Hey, Bill, can you accommodate me tonight?
3 Factors in the teaching of vocabulary
A 1 Look at the following sentences and make conclusions about: (a) opposites in
English, (b) the use of opposites in the teaching of vocabulary.
old/new tall/short
He's an old man. That's a tall building.
He's an old friend. That's a tall order.
I'll do it for old times' sake. I always seem to be short of breath.
He's like a new man. I'm too short to join the police force.
I think we'll try a new way to work today. This rope is too short.
work/leisure rough/smooth
He works in a leisurely way. He's very rough.
Mozart's works will live for ever. He got a rough deal.
He's at the works. It was a rough match.
We need to educate people for leisure This material is smooth.
as well as work. He's a very smooth person.
rich/poor light/dark
Poor man, he's hurt. It was a light evening.
That cake is too rich. It was a light load.
That's a poor idea. It was a dark day for England.
He's rich in ideas.
2 For each of the above pairs decide whether you would ever teach them
together and give the reasons for your decision.
40
Factors in the teaching of vocabulary
B 1 The following were sentences used by different teachers to help them to

exemplify the meaning of amazed. Look carefully at each example and then say
why you think it is a good or a bad teaching example.
(a) I was amazed when he told me.
(b) I've never been so amazed in my life.
(c) He was absolutely amazed when he found out.
(d) I was really amazed when he told me he had failed the exam. The reason I
was so surprised was that he had been getting very high marks all term. I was
even more amazed when I found out that I had passed as all term I had been
getting low marks.
(e) I was amazed by his death. I had never expected him to die so soon.
2 What conclusions have you come to about examples used to help teach the
meanings of new words?
3 Write teaching examples for the following: careful; clumsy; slippery; decide.
C A teacher asked students to write a sentence using swept as it is used in the

sentence Mary swept the carpet every morning.
Look at the sentences he got from the students. What do they tell you about:
1 the students' understanding of the meaning of swept?
2 this type of test question?
He swept it. I saw him. She swept the carpets twice a week
Jane swept the carpet a lot. Mary swept the carpet before she went to work.
Have you swept the carpet yet? They didn't sweep the carpet very often.
D Deduce the meaning of the nonsense word(s) in italics in 1-3 and say what clues
you found in the text to help you.
1 A: I found this nibbit in your pocket when I took your coat to be slinned.
B: Oh yes, I put it in my pocket in case I was hungry at the football match.
A: I prefer the ones with chocolate on myself.
B: So do I. That's probably why I didn't eat it. When will my coat be ready?
A: Tomorrow morning.
B: I hope they get all the marks and stains out this time. I want to look smart at
my interview.
2 A: Did you have to ding him so hard?
B: He was very naughty.
A: But you really hurt him.
B: I know, I hurt my hand too. It was only his leg though.
A: He'll soon get over it.
3 I was sitting in the garden reading when I felt a drop of rain. I didn't want the
glogget to get wet so I got up, folded it up and went to put it in the garage with
the other garden seats. When I saw the garage I was furious. It was so unseddy.
I'd told the kids to put all their toys in the trunk to keep the garage seddy but
now there were toys all over the garage floor.
What vocabulary teaching points does the above exercise suggest?
41
E 1 If the following words existed what do you think they would mean?
(a) reget (f) punkly
(b) cardback (g) postthink
(c) excess age (h) impossibliate
(d) sub lunar (i) disrecommend
(e) bidaily (j) auendive
2 What parts of speech ( eg noun) would they be?
3 What vocabulary teaching points does this exercise suggest to you?
4 What advice would you give about teaching the following real words?
disinterested
ruthless
important
1m pose
F 1 Which sentences produced by the following substitution table are not

acceptable or not normal in English?
1 2 3
marvellous
sensational I
amazing to eat
It was superlative to watch
superb to hear
incredible to drive
brilliant
wonderful
2 Can you make any valid generalizations as a result of doing this exercise?
3 What conclusions does the exercise lead you to regarding the teaching of the
words in column 2?
G 1 Try to make as many acceptable sentences as possible from the following

substitution table.
2 Discuss the differences in meaning between the words in column 2.
1 ;• ~ 3 4
bought
purchased house
hired car
rented money
rented out a business
I've sold the pen
borrowed my tent
acquired television
lent picture
let dog
loaned
42
Phrasal and prepositional verbs
H Comment on the following vocabulary exercise.
Decide whether the words in column A can be used together with each of
the numbered words. If two words can be used together put a tick in the
relevant box. If they cannot put a cross.
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
believer supporter customer gardener student reader vegetarian
keen
fervent
enthusiastic
fanatical
interested
zealous
4 Phrasal and prepositional verbs

A Group the verbs into two categories according to whether they are followed by
adverbs or prepositions.
1 Drink up quickly.
2 He switched the light off
3 Is this story true or did you make it up?
4 He has just applied for a new job.
5 We called on Willy yesterday.
6 In Germany, young men are called up at the age of 18.
7 Water consists ofhydrogen and oxygen.
8 He was looked upon as a hero.
B Comment on the verbs.

You'll have to catch up on what you've missed.
2 You mustn't put up with that!
3 Most western countries have done away with capital punishment.
4 You must drop in on us some time.
C Turn these utterances into the passive. Read them aloud then identify and
account for stress patterns in each.
1 Someone will have to speak to him firmly.
2 Someone will have to put this work aside.
3 Nobody can account for three of the crew.
4 They cleaned the house up after the party.
5 Someone has filled this form in.
6 Someone has laid up a lot of ships in the south-west of England.
7 Someone has shut down the steelworks.
8 Someone has worn this record out.
43
D What are the meanings of the verbs in italics? Which can be deduced directly
from the two parts of the verb?
1 Some learners catch on very quickly.
2 You're always answering back!
3 This milk has gone off!
4 Your new dress needs to be let down.
5 Our sponsors have let us down.
6 We'll have to lay in extra sugar supplies.
7 You shouldn't keep on running your friends down.
8 He was put out by your attitude.
9 Standup!
10 He ran away from home when he was 6.
11 What time did you knock off last night?
12 My French needs brushing up.
E Comment on the effectiveness of the following exercise.
Replace the verbs in italics with phrasal or prepositional verbs.

1 He had three teeth extracted yesterday.
2 He was raised in Scotland.
3 She resembles her mother.
4 The match has been postponed till next week.
5 You're always disparaging your brother.
6 That paragraph can be omitted.
7 His accent betrayed him as a Welshman.
8 Everyone feels the need to escape for a while.
9 Dinosaurs became extinct millions of years ago.
10 We must reduce our outgoings.
44
Unit 4 Cohesion
A Look carefully at the words in italics, think about their function, then answer the
questions below.
(a) Have you given it to him yet?
(b) Are we seeing them again tonight?
(c) Did you buy it from him?
(d) Have they seen it before?
(e) Ifl see him with her again I'll tell you.
(f) Why did she get angry?
H e was very drunk.
(g) H ers is beautiful.
Questions
1 Why is it not clear what the above sentences refer to?
2 What is required to make the reference of the above sentences clear?
3 Rewrite the sentences to make their reference clear.
4 When would your sentences be more appropriate than the sentences above?
5 When would the above sentences be more appropriate than your sentences?
6 Are there any situations in which some of your sentences would actually be
considered incorrect?
7 he, she, it, they, him, her and them are personal pronouns. What do you think
the main function of these pronouns is?
8 I, we and you are also personal pronouns. Why can't you replace them with
nouns in the above sentences?
How are they different in function from the other personal pronouns?
9 You have probably used her in your rewrite instead of hers ( eg Her house is
beautiful) . What is the difference in function between her and hers?
B 1 What has caused the breakdown in communication in the following

conversations?
(a) A: Are they going there again?
B: Where?
(b) A: I saw him then.
B: When?
(c) A: I'm doing those then.
B: Which?
(d) A: Did you buy that there?
B: What?
2 What do there, then, those and that have in common in the above examples?
3 What words in the conversations could have caused a breakdown in
communication and why didn't they?
4 Rewrite B's responses in each conversation so that she is indicating a different
problem of communication.
45
Unit 4 Cohesion
C 1 Why is there very little danger of a breakdown in communication in the

following sentences?
(a) I'll give you this instead. (c) I'll see you here at six.
(b) Are these yours? (d) Let's eat here now.
2 What is the main difference in function between:
(a) this, these, here and now and (b) that, those, there and then?
D Look at the way that and this are used in the following utterances.
A: He broke her favourite vase.
B: That was very valuable.
A: That was very careless.
2 A: Don't worry. There'll be nobody in the house. We'll be on the road
with the picture in ten minutes' time.
B: I still don't like the idea.
A: This is it now. Stop the car.
B: This is crazy.
What is the main difference in function between the two instances of that in 1 and
between the two instances of this in 2?
E 1 What is the potential difference in meaning between (a) and (b)?

(a) They were a different two books.
(b) They were two different books.
What is the difference between the grammatical function of different in (a)
and different in (b)?
2 (a) Complete the following conversation:
A: I need some other clothes.
B: Not again? You bought some new shirts last week.
A: No! I don't mean new clothes. I mean clothes. I don't want
to get these _ _ .
(b) What does the word other warn you to do in order to understand an
utterance which contains it?
(c) Write a similar conversation in which another causes misunderstanding.
3 (a) What makes the following sentence ambiguous?
We'll have to do more for them.
(b) Describe two situations in which the sentence would not be ambiguous.
The sentence should not have the same meaning in both situations.
F 1 What do the words in italics have in common?

(a) Your cooker is not working properly. -I know, I need a new one.
(b) Does anyone want to go to the pub? -Yes, I do.
(c) Has the London train gone? - I think so.
(d) My mother fusses and nags me all the time. -Mine does too.
(e) I'll have a pint of bitter. -I'll have the same.
(f) Will the game be postponed? -I hope not.
46
Cohesion
(g) Don't bother washing the cups. We can use the old ones.
(h) I didn't get a paper today. Can I borrow yours?
(i) Can you give me a lift in your car? Mine has broken down.
2 The words in italics have very similar grammatical functions. However they
can be divided into four distinct groups. Allocate each utterance to a group and
say how each group is different from the others.
G 1 What do the following utterances in italics have in common?

(a) Mark bought a plant and Lynn a basket offlowers.
(b) Would you like to hear another song? I know a lot.
(c) What did you think of the lectures? -Two were quite good but two were awful.
(d) I thought that one of the twins would get into the team but I was surprised
when both were selected.
(e) Has he gone? -Yes, he has.
(f) Janet should have been informed but I don't think she has been.
(g) Bill scored two and Fred one.
(h) Has she been laughing? -No, crying.
(i) What should I have done? -Phoned the police.
2 Allocate each of the utterances in italics to one of two groups and describe the
difference between group one and group two.
3 Use the examples above to help you to work out generalizations about what
can be omitted in a second utterance or response.
H 1 Look at the following sentences and think about the differences in meaning
between them.
(a) I like football and I like rugby. (f) I like rugby in addition to football.
(b) I like rugby and I like football. (g) I like football. Also I like rugby.
(c) As well as football I like rugby. (h) I like rugby. Also I like football.
Cp) I like rugby as well as football. (i) I like football. In addition I like rugby.
(e) In addition to footbaii I like rugby. (j) I like rugby. In addition I like football.
2 Do the same exercise with the following sentences.
(k) It is an old car but it never Jets me down.
(I) It is an old car. However it never lets me down.
(m) Although it is an old car it never lets me down.
(n) It never lets me down but it is an old car.
(o) It never lets me down. However it is an old car.
(p) It never lets me down although it is an old car.
3 Are there any differences in meaning between the different utterances in
(a)-(j)? If so, say what they are.
4 The words in italics in (a)-(j) are examples of words and phrases which can
be used to link two statements, ideas, etc together. They represent three
different types of such words and phrases. As well as, and and also belong to
different types. Distinguish between the three types and allocate each word
or phrase in italics to one of your types.
5 What are the differences in meaning between the utterances in (k)-(p)?
6 Allocate each of the words in italics in (k)-(p) to one of the types you have
established in 4 above.
47
Unit 4 Cohesion
I 1 Look at the expressions in the box below and make up sentences exemplifying
the use of each of them.
instead in that case in any case and also similarly because of this in fact
consequently previously despite this then for instance however so
for this purpose on the other hand for example furthermore meanwhile
therefore thus at the same time on the contrary with this in mind
as a matter of fact on account of this as well as likewise finally besides
2 Place each item in one of the types established in H4 above.

3 Place each item in the appropriate category, as indicated below.
Exemplification Sequence Reason Result Purpose \ Comparison

first for this reason as a result in the same way
Addition Contrast Correction Dismissal Reinforcement Time

nevertheless rather anyhow moreover
even so at least
4 When you have filled in the columns examine the expressions in each column
and then comment on the differences in use between the expressions.
J Identify, correct and explain the errors in the following utterances.

X The ship finally sank this morning. Meanwhile in Canada there has been
an unprecedented heatwave.
2 X It was a tremendously exciting match. Nevertheless I hope you enjoyed it.
3 X I don't like musicals. Anyhow I'll come with you.
4 X I don't like jazz. On the contrary I like folk music.
5 X It was really cold in the factory. In that case they refused to work.
K Complete the following sentences. Then make generalizations about the words
you have used to fill in the blanks. When are they used and why?
We all kept quiet. That seemed the best _ _ .
2 Any ideas where I should stay in Hong Kong? I've never been to the _ _
before.
3 What shall I do with all this equipment?
Leave the st_ _ here. We'll come back for it later.
4 I thought we were going to London today.
I don't know where you got that _ _ from.
5 Where shall I put this hairdryer?
Put the t _ _ away in that cupboard.
6 Bill's been stealing apples again. I'll have to teach that _ _ a lesson.
7 Mrs Biggins has been spreading rumours about you again. That _ _ is a
damn nuisance.
8 She's feeding her dog. That cr_ _ eats more food than I do.
48
Cohesion
L 1 This Unit has focused on cohesion (ie the ways in which we indicate connections
between utterances). Read the following passage in order to gain a general
understanding of it. Then read it again and identify all the markers of cohesion
(eg She in sentence 4).
Dial M for Murder by Mother

0 UR TELEPHONE
is £325. I do not
bill
find this amusing.

won't. It isn't six yet.'
'I must. I've got to.'
Treasure is desperate for
its claws off and bark itself
dumb, and Treasure will
not move a muscle. I am
violence. Grandma, among
others, will be coming out
in spots down in Hove,
Treasure apparently does. her next fix. Her addiction forced to return on such trying to get through.
She finds the whole thing has worsened over the past occasions and let it out I have wrenched the
hugely entertaining. She six months. She waits till myself. phone from its socket,
ignores repeated requests six . She is on hot coals. She 'Why didn't you open smacked it from her hand,
and reasonable arguments cannot rest, work or eat. the door?' I snap. 'I didn't fisticuffs have ensued and
to limit usage, and when I She stalks the house, watch- hear,' says Treasure, look- the solution seems no
finally approach, madden- ing the clock, waiting, hoping hurt. 'Really I didn't.' nearer. 'Get Treasure her
ed, screaming hoarsely, ing someone will ring and But she can hear the own phone,' say the Liber-
'Get off the phone'' she break her vigil. At six she telephone, even on the als. 'Tell her that this is not
will smirk in a relaxed way clamps herself to the tele- quietest ring and hidden acceptable,' say the Clever-
into its mouthpiece. phone, talking and laugh- under my double duvet. dicks, but at last Mrs
ing fiercely . I could hear Someone phones at 1Opm, Perez has come up with a
'She wants me to get off
every top-volume word Treasure's supposed bed- possible answer: what
the phone,' she drawls, cool from the bottom of the gar- time. 'She's asleep,' I growl. about Treasure's own
as anything, moving it a den but Treasure is deter- But she has heard its tiny phone but for incoming
tiny bit away from her ear mined I shall not listen. muffled ring. She crawls calls only? Then they can
and enabling her chum to ' Shut the door,' she exhausted from her bed. all phone her on that and at
hear the silly mother roar- roars bossily as I leave the 'Who was it?' she croaks. least my line will be clear.
ing in the background. room. I refuse . I am carry- She cannot sleep without All I'll have to worry about
She is dicing with death. ing a mountain of dirty this knowledge. She can- is when, behind her closed
The dog knows. It is hiding cups, plates, banana and not sleep with it. She will bedroom door, glued to her
under the kitchen table, orange skins, and chewed lie awake wondering what own telephone, will Trea-
looking crumpled, but yoghurt pots which she vital snippet she has miss- sure ever do her home-
Treasure doesn'tcare. She and the dog have discard- ed and planning tomor- work and go to sleep?
will risk anything to use the ed. I haven't a free hand. row's return call. And 'She's only copying you,'
phone. Returning home I don't really want the there's the rub. Put them says Mrs Perez cruelly.
from even the briefest ex- door shut anyway. Once offtoday and the little 'What do you do when
cursion, she will dart to it, it's shut, the dog cannot toads will only ring back you 're upset? You run to
grab it and cradle it on her get in or out freely and tomorrow. The return the phone and tell every-
knee. 'Who can I phone?' starts to bark and scratch, calls mount up, a cumula- one.' My fault again . Now
sheasks,staringwildly into and when Treasure is on tive effect. I know that to- we know who is res pons-
the air. She strokes its little the phone she is unable to morrow will also be a hell ible for Britain's economic
plastic body. 'I'll phone move and attend to the of ringing, shrieking and crisis. Mr Lamont's
Lizzie,' she cries. 'No you dog's needs. It can scratch arguing, and may end in mother.
from the Guardian, 2 March 1993
2 Set comprehension questions which would help learners to understand the

functions of the examples you have identified.
M What are the teaching implications of the discoveries you have made as a result of
doing the exercises in this Unit?
49
I
Unit 5 Coherence
A Look carefully at the following dialogues .

Analyse each utterance as in the following example.
Type Purpose
A: interrogative offer
B: declarative declining offer
A: Would you like a cigarette?

B: No thanks.
A: It's OK. I've got plenty more.
B: I don't smoke.
2 A: It's raining, isn't it?
B: Yes, it is .
A: I'd better go and get my raincoat then.
B: Could you get mine as well please?
3 A: It's two o'clock.
B: Don't worry. I'm nearly ready.
A: It'll take us at least fifteen minutes to get there.
B: Do you ever stop worrying?
B 1 Describe situations in which the following exchanges would make sense.

(a) A: It's nearly seven
B: Yes, I know. I'm just going to ring him now.
(b) A : The grass needs cutting.
B: It's nearly ten o'clock.
A: He'll wait.
B : Like last week and the week before.
A: The Robinsons are coming tomorrow.
B : It's starting to rain now anyway.
(c) A: Shall we stop for a while?
B : If you want.
A: The Cow's quite good, isn't it?
B : If you say so .
A : We met your friend Jane last time, didn't we?
B : My mother will be worried.
(d) A: Hello.
B : Bob?
A: I'm not coming tonight.
B: He's already gone.
A: Already?
B: Try Ted's.
so
Coherence
2 Analyse each utterance in each of the above dialogues in the same way as the
following example.
Type Purpose
(a) A: declarative getting somebody to do something
B: declarative indicating acceptance of suggestion in A
3 What implications for teaching does your analysis of the exchanges in A and B
reveal?
C The imperative sentence, Do it now can be interpreted in different ways

according to the situation. It could be interpreted as any one of: command,
advice, appeal, instruction or warning.
1 Match each of the following mini-dialogues with one of the five functions above.
(a) A: What do you think?
B : Do it now. Then it'll be dry when we come back.
(b) A: Do it now. There's somebody coming.
(c) A: Do it now.
B: Yes, sir.
(d) A: Do it now. Please, I want to go home.
(e) A : You need to turn it over very quickly. Do it now.
2 List the set of conditions which you think must prevail for the sentence to be
interpreted as each of the five speech acts listed above.
eg Command
(a) A in authority over B
(b) B accepts authority of A
(c) A wants B to do something
3 How can such a listing of conditions help the teacher?
4 Write mini-dialogues for each of the following pictures. Then label each
dialogue with one of the five functions .
51
Unit 5 Coherence
D Read the following paragraph.

The suggestion that all industries should be nationalized is ridiculous. Can you
imagine the cost and the chaos? Look what happened to the railways. And the steel
industry. No. Instead let us encourage private enterprise. Only then will we have
initiative and thus prosperity.
Now answer the following questions.
1 What speech act (see Q4) does the question, Can you imagine ... perform ?
2 What speech act is performed by, Look what happened to the railways?
3 What two propositions does instead connect?
4 What does then refer to in the last sentence?
5 What is the function of thus in the last sentence?
6 The following analysis of the strategic structure of the above paragraph is
wrong. Correct it.
(a) Statement (sentence 1) (d) Refutation
(b) Question (e) Conclusion
(c) Exemplification (f) Qualification of conclusion.
E Read the following.

We have a problem. Yesterday I was told that we couldn't have any more books this
year as our budget has been spent. That means of course no tapes for the winter term.
However I think I've got an answer. Ifyour brother can lend us the tapes from his school
we can lend him that spare set of 'Mullens' for the term .
Now answer the following questions.
1 What is the problem? How do you know?
2 What does that refer to in sentence 3?
3 What two propositions does however (in sentence 4) connect?
4 Does the we include or exclude the addressee? H ow do you know?
5 What does Mullens refer to? How do you know?
6 What implications for teaching have you discovered fro m doing 1-5 above?
F Identify and analyse the errors in the following extract from a student's work.
Me plAtcltasing power of consumers.

healers ralher lhan coal Furlhetmore,
of lne consumers. They prefer lo use
-liS lite elecll'ic kellle.
lh lransporlalion. The increase in pelrolled
~alil!ll;'./a/Jru lite eleclrificaJion of railway and molor
of increased from 15,210 million
as a resu/1 of Jhe decrease in lite iron and
52
Coherence
G Cohesion and coherence are obviously both concerned with ways of connecting
utterances together. It is not easy to actually define the difference between the
two as there is considerable overlap between them. Try to complete the following
definitions.
Cohesion involves indicating the conn between consec-- or rei--

utterances. If a text is cohesive you can see by Zoo--- at the text how one utterance is
rel-- to a prev--- or subseq-- utterance.
Coherence is the lin-- together of cons or rel-- utterances according to the
june-- of the utterances. Thus an invitation followed by an ace would be
coh-- whereas an invitation followed by an anecdote would probably not be co h--.
Look at the following examples.
1 Mr Burns is often late. Yesterday I answered the phone.
2 A: Which platform does the London train go from?
B: London? My daughter lives in London. She married a banker there last year.
Example 1 could be coh-- because it could consist of a generalization followed
by an example and a consequence. But it is not coh-- because there is no ind-
- - conn between the two utterances .
Example 2 is coh-- because the two utterances are connected by the repetition
of London. But it is not coh-- because there is no apparent connection between
the function of the question and the function of the reply.
53
Unit 6 Errors
1 Some myths and misconceptions about errors
Write a response to each of the following statements indicating to what extent you
agree with it. Try to give examples to justify your views.
A good language learner makes very few mistakes when using the new
language.
2 Iflearners make mistakes when speaking it is a result of errors in their learning.
3 Mistakes are caused by learners being lazy and failing to memorize what they
are taught.
4 It is important that learners do not get away with making errors. T hey should
be made to correct every error they make.
5 If errors go uncorrected they become habitual and impossible to eradicate.
6 Most errors are caused by interference from the first language. Such errors can
be prevented by the teacher contrasting the two languages.
2 Learners'errors
A 1 Correct the errors in the following sentences and say what you think m ight
have caused each of the errors.
(a) X My father is a .fisher.
(b) X I am seeing a lion in that cage.
(c) X Helikefootball.
(d) X He leaves in a large house.
(e) X When I will go there tomorrow I will visit Mary.
(f) X She's beautiful, isn't it?
(g) X He has gone there this morning.
(h) X Will you borrow me your car?
(i) X He has robbed all my money.
(j) X I rang up so I booked the tickets.
(k) X He had gone to London yesterday at two.
(1) X He was wounded in the car crash.
(m) X If he asked I would have helped him.
(n) X Suddenly there came a friend to me.
(o) X We were to noisy.
(p) X This couldn't care us a rap.
(q) X I'm going to the lake for swimming.
(r) X My mother she is very old.
(s) X Mary doesn't like Jim. He says he is selfish.
(t) X I have stopped to play football because of my injury.
2 Make a list of causes of! earner errors from an analysis of the errors above.
54
Errors
B Look at the transcript below of part of a conversation between two elementary

learners and then:
1 List all the errors.
2 Correct the errors.
3 Select the main types of errors and say what might have caused the students to
make these errors.
4 (a) Imagine you are a teacher listening to this conversation. Would you correct
the learners? Give reasons.
(b) If you answered 'Yes' to question (a), state which errors you would correct
and when you would correct them.
A: I will be football player when I will be back to my home.
B: I will be professor in school.
A: Whatfor?
B: I will enjoy. It will be nice to be teach.
A: No, it is bore. Football will be interest. It will be rich.
B: Professor will be rich too.
A: No, not true. Football player will be very much rich.
B: In my country football player not be rich, not give the money.
A: In my country he will be give lot of money.
C Compare the following extracts from an elementary learner's workbook. The

second extract was written two weeks after the first .
sitop. /1 cosl £2. I read lasl 11i(jhl.

(rolf! a shop in Cambrid(je. II cosl ~r~e £10.
1 What are the main differences between the two extracts?

2 What do you think might have been responsible for the differences?
D What can you discover about the learner's problems from reading this extract
from his work?
in a lown. Usually he cycles lo his

bus. His work is very liri11g 11evetlheless
M COWleS nome.
E 1 List and correct all the errors in this extract from a learner's composition.
Underline all the errors that you think should be given remedial attention by the
teacher.
fine and I worked lne whole day. I

(611 asleep. Suddenly lhere ca~r~e a
hi~t~. Tnal friend died 5 years before, so
if/tlltl wiln lfl{l friend. We walked in a very
shill's, we wenl upslairs. We wenl lo a roo1r1 lo
55
Unit 6 Errors
see a garden of flowers. Bul lhere were no flowers, lhere was onlg a llel'l/
strange man, his shin was very slrange. He had a scarp in ltis fa~ Its WI
very ugly. He beckoned me lo come near. I was afraid, bul I 4ad lo
because in my back lhere were lwo men holdin(j a (jUIJ. I WtJIJI:II&~~t--,..
had a knife in his hand.
He wanled 1-o murder me because his friend died lwo weelts
accidenl- wilh my father. I said I could ~r~anage il, so he_•.•,,.,.,~
He would gave me lhree hours lo do everylhing ill otdel'.
were lied on a chair. We ~r~ade up a slory.
When lhe man came back, we should run awau 11.1 T_..........
nearesl police sial-ion.
Afl-er a lime lhey came back, lhey ltad Ja/ltetl lt1
give any money lhey said, so lhey had lo kill lfte.
hear/-. He wanl lo come near wilh his knife. I
molher came lo my roo1r1. She asked whal
was only a bad dream.
2 Divide the errors you have identified into broad categories.
F List and correct all the errors in this transcript of an advanced learner telling the
story of a cartoon. Which of the errors do you think might impede
communication?
wben Hr Robinson switched on

t seem to work, so he went
the television aerial had been
'f!l why be tried to fix the ladder, to get
on to the roof to fix it ... The ladder fell
to shout for help. His wife came outside
happening so she immediately called the
they arrived they succeeded in getting
on earth again. The three of them, Mr
and the man ... were standing there. Then
.._,fli.U.""'u.u made a hot cup of tea, and they were
there, trying to watch TV to see a part
film but when they switched on television,
thing they saw was 'The End. '
G 1 List and correct all the errors in this extract from a student's story.
ltle /tis frieltd fie ca~ne back a11 hour laler

/uuloltft! bee11 ill ltospilal for le11 mi11ules
lte lftNSI walk. fie arrived allhe hospilal
M ltas lo~teft! lite ltUI'se gra1tled him pennission
klld tne Ire was golltfllo lite hospilal i could
!taPe sla11ed willt Iris frieltd a lol longer.
56
Errors
2 Give one example from the extract of each of these types of error:
(a) A lexical confusion which could impede communication.
(b) An expression which is too formal for the situation.
(c) An adverbial confusion which in another context could impede
communication.
(d) A prepositional phrase confusion which in another context could impede
communication.
(e) A tense error which could cause a time reference confusion.
H 1 Tabulate your opinion about each of the following statements.
Statement Agree Disagree Not sure
(a) The teacher should always correct learners'

errors as soon as they make them.
(b) Making errors can be useful for learners.
(c) The teacher should relate decisions about

correction to the objectives of the lesson.
(d) The teacher should control activities so that

they help the learners to avoid making errors.
(e) When giving back written work it is better to

focus on a few similar errors than to correct
every one.
2 Rewrite any of the statements you disagree with so that the new version reflects
your views.
3 Explain why you agree with each of the other statements.
57
1 Contntentary
T HE FOLLOWING COMMENTARIES suggest possible answers to m ost of the
questions in the exercises. In many cases various other answers would be
acceptable but are not included because of considerations of space. A few of the
questions are so open-ended and specific to the individual reader's own experience
that it has been decided not to provide commentary for them.

1 The English language
A Encouraging students to read only the classics of English literature does not
necessarily help them to speak English well. Some reasons for this are:
• The classics were written a long time ago and therefore exemplify English
expressions which are no longer current (eg third extract)
• Many of the classics include dialogue which exemplifies regional dialects very
different from the standard English dialect we teach in the classroom (eg first
extract).
• The syntax and style of the written English of the classics is very different from
that of the spoken English of today (eg second extract).
• There is no such thing as the best English. An utterance in English is good if it
succeeds in communicating the speaker's or writer's meaning and intention and if
it is appropriate to the situation in which it is used. Reading only the classics can
give learners the false impression that they should always try to use literary English.
• It is important that learners of English are given practice in reading the different
types of modern written English which they are likely to come across outside the
classroom.
B 1 English in its present form is not ancient at all and it is certainly not pure. It is the
current stage in a process of evolution which has been influenced by contact with
many other languages (eg Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Greek, French, Dutch) and with
many regional varieties of English (eg Australian English, Indian English and
American English). Change is inevitable in a language and borrowings and coinings
are an important part of this change.
Such emotive words as great, corruption, vulgar and pure are not appropriate in a
description of language development and there is not much point in fighting
against what has already happened to a language.
2 The writer is engaging in a futile piece of prescription, saying that the grammar
book and the dictionary have more authority than the language user. What the
writer says is unacceptable is in fact common usage.
58
The English language
As teachers we should concern ourselves with what is said, not what we think
ought to be said .
3 This statement is demonstrably untrue (eg Have you found some?; I'll deal with
any questions at the end). However at an early stage of language learning it might
be a useful over-simplification to make to certain learners, providing that the
truth is subsequently revealed.
4 This is demonstrably untrue (eg to pity, to fear and to expect are verbs but not
doing words; running- as in running is good for you- is a doing word but functions
as a noun not a verb). At no stage of! earning is this a useful over-simplification as
it misleads learners without helping them to use the language.
5 This statement, too, is also neither true nor useful. The subjects of many
sentences are neither people nor things (eg W'hat she says makes sense) and very
often the subject does not do any action (eg He is hoping to go to university).
6 Tense is not the same as time reference. The past tenses are often used with past
time reference but not always (eg I was thinking ofgoing to the match tomorrow;
I wondered ifyou would allow us to miss the meeting; If he came it would be too late).
7 This statement is confusing as it is obvious that you can count money. It would
be more accurate to say that uncountable nouns cannot be preceded by a number
(eg X two rices; Xfour monies). NB X = incorrect utterance.
8 Will is used in such clauses with the function of expressing willingness ( eg Let me
know when he will do it) . The statement is designed to prevent such errors as, X I
will phone you when he will arrive, and can be a fairly useful over-simplification if it
is made less absolute (ie not often instead of never).
9 Such people need to be able to use the variety appropriate to the situation in
which they are communicating ( eg Nigerian English in informal situations in
Nigeria but Standard English at international conferences).
10 They are perfectly acceptable substitutes in very informal communication bet-
ween social peers (eg friends, colleagues, members of the same team or group).
11 Formal jargon used in informal communication can be very annoying. However
it can help to achieve economy and precision in formal discourse (eg dwelling can
cover house, flat, bungalow, hut, caravan, etc).
12 There is a common misconception that foreigners talk very quickly because what
you do not understand appears to be said more quickly than what you do
understand. The learner finds the teacher easier to understand than a stranger
because he or she has got used to the teacher's accent and speech mannerisms
and because the teacher makes a deliberate attempt to be clearly understood.
It is important that learners are exposed to many different voices and that they
participate in authentic conversation as well as practice drills in the classroom. It
is especially important that the teacher does not always talk to learners in an
artificially slow and precise way, as what is gained in immediate convenience will
not compensate for future frustration.
13 Such a teacher will inevitably produce learners who stand out as being out of
touch with current usage, who get frustrated by the discrepancy between what
they are taught and what English speakers actually do, and who are inhibited by
the constant demand for correctness.
59
Such a teacher also fails to appreciate the difference between spoken and written
English and the fact that what is considered to be correct depends on the situation
in which the language is being used. He also makes the arrogant mistake that a lot
of experience automatically equals a lot of wisdom.
14 There is no such thing as incorrect English. There are many regional varieties of
English. Each one is different from the others but all are equally correct. Standard
English is the variety of English normally taught to foreign learners as this is the
variety normally used by educated users of English regardless of their regional
origins . The accent (ie way of pronouncing) normally taught to foreign learners
is RP (Received Pronunciation) . This accent is the one taught because it was the
first one analysed and described and because many of the early English teachers
and material designers spoke an approximation of it. However the users of this
accent (often called BBC or Oxford English) are in the minority and can be
defined as educated speakers of English whose accent is entirely uninfluenced by
the accent of their region of origin. As most learners of English will eventually be
exposed to many different English accents it is a good thing if some of their
teachers are not RP speakers.
15 A good English speaker uses the type of English most suited to the situation. In
some informal conversations slang is very suitable (egan argument between
friends in a pub about a football match) .
2 Learning English
A A language cannot be said to be stupid because it is not completely regular and is
not completely controlled by rules . No living language is completely regular and
rule-bound because living languages are organic and are constantly being changed
by their users.
• It is common for learners of a language to think that their own language is logical
and regular and that the one they are learning is stupidly irregular. This is usually
because they very seldom examine their own language whereas they are frequently
called upon to examine the language they are learning. They also find their own
language easy to use and assume that this is because it is logical and regular.
• English has been influenced by many other languages (eg Anglo-Saxon, Latin,
Greek, French) and it contains many apparent illogicalities. However, like all
languages, it operates as a system of generalizations, not as a system of absolute
rules . Thus it is possible to make generalizations about the formation of the simple
past tense in English (see 3) but it is easy to think of exceptions. The important
thing to remember is that when formulating generalizations about a language you
should describe what people using the language actually do and not prescribe
what they should do.
• No language follows a set of fixed rules. Languages evolve and then grammarians
attempt to describe them sometimes unfortunately making it seem that the patterns
and regularities underlying the language are rules to be obeyed by the users of the
language.
• The speaker in 5 seems to be following no rules. But in fact she is being more
systematic and consistent than at first it appears.
60
Learning English
• There are some patterns in English that are extremely regular and could be taught
as rules. The doubling of the consonant after short vowel sounds is one (see 1), as
is the agreement in person between the statement and the tag in English question
tags (see 2).
B The pupil has imitated the form of a structure used by the teacher. In each case the
pupil has made an error because the form he has used has not been appropriate.
In 1 he uses the present continuous tense but this is inappropriate when referring
to an ailment or illness; in 2 he uses the present perfect inappropriately to refer to
a specific point of time in the past; and in 3 he uses 'will' to refer to the future in a
time clause in which the appropriate verb form is the simple present tense.
It is obvious from the evidence that learning a language purely through imitation
of correct forms can lead to the making of errors even when the forms are imitated
correctly. It is important to be able to reproduce the correct forms of English struc-
tures but it is also very important to know when to use them and when not to use
them. This cannot be learned from the imitation of forms.
C 1 The writer breaks all the rules that he imposes on his learners and thus demon-
strates the frequent contradiction between actual usage and prescriptive rules. He
uses will with I, he uses who instead of whom (the pupils who I teach), he splits an
infinitive (to always speak) and he ends his sentence with the preposition with.
All the rules that he insists on (but breaks) refer to generalizations that used to be
valid when describing the written English of the highly educated. None of them is
valid today. They certainly do not describe what 'correct' speakers of English do
today and therefore learners of the language do not need to follow them.
2 This statement illustrates the dangers of learning lists of uncommon words and
then trying to show off the new words. The writer has learned the forms of many
words that are not commonly used in English and has retained an approximate
knowledge of their meaning. However he has not learned the restrictions on their
use and his accumulation of inappropriate and unusual \Vords v;ill inevitably result
in a ridiculous failure to communicate. New words are best learned in context and
not from lists. It is not a good idea for learners of English to try to learn and use
every long or unusual word they come across.
D 1 Grammar books and dictionaries are important sources of information about a

language. They can teach someone about a language but they cannot teach anyone
to use a language as they cannot expose the learner to language in real use and they
do not provide any opportunities for practice or production.
2 A language can be learned in this way if the learner is strongly motivated and if the
texts read and listened to are sufficiently comprehensible. However a teacher can
help to make the process much more economical and effective by providing suitably
comprehensible material, by focusing attention on salient features of the language
and by providing help, encouragement and feedback.
3 Repetition of correct forms can help the learner to achieve automatic mastery of
the formal elements of some structures (eg word order, verb endings, subject-verb
agreement) but this does not help the learner to know why and when to use the
structures.
61
4 There is much more to speaking a language than knowing its grammar (eg using
structures, phrases and vocabulary appropriate to the purpose and context of the
communication). Also declarative knowledge (knowing about) is not the same as
procedural knowledge (knowing how). Furthermore, the grammar of spoken
English is very different from the written grammar normally taught in textbooks.
5 This does not seem to be true for most learners. They s~em to need training in
using these skills in the foreign language regardless of their level of linguistic
competence.
6 Listening and reading have many sub-skills (eg visualization, prediction,
inferencing) in common but differ markedly in how these skills are used (eg
reading usually allows a lot more time and thought than listening). In order to
become an efficient listener you need a lot of experience ofljstening.
7 The grammar of spoken English is very different from the grammar of written
English. Learners who speak as though they are writing sound very stilted and
formal and often annoy the people they are trying to communicate with (eg com-
pare, 'I've been thinking about it, maybe I'll- yeah maybe next Tuesday' with 'I
have been giving the matter thought and have decided that maybe I will do it next
Tuesday.')
8 This is a common mistake in textbooks and leads to the sort of stilted learner
English referred to in 7 above. In order to develop the abiljty to use spoken
English effectively you need experience of spoken English.
9 Some pronunciation 'errors' are amenable to correction (eg those consonants
such as thin which are produced near the front of the mouth and are therefore
'observable') but most other 'errors' are resistant to constant correction
(especially errors involving vowel sounds). Such a purutive approach to pronun-
ciation errors can deflate and demotivate learners and actually prevent them from
developing a pronunciation which, while not of native speaker standard, can
achieve the only realistic target of international intelligibility.
10 Language learning needs the sort of constructive noise made by learners inter-
acting with the teacher and with each other. Without it they will not gain the
natural input they need nor the vital experience of using the language for oral
communication.
3 Tenninology
A 1 particular way; represented; writing; speech.

roles; plays; purpose; express.
form; function; form; function.
2 form; written; spoken; period; time; past; present; future; utterance.
3 full; contracted.
4 formal; official; serious; superiors; strangers; informal; relaxed; casual; know;
well.
5 correct; acceptable; situations; people.
6 cotext; words; before; after; context; situation/setting.
B 1(b) 2(d) 3(f) 4(c) 5(e) 6(a) 7(g) 8(h)
62 I
1 Basic grammatical terms
A noun 9 adverb 17 conjunction

2 noun 10 noun or intransitive verb 18 noun
3 verb (intransitive) 11 pronoun 19 noun
4 adjective 12 adjective 20 intransitive verb
5 conjunction 13 transitive verb 21 conjunction
6 preposition 14 adjective 22 preposition or adverb
7 pronoun (possessive) 15 adverb 23 noun
8 verb (intransitive) 16 intransitive verb 24 pronoun
B 1 One likely categorization is:

Concrete nouns Abstract nouns Proper nouns
elephant delay Poland
car hope Diana
m1rror truth September
marmalade humour
oak excitement
radio
telegraph pole
2
Countable nouns Uncountable nouns
raisin book sugar rice
nut teaspoon butter spaghetti
cake shop milk water
pound pot honey
carton
C Utterances containing transitive verbs: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 10.

Utterances containing intransitive verbs: 3, 5, 8, 9.
D a restaurant; quite a while; the only one in town; a few questions; some rather
lazy replies; something safe; a beef casserole; red meat; her; a cheese salad; the
last portion; the cheese salad; a tip.
2 took; asked; gave; brought; asked; offered; didn't leave.
Two examples will suffice to explain the relationships involved:
(a) It took me quite a while to .. .
The verb took has a direct object (quite a while) and an indirect object (me)
which could be moved and preceded by for.
(b) She gave me some rather hazy replies ...
the verb gave has a direct object (some rather hazy replies) and an indirect
object (me) which could be moved and preceded by to.
63
3 Other common verbs in this category include: lend, get, promise, buy, etc. Such
verbs are sometimes called ditransitive verbs. Most transitive verbs,
however, need only one object as there is no additional relationship involved,
eg I looked fora restaurant, I don't eat red meat.
E 1 because (a conjunction) is wrongly used as a preposition.

2 Subject pronoun she is wrongly used where object pronoun her is required.
3 quickly (an adverb) is wrongly used as an adjective.
4 during (a preposition) is wrongly used as a conjunction.
5 avoid (a transitive verb) is wrongly used intransitively.
6 slow (an adjective) is wrongly used as an adverb.
7 gives (3rd person singular form of verb) is wrongly used after 3rd person plural
pronoun they.
8 listen is wrongly used with a direct object, perhaps by analogy with hear. (A
preposition- to- is needed to make the utterance correct.)
F Because the structure words he, his, and, out, a, they, until, a, to, them are all
recognizable and give an acceptable framework to the nonsense words, and
because some of the nonsense words are marked by their endings as verbs
('crattled', 'strentered', 'veened') or adverbs ('folicly'), or simply sound right in
context.
G Depending on the dictionary, they may or may not appear as headwords. In any
case none of them is the obvious form for a dictionary to list. A verb is normally
listed under its infinitive, and a noun in its singular form.
H 1 (a) give, show

(b) several possibilities, eg imperfections, paradoxes, contradictions, confusion
(c) stuff
(d) thought, could, were, built, grown, become
(e) Midnight
(f) many examples, eg act, learn, think
(g) many examples, eg if, but, as if
(h) correctly, intellectually, really, very
2 This discussion might go in many different directions. Holt's point is that
children use language to help them make sense of the world, but it sometimes
only adds to the confusion. Younger children are certainly likely to find relat-
ively abstract notions such as 'conjunction' or 'preposition' more difficult to
handle than 'noun' or 'adjective'. There are many different possible ways of
introducing word classes to children (eg 'a noun is a naming word', 'a verb is a
doing word', etc- this often involves oversimplification or distortion), and you
may be able to recall your own struggles with these terms during early school-
days. Second or foreign language teachers may face problems with word classes
if their learners never mastered them in their mother tongue. However, most
learners will at least have acquired the basic means of describing the world
around them by the time they start to Jearn a second or foreign language.
64
Forms and functions
2 F orrns and functions

A All the utterances express habitual or routine actions, signalled in different ways:
by the present simple verb
2 by the adjective and noun
3 by the used to structure (discontinued habit)
4 by the phrase in the habit of
5 by the association of always with the verb in the present continuous form.
B All the utterances contain verbs in the present continuous form, expressing
something different each time:
1 an ongoing process (over a long undefined period)
2 something happening now (for a short period)
3 an expression of future intention; the meaning here depends on the time
adverb tonight
4 a habitual action; the meaning here depends on the adverb always.
C All the utterances contain, or consist of, verbs in the imperative form, expressing
something different each time:
an instruction 4 a supplication
2 an invitation 5 a standard response to thanks
3 an order 6 advice.
D All the utterances refer to the future, but the verb forms differ and the shades of
meaning differ:
a parting greeting, short for I'll see you which implies that the parties concerned
will meet again soon, in the normal course of events
2 part of a pre-arranged programme (futurity expressed by due to and the time)
3 an expectation (near future expressed by about to)
4 statement about the future (train departure) based on known facts (a regular
timetable)
5 expression of intention (going to ... )
6 this could be his intention, or merely a neutral statement of what lies ahead of
him- the futurity is expressed only by the time phrase in June- note the
change of meaning if these words are omitted!
7 this is an unalterable fact about the future- often called the pure future,
expressed by shall/will.
E Each utterance contains an element of hypothesis, differing in situation and time

reference:
1 a piece of advice; the speaker uses the common device of putting
himself/herself in the listener's place
2 ... but the listener is still there, therefore the unreal element
3 ... but you're not!
4 ... but he didn't (and so failed his exams)
5 ... but no one did.
65
The verb forms correspond to the subjunctive in many other languages- they
look like past tense verbs but in meaning are not related to the past. For further
treatment of this topic, see section 7 (pp 16-17, 71-2).
F Each utterance expresses a degree of possibility or probability, differing in

degree:
1 very improbable
2 possible
3 self-explanatory
4 certain
5 probable.
For a fuller treatment of this topic see section 12 (pp 23-4, 77-9).
3 T ense and time

NB Initial trainees may find this exercise puzzling and will need guidance. See G.
Leech andJ. SvartvikA Communicative Grammar of English (Longman) pp74-5
for a diagrammatic representation of tense/time relationships. This is an initial
sensitization exercise; most of the problems raised receive more detailed
treatment in subsequent exercises.
A 1 g d e c fa b is the likeliest order The essential clues are in the verb forms, in the
time expressions and in the overall context which is gradually built up by
associating the utterances with each other and with the speaker.
2 (a)3, (b)7, (c) 1, (d)2, (e)5, (f)6, (g)4.
B Present time is usually expressed by present tenses; present tenses may,

however, be used in combination with future time expressions, to express
future time.
2 This is generally true; the pastness is signalled by the form of the verb and the
time is specified when necessary, in an adverbial phrase.
3 This certainly is not true, and early attempts to write grammars of English on
the lines of Latin grammars resulted in some persistent misunderstandings
about how the English verb system works, eg over the existence of a future
tense, and the meanings accorded to various forms of the past. In fact the forms
of our verbs have Germanic, rather than Latin, origins.
4 and 5 American linguists assure us that the Hopi Indians lack time concepts,
but as few learners of English live in such social and cultural isolation, it is safe
to assume that most speakers of other languages perceive time in much the same
ways as we do. Difficulties are caused for the foreign learner less because of
perceptual problems than because different languages express time concepts
in different ways, eg the present perfect in German expresses much of what is
expressed in the simple past in English; Chinese has no varying verb forms-
time differences are expressed by adverbial particles . Speakers of Arabic, when
speaking of the future, usually add the proviso 'God willing', an example of
religious belief affecting the way time is perceived and expressed in a language .
6 Occasionally it is the only time marker, but there is almost always
66
Questions
reinforcement in the form of a time adverbial. Thus, speakers oflanguages

with highly inflected verb systems, eg French, Spanish, Russian, often
underrate the importance of these adverbial phrases and omit them.
4 Questions
A Questions requiring yes or no answers: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11

Questions requiring information in the answer: 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
Another possibility would be:
Questions beginning with a question word: 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12
Questions formed by subject/verb inversion: 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11
B Questions asking for information: 1, 5, 9

Questions expecting a negative reply: 2, 4, 7 (perhaps!), 11
Requests : 3, 8
Questions expecting a positive reply: 6, 7 (perhaps!), 13, 14
Offers: 10, 12
The questions could also be grouped eg into those with and those without tag
questions. Questions can have many functions and it is not enough merely to
teach the rules about inversion and the use of do/does/did.
C Learner has not absorbed the fact that the main verb reverts to infinitive after
do/does/did. This may only be apparent in the 3rd person singular of the
present simple which differs from the infinitive form through the extra-s.
2 Learner has not modified the word order. Difficulty arises over the difference
between aren't I (a mystery anyway!) and am I not.
3 Same problem as in 1 above, except that the verb is now in the simple past.
4 Learner has failed to absorb the rule about question formation with do/does.
The chances are that his/her mother tongue forms questions by direct
inversion of subject and main verb.
5 Overgeneralization. Learner has wrongly applied to an auxiliary verb can what
he knows about question formation with do/does.
6 Learner has chosen the main verb instead of the auxiliary to form the tag
question.
7 Learner has not grasped that shall in questions is usually only used with the
first person singular and plural. The mistake may be one of false analogy; the
learner may have heard Shall I ... ? and generalized from it.
8 Learner has wrongly identified better as the auxiliary preceding go and has
creatively formed his/her own tag question. This error is common among
native speaker children.
D 1 The polite greeting (which normally requires an identical reply) has been
mistaken for a genuine enquiry about health.
2 This is a common error! The polite enquiry about health (seldom answered
honestly by an Englishman!) has been mistaken for a standard greeting
requiring an identical reply.
67
3 The can of the question has been understood to refer to ability; in fact the
question is a request for a ssistance. English speakers sometimes deliberately
misunderstand can questions in this way!
4 The question has been mistakenly understood as referring to the present
moment; the do should be received as a signal denoting a question about habit
or routine.
5 The questioner wanted reassurance. The impatient reply shows that the
speaker has interpreted the question as expressing lack of confidence in his
ability to finish the work.
In each case, the function of the question has not been understood, though
there is obvious familiarity with the forms .
E Context would dictate appropriate intonation which would in turn give the
listener the clue as to the function of each question, but these are the most likely
choices: 1(e), 2(a), 3(h), 4(b), 5(£), 6(c), 7(d), 8(i), 9(j), 10(g).
The exercise demonstrates the vital role ofintonation in determining function.
F Maybe because the teacher does too much questioning and does not give his
learners sufficient opportunity to initiate communication. Maybe because the
forms with do, did, etc are difficult to master.
2 The word interrogative describes the grammatical form which is used to ask a
question. The rules for the formation of interrogatives are fairly easily
assimilated and can be committed to memory; learners need to know when and
how to ask the question appropriate to their communicative needs.
5 Future tim e
A 1 I'll help ... expresses an offer of assistance.
2 will (when stressed) expresses irritation at a bad habit.
3 ... will you ... expresses a request (familiar or slightly impatient).
4 Shall I ... expresses an offer of assistance.
5 This is pure future.
6 Shall we ... expresses a suggestion.
7 This one is marginal. It may be seen as pure future or as expressing
inevitability (to be interpreted as a threat or warning).
8 will ... expresses the resigned attitude of the speaker to a universally accepted
state of affairs.
9 will is required after think in a request for an opinion about the future.
10 shall expresses insistence, the imposing of an obligation.
11 This is p ure fu ture.
Shall and will are comparatively rarely used with pure future meaning,
which means that it could be very confusing to refer to them as the future
tense. They are very frequently used to express an attitude (willingness,
insistence, resignation, etc).
68
Future time I Voice
B The examples show how rarely we talk completely dispassionately about the
future. The past is the past and can't be changed. When we talk about the future,
however, we often express ourselves personally- in this exercise there are
examples of expressions of hope, probability, intention and possibility as well as
the more neutral future expressed in 1 and 9.
C Not acceptable. Shall is seldom used in normal statements in spoken English

as the short forms I'll and we'll are preferred. But it is still needed in
interrogative forms Shall I . .. ? and Shall we ... ?
2 Not acceptable. Will is, in fact, often used with first persons, and shall can be
used with the second person to express insistence (You shall do it-0.
3 Acceptable, with the exception of interrogatives, for reasons stated in 1 above.
4 Grammar books are inevitably behind the times. There are still teachers of
English who insist on shall in all first person statements, but to do this is to
ignore trends in the language.
5 Shall should be taught when it is needed, ie to help in the expression of suggest-
ions (Shall we go for a walk?) and offers of help (Shall I open it for you?), but not
merely for the sake of formal completeness when the future is being taught.
The majority of these statements also apply to should and would, though it is
worth noting that should is very commonly used to give advice or impose
obligations (eg You should see a doctor or You should work harder).
D Some teachers would teach shall/will first as it is most commonly identified as,
and associated with, the future.
Others would go for the present continuous plus time adverb as this does not
entail learning a new structure. Going to also has the present continuous form and
is useful in expressions of intention and probability. Choice of which to teach first
will depend on many factors, eg mother tongue oflearners, the type of English
they need, etc.
6 Voice
A In shop windows, restaurants, etc in tourist areas. French, German and Spanish
all use active constructions with impersonal forms. English uses the passive.
This is typical of the preference English has for the passive in impersonal
expresstons.
B 1 Notice (written) in a supermarket. Use of passive shows that it is written, not

spoken. Word customers comes first to catch the eye.
2 Car owner contacting police or talking to someone about theft of his/her car.
Car dominates his/her thought and is mentioned first. N arne of thief not known
and not relevant to what the owner wants to express at this stage.
3 News bulletin or newspaper article. The high number of people is shocking
and comes first. The passive helps to emphasize this; at this stage, the name of
the person who reported this is irrelevant.
4 Reply to a question like Where's your car? N arne of person repairing the car is
irrelevant here; interest centres on the car.
69
5 Admonition to make sure the listener knows the consequences of an action.

The use of the passive adds formality, weight and distance to the statement.
6 Notice. (eg on building site, private estate). No one is interested in who does
the prosecuting- the emphasis is on the fate awaiting trespassers.
7 Newspaper headline. Name of assassin probably not yet known and Hani is
the focal point of the article.
C It is written too loosely and informally. The title is Oxygen and this should
generally be the subject. It could be rewritten as follows:
Oxygen
Oxygen was first prepared by Joseph Priestley in 1774. He prepared it by heating
mercuric oxide but nowadays it is produced commercially in large quantities by
a process called fractional distillation. It is contained in both air and water and is
given off by plants in their respiratory process.
(The use of the passive ensures focus on Oxygen as the central theme and cuts
down on the number of repetitions of it, which makes the original version sound
so clumsy.)
D The exercise is futile because (a) there is no communicative point in turning

active sentences into the passive and (b) the passive is simply not appropriate to
all the examples, especially 1 and 2.
It also encourages production of tautologies such as: 'Our house was broken into
by somebody last night'. The agent is superfluous here as (presumably) animals
and birds do not burgle houses!
E 1 The first one implies that boredom drove them home. The second one implies
that all work had been completed and there was nothing more in need of
attention.
2 The first one implies that Scotland offers little interest to the visitor. The
second one implies that the streets are empty of people.
F All these verbs are normally used in the passive rather than the active voice, a fact
made clearer in each case by the absence of an agent.
G 1 The passive formalizes and depersonalizes the warning.

2 The passive lets the PM off the hook. Politicians often use it to avoid the
consequences of being directly quoted- in this example the PM expresses
optimism without giving the required undertaking which he might later regret.
3 The passive allows the spokesman to make a non-committal statement,
designed to discourage further questioning.
4 The professor's use of the passive focuses attention on the real author and
emphasizes the student's mistake to him.
5 Fred is able to take up his questioner's interest in Joe by choosing the passive,
which allows Joe to remain the subject of the sentence.
H The use of the passive in newspaper headlines allows emphasis on the patient
(ie the person or thing affected by an action), which is often at the centre of
interest in news stories.
70
Voice I Conditionals and hypothetical meaning
2 In this passage, the focus is on the process of cheese-making. The passive is

often used to describe processes, when the focus is on the product rather than
on the producer.
3 This textbook extract shows a switch from a fairly personal style (' ... we said
... we use', etc) to a much more impersonal description of the use and composi-
tion of transformers. This switch from informal/personal to formal/detached is
emphasized by the authors' switch from active to passive voice at the beginning
of the second paragraph.
I 1 In the first sentence, he paid someone to do it for him; in the second, he

repaired it himself.
2 In the first sentence, the subject wants to pay someone to develop the film for
him. The second sentence is a more neutral question and does not necessarily
imply an immediate desire for the service.
3 There is a shift of emphasis here, too. The first one implies an arrangement
with the dentist; the second is a simple statement of fact.
J The sentences would need to be completed on these lines:

1 .. . do you have it cut?
2 .. . do you have it done?
3 ... do you have it delivered?
4 .. . do you have them made?
5 ... do you have it cleaned?
As an exercise requiring some initiative, it is acceptable. As a drill, it falls down as
the information in the first part is not always adequate to allow correct completion.
Despite this, there is enough context for a learner to be able to begin to associate
the form (sometimes known as the causative) with the meaning.
7 Conditionals and hypothetical meaning

A The verb forms in italic all have the appearance of past tenses (with the exception
of would rain in the first sentence), but do not carry any past meaning. In fact they
all express something hypothetical, and are better termed subjunctive forms than
past tense forms as the use of the word past in this connection is confusing. The
subjunctive is obvious only in the first person of to be (If I were .. . ) as in 4 .
B 1 (b), 2 (c), 3 (a).
C 1 and 9- would as past form of will to maintain sequence of tenses after think and
was hoping.
2, 4, 6, 10- all have an element of hypothesis.
3 and 8- would makes the requests sound polite.
5 and 7- would expresses habit- it is typical of you to forget your keys, and
Queen Victoria very seldom smiled.
Note the different time reference in each case, however: the clues are provided by
context. There are other possible groupings, but these suffice to show the wide
range of meaning of would as an auxiliary.
71
The terms conditional tense and conditional sentences are common headings in
grammars and course books . But there is no real conditional tense in English,
only expressions of conditional or hypothetical meaning. It is more useful to
speak of conditional sentences, though textbooks often confusingly refer to a
sequence of tenses in sentences such as 4 and 8, insisting that a conditional
tense must be used in the main clause whereas the verb in the subordinate clause
should be in the past tense. It is almost certainly easier for fore ign learners to
become familiar with would as a commonly used auxiliary with many different
meanings, one of which is to express conditions .
D Sentences 2, 4, 6, 11 , 12 (possibly) express developments which are certain to

take place if a condition is fulfilled- and there seems a strong likelihood in each
instance that the condition will be fulfilled.
1, 5, 7, 9, 12 (possibly), 13 express much more unlikely developments as the
condition in each case is unlikely to be fulfilled. In sentence 1, the speaker seems
unlikely to have more time; in sentence 5, the speaker can never actually change
his identity; in sentence 7, the speaker is clearly not terribly optimistic about the
chances of his friend giving up smoking, etc.
3, 8, 10 deal with the past. In each case the speaker or writer looks back on a past
event and states a condition on which things would have turned out differently .
It's too late to alter the course of these past events .
Incidentally, these examples show that if sentences are not the only means of
expressing conditional meaning.
8 Functions
A 1 To indicate that the action was recent and is of current relevance.

2 (a) Suggestion. (b) Suggestion or instruction.
3 Indicates past action and contributes to the formal, impersonal tenor of the
utterance.
4 Seeking confirmation of what is hoped for or expected.
5 Indicates purpose.
6 Polite request.
7 Co-ordination and sequence.
8 Indicates future arrangement.
9 Linking two apparently incompatible sentences.
10 Indicating reference back to a house specified in a previous utterance.
11 Contributing to a reasoned refusal or indicating reluctance.
12 Referring back to a previously mentioned topic.
13 Referring to action at a particular point of time in the past.
14 Indicating reaction to a frequent habit.
15 Co-ordination and addition.
16 Expressing polite or qualified disagreement.
B Function = job; role; what the word or phrase does in the utterance.
72
Functions I Teaching functions
C 1 Function = the purpose of the utterance, ie what the speaker/writer intends to

achieve through the utterance (eg invite somebody; indicate disagreement).
Examples: 2(a) and (b); 2; 4; 6; 11; 14; 16.
2 Function = the information conveyed through the structure (eg the time
reference). Examples: 1; 3; 5; 7; 8; 9; 13; 15.
Function 2 is related to what the speaker/hearer says whereas function 1 is
related to why he/she says it.
3 Function =the grammatical role of the utterance (eg reference back to a
previous expression; joining two expressions). Examples: 7; 9; 10; 12; 15.
D The potential information of the structure (ie function 2 in C above).
E It relates to the purposes of utterances (ie function 1).
F 1 A: Suggestion 4 A: Instruction
B: Refusal B: Query
2 A: Indicating conviction 5 A: Advice
B: Indicating strong disagreement B: Agreement
3 A: Invitation
B: Acceptance
9 Teaching functions
A They are all ways of expressing disagreement.

2 Formal Semi-formal Informal
(d), (e), (j), (I) (a-c), (e), (g), (i), (c), (e), (f), (h), (i), (1), (n)
(j)' (I)' (n)
Strong Definite Tentative

(h), (m) (b), (c), (d), (e), (i-1) (a), (b), (f), (g), (o)
Factual statements Opinions Initiating Responding

(f)' (h)' (i)' (I) (a-h), (j-n) (f)' (j) (a-n)
5 It is important to differentiate between the different exponents of a function

and vital that the learner does not regard them as interchangeable as this could
lead to misunderstanding and embarrassment.
B 1 The students are merely repeating exponents that they have been taught. They
are making no attempt to select the most appropriate exponents and they are dis-
regarding each others' utterances. They are practising the forms of the expon-
ents but they are certainly not practising their use.
2 The teacher probably listed the exponents of complaining together and the
exponents of apologizing together. He/she then probably concentrated on
getting students to produce the correct forms of the exponents through imita-
tion and substitution drills. He/she might have exemplified the exponents in
situations but he/she certainly has not succeeded in teaching that the exponents
are not interchangeable and that each exponent is subtly different from the
73
others. He/she has probably also encouraged the students to get as many expon-
ents into their dialogue as possible and has not encouraged them to restrict the
exponents they use to those that are appropriate to the situation and to the
other participants' utterances. When the students performed their impromptu
dialogue they could probably see a list of exponents on the board or on a chart.
3 (a) Restrict the exponents you teach.
(b) Differentiate between the exponents in your teaching.
(c) Set up practice situations which encourage learners to select exponents
appropriate to the situation and to the utterances of the other participant(s).
C 1 It is not real because it consists of a series of interchanges each consisting of

request/refusal and each unconnected with the others. It seems to have been
designed to practise or elicit as many exponents of request and refusal as possible
and ends up giving the impression that the exponents are interchangeable.
There is no consistency of tenor (eg the requests range from very polite to very
rude) and the responses are often totally inappropriate (ega very polite request
eliciting a very rude refusal) and the tone is often inappropriate to what is being
requested (eg I'd be so grateful ifyou could find your way to lending me a pen for a
minute).
2 Request and refusal
3 (a) Request
Very Polite Polite Impolite
I'd be so grateful if you Please could you How about -ing
could possibly find your possibly Give me ...
way to ...
(b) Refusal
Reluctant Definite
I wish I could but ... I'm broke
If only I could Noway
Reason given No reason given
I'm broke Noway
. .. it's in the garage
If only I could
5 The important criteria for selection are:
(a) coverage (ie the ability of an exponent to be used instead of others), eg Could
you please ... me ... could cover all the other exponents of polite requests.
(b) frequency (ie how often an exponent is used in everyday situations)
(c) context frequency (ie how often an exponent is used in particular situations)
(d) learnability (ie how easy the exponent is to learn), eg Could you please ... me
... is easier to learn than I'd be so grateful if you could possibly find your way
to ...
NB The more exponents that are taught at once, the greater is the danger of
confusion. Some exponents should be selected for students to learn to
understand and to use; others should be selected only for them to learn to
respond to when they are exposed to them.
74
Reporting speech
10 Reporting speech
A Much depends on the intonation and even on the mother's facial expression
and body language, but all of these appear possible:
ordering, warning, requesting, persuading, begging, advising, recommending,
reminding, insisting, suggesting ... and maybe some of the others, too.
2 By listening to the tone of her voice, looking at her face, or just by diving in and
waiting for her reaction!
3 She ordered him to take his watch off before diving in.
or warned tried to persuade advised requested begged reminded
She suggested that he should take his watch off before diving in.
or insisted recommended
Note that the function is clearer in indirect (or reported) speech, a feature
mainly of written English, which is denied the extra dimensions of gesture,
facial expression, stress and intonation, all of which help to signal the meaning
of a spoken utterance.
B Following on from the conclusions in the previous exercise, it is clearly difficult to

decide on the functions of many of the twelve utterances, and therefore to choose
an appropriate expression in indirect speech. In any case, there is no communica-
tive point to the exercise as it stands. It simply requires learners to apply certain
formal rules (eg backshift of tenses and time expressions) without reference to
meaning, context or appropriacy. When indirect speech is used in written English,
it is most often in connected prose and the exercise consists of twelve unrelated
examples giving no practice in connected writing.
C There are examples of both direct and indirect speech in the article. Some
possible reasons for the writer's choices are:
• stylistic variation;
• choice of direct speech to avoid any risk of interpretation or distortion of the
speaker's actual words;
• choice of indirect speech to generalize or summarize a viewpoint;
• choice of part direct and part indirect speech to combine the previous two
criteria;
• choice of indirect 'speech', more usual after verbs such as 'think' and 'believe'.
Other reasons may be identified.
2 The first paragraph seems to be a mixture of reported and direct speech. The
absence of inverted commas suggests reported speech, but the medial position
of the reporting verb 'insisted' and the choice of'will' rather than 'would' suggests
direct speech. Journalistic licence?
75
D These conclusions may be mentioned:

• Work on transformations at single sentence level is not enough.
• Rules about form are flexible in real speech and writing.
• Learners need some variation in their range of indirect speech constructions
• Learners need to develop criteria for choosing between direct and indirect
speech when writing.
11 Notions
A 1 They all communicate aspects of the notion of duration of time (ie they refer to
periods of time).
2 (a) To refer to a complete period of time with either past, present or future time
reference. Always followed by an expression referring to a period of time.
(b) See example.
(c) To refer to a period of time from a point previously mentioned (or
indicated in the situation) to the point of time mentioned immediately after
till. Can be used with past, present or future time reference and always
followed by an expression referring to a point of time.
(d) As for (c).
(e) To refer to a lengthy and uninterrupted period of time. Can have past,
present or future time reference.
(f) To refer to what happened continuously during a period of time in the past.
(g) To refer to what happened continuously during a period of time in the past
between two indicated points of time.
(h) To indicate that a question is being asked about the length of an indicated
period of time in the past or future.
(i) To refer to all of a previously indicated period of time in the past, present
or future.
(j) To indicate the length of a period of time in the past or future.
(k) To indicate that the opinion is constant.
B They all communicate aspects of the notion of movement.

2 (a) moved- indicates movement; slowly- indicates speed of movement;
forward- indicates direction of movement from the starting-point.
(b) Indicates intended terminus of movement.
(c) Indicates movement from outside to inside.
(d) walking- indicates means of movement; towards- indicates direction of
movement by reference to a potential terminus.
(e) Indicates movement from inside to outside.
(f) ran- indicates means of movement; away- indicates movements which
achieve distance; from- indicates direction of movement by reference to
the starting-point.
(g) go refers to movement from here; fetch refers to movement from here to there
and then back to here again.
4 One possible answer would be:
(a) means of movement: to walk; to run; to swim; to drive; to travel.
76
Notions I Modal meaning
(b) Speed of movement: slowly; quickly.

(c) Direction of movement: to, forward(s), backward(s), sideward(s);
towards, away, from; into, out of, out.
C eg The mouse was inside this cupboard; this is where we will meet on Friday; it's on
that table.
2 Relative position.
3 Sequence.
D 1 (a) Manner
(b) Result
(c) Comparison
(d) Instrument
(e) Time
2 eg Time
(a) then= immediately after the previous occurrence mentioned, eg I put the
money in the safe. Then I rang the manager.
(b) meanwhile =at approximately the same time as the previous occurrence
mentioned.
eg Mr Carter was operated on at 2 pm. Meanwhile his brother was standing by
to give blood if it was required.
(c) While or whilst =at the same time as the previous occurrence mentioned
was taking place.
eg I papered the living room while my wife painted the kitchen.
NB While relates two continuous actions together in time and usually in place.
It joins two clauses (or a clause and a phrase within one sentence).
Meanwhile relates two events together in time and type. It links two sentences
together.
eg I listened to the radio while peeling the potatoes.
,K I listened to the radio. Meanwhile I peeled the potatoes.
So England were convincing winners of the European Championship.
Meanwhile in Lima last night Brazil beat Peru to win the South American
Championship.
,K So England were convincing winners of the European Championship while in
Lima last night Brazil beat Peru to win the South American Championship.
12 hiodalnneaning
A 1(a), 2(a), 3(b), 4(a), 5(b), 6(b), 7(a), 8(b), 9(a), 10(b), 11(b), 12(b),
13(b), 14(b), 15(b).
Of the sentences in which the meaning of the verb is modified, sentence 3
indicates deduction (logical necessity). In 5 ought to indicates advice or
obligation. In 6 can't indicates inability. In 8 couldn't have indicates deduction
(logical necessity). 10 future meaning. In 11 will indicates willingness. In 12 will
have to indicates future necessity (or obligation). In 13 is likely to indicates
probability. In 14 might indicates possibility. In 15 it's essential that indicates an
imperative, or strong obligation.
77
B There are no right answers here, and there is certain to be disagreement about
which point on the line some of the sentences should be allocated to. This is, in
itself, a warning against attempts to pin down differences between fine shades
of meaning.
2 There are many views about which sentence types to teach first, but one approach
would be to choose three or four points on the scale between out of the question
and absolute certainty and to select the commonest ways of expressing these
degrees of meaning. It is worth noting that modal meaning is expressed in many
different ways, not just by the use of modal auxiliaries. The simplest way, struc-
turally, is by the addition of a single adverb such as perhaps, maybe or definitely.
C 1 They are distinguished by their relative formality or informality.

2 The question of which to teach first ought to be decided by the learners'
priorities and the circumstances in which they are most likely to be using
English. The most neutral choice is probably Can I go home now? though
Could I ... adds a touch of extra politeness (often an asset for non-native
speakers in an English-speaking environment!) .
D 1 Expresses likelihood.
2 Expresses discontinued ability.
3 Asks permission.
4 Expresses absence of obligation.
5 Expresses disapproval or disappointment at failure to do something.
6 Expresses logical impossibility.
7 Expresses logical certainty.
8 Gives permission.
9 Expresses possibility.
10 Expresses obligation.
E There are many different ways of expressing each of these. Two or three are
given here in each case to ensure that the basic concept is clear:
He may possibly come.
Perhaps he'll come.
There's a chance that he'll come.
2 She's capable of defending herself.
She can defend herself.
She has the ability to defend herself.
3 You must help your father.
You're obliged to help your father.
It's your responsibility to help your father.
4 You have to have a cholera injection if you travel to the Middle East.
A cholera injection is required for travel to the Middle East.
You need a cholera injection if you travel to the Middle East.
5 He will keep grinding his teeth.
He's always grinding his teeth.
In all the examples, note once again how many ways there are of expressing
modal meaning other than by auxiliaries.
78
Modal meaning I Auxiliary verbs
F 1 could is reserved for general ability in the past; was able is used with the meaning
of managed to (usually on a single occasion) but also to express general ability.
2 The first utterance prohibits; the second one removes obligation.
3 We use should and ought to to impose moral obligations and they are practically
interchangeable, though ought to is arguably more forceful.
4 There is no significant difference.
5 I may come is more likely than I might come.
6 Shall is used mainly in first person forms, to offer assistance: Shall I do that for
you?, to make a suggestion: Shall we go now?, or in pure future statements,
interchangeable with will: I shall be 64 next birthday.
Will is used with all other persons in pure future expressions, but also to
express willingness: Will you help me?; promises: I will (in marriage ceremony);
offers of help: I'll do it for you; and bad habits: Joe will talk with his mouth full.
Learners often make too much of the difference between shall and will in
future statements. In fact, the elided forms, I'll, we'll, you'll, etc often make the
difference irrelevant. (See also Unit 2, section 5.)
7 (a), in which only used to is feasible, expresses a single discontinued habit. (b),
in which either used to or would is possible, expresses one of a number of events
or experiences bracketed by a time reference (in this case When I was a boy).
13 Auxiliary verbs
A Those underlined twice are main verbs; they contribute meaning to their
utterances. Those underlined once are not the main verbs in their clauses; their
function is to help the main verbs to contribute meaning or to add to the meaning
of the main verbs.
B The verbs in the first utterance in each pair are main verbs whereas those in the
second utterance in each case are verbs helping main verbs.
C 1 Those underlined twice are verbs which add to the meaning of the main verb.
They usually indicate something about the attitude or opinion of the speaker
and are called modal verbs .Those underlined once help the main verbs and
are called auxiliary verbs. Both types of verbs can be used to:
(a) form the interrogative.
(b) form the negative
(c) stand for the main verb in short form responses (eg (e) and (j))
(d) stand for the main verb in question tags.
In addition those underlined once (ie auxiliary verbs) are used to help form
tenses and to help indicate number and person (eg I have been/He has been; he"!!_
playing/they are playing).
2 Other modal verbs are: should; has to; will; might; would; dare.
D has- helping to form the present perfect tense of the modal auxiliary verb ( ... an
auxiliary)
had to -adding to the meaning of the main verb ( ... a modal)
have -main verb .
79
E (a) Helping to form the tense of the main verb. (nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
(b) Forming the negative of the main verb (2, 3, 4, 7, 10)
(c) Forming the interrogative of the main verb (1, 6, 8, 10)
(d) Standing for the main verb in:
short form answers ( 1, 8)
short form responses (2, 10)
question tags (4, 7, 9)
(e) Helping to indicate the person of the subject (ie first, second or third) (2, 3, 4,
5, 7, 8, 9, 10)
(f) Helping to indicate the number of the subject (ie singular or plural) (5, 8, 9).
F 1 (a) Was (d) was (g) did (j) was

(b) wasn't (e) did (h) were (k) did
(c) had (f) did (i) had (1) had
2 (a) Yes. To help form the past continuous tense and to help form the
interrogative.
(b) Yes. To form the negative and to stand for the main verb.
(c) Yes. To help form the past perfect tense.
(d) No.
(e) Yes. To help form the interrogative and the past simple tense.
(f) Yes. To stand for the main verb and to indicate the past simple tense.
(g) Yes. As for (f).
(h) No.
(i) No.
(j) Yes . To help form the past continuous tense.
(k) Yes. To stand for the main verb (take) and to indicate the past simple tense.
(1) Yes. To help form the past perfect tense.
14 Hav e and be
A These answers are suggestions only- many alternatives are possible- but note
the verb forms.
(a) When did the phone ring?
(b) What were you doing when the phone rang?
(c) Have you got the time?/Have you finished yet?
(d) Did you have a good time at the circus?
(e) Has he got two brothers? I He's got two brothers, hasn't he?
(f) What did you have for breakfast this morning?
(g) What sort of car have you got?
(h) What are you doing?
(i) Have you ever been to Japan?
(j) You're having a check-up soon, aren't you?
(k) What have they had, a boy or a girl?
(1) Have you got a light, please?
2 In some cases, have functions as a main verb, and in others as an auxiliary.
80
Haveandbe
B have here has causative force. Someone is taking his tonsils out for him,
possibly at his request. (See also Unit 2, section 6, I andJ).
2 The assumption is that the person addressed is not always cruel and is capable
of changing his/her behaviour.
3 has here is a substitute for the (slightly) tautologous eat. The verb has positive,
dynamic force.
4 ... but in a while she'll come to her senses, change her behaviour and be
sensible again.
5 have here means accept.
6 Again, there is causative force here. She has instructed someone to perm her
hair for her.
7 Present continuous passive (is being repainted) stresses the fact that the process
is under way at the time of speaking. Be as a passive auxiliary has a dynamic
force.
C 1 (b) is unacceptable as handsome is a stative adjective (it describes a permanent

state, in contrast to careful, which describes a temporary state).
2 (b) is unacceptable. (a) is an admonition which applies to a single instance and
is in the imperative. There is no obvious behaviour which is identifiable as
being late and so this is not acceptable here.
3 (b) is unacceptable for similar reasons to those stated in 1 and 2. Stubbornness
may be a permanent trait of character but the statement She's being stubborn
clearly describes her behaviour in a particular instance. The adjective beautiful
describes permanent appearance rather than passing behaviour, which makes
the continuous form inappropriate.
4 (a) is unacceptable. Have with the meaning of possess cannot be used in the
continuous form. In 4(b) having expresses an activity; it could (unlike 4(a))
answer the question U:l'hat are you doing?
5 (b) is unacceptable. You can't offer someone a headache!
6 (b) is unacceptable in most contexts. The use of just plus present perfect
usually indicates a recently completed action, as in 6(a), where had= consumed.
7 (b) is unacceptable in most contexts. Being British is not (unless in a mime or
charade!) a temporary state of affairs. The use of the present participle in 7 (a)
is a normal way of introducing a cause/effect relationship in an utterance.
8 (b) would normally not be acceptable. Has got is usually used to express
possession as in 8(a) though it could also be used in utterances like She's got an
appointment, though this would normally refer only to a single instance; the
addition of every evening in 8 (b) adds an extra dimension.
9 (b) is clearly unacceptable. Whilst have, in its dynamic sense, forms questions
and negatives with the auxiliary do, be does not. The correct version of 9(b)
would be simply I'm not always stupid.
D Category one (dynamic uses): 1, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.

Category two (stative uses): 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15.
NB In 4 and 6 the stupidity is seen as a permanent characteristic; in 8 it is seen as a
temporary state.
E Be is used as an auxiliary in 1 and 5 (twice).

Have is used as an auxiliary in 2, 3 1 , 7 1 and 9.
81
F 1 This is a common misconception. Have got is absolutely standard in spoken

English, and should be taught; however, it is usually avoided in formal written
English.
2 The foreign learner has clearly picked up the auxiliary from the command in his
short response. He may have been trained to listen for the auxiliary in questions
to enable him to make the correct short response, but is not yet aware that this
does not apply to imperatives. (The fact that the example contains be is a dis-
tractor here- it could equally well have been Don'tgo or Don't speak.)
3 The foreign learner has either been told to avoid got or has wrongly used the
negative form appropriate to the auxiliary have, when this have expresses
possess10n.
4 Perhaps the main conclusion is that be and have have to be recycled at intervals.
Attention then has to be drawn to the distinct meanings and their grammatical
consequences. It is significant that there is no dynamic use of be and have in
most other languages. Compare
He's having breakfast with
Er frii.hstiickt gerade (German) or
Il prend son petit dejeuner (French);
and
She's being silly with
Sie spinnt (German) or
Elle fait des betises (French).
15 Comparisons
A All of them contain implicit or explicit comparisons or contrasts usually between

two ideas or objects.
Expresses a straightforward comparison (oflength) between two rivers.
2 Expresses a contrast between two newspapers; an explanation of one aspect in
which they differ.
3 Expresses a contrast between two types of coal.
4 A direct comparison of intelligence between Willy and his brother, this time
expressed negatively.
5 There is an implicit contrast and comparison between the two fiats.
6 A comparison of hair colour, revealing sameness rather than difference.
7 . .. that is, more clearly than you are doing! A comparison between the present
way of speaking and the wished-for way.
8 A comparison of character between two brothers, using a noun extrovert rather
than a descriptive adjective.
9 A comparison of membership numbers between the AA and other motoring
organizations.
10 Comparison between an actual and an ideal state of affairs.
11 A comparison between degrees of happiness as a way of setting an ideal to aim at.
12 This is almost a platitude which equates an increase in enjoyment. The
comparison is proportionate.
13 A comparison for effect, between existing weather conditions and ice,
representing the ultimate in cold.
14 Another platitude, comparing an achievement with an optimum standard.
82
Comparisons I Tense and function 1
There are, as these examples show, many ways of expressing comparison and
contrast, and it is not sufficient to deal with the topic under the restricted
structural heading (common in textbooks) Comparat£ve and superlat£ve of
adject£ves and adverbs.
B This exercise provides practice in the comparative and superlative forms of

adjectives without giving any consideration to the function of comparing or to
different ways of comparing.
(a) heavy- heav~er (two syllabies, ending in -y, compare easy, happy)
(b) difficult- more difficult (more than two syllables, cf intelhgent, important)
(c) old- older (monosyllabic adjective, cf young, long, short)
(d) careful- more careful (two or more syllables, compound adjective,
cf beautiful, helpful, thoughtless)
(e) fast- faster (monosyllabic adverb, cf hard)
(f) obedient- more obedient (cf (b) above)
(g) high- highest (superlative of monosyllabic adjective, cf short, long, w£de)
(h) beautiful- most beautiful (superlative of compound adjective, two or more
syllables, cf thoughtful, plentiful)
(i) far- farther/further (irregular comparative form)
(j) bad- worse (irregular comparative form)
2 The rules which can be deduced concern the different ways of forming the
comparative of adjectives.
A 1 got= past simple = indicating action at a specific time and place in the past.
had gone= past perfect = indicating action which occurred before the other
action referred to.
2 was walk£ng = past continuous = indicating continuous action in the past.
saw = simple past = indicating event at a specific time and place in the past.
3 will have finished= future perfect= indicating future event which will have
finished before another event (mentioned in the utterance or indicated in the
situation) takes place.
havefin£shed =present perfect= indicating action which will occur after
another action in the future.
4 you're= simple present= indicating present state.
's gone home = present perfect= indicating action in recent past with present
relevance.
5 see= indicating present state.
got arrested= simple past= indicating action at specific time in the past.
6 walked= simple past = indicating action at specific time in the past.
worked= simple past = indicating period of time in the past.
7 comes= simple present= indicating future action.
w£lllet ... know = future simple (or modal + main verb) = indicating present
decision about a future action.
8 does leave= simple present= indicating usual routine.
's gone = present perfect = indicating an event in the recent past with present
relevance.
83
9 've been waiting= present perfect continuous- indicating an event with

continuation from a point in the past to the present.
10 meet= simple present =indicating past formal arrangement about the future.
11 has come= present perfect- indicating an action in the recent past with current
relevance.
B 1 From the choice of the past perfect and from already.

2 It would indicate that the walking only started after Mary had been seen.
3 (a) Because of the convention of will not being used in time clauses unless it is
used to indicate willingness.
(b) No.
(c) Yes. It would indicate that a regular state of affairs is being referred to.
4 No. The just and the too late indicate recent past and suggest present relevance.
5 See could be put into the simple past without seriously interfering with the
message; has got arrested would be grammatically wrong but reference to a
specific past action would still be indicated by yesterday.
6 The every day and the when are strong enough to indicate past habit even if an
inappropriate tense was used.
eg X He has walked to work every day when he worked at the station in 1968.
7 No. The use of the simple present in time clauses with future relevance is a
convention. The future reference would still be communicated by the will let
even if other tenses were used.
eg X When he will come I will let you know.
,K When he came I will let you know.
8 No. Pointing to the departing train is sufficient to indicate recent past and
present relevance regardless of the tense used.
eg X It just went.
X It hadjustgone.
9 Yes. The present perfect (ie I've waited here for thirty minutes) .
10 (a) That a formal arrangement has already been made.
(b) That the arrangement is for a specific time in the future.
11 Not very important. The yet is strong enough to indicate recent past and
present relevance.
C 1 change the meaning

2 function ... another expression ... something in the situation.
3 ... meaning of the utterance ... utterance . .. situation ... meaning ... clear ...
appropriacy ... function ... cause the utterance to be misunderstood.
D 1 2 3
was walking (2) got (1) have finished (3)
'relate (4) had gone (1) 's gone home (4)
will let you know (7) saw (2) got arrested (5)
does leave (8) will have finished (3) worked (6)
meet (10) see (5) comes (7)
walked (6) 's gone (8)
've been waiting (9) has come (11)
84
Tense and function 1
H 2 had slept- the selection of the past perfect is crucial as it is the only indicator
that the child no longer slept there.
3 had been shifted- the selection of the past perfect is crucial as it is the only
indicator that the shifting took place before the arrival of the writer.
4 called- the choice of the past simple is important as it helps to indicate that the
room had not been called that before. However, the crucial word is now and its
force could survive an erroneous choice oftense.
5 lay- the tense contrasts with the past perfect of the previous sentence and
indicates that this was true at that particular time in the past that the writer is
describing. However, the past continuous, the present simple or the present
continuous could have been used without changing the meaning of the
utterance.
6 had ... succeeded- the choice of the past perfect again indicates that this
happened before the time that is being described.
7 was lying- the choice of the past continuous indicates that this was true at the
time the writer is describing. However, the simple past could have been used
without interfering with the grammar or the meaning of the utterance. The
simple present and present continuous would have been ungrammatical in
contrast with the past perfect but would nevertheless have communicated the
same meanmg.
I 1 it is- the simple present indicates it is true now. No other tense could have
been used.
2 's been- the present perfect indicates that this has been true from a point in the
past until now. The simple past could also have been used.
3 've been looking- the present perfect continuous indicates a continuous action
from a point of time in the past until now. The past continuous could have been
used with the same function and the simple past and the present perfect, although
not grammatically appropriate in this utterance, could have been used without
interfering with the message being communicated.
4 'll take- this indicates that a decision is being made now about the future. No
other tense would be grammatically acceptable but the situation would probably
make this clear if any other tense with potential future reference was used.
5 'm meeting- the present continuous indicates that an arrangement has been
made in the past for the future. The situation and the at nine make the future
reference clear but the tense is crucial as an indication of previous
arrangement.
6 'll give - as for 4.
7 was going - the past continuous indicates a past intention for the future which no
longer applies. No other tense could have been used without interfering with
the meaning of the utterance.
8 's ringing- the present continuous is used to indicate present duration. No other
tense would be grammatically acceptable but the situational signal (ie the actual
ringing) is so strong that the meaning of the utterance would still be clear if other
tenses were used by mistake.
9 'll get - this indicates a present decision about the immediate future. Again the
situational signals are so strong that effective communication would probably
take place whatever tense was used.
85
10 rings- the simple present is used to indicate that this is a habit. However
usually and about this time are such strong signals of habit that the choice of
an inappropriate tense would probably not interfere with communication.
11 's stopped- the present perfect indicates the recent past. However, the situation
would probably make the meaning clear regardless of what tense was used.
12 didn'tanswer-the simple past refers to a point of time in the past. The situation
would allow the inappropriate present perfect and even the incorrect past perfect
to be used without serious danger of misapprehension.
J The following points could be made:

1 The learners do not have to be able to use all the tenses to communicate all
their functions as often more than one tense can be used to communicate the
same function in the same situation.
2 It is important when teaching the function of a tense to exemplify the use of
that tense in utterances which would not permit other tenses to be used and still
communicate the same meaning (eg the past perfect should be exemplified in
utterances in which it is not interchangeable with the simple past).
3 Often the learner can get away with using the wrong tense if his intended
function is communicated by other features of the utterance (eg just, usually,
often, tomorrow,for, yet, already, every day). Considerable teaching time should
be devoted to those items (mainly adverbials) which can reinforce and some-
times even replace the functional signals of tense.
4 The teacher should be selective in his correction of tense error. Those errors
which frustrate communication (eg I had given it to him when you told me to
instead of, I gave it to him when you told me to) are more serious than those
which do not (eg ~ I'll tell you before the lesson will .finish) .
17 T ense and aspect

A Category one (single events or repeated actions): 1, 4, 5, 7.
Category two (actions spanning a named or implied point in time): 2, 3, 6, 8.
B The question aims to elicit the learner's reaction to the telephone ringing. He
misunderstands it as an enquiry about what he was doing when it rang. He is not
sensitive to the clearly stated simple aspect of the question l.Vhat did you do ... ?
This is a very common error. (An obvious answer would be I answered it.)
2 The learner wrongly selects a continuous form to express a habit. (Better: I
don't smoke.)
3 The learner is not aware that stative verbs, and particularly verbs expressing
feelings or emotions, are not usually used in the continuous form unless a
change of meaning is involved.
Compare:
l.Vhat do you think of the government? (enquiry about general attitude)- I think
it's awful.
with:
l.Vhat are you thinking about? (emphasis on process at the moment) -I'm
thinking about my girlfriend.
Most grammars have lists of verbs of this type with notes on uses and
restrictions.
86
Tense and aspect I Tense and function 2
4 The question Will you go to the post office? would be interpreted as a definite
request, and sounds rather blunt and inappropriate here. The learner almost
certainly intends to make a more neutral enquiry: Will you be going to the post
office? (in the course of your visit to town); the future continuous in this type of
context is seldom mastered even by the most advanced foreign learners as it is
difficult to account for in structural terms.
5 The learner misunderstands the question as an enquiry about his reaction to the
doorbell ringing. Again, a frequent mistake. (Better: I was having dinner.)
6 The learner has simply not internalized the fact that we use the simple past
tense when talking about finished time; many other languages use the present
perfect in such cases, making it doubly confusing. (Better: Where were you last
night?)
7 A common misconception about the past perfect (here: had built) is that it is
used to refer to the very distant past. In fact it is used to provide an extra
dimension in the past (however recent or distant) when there is already one
point of reference expressed by the simple past.
eg I had been asleep for quite a while when you came in.
In the example given, the learner could have answered in the simple past.
C Many of these examples illustrate the confusion between tense and aspect which
underlie the thinking of many learners- the present continuous (or progressive),
for example is best thought of as an aspect of the present tense, not as a separate
tense, especially since few other languages have corresponding verb forms and
use adverbs or other means to express continuous aspect. It helps learners if the
teacher stresses the conceptual links between continuous aspects of different
tenses, eg
I'm working in London now,
This time five years ago I was working in Paris,
This time next year I'll be working in Rome,
rather than dealing with each tense and aspect in isolation.
It is essential for teachers to familiarize themselves with the complexities of tense
and aspect in a good grammar if they are not to confuse their learners.
A This is not true. Examples of the most obvious exceptions are: I've just repaired
the car (the action is complete) and I had only just repaired the car when it broke
down again (past perfect used to express the time relationship between the
repairing and the second breakdown).
In fact, the simple past tense is used when the time of an action is specified or
clearly known.
2 This is a half truth. It is certainly true to say that the present continuous form
often occurs in statements about the future, but it does not itself express the
future. Compare I'm watching TV with I'm watching TV later this evening.
These continuous forms are identical; without a future time expression, the
first example must be taken as referring to the present moment. In fact, the
continuous form is almost certainly used more often in association with future
meaning than as a description of an action in progress at the time of speaking.
87
However, it is the time expression, not the verb form, which gives the second
utterance its future meaning.
3 This is an oversimplification based on attempts to establish shall/will and
infinitive as direct equivalents of future tenses in more highly inflected Latin-
based languages such as French and Spanish. Most people now seem to agree
that there is no single future tense in English, just a number of ways of referring
to future time. (See section 5 above for a fuller treatment of this topic.)
4 This is a very common misconception among learners of English. The past
perfect may be used, if appropriate, about the very recent past as readily as
about the distant past, eg She had already finished her supper when her parents
came in (could refer to almost any time).
5 Many languages operate a much stricter sequence of tenses, particularly in
writing, than English does. In informal use, a mixing of present and past in the
same sentence is perfectly possible, and it may enable the speaker to say what
she/he means, eg
I think he played yesterday (acceptable in any case).
He said he plays every week (stresses the regularity; the activity is presumably
still repeated every week).
B 1 The present continuous tense is not normally used to express habits, but
association with an adverb such as always or continually lends it this meaning,
usually expressing a persistent habit.
2 The present simple seems out of place with the past adverb yesterday- this
must be a caption under a newspaper photograph where such an apparently
paradoxical association is possible.
3 The present simple expresses the immediacy of an action in a direct
commentary on a sports event.
4 The present simple refers to the (future) departure time of a train or bus,
possibly though not necessarily following a regular timetable.
5 Both tenses refer to the future, though the second verb is in the present simple
because it follows the time conjunction until.
6 The present simple expresses a timeless scientific truth.
7 Past simple because the speaker knows Caruso to be dead.
8 Present perfect because the speaker knows Dylan to be alive and so may still go
to one of his concerts.
9 Past simple because (a) Hemingway is dead, and (b) the writing of The Old
Man and the Sea is clearly complete.
10 Dickens is dead, hence the past simple.
11 The directing of Paris Texas is complete, hence the past simple. The fact that
W enders is still alive is irrelevant.
12 Present perfect because Drabble is still alive and may write more novels .
13 This was a habit of Gladstone's during the known period of his lifetime (he is
now dead) - this accounts for the use of would. Used to would also be possible
here.
14 This, too, is a past habit. Compare I smoke (present habit) and I used to smoke
(discontinued habit). Used to in this case supplies the true past of the present
simple expressing habit. Would would not be possible here.
88
Tense and function 2 I Non-finite verb forms
C 1 T he learner has mistakenly assumed that the defective verb used to, with its
clear past form, has a regular present form.
2 Mistaken use of the simple present with the time expression for six years. In many
languages (eg French and German), the present simple is used where we use
the present perfect. The coverage of the concepts expressed by these verb forms
varies from one language to another. The confusion may be understood if the
present simple and present perfect are each seen as aspects of the present tense.
3 Wrong use of simple past to express a (possibly) uncompleted action. (This
usage is however common in American English.)
4 Wrong use of present perfect with time adverb yesterday which clearly specifies
the time of an action in the past, requiring the simple past.
5 Wrong use of past perfect based on the false assumption that this form
expresses events in the distant past.
D There are enough clues to make each choice clear and unambiguous, but the six
sentences are unconnected. There is no practice in context. The learner knows
immediately what is required of him and will probably have little difficulty, on the
evidence supplied, in getting these examples right, but will the learner be able to pro-
duce the appropriate verb forms in spontaneous speech when they are required?
Textbooks abound with this type of gap-fill exercise and yet mistakes are still made.
Perhaps there is overconcentration on verb forms, resulting in a kind of verb neuro-
sis in many learners.
E Suggested matching (other interpretations may be possible, depending on

context). 1 (d), 2(g), 3(b ), 4(c), 5 (a), 6(f), 7 (e), 8(h). A possible order of priority
for teaching on a 'General English' course would be: 5, 1, 7, 8, 4, 3, 6, 2; 5 and 1
are conceptionally easy, most likely to correspond to usage in the learner's mother
tongue, and are fairly frequently needed in social English.
19 Non-finite verb fonns
A noun, noun 6 verb

2 verb 7 adjective
3 verb, adjective 8 verb
4 noun (in fact going to the dentist's is 9 verb
a noun phrase, and is the direct object here) 10 verb, verb
5 noun
The verbs and adjectives are all participles. The nouns are gerunds.
B (Several alternatives are suggested in each case; there are many more, of course.)
(a) silver/broken/new (all adjectives)
(b) dull/acclaimed/good (all adjectives)
(c) my dinner/ the weekend/ a quiet evening (all nouns)
(d) fresh/frozen/delicious (all adjectives)
(e) small meals/the dark/so much noise (all nouns)
(f) that noise/the fight/work (all nouns)
2 T he -ingforms in 1, 2 and 4 are participles and in 3, 5 and 6 gerunds.
89
C 1 The first example explains why he stopped whatever he was doing. The
second one states what he stopped doing.
2 The first example is a reminder. The second asks whether the act can be recalled.
3 Both have the same meaning. The second example is more usual in American
English.
4 The first example is a general enquiry. The second is an invitation.
5 The first example expresses the fact that she saw the whole action; the second
states that she saw the burglar while he was climbing through the window
though she did not necessarily see the action from beginning to end.
6 The first example expresses the speaker's regret (retrospectively) at having
told him. The second expresses regret felt at the time of speaking at having to
break the bad news.
D All of the errors have to do with inappropriate use of gerund (for infinitive) or
infinitive (for gerund).
1 He has great difficulty in speaking English or He finds it very difficult to speak
English (error probably rooted in mother tongue).
2 I enjoyed visiting Cambridge yesterday (error probably results from false
analogy or mother tongue interference).
3 He's going to bed late or He used to go to bed late. (These two distinct forms
are commonly confused, often as a result of contrastive teaching.)
4 I'm looking forward to hearing from you. (The to, in fact a preposition here,
has the unfortunate effect of attracting an incorrect infinitive.)
5 He tried to start his car ... (The change of meaning which results from the use
of a gerund instead of an infinitive after try is not familiar to the speaker. My
watch has stopped. Try shaking it- the act is not physically difficult; this is a
suggestion; and Try to concentrate- make an effort.)
6 I've always been interested in taking ... (This indicates a general interest, such
as a hobby; ifl was interested to read the review of a new book, this indicates a
single occasion or focus of interest.)
7 I don't feel like going ... (false analogy or mother tongue interference).
8 I'm very pleased to see you (probably a straight confusion).
NB Foreign learners find the gerund v infinitive problem extremely difficult.
One reason is because textbooks often deal with it in a single chapter or unit and
then regard it as taught. In fact, it is best dealt with as it arises, in context, and
learners should be encouraged to note down whole constructions, including
gerund or infinitive, and not just single words.
20 Adverbs and adjectives
A (Many variations possible.)

1 What colour is your pullover? 5 How often do you go dancing?
2 What colour pullover do you want? 6 Does he dance well or badly?
Is that a blue pullover or a green one? 7 What sort of a dancer is he?
3 Which pullover do you want? 8 Where does he live?
4 How does he drive?
90
Adverbs and adjectives I Relative clauses
B 1 Two possible explanations. The utterance could read either Sally works hard or
Sally hardly works. If the former is intended, the speaker has wrongly assumed
that hardly is the regular adverb form of hard. If the second is intended, the
mistake is one of word order.
2 Again two possible explanations. Either the mistake is one of word order (correct-
ed, this would become My friend speaks English very well) or it is an adjective I
adverb confusion (the correct version would be My friend speaks very good English).
3 Probably false analogy with How are you? I'm fine. Corrected version: W'hat's
the weather like? (This could also be an error caused by interference from the
mother tongue.)
4 May not be immediately perceived as an error. Learner has not grasped that
far, while frequent in questions and negatives, is not usually used in straight-
forward statements of this sort. Corrected version: Aberdeen is a very long way
from London.
5 Learner has not realized that ill cannot normally be used attributively (ie before
the noun) with this meaning (ie sick). Corrected version: I've just been to visit
my sick friend.
6 Incorrect use of adverb in a position normally occupied by an adjective.
Corrected version: That's not a very usual colour for a car.
7 Elder used predicatively (ie after the verb to describe the subject); usually used
only attributively. Corrected version: My sister is older than I am.
8 Incorrect adverbial formation. Adjectives already ending in -ly usually have a
compound adverbial form, eg in a friendly way.
C Poorly (an adjective meaning unwell) has the form (ending in -ly) which would
normally identify it as an adverb. It also has an unexpected meaning.
2 Here, too, the form is apparently that of an adverb.
3, 4 Hard and tight here are adverbs with a form indistinguishable from that of
adjectives.
5 Well, normally an adverb, functions as an adjective here.
6 Elderly is an adjective with the form of an adverb.
D 1 (a), 2(c), 3(d), 4(b); too indicates an excess; rather often indicates more than is
really desirable; quite frequently indicates a moderately positive reaction by the
speaker.
21 Relative clauses
A (a) Correct.
(b) Incorrect. Commas must be deleted to make sense.
(c) Correct.
(d) Correct.
(e) Incorrect. Commas needed before which and but.
(f) Correct.
(g) Correct.
(h) Incorrect. Substitute which for that.
(i) Incorrect. Delete comma.
(j) Correct.
91
(k) Incorrect. Comma needed before who.

(1) Possibly acceptable, but certainly better with who substituted for that.
2 The commas are so important because they distinguish between a relative
clause which defines and one which does not.
B 1 A defining relative clause is an essential explanation which makes sense out of

an utterance:
Child: The man hit me, mummy. (inadequate information)
Mother: Which man? (seeking essential closer identification)
Child: The one who sometimes comes to tea. (identifying more closely)
Examples from exercise A are (b), (c), (d), (g), etc.
2 A non-defining relative clause adds extra, non-essential, information to an
utterance. Examples from exercise A are (a), (e), (f), (h), etc.
3 Non-defining relative clauses are fairly uncommon in spoken English as they
render an utterance somewhat unwieldy. There is a tendency for sentences to
be shorter and snappier in spoken English.
C It is possible to omit the object pronoun (but not the subject pronoun) in
defining relative clauses.
2 Because the relative clause is not so easy to identify in the absence of the
relative pronoun. The sense may not be immediately clear.
D The prepositional phrases in the red dress, on the hill above the village and by the
door all have similar force to relative clauses and could be expanded to be relative
clauses:
... who is wearing the red dress ...
. . . which is on the hill which is above the village ...
. . . which is by the door ...
E The fact that the relative pronoun refers to the whole preceding clause. (There
are many languages in which relative pronouns are not used in this way.)
F 1 Subject pronoun who wrongly omitted. Learner may not realize that only
object relative pronouns can be omitted.
2 Student does not realize that who must be used for people and which for
things.
3 Student does not realize that who is the object of spoke to and feels the need for
an object after the verb. A common mistake among Arabic and Farsi speakers.
4 False analogy (preposition at end) with That's the house she lives in.
5 Whom should be omitted. Student does not realize it is inappropriate in spoken
English.
6 Learner does not realize that that cannot always be substituted for which, and
certainly not in a relative clause referring back to the whole of the previous
clause.
G All are cleft type sentences in which a clause beginning with it or what precedes
the main clause of the sentence, or in some cases (5 and 6) itself forms the subject
of the following verb . In all of the examples a shift of emphasis is achieved.
92
Relative clauses I Word order
It was Clara ... (not someone else!).

2 It could have been Fred ... (someone did ring; Fred is a possibility).
3 ... and not last Thursday or last Saturday.
4 Emphasis on Where would indicate that the questioner once knew but has
forgotten.
5 Extra emphasis gained by introductory clause.
6 Whole clause needed here as a subject of sentence.
Compare these less emphatic versions:
1 You saw Clara waiting at the corner.
2 Fred might have rung you up last night.
3 I first felt ill last Friday.
4 Where did you spend the weekend?
5 You get what you see.
6 Your real beliefs are important.
22 Word order
A 1 All of them include inversions of subject and verb (either with or without an
auxiliary) .
2 (a) Normal interrogative formation- present simple tense.
(b) Normal interrogative formation with modal auxiliary verb.
(c) The position of only (at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis)
requires inversion of subject and verb in the main clause.
(d) The position of hardly at the beginning of the sentence provokes inversion of
subject and verb. Hardly is one of a group of negative words and expressions
( cf also (i)) which require this inversion when used to start a sentence.
(e) A normal tail question (negative question tagged on to a statement) .
(f) Here, Pop is seen as an example of direct speech, and subject and verb are
often inverted afterwards, cf 'Hello,' said John.
(g) Inversion is normal after demonstrative adverbs here and there.
(h) Inversion after so is normal, though not obligatory. However, it is made
more likely in this case because the subject, all of us, consists of more than
one word.
(i) The negative expression Under no circumstances at the beginning of the
sentence requires subsequent inversion (cf (d) above).
(j) This is a 'fixed phrase' with the meaning Let it be so. The inversion may be
influenced by the initial position of so (cf (h) above).
(k) Normal inversion after neither.
(l) Inversion here adds to the effect of a live commentary.
(m) Inversion here replaces an if clause.
B Type 1 All of these are examples of inversion after negative expressions. The
auxiliary do (does) is used in each case, as in the interrogative.
Type 2 In these examples, all in the present simple, there is straightforward
transposition of subject and verb (for different reasons in each case), without an
auxiliary.
93
C ~Here my friend comes (noun subject) would sound strange.

~Here comes she (pronoun subject) is not possible.
Up into the clear blue sky the bird soared (noun subject) would be possible but less
striking.
~ Up into the clear blue sky soared it (pronoun subject) is not possible.
Pronouns do not admit inversion in such utterances.
D 1 Often (adverb of frequency) should not usually immediately follow the verb it
modifies. The most common correct version would be: They often go to London.
2 Marvellously intrudes between the verb and its subject, which should normally
not be separated. Corrected version: My sister plays tennis marvellously.
3 The order of the adjectives is unlikely, if not incorrect. Depending on how
closely the word cuddly defines teddy, a more acceptable version would be a
new pink cuddly teddy.
4 Lend is one of a group of verbs which can take both a direct and an indirect
object. If the indirect object is a pronoun and the direct object is a noun, the
following word order applies: Lend me your pen (or Lend your pen to me).
If both objects are nouns, the order is as follows: He lent Jim his pen (or He lent
his pen to Jim) .
If the direct object is a pronoun and the indirect object a noun, the word order
required is: He lent it to his teacher.
So an acceptable version of the example in this exercise would be: I've lent it to
John and his friends.
(Most grammar books supply a full list of verbs which can take both direct and
indirect objects.)
5 The adverb always rarely starts a sentence. Corrected version: I always make
that mistake.
6 Adjective old intrudes between the two parts of the noun group man's coat. The
corrected version That's an old man's coat has two possible interpretations. Is it
the man or the coat that is old? Reading aloud may help!
7 Theoretically, the word order is correct here. The speaker has learnt that a
negative word at the beginning of a sentence requires subsequent inversion. He
has, however, not learnt that such constructions are not appropriate to
informal, everyday speech but are reserved for more formal spoken and
written styles. Corrected version: I am not going anywhere this evening.
94
1 Common myths and misconceptions about words
You cannot stop words from developing new meanings . It is part of the dyna-
mic process of the development of languages. Many words are now used with
meanings which are very different from their original meanings. For example,
buxom used to mean obedient but now it refers to the healthy, attractive appear-
ance oflarge-breasted women like those in Rubens' paintings.
In many dictionaries now the primary meaning of gay is given as homosexual-
for example, in the Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary where the
meaning of'lively and enjoyable to be with' is described as 'slightly more old-
fashioned'.
2 This ideal is unattainable as different cultures have different ways of represent-
ing the world around them and even have different worlds around them. For
example, the Russian word noga is usually translated as leg even though its
referent includes the leg and the foot; a green traffic light is referred to in Japan-
ese as ao (literally blue); the Lozi word munyanaka is translated as brother even
though it can refer to any related male who is not your father or uncle; and the
French word le pain refers to something which looks and tastes very different
from the referent of its translation bread. Also words are often borrowed from a
language but are then used with a broader reference than in the original language.
Thus sukejuuru in Japanese refers to both a formal schedule and an informal
intention and koosu in Japanese refers to both a course for a race and a path or
route for walking.
3 This is also unattainable for the same reasons given in 2 above. Thus the
translation of He's bought a dog in Chinese or Arabic would be interpreted in
different ways from in the original because of the different attitudes towards
the function of dogs in the cultures represented by these languages. This
would probably be true also of They've killed a whale translated into Japanese
or Norwegian.
4 Using borrowed words can cause confusion if they are not in common use
(eg simpatico) and annoyance if a perfectly adequate word already exists
(eg le weekend). But all languages borrow words to cover meanings they do
not have a native word for. Yacht, amok and bureau are examples of English
words borrowed from other languages.
5 It is not possible to say that one word is the correct one to use to refer to a
particular referent. The best word to use is the one most efficient in the
circumstances. Thus if there is only one thing on the table it would be much
more sensible to ask someone helping you to pass the thing on the table or the
piece of wood than the joist. However if you are ordering things from a specialist
carpenter suppliers you are more likely to use the term joist. In the same way
when watching a game of bowls in the park you would say to someone who has
never seen a game before, She bowled that one well but would say, Great wood!
to a bowls enthusiast.
6 Slang is normally most appropriate when talking to someone you know who
95
shares group membership with you (ega fellow teenage rap or in die enthusiast)
but it would also be completely acceptable in a letter to a friend, in a newsletter
of a particular association or group, (ega school rugby club) or in an advertise-
ment aimed at a particular group of enthusiasts ( eg for a pop concert).
7 What are considered to be taboo topics and words varies from culture to culture.
Thus in England we often find euphemisms when referring to the toilet, to sex
and to death ( eg the little boys' room, lovemaking and passed away) but in other
cultures much more explicit words are used without embarrassment in public.
Thus it is quite possible that you might be asked at a dinner party in Indonesia,
Which condoms do you use? but you would never be asked, What do you think of
communism?
8 Some people seem to be able to build up their active and passive vocabularies
through conscious learning of definitions and translations but most people
seem to benefit more from experiencing lexical items being used for real com-
munication in the language being learned. Although learning definitions and
translations can help you when you have time to think ( eg when reading or
writing) it cannot really help very much when you need to understand or produce
words in spontaneous conversation. And even if it did it could cause you to
make errors because of differences of reference and implication between
translation equivalents.
2 Word fields and lexical relationships

A (a) This is one possible answer: 1; 2; 3, 5; 4; 6, 7; 8, 10, 11, 12; 9.
(b) There is no definite answer to this question- only opinions. It could be
argued that the core meaning includes doing something in a small space or
restricted area.
(c) The important conclusion is that pick has many meanings and that some of
them would not be relevant to learners of an intermediate level ( eg as in sen-
tences 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11 and 12) . In addition, teaching a learner all the different
meanings of pick at the same time would inevitably lead to confusion and to
ineffective learning.
If is useful to decide that there are many different words which are spelled
and pronounced pick and to teach only those which are likely to be useful to
the learner. Pick up, as in sentence 1, is common and useful, as is pick in
sentence 3 and pick up in sentence 7.
There is no one correct answer to the question of which picks to teach to an
intermediate group; the important thing is that the teacher is selective and
teaches only those picks which the learners should know.
In order to avoid the possibility of confusion it is better to teach the different
selected picks at different times.
Most of the pick sentences in A would not be good teaching exam pies as in
most cases the sentences do not provide very much information about the
meanings of pick ( eg sentences 2 and 11) . It is useful to exemplify new
vocabulary items in contexts which help the learner to appreciate the
meaning of the new item.
eg Pick that glass up off the floor and put it on the table before somebody stands on it.
(d) Instead of referring the student to a dictionary the teacher could have referred
96
him/her to the passage. The student's question makes it obvious that he/she
does not realize that the item he/she does not know the meaning of is pick up
and not pick. The dictionary will give many meanings of pick and the student
will have great difficulty in finding the one relevant to the passage. In addition
it is quite likely that he/she will not understand the definition even if a relevant
one is found.
Dictionaries can be an aid to vocabulary acquisition but only when the students
have been taught how to use them and only if the students use them to check
deductions they have made after analysing the form of the words and the
contexts in which they have met them.
The teacher who persistently tells students to look words up in their diction-
aries is encouraging the sort of painful intensive reading which consists of
looking up every unfamiliar word regardless of its usefulness to the learner
or its significance in the text.
(e) Students should be discouraged from asking such questions and encouraged
instead to pay more attention to the overall meaning of the text than to the
exact meaning of every vocabulary item in it.
The question is best answered by saying that pick has many meanings and that
the student should examine the passage he/she is reading to try to discover clues
to the particular meaning of pick in the passage. The teacher should lead the
student to discover that he/she is looking for the meaning of pick up in the text
and to examine the previous and subsequent sentences for clues (such as the
fact that the speaker has a car and that the two are going to travel in it together).
(f) Only one of the definitions is relevant to the student's problem. The others are
not only irrelevant but are meanings which are unlikely to be useful to an inter-
mediate student even if he manages to learn them all without confusion. Learn-
ing definitions does not magically bestow on the learner the ability to under-
stand the word in context and does nothing at all to help use it accurately and
appropriately.
A learner could write five correct, safe sentences which tell the teacher
nothing about the learner's ability to understand or use the item, eg
Have you ever been to a port? or I can see a port.
B The words in italics in each pair have the same referent (ie they refer to the
same thing). Thus slim and skinny refer to the same physical characteristic of
the same girl. However in each pair the words might have the same referent but
they do not have exactly the same meaning. In each pair the two speakers have
different attitudes to the same thing. Thus in (a) the first speaker does not like
what William has become whereas the second speaker does; in (b) the first
speaker finds Alice attractive whereas the second does not.
We can say that in each pair the words have the same referent but that they
have different implied meanings.
2 (a) The implied meanings of the words should be taught as well as their
referents.
(b) We should be very careful to distinguish between two items which are
similar (but different) in meaning.
(c) It can be useful to introduce a new item by relating it to a similar item
which is familiar to the learners providing that attention is focused on both
the similarities and the differences.
97
C 1 (a) picture (b) shoes (c) pen (d) meat (e) seat . . . etc.
2 The replacements are all more general than the words in italjcs. They could
refer to many different types (eg picture- photo, drawing, painting, portrait,
sketch, etc).
3 (a) When teaching beginners it is important to select items which have a high
coverage; that is, words which can be used by the beginner instead of other
words. Thus seat can be used instead of chair, soja, bench, etc and should thus
be taught before them.
(b) A word with high coverage is usually the most general item in a 'family'.
Thus picture is the most general item in the family which contains photo,
painting, drawing, etc. Advanced learners should be able to understand and use
many of the particular items as well as the general item in each of the common
word families in English.
When teaching a particular item from a family it is important to focus attention
not only on its membership of the family but also on how it is different from the
general item and from the other particular items in the family which have already
been taught. Thus when teaching bench it is important to show that it is a par-
ticular type of seat and that the words cannot always be used interchangeably
and to show how a bench is different from a chair and a sofa.
D 1 In all the sentences the speaker has used a word which has a meaning which is
close to the one he wants to communicate but which for various reasons is not
appropriate. Thus in (a) the writer has used fracture to mean break because he
is unaware that fracture can only refer to the breaking of particular types of
things (mainly bones). In (d) the writer has used feeble to mean weak because
he is unaware that feeble is normally only used to refer to animate things
(mainly people) which are weak.
Almost certainly the writer has made these errors because he has learned a new
word as a synonym of one he already knows either as a result of consulting a
dictionary, of incompletely deducing the meaning of a new word or of being
taught that the new word =the known word. Thus the writer has learned that
manufacture = make but has not learned that the two words are not always
interchangeable because manufacture can normally only be used when things
are made in bulk and made to be sold.
2 It is dangerous to teach or to imply that two words are synonyms (ie that their
meanings are exactly the same).
It is important to teach when an item cannot be used as well as when it can be
used. One way of achieving this is to teach the item together with known words
which it is frequently used with (eg eJect from/meeting) and then to give examples
of the types of words it cannot be used with (eg X pierce/window) .
Another way is to demonstrate the difference between the two related words
(eg by contrasting pictures of people walking and people marching, and by
asking questions about their purposes).
E The definitions consist only of equivalent words; they include no information

about when it is appropriate to use the word being defined instead of its
equivalent. For example, there is no information about when it would be
appropriate to use mate ( eg in informal conversation) and when it would not
(eg in a formal interview) .
98
2 The learner would probably think that the words were interchangeable and use
those with restricted appropriacy (ie those being defined) in situations in
which their use would be inappropriate (ega worker addressing a letter
requesting a rise to The Boss; someone starting a report, Ten guys were selected
for training).
3 One-word definitions are often dangerous because they give the impression
that the two words are interchangeable (ie that one can always be used instead
of the other).
It is important to teach when it is appropriate to use an item and also to teach
when it is not appropriate to use an item.
F (a) Once two opposites have been taught it is often useful to indicate on a
sloping line the relative positions of the items used to refer to degrees in
between the opposites. This is particularly useful for example for showing that
quite good is less than good.
(b) Degrees in between opposites can be referred to by either (i) adding
another word to one of the opposites (eg quite hot) or (ii) using a different item
(eg warm). It is usually easier to teach (i) first and then later to teach (ii).
2 The same items can appear on two different lines of opposition. Thus good can
appear on a line of ability as well as on a line of virtue. It is important that the
learner does not assume that the other items can appear on both lines, or he
might, for example, use poor as an equivalent to bad on the line of virtue.
G 1 In most contexts reach and am·ve can have the same meaning and are equally
acceptable. However, reach= get in touch with cannot be replaced by arrive and
reach out= stretch out cannot be replaced by arrive out. Reach must always be
followed by an object whereas arrive need not be. Reach cannot be used with
back whereas arrive can. Arrive must be followed by at when its object noun is
preceded by an article whereas reach is never followed by at.
Brave and courageous appear to be interchangeable. However, whereas in many
contexts courage seems to be able to replace bravery, bravery only seems to be
able to replace courage when physical actions rather than mental actions are
being referred to. In certain fixed phrases bravery can never be used instead of
courage. There is no verb to courage corresponding to the verb to brave.
Put up and accommodate seem to communicate the same meaning but
accommodate is not normally used in informal conversation.
2 To be totally interchangeable two words must be capable of always
substituting for each other without changing the grammar, the meaning or the
acceptability of the utterance.
3 It is sometimes useful to introduce a new item by relating it to a similar item
which is already known. However, it is very important to point out any
potential differences in meaning, grammar or acceptability and learners should
never be left with the impression that word A = word B (except for the few
pairs which are totally interchangeable). It is also important to show that even
if two words are apparently interchangeable their related forms might not be
(eg brave v courageous; bravery v courage).
99
3 Factors in the teaching of vocabulary
A 1 It is important to realize that two words which are considered to be opposites

will rarely be capable of a relationship of opposition in all conceivable contexts .
If two words are introduced as opposites or if a new word is introduced as the
opposite of a known word it is important to show when the two words are not
opposites as well as when they are.
2 There is some point in teaching all these pairs together providing that initially
the relationship of opposition is demonstrated in appropriate contexts, that the
students never learn that word A = the opposite of word B and that eventually
contexts are used to show when the two words are not opposites.
B (a) and (b) are useless teaching examples as in both cases the context gives no
clue to the meaning of amazed. In (c) found out gives some sort of clue to the
meaning of amazed but it is not a very informative teaching example. (d) is a
good teaching example as it contains a lot of information to help the learner
work out the meaning of amazed. (e) gives clues to the unexpected aspect of
amazed but is not a very good teaching example as it could give the misleading
impression that amazed is always used to refer to unpleasant surprises (cf (d)).
2 Such examples should be as informative as possible and ideally should enable
the learner to accurately deduce the meaning of a word which is totally new to
him.
C 1 The sentences say very little about the ability of the students to use swept as all
the sentences are safe sentences which accurately imitate a model but do not
contain any information which enables you to decide whether the students
know why or how you sweep a carpet.
2 Asking students to write sentences using a particular word is basically a waste
of time as very often correct sentences are produced which reveal nothing
about the students' ability to understand and use the word. However, if such
an exercise is set and safe answers are produced the teacher can probe by
asking such questions as Why did she sweep it? and What did she sweep it with?
D 1 (a) nibbit =biscuit (or possibly cake)

Clues:
in your pocket- therefore small and probably wrapped.
in case I was hungry- therefore edible and probably more substantial
than a sweet.
prefer the ones with chocolate on.
That's probably why I didn't eat it.
(b) slinned = cleaned
Clues:
took your coat to be- not done at home therefore probably done in a shop.
I hope they get all the stains out this time- therefore definitely not mended or altered
and almost certainly cleaned rather than washed (not normally done in shops or
to coats anyway).
2 ding= slap
Clues:
ding him- therefore done to someone.
100
Factors in the teaching of vocabulary
hard- therefore physical.

He ... naughty- therefore a boy.
hurt- confirms physical.
hand- therefore not cane, ruler or fist.
on his leg- therefore not punch.
soon get over it- therefore not serious.
3 (a) glogget = deckchair or folding chair
Clues:
sitting in the garden.
didn't want it to get wet.
folded it up.
put it in the garage.
with the other garden seats.
(b) unseddy =untidy
Clues:
I was furious
I'd told the kids to put all their toys in the trunk to keep the garage seddy.
there were toys all over the garage floor.
Learners can be taught to try to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar items from
an analysis of the context.
E 1 and 2 Various answers are possible. Our answers were:

(a) get something back (verb)
(b) a book with a card cover (adjective or noun)
(c) having too much of something (noun)
(d) below the moon (adjective)
(e) twice a day (adjective or adverb)
(f) like a punk (adverb)
(g) think afterwards (verb) or the period after thinking (noun)
(h) make impossible (verb)
(i) recommend that something does not happen or withdraw a
recommendation (both verb)
(j) good at attending (adjective)
3 It is useful to teach students the meanings of common roots (eg possib) and
prefixes (eg post-) and about how prefixes modify the meaning of roots. It is
also useful to teach the grammatical and semantic functions of common
suffixes (eg -ate).
Often a learner can work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word by examining
the form and the context of the word.
4 It is a good idea to warn students that there are exceptions and that they should
always check their guesses against information in the context.
F ? It was sensational to hear.

? It was amazing to eat.
~ It was superlative to eat/watch/hear/drive.
~ It was brilliant to eat/hear/drive.
2 All the words in column 2 could be used interchangeably in such a sentences as
It was a(n)-film. However they are not always interchangeable. For instance
101
it seems that brilliant when used in the pattern It was +adjective + infinitive is
restricted to reference to performances and that superlative cannot be used in
this pattern at all. It also seems that some of the adjectives in column 2 simply
mean very good (ie marvellous, superb and wonderful) while others can
sometimes mean very good but can also have other meanings (eg amazing can
mean very good or very surprising).
3 It is dangerous to assume that certain words are always interchangeable
because they are interchangeable in a particular type of context.
It can be useful to teach words in families providing that the grammatical and
semantic sub-groupings are made evident.
G 2 The words belong to the same family but are by no means interchangeable .
Sub-groups can be formed on the basis of features of meaning. Thus sub-
group A1 might consist of bought, purchased, hired, rented, borrowed, leased and
acquired while sub-group A2 consisted of loaned, let, rented out, sold, leased and
lent. A1 involves movement towards the subject. A2 involves movement away
from the subject. Another sub-grouping could be B 1 (bought, purchased, hired,
rented, rented out, sold, leased, let), B2 (borrowed, lent) and B3 (acquired, loaned).
B 1 includes the payment of money, B2 excludes the payment of money, and B3
could either include or exclude the payment of money.
Yet another sub-grouping could be C 1 (purchased, leased; acquired, loaned) and
C2 (all other items). The items inC 1 are restricted in use in that they are
normally only used in formal (and usually business) situations whereas the
items in C2 are not restricted in this way.
The words also differ in collocation (ie the words they can acceptably be used
with). Thus leased is restricted in collocation to house and business and words
like them. Rented can collocate with house, car, business, tent, television and
words like them (ie words which refer to things you pay money for the
continuous use of) and hired can collocate with such words as house, car,
business, tent, maid, television and picture (ie words referring to things or people
you can pay to use for a short time). Another example of restricted collocation
is the fact that lent cannot normally be followed immediately by a ( eg X I've
lent a car) while acquired cannot normally be followed immediately by my when
it is preceded by the present perfect (eg X I've acquired my business). Lent could
be said to belong to sub-group D 1 and acquired to D2.
H This is a useful exercise for teaching the collocations of items in a family and thus
for helping to teach the differences in meaning and use between the items.
It is important to realize that this exercise is only one stage in teaching learners to
use the items accurately and appropriately as knowledge does not automatically
lead to ability to use.
4 Phrasal and prepositional verbs

A Category one (verb+ preposition): 4, 5, 7, 8 (prepositional verbs)
Category two (verb+ adverb): 1, 2, 3, 6 (phrasal verbs)
B Each verb is followed by an adverbial particle and then a preposition.
102
Phrasal and prepositional verbs
C 1 He'll have to be spoken to firmly (to is unstressed).

2 This work will have to be put aside (aside is stressed).
3 Three of the crew cannot be accounted for (jor is unstressed).
4 The house was cleaned up after the party (up is stressed).
5 This form has been filled in (in is stressed).
6 A lot of ships have been laid up in the south-west of England (up is stressed).
7 The steelworks have been shut down (down is stressed) .
8 This record has been worn out (out is stressed).
Foreign learners often find it difficult to distinguish between phrasal and
prepositional verbs. This provides a useful test. Phrasal verbs (with adverb
particles) carry stress on the adverb in the passive, and the adverb can be
separated from the verb by its object- this applies to 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 above.
Prepositional verbs cannot be split and the preposition is unstressed in passive
sentences. This applies to 1 and 3.
D 1 catch on means understand; not deducible from its parts.

2 answer back- the meaning can be deduced straightforwardly from the parts.
3 gone off- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
4 let down- the meaning can be deduced from the parts.
5 let down- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
6 lay in- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
7 run down- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
8 put out- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
9 stand up- the meaning can be deduced from the parts.
10 ran away- the meaning can be deduced from the parts.
11 knock off- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
12 brush up- idiomatic meaning; not directly deducible.
E The exercise asks for phrasal verb synonyms for the Latin-based words in the
exercise. It would be more useful if it gave some indication of when the Latinate
equivalents are more appropriate (phrasal verbs tend to occur more in informal
speech and writing). No reason is given for the substitution as an exercise. The
verbs required are:
1 taken out 6 left out
2 boughtup 7 gave (him) away
3 looks like 8 getaway
4 putoff 9 died out
5 running (your brother) down 10 cutdown
NB Phrasal and prepositional verbs cause foreign learners a lot of difficulty, for
reasons demonstrated in these exercises. They are best dealt with as items of
vocabulary each time they appear, and learners should be encouraged to note
down examples each time they meet a new verb of this type. R. A. Close in
A Reference Grammar for Students ofEnglish (Longman) offers a very full treatment
of the subject, with useful categorization, and there is a more exhaustive treatment
in A.P. Cowie and R. Mackin ( r 993) The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms
which is devoted to phrasal and prepositional verbs.
The main structural teaching point is to give learners criteria for distinguishing
between the types (see Band C above) so that they can handle the syntax.
103
Unit 4 Cohesion
A Because it is not clear what the pronouns refer to. For example, what is it and
who is him in sentence (a)?
2 Either the pronouns rewritten as nouns,
or other utterances from the same conversations containing nouns referred to
by the pronouns, eg (a) What's Bill's medicine doing here?
Have you given it to him yet?
or information about the situations in which the utterances were made, eg (d)
Two children are watching a film. They look bored. Mary points to the children and
says, 'Have they seen it before?'
3 Obviously there are many possible answers to this question. One possibility is:
(a) Have you given your homework to the teacher yet?
(b) Are we seeing Bill and Mary again tonight?
(c) Did you buy your car from Joe Flynn?
(d) Have your children seen the film before?
(e) Ifl see Fred with Sophia again I'll tell you.
(f) Why did your daughter get angry?
-Her husband was very drunk.
(g) Sheila's dress is very beautiful.
4 If the nouns had not been recently referred to and if there was nothing in the
situation which made it clear what or who was being referred to, eg (c) Two men
were sitting in a pub discussing a secondhand radio which one of them had bought
from a local dealer. One of the men asked, 'Did you buy your car from Joe Flynn?'
because he wanted to confirm that this was true before going on to compare the two
secondhand dealers.
5 If the previous utterance(s) or something in the situation had made it
absolutely clear what or who was being referred to, eg (g) I get so envious of
Sarah. My face is ugly. Look. Hers is beautiful.
6 Yes. For example, if the noun had already been mentioned by the speaker and
the situation made it perfectly clear what was being referred to, eg (d) X Look at
the children. The children seem bored by this film.
Have the children seen this film before?
7 They are used to refer to people and things that have already been mentioned
or are present in the situation .They help to avoid repeating expressions and
stating the obvious and therefore contribute to the economy of utterances.
8 Because they refer to people who are present in the situation and therefore who
do not need to be identified.
They refer to participants in the conversation whereas the other pronouns
usually refer to non-participants in the conversation and to people and things
which are being identified either by reference back to what has been said or by
pointing to them in the situation.
9 her is used to refer to a person whereas hers is used to refer to both the person
and to something that belongs to her.
104
Cohesion
B 1 (a) A has wrongly assumed that B will know the place referred to by there.
(b) A has wrongly assumed that B will know the time referred to by then.
(c) A has wrongly assumed that B will know the things referred to by those.
(d) A has wrongly assumed that B will know the thing referred to by that.
2 They refer to places, times or things which have previously been mentioned or
which have been specified by the situation. They help to avoid repetition and
to achieve economy.
3 they, him, then, there. A was right in assuming that B would perceive their
referents (ie what they refer to) as a result of relating to previous mention or
from pointers in the situation.
4 (a) A: Are they going there again?
B: Who?
(b) I saw him then.
Who?
(c) I'm doing those then.
When?
(d) Did you buy that there?
Where?
C Because the words with potential for breakdown in communication (ie I, you,
chis, these, yours, here, now) refer to referents present in the situation.
2 All the words refer to referents which have previously been mentioned or are
pointed to in the situation. However those in (a) refer to referents present and
close in the situation whereas those in (b) refer to referents either distant from
the speaker or not present in the situation at all.
D 1 B's that refers back to the vase. A's that refers back to the breaking of the vase.
2 A's this refers back to the house. B's this refers to what they are doing (ie to the
situation).
E (a) Could mean that the books were not the same as the two books previously
referred to whereas (b) could mean that the books were different from each
other.
In (a) different refers you to previous utterances or to features of the situation to
complete a contrast whereas in (b) different acts as an adjective establishing a
contrast between the two books mentioned in the utterance.
2 (a) A: No! I don't mean new clothes. I mean different clothes. I don't want to
get these dirty.
(b) Other warns you to refer to the situation and to previous utterances to help
you decide whether it is being used with its function of addition or its function
of replacement.
3 (a) More could refer back to a referent made clear by previous utterances or by
the situation (eg more potatoes) or it could be part of an expression indicating
that the speaker thinks greater efforts are needed.
(b) A realizes that more people than expected have turned up to a function and
says to B We haven't done enough sandwiches. We'll have to do more.
A is talking to B about a student who is not performing well and says, We
haven't done enough to help him. We'll have to do more.
105
Unit 4 Cohesion
F 1 They are all acting as substitutes for elements in previous utterances (eg in (a)
one is acting as a substitute for cooker).
2 (a), (e), (g) actassubstitutesfornouns;
(b), (d) as substitutes for verbs;
(c), (f) as substitutes for clauses; and
(h), (i) as substitutes for possessive pronoun plus noun.
G In all the utterances something has been omitted (eg bought in (a)).
2 Group one (b, c, d, g)- nouns omitted.
Group two (a, e, f, h, i)-verbs omitted.
3 (a) Instead of repeating the same main verb in adjacent clauses or sentences
you can often omit it in the second utterance.
(b) Instead of repeating the same auxiliary verbs in adjacent clauses or
sentences you can often omit them (provided the main verbs are different and
are included in the utterance).
(c) Instead of repeating the same subject in adjacent clauses or sentences you
can often omit the subject in the second utterance.
(d) Instead of repeating the same object in adjacent clauses or sentences you
can often omit the object in the second utterance.
H 3 All the sentences could indicate an equal liking for football and rugby but
sentences (c), (d), (e), (f), and (i) could indicate a preference for football
whereas sentences hand j could indicate a preference for rugby. The actual
interpretation would depend on the intonation of the speaker, the previous
utterances and features of the situation.
4 Type 1: and. Joins two clauses within the same sentence; must come in
between them.
Type 2: as well as; in addition to. Joins two clauses within the same sentence;
can come at the beginning of the first clause or in between the first and second.
Type 3: also; in addition. Joins two sentences together.
5 (k), (I), (m) and (p) focus attention on the contrast between the expected and
the actual performance of the car. (n) and (o) focus attention on the fme
performance of the car and then add the regrettable fact that it is old.
6 Type 1: but
Type 2: although
Type 3: however
I 2 Type 1: and; also

Type 2: at the same time; then; so; as well as
Type 3: at the same time; then; and all the other items in the list
3 Exemplification Sequence Reason Result Purpose Comparison
for instance first for this reason as a result for this purpose in the same way
for example finally in that case because of this with this in mind likewise
thus then thus similarly
so consequently
on account of this therefore
therefore then
so
106
Cohesion
Addition Contrast Correction Dismissal Reinforcement Time

and also nevertheless rather anyhow moreover meanwhile
besides even so at least in fact at the same time
as well as despite this instead as a maner of fact previously
however on the other hand in any case finally
on the other hand besides
on the contrary furthermore
l~B Some of u'Je items could also belong to ou'1er categories, eg instead could
belong to Replacement.
4 Some of the differences are:
(a) Some of the expressions are used mainly in formal situations or in writing,
eg on account of this;for this purpose; thus; likewise; similarly;furthermore.
(b) Some of the categories could be subdivided, eg
Contrast
Concession Balance Opposition
nevertheless on the other hand on the contrary
even so
despite this
however
(c) Some of the expressions are restricted as regards the linguistic environment
they can be used in, eg as a matter offact is normally used to reinforce a
point following or in anticipation of an objection or challenge; in that case
cannot be used with past reference.
J 1 Meanwhile is normally used to indicate a connection in time and in type

between two events. Here it is only used to indicate a connection in time as a
sinking and a heatwave are not connected in type.
2 Nevertheless suggests that something has just been referred to that might
prevent enjoyment whereas the opposite is true.
3 Anyhow is not normally used to indicate resignation or concession; in this
sentence it has been wrongly used instead of however or possibly anyway.
4 On the contrary is wrongly used. It is normally used to indicate contradiction in
utterances, eg Many people think that I'm going to resign. On the contrary, I'm
going to work harder than ever before for the committee.
In sentence 4 jazz and folk music are not opposites.
5 In that case is wrongly used with past reference. It is normally only used with
future reference, egA: It's just started to rain.
B: In that case we'd better take our coats after all.
K 1 plan; thing to do 3 stuff 5 thing 7 woman

2 place 4 idea 6 boy; lad 8 creature
All these are lexical substitutes used to represent items previously identified. They
avoid repetition and in many cases indicate that the speaker has a negative attitude
towards the referent, eg instead of Put it away in that cupboard, the expression used
is Put the thing away in that cupboard. In many of the sentences much stronger
negative words could have been used than the ones chosen (eg brat, rascal in 6).
107
Unit 4 Cohesion
M It is important to teach the ways in which utterances are linked in English. If we

do not our learners might understand the meaning of an utterance but not
appreciate how it is connected with previous and subsequent utterances and they
might be able to produce isolated utterances but not be able to produce
continuous discourse.
It is important that the teacher understands the ways in which English achieves
cohesion (ie the ways it uses to link various types of utterances) and makes use of
this understanding in the planning of teaching and practice material. It is
particularly important that such material gives the learners the opportunity to
respond to, participate in and produce extended and continuous discourse.
108
Unit 5 Coherence
A Type Purpose
A: interrogative offer
B: declarative declining offer
A: declarative repeating and strengthening offer
B: declarative (negative) explaining the declining of the offer
2 A: declarative + interrogative seeking confirmation
B: declarative confirming
A: declarative statement of consequent action
B: interrogative polite request
3 A: declarative statement of fact+ criticism and indication
of worry
B: imperative + declarative reassurance
A: declarative criticism + indic.ation of worry
B: interrogative criticism + indication of annoyance
NB Other interpretations are possible (eg 2 A:= incentive to action) as informa-
tion about the relationship between the speakers, the setting of the dialogue, the
shared knowledge of the speakers and the intonation, pace and volume of the
utterances is needed before a completely objective analysis can be attempted.
B 1 (a) A is reminding B that he is supposed to ring somebody at seven.

(b) A wife is suggesting to her husband that he should cut the grass in their
garden, as they are expecting visitors. The husband does not want to do it and
reminds her that he is meeting someone soon and that he has been late for
appointments with this person for the last two weeks.
(c) A boy is driving his girlfriend home and suggests that they should stop for a
drink at a pub. She is reluctant to stop and he tries to persuade her by
suggesting that they might meet her friend.
(d) A boy answers the phone and is mistaken for his brother. He tells the caller
that his brother has left and suggests where he might be.
NB There are of course numerous other situations in which the exchanges
would make sense.
2 Type Purpose
(b) A: declarative getting somebody to do something
B: declarative avoiding doing something
This pattern is repeated twice.
(c) A: interrogative suggestion
B: declarative expressing reluctance
A: declarative+ interrogative as A above
B: declarative as B above
A: declarative + interrogative persuasion
B: declarative indicating non-acceptance of suggestion by A
109
Unit 5 Coherence
(d) A: declarative greeting

B: interrogative seeking confirmation
A: declarative statement of information
B: declarative statement of information + identification
A: interrogative expression of surprise + annoyance
B: imperative suggestion
NB Other answers are of course possible.
3 (a) It is important to make sure that the learner is not misled into thinking that
declarative = statement, interrogative = question and imperative = command.
(b) The learner should be taught to participate in conversations in which the
participants share knowledge and experience and therefore do not make the
reference and purpose of every utterance explicit.
(c) The learner should be taught how to achieve his or her purpose effectively
through language (eg persuade someone to do something; turn down an
invitation without giving offence).
(d) Teaching the form and function of structures is not enough. We must also
teach how to use them to achieve the purpose of an utterance (eg My mother
will be worried: will be= prediction, but the whole utterance= reluctance to
follow suggestion).
(e) Learners should not be forced to use full sentences in dialogue practice
unless the situation requires it.
C 1 (a) Advice
(b) Warning
(c) Command
(d) Appeal
(e) Instruction.
2 Command
(a) A in authority over B
(b) B accepts authority of A
(c) A wants B to do something
(d) B capable of doing what A wants .
Advice
(a) Bin need of help
(b) A accepts that B needs help
(c) A in position to help
(d) B accepts that A in position to help
(e) A does not intend to do anything but intends B to do something.
Appeal
(a) A in great need of help
(b) help previously asked for
(c) Bin position to help A.
Instruction
(a) A has greater knowledge, expertise or experience than B
(b) B accepts (a)
(c) B needs A to say what to do.
110
Coherence
Warning
(a) Bin danger
(b) A informing B of danger
(c) B capable of averting danger
(d) A knows how B can avert danger.
3 Listing conditions as above can help the teacher to devise situations which
will help the learner to appreciate the difference between similar potential
functions of t-he same utterance (eg teacher-pupil in science laboratory for
instruction and father-young son at home for command).
D Criticism through prediction of consequences.

2 Exemplification to reinforce criticism.
3 all industries should be nationalized and let us encourage private enterprise.
4 When private enterprise has been encouraged?
5 To link prosperity to initiative as its consequence.
6 (a) Criticism
(b) Prediction
(c) Exemplification
(d) Exemplification
(e) Refutation
(f) Suggestion
(g) Reinforcement of suggestion.
E 1 No tapes for the winter term. Because the answer refers to tapes.
2 The lack of money as a result of the spending of the budget.
3 We have a problem, and I think I've got an answer.
4 The use of that in that spare set of 'Mullens', implies that the addressee is aware
of these books and is therefore working at the school. The of course in, That
means of course no tapes also suggests that the addressee works at the school and
therefore that the we includes the addressee.
5 Books. Because of set and because 'Mullens' is in inverted commas .
6 It is important to teach how to detect and make links between consecutive and
between separated utterances.
F Furthermore is normally used to introduce an additional point which reinforces

the similar ones already made. In this text it does not seem to have any such
semantic function.
2 There is no logical link between sentences 3 and 4 because of the differences in
tense.
3 Another factor does not logically link its utterance to any previous utterance.
Another factor in what?
4 Especially does not logically link its utterance to the previous one.
5 Does sentence 6 refer to the electrification of motor vehicles?
6 However does not logically link its utterance to the previous one .
7 As a result does not logically link its utterance to the previous one.
8 There are no grammatical or vocabulary errors in these two paragraphs but the
writer's inability to link his utterances logically makes them very difficult to
understand.
111
Unit 5 Coherence
G Cohesion involves indicating the connection between consecutive or related

utterances. If a text is cohesive you can see by looking at the text how one
utterance is related to a previous or subsequent utterance.
Coherence is the linking together of consecutive or related utterances according to
the functions of the utterances. Thus an invitation followed by an acceptance
would be coherent whereas an invitation followed by an anecdote probably would
not be coherent.
Example 1 could be coherent because it could consist of a generalization followed
by an example and a consequence. But it is not cohesive because there is no
indicated connection between the two utterances.
Example 2 is cohesive because the two utterances are connected by the repetition
of London. But it is not coherent because there is no apparent connection between
the function of the question and the function of the reply.
112
Unit 6 Errors
1 Some myths and misconceptions about errors
1 Good language learners try to use the language they are learning as much as
possible and therefore they make many mistakes. Poor language learners often
try to avoid using the language and often only produce short simple utterances
when they are required to speak.
2 If a learner produces a language incorrectly it is usually either evidence of an
error resulting from faulty internalization or of a mistake caused by such per-
formance factors as tiredness, tension or pressure of time. Errors are consistent
and often are indicative of a stage in acquisition rather than of learning some-
thing wrongly. Thus a learner who consistently adds -ed to irregular verbs to
form the simple past (eg goed) has probably internalized a valid generalization
about the formation of the simple past but has not yet acquired the exceptions
(ie has overgeneralized). Mistakes are inconsistent and are made by very
advanced learners and even by native speakers. If a learner usually forms the
past simple of irregular verbs correctly but just occasionally gets one wrong
when very nervous or when trying to express complex content, it does not
mean that he/she has learned the simple past incorrectly.
3 Language acquisition does not result from memorization. You can memorize a
rule over and over again but it will not help you to produce correct English in
spontaneous speech unless you have had sufficient experience of the rule being
applied in authentic communication.
4 Learners should not be made to feel guilty or inadequate because they have
made an error. If they have to correct every error they make, they feel they are
being punished rather than helped and they often become negative about the
language they are learning and resentful of the teacher. They lose confidence
and motivation and try to avoid using the language that is causing them so
much pain.
In all the research into second language acquisition there is no evidence that
frequent correction is at all valuable to the learner. But there is considerable
evidence that teacher patience and encouragement plus meaningful exposure
to the language in use can help the learner to eventually get it right.
5 Many errors are developmental and do not benefit very much from correction.
Just like the child learning a first language, the learner of a foreign language goes
through the stages of acquisition in which his production of language gradually
becomes more correct as internal generalizations are refined from information
gained from using the language for communication. However, some errors
which are not part of the developmental process (eg those caused by interfer-
ence from the first language or from rnislearning) can eventually be remedied
by constructive feedback from the teacher. This is particularly true of such
errors made in written English, as usually when writing the learner has time to
think about advice given by the teacher.
6 Many language acquisition researchers believe that very few grammatical
errors are caused by interference from the first language and that contrasting
113
Unit 6 Errors
grammars of the two languages only confuses the learners. However it does
seem that some lexical errors and many pronunciation errors are influenced by
the first language and that when such errors are made language contrasts can
help in the remedial process.
2 Learners'errors
A 1 (a) fisherman
-False analogy with baker, farmer, etc.
- Overgeneralization that in English agent nouns are formed by adding -er
to the simple form of the verb.
(b) can see
- Overgeneralization that the present continuous is always used when
reference is being made to a continuous action in the present.
- Overteaching/overlearning of the present continuous as a result of
intensive drilling of the tense in association with now situations.
-Chronology, ie the tense was the first learned and is now dominant.
(c) likes
- Overgeneralization that the present simple has the same form as the
infinitive.
-Perception of the redundancy of the s (ie it is not essential for effective
communication).
(d) lives
-Failure to discriminate between the sound /i/ (in lives) and /i:/ (in leaves)
leading to a spelling confusion.
(e) I go
- Overgeneralization that the future can always be referred to using will.
-Ignorance of the rule governing time clauses with future reference in
English.
-Failure to appreciate that will is not a tense but a modal indicating either
willingness or a present decision about the future.
(f) isn't she?
-Interference from a mother tongue which has a fixed question-tag form
(eg n'est-ce pas?) .
-Ignorance of the rules of question-tag formation in English.
(g) went
-Failure to distinguish between the present perfect = indefinite past and
the simple past = definite past.
- L1 interference (ie interference from a mother tongue which does not
make the distinction between definite and indefinite past).
-Overlearning of present perfect= recent past.
(h) lend
- L 1 interference (ie from a language which has the same lexical item as
the equivalent of both lend and borrow).
-confusion from learning both items at the same time.
(i) has stolen
- L 1 interference (ie from a language that has the same lexical item as the
equivalent of both steal and rob).
114
Learners' errors
-confusion from learning both items at the same time.

(j) so that I could book
-Confusion with so + V = result.
(k) went
-Failure to distinguish between the past perfect = first of two or more past
actions and the simple past = specific action in the past.
- Overlearning of the past perfect (especially by student whose L 1 does
not have an equivalent of the English past perfect) .
(l) injured
- Overgeneralization of the reference of wounded.
- L 1 interference (ie from a language which has one lexical item as the
equivalent of both wound and injure).
(m) he had asked
-Ignorance of the tense sequence of the Third Conditional.
-Interference from strong association between the simple past and events
in the past.
(n) a friend came
-Interference from L 1.
(o) too
-Failure to perceive the different roles of too and to.
- Pronouncing to as too (even when the vowel of to should be weakened as
a result of lack of stress) and thereby adding to the confusion between the
two words.
(p) We couldn't care less
- L 1 interference.
-Confusion as a result oflearning many English idioms.
(q) to swim/for a swim
- L1 interference.
- Overgeneralization of for+ V-ing =purpose of instrument (eg It's for
cutting wood).
(r) My mother is
- L 1 interference from a mother tongue which uses personal pronouns to
repeat subjects.
(s) she
- L 1 interference from a mother tongue which does not differentiate
between male and female in its system of personal pronouns.
(t) playing
- Overgeneralization of S + V + V infinitive.
2 (a) L1 interference.
(b) False analogy.
(c) Overgeneralization.
(d) Overlearning.
(e) Ignorance.
(f) Incomplete learning.
(g) Interference from other items in English.
115
Unit 6 Errors
B 1, 2
Error Correction
I will be football player I am going to be a footballer
when I will be back when I go back (or return)
to my home home
I will be professor I am going to be a teacher
in school in a school
What for? Why?
will enjoy will enjoy it
be teach be a teacher
is bore is boring
will be interest is more interesting
It will be rich It will make me rich
Professor will be rich A teacher is well paid too
not true that's not true
Football player A footballer
will be very much rich is much richer, much better paid
Football player A footballer
not be rich is not rich, is not well paid
not give is not given much money
he will be give he is given
lot of money a lot of money
3 (a) ~ befootballplayer
-no system of articles in Ll (first language).
-false analogy of football player with tennis player etc .
-literal translation of football player from L 1 equivalent.
(b) ~ be professor
-no system of articles in L2.
- Ll interference.
(c) ~ will enjoy
-confusion between transitive and intransitive verbs.
- L 1 interference from intransitive equivalent of transitive enjoy.
4 (a) and (b) The learners have made many errors because they have attempted
a free conversation at an elementary stage oflearning and have therefore inevitably
made errors caused by ignorance, L 1 interference, false analogy and over-
generalization. However the two learners have basically managed to communi-
cate and it would be a mistake for the teacher to draw attention to all their errors.
This would negate the important feeling of successful communication, would
discourage and probably inhibit the learners and would impose far too great a
load of re-learning for it to be of any remedial value. It would, equally, be dis-
couraging to the learners to interrupt the flow of their conversation to correct
them. Any correction may be better done after the conversation on the basis of
notes made by the teacher. It would be much more useful to focus attention on
errors which the two learners both frequently make (eg the omission of the in-
definite article) and on errors which could cause misunderstanding (eg professor
for teacher, not give for is not given). However if the two learners were having a
real conversation (ie not solicited by the teacher) it would probably be a mistake
to correct them at all.
116
Learners' errors
C In the first extract the learner has got the past simple tense of the three irregular
verbs right but has omitted necessary articles and the pronoun object of read.
In the second extract he/she has used articles and a pronoun object correctly
but has got the past simple tense of the three irregular verbs wrong.
2 In the two weeks he/she has obviously learned how to use the indefinite article
and the pronoun as object. However it also seems that he/she has strongly learned
the regular form of the simple past tense (ie V + -ed) and that over-generaliza-
tion of this form has caused him/her to get wrong what was got right before.
D The learner can use the correct form of the third person of the simple present
tense (lives, cycles, goes, plays, comes) but gets it wrong after a conjunction (after
but and and). This suggests that he/she has problems with co-ordination rather
than with the present simple tense. The learner also uses connectors (however and
nevertheless) as though they were link words. That is, he/she uses them to join two
clauses within a sentence rather than to join two sentences together.
E Error Correction
to my bed to bed
there came a friend a friend came
died had died
to meet meeting
when there were stairs when we came to some stairs
upstairs up them
his shin whose skin
a scarp a scar
in his face on his face
beckoned me to come over beckoned to me
in my back behind me
holding a gun holding guns
I went near I moved near to the man
the man had He had
died had died
from an accident in an accident
I said I could manage it, so he I said I could arrange it so that he
got a lot of money got a lot of money
He would gave He would give
to do everything in order to arrange everything
tied on a chair tied to a chair
We made up a story We devised a plan
back, they back. They
He took The man took
took his knife to my heart pointed his knife at my heart
want to come near with his knife tried to attack me with his knife
asked what there was happened asked what had happened
happened I said happened. I said
11 7
Unit 6 Errors
2 Types of error
Tense errors
Failure to use past perfect when required
Prepositional errors
Use of wrong prepositions (especially after verbs)
Adverbial errors
Problems expressing the concept of relative position
Word order
Subject placed after verb
Punctuation
Comma instead of full stop
Comma when not required
Spelling
Lexical errors
Most of the errors are in this category
Underuse of connectors
Most of the sentences start with personal pronouns and therefore the logical
link between sentences is not always clear.
Possible cause of errors
Ll interference
Direct translation (eg there came a friend to me)
Interference from L 1 construction (eg would gave me three hours to do
everything in order)
Overlearning
Simple past always used to make past reference
Interference from similar English expression
eg shin (skin); scarp (scar); could manage it, so he got a lot of money (managed it, so
he got a lot of money)
Ignorance
eg complete inability to manage reported speech of past perfect passive exshe
asked me what there was happened)
Using the known for the unknown
eg story for plan
F Error Correction
in a little local village In a little village
switched on television switched on his /the television
had been broken down was broken
to get a ladder so he could use it
to fix it to fix the aerial
so he had to shout so he shouted
on earth again back to the ground
at home in the house
switched on television switched on the television
G Error Correction
has been taken had been taken
but and
in hospital in the hospital
118
Learners' errors
must had to
after closing time after visiting time was over
has lonely was alone
granted him permission allowed
shortly for a short time
If he told me he was going If he had told me he was going
I could give him a lift I could have given him a lift
would have could have
2 (a) lonely for alone or closing time for after visiting time was over
(b) granted him permission
(c) shortly for a short time
(d) in hospitalfor in the hospital
(e) H e has been taken
H This open-ended exercise may be used by the trainer to check the ideas
developed by trainees through working on the unit.
119
Conclusion
If you have worked your way through most or all of the material in this book,
you have probably found your own view oflanguage developing and changing.
We hope you have re-examined some of your beliefs and become aware of new
and interesting views oflanguage. Whether your involvement in language comes
from the perspective of a learner or from that of a teacher (or from both!), you
will probably wish to continue your explorations beyond the level of this intro-
ductory workbook. In doing this you will probably wish to examine more and more
authentic samples of written and spoken English, and to compare the insights you
gain from this with the data you find in grammar books and course books. You will
find this rewarding and revealing, and in time you will develop your own, robust,
enquiring view oflanguage in all its richness and diversity. Language is an open
system, divergent rather than convergent in nature, and once you begin to tolerate
the ambiguities and inconsistencies which can exasperate the more dogmatic
types oflearner, you will find that your own teaching and/or learning will benefit
enormously. Good luck- there's no turning back now!
120
Index
References in bold type indicate that the topic is given thorough treatment, or that the whole
exercise or section is devoted to it. References to the commentary are underlined. Grammatical
terms and notions are printed in ordinary type. Individual words dealt with from a grammatical
point of view are printed in italics.
ability 24, 78 form v. function 4, 9-10,62, 65-8 necessity 24, 78

acceptable vs unacceptable 5, 62 formal v. informal4-5, 62 non-finite verb forms 32-3, 89-90
active voice 13-16,69-71 full forms v. contracted forms 4, 62 notions6,21-2,62,76-7
adjective(s) 7, 33-4,63,90-1 functions4,9-10,18-20,62,65-6, noun
adverb(s)7, 33-4, Ql, 90-1 72-4 countable 1, 59
amazed41, 100 exponents of 6, 18-20, 62, 73-4 uncountable 1, 59
Americanisms 1, 5, ~ 62 future tense and future time 10-11,
analogy, false 54, 114 -15 12-13,66-7,68-9 object, direct and indirect 7, 63-4
annoyance 24, 78 obligation, imposing on others 24, 78
any 1, 59 gerunds 39, .8..2., 90 opposites 39, 40, 2.2., 100
apologizing 19, 73- 4 grammar 2-3, 60-2 overgeneralisation 54, 114-15
asking for something 19, 74 overlearning 54, 114-15
aspect 30- 1, 86- 7 habits 9, 65 participles, present 32-3, 89-90
auxiliary verbs 25-6, 79-80, have26-7,80-82 particles, adverbial43-4, 102-3
havegot27,82 prepositional43-4, 102-3
be 26-7, 80-82 have+ object + past participle, see passive 13-16,69-71
causative pasttenses 1, 59
causative voice 16, 71 hopefully 1, 58 permission, asking for 24, 78
cleft sentences 35, 92-3 hypothetical meaning 16-17, 71-2 phrasal verbs 43-4, 102-3
coherence 50-3, 109-12
pick 37-8, 96-7
cohesion 45-9, 104-8
collocation 42-3, 102
if sentences 17, 71-2 possibility 24,
imperatives 9-10,51, Q2, llQ prefixes 42, lQl
colloquialisms 1-2,58
implied meaning 38, 97 preposition 7, 63
comparing 27-8, 82-3
indirect speech 20-21,75-6 prepositional verbs 43-4, 102-3
complaining 19, 73-4
infinitive (s) 33, 90 probability 10, 66-7
conditional sentences 16-17, 71-2
instrument 22, 77 pronoun(s) 7, 45-6, Ql, 104-5
conjunction 7, 63
interchangeable 6, 62 pronoun reference 45, 104
connectives see linking words
interference 54, 114-15 punctuation 54, 114-15
connectors see linking words
interrogative 12, 48, 68, llQ 'pure' future 12,68
context v. cotext 5, 62
inversion 35-6, 93
contracted forms 4, 62 question forms 11-12, 67-8
contrast 22 questions, form v. function of 11,
cotext 5, 62 joining words, see linking words
67-8
coverage 38, 98 quite 33-40,90-91
lexical item 5-6, 62
declarative 50-1, 109-10 linking 52, i l l rather 34, 21
definitions 39, 98-9 linking words 47-9, 106-8, referent 6, 62
dialect 1-2, 58 literature 1, 58 refusing 19, 74
dictionary use 38, 96-7 location 22, 77 relative clauses 34-5,91-3
disagreeing 18-19, 73 logical linking, see linking contracted 34, 92
likelihood, degrees of 10, 23, QQ., 78 defining 34, 92
error(s) 54-7, 113-19 non-defining 34, 92
adverbial 56, 1.1.8. manner 22, 77 relative position 22, 77
analysis 56, 1.1.8. modal auxiliaries 23, 25-6, TI, 79-80 reported speech 20-21, 75-6
correction of 55-7, 118-19 modality see modal meaning result 22, 77
prepositional 55-6, 1.1.8. modal meaning, 23-4, 77-9 roots 42, lQl
tense 56-7, 118-19 movement 22, 76-7, rules 1-2, 58-60
121
Index
semantic 6, 62 tense(s) 10-11,66-7 verb(s) 1, 7,22., 63

sequence 22, 77 v. aspect 30-1 ,86-7 auxillary 25-'6, 79-80
functionsof28 -30,31-2, 83-6,87-9 infinitives 33, 90
shall12- 13, 68-9
'future' 12-1 3, 68-9 intransitive 7, 63
should 13,69
past 11,66 non-fi nite 32-3, 89-90
slang 1-2,37, 58-9,QQ, 95-6 past perfect 30, 85 phrasal 43-4, 102-3
some 1, 59 present 11, 66 prepositional43-4, 102-3
speech act 6, 62 present continuous 9, Q2 tenses 28-30, 31-2, 83-6,87-9
stems, see roots problems 31-2,87-9 transitive 7, 63
suasion 20, 75 simple present 28, 31-2, 83-4, 88-9 vocabulary 37-44, 95-103
subject 1, 59 v . time4, 10-ll ,Qb 66-7 voice 13-16, 69-71
substitution tables 42, 101-2 time 10-11 , 21 ,22, 66-7, 76, 77
future 10, 66 will1, 12-13, 22., 68-9
suffixes 42, lQl
past 10,66 word order 55-6, 117-18
superlatives 28, 83 present 10, 66 would 13,69
synonyms 38-9, 98-9 too 34, .2.1
122

Discover English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Discover English

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Discover English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PROPERTY OF

BKC TEACHER TRAINING

Macmillan Books for Teachers

c Rod Bolitho and Brian Tomlinson 1995

First published 1980, New edition 1995, This edition 2005

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced,

Designed by Mike Brain

Pelican Books for How Children Fail by John Holt.

Cover photo by c apply pictures/Alamy

2011 2010 2009 2008 2007

Is this a good idea?

How much do we really know about English?

What is English really like?

How do people learn English?

Does such imitation always produce correct English sentences?

Discover English challenges myths, preconceived ideas and intuitions about

To the teacher trainer

We encourage you to experiment and to develop variety and choice, so that

Unit 1 Myths and misconceptions

Charles Dickens, Hard Tirnes

B Comment on these statements:

B Comment on the statement in the light of the evidence ( 1-3).

C What contradictions are involved in these statements?

D Comment on the following statements.

2 Time reference v tense

1 Basic grammatical terms

D 1 Identify the direct objects in this passage.

E Why are these utterances wrong?

F Why do these nonsense sentences sound acceptable?

H 1 In the following extract, find examples of:

John Holt (I 969), How Children Fail (Pelican)

2 Discuss this 'child's eye' depiction of the illogicalities of grammatical categories

2 Forms and functions

B 1 Pollution is getting worse.

C Simmer for 15 minutes over a low heat.

5 Don't mention it.

3 Tense and time

2 The Past 3 The Future

B Comment on the validity of these statements.

c Account for these learners' errors.

F Food for thought.

B Below are examples of different ways of expressing future meaning. Provide a

C Which of these statements about shall and will do you accept?

B Provide appropriate contexts for the following utterances. Give reasons

C Can you improve this passage, focusing on the verb forms?

Make these sentences passive.

E Compare the effect of active v passive in these utterances.

F What do the verbs in these utterances have in common?

G What is the effect of the use of the passive in these mini-dialogues?

H Why is the passive so common in texts such as these?

Drew Smith, Observer Magazine, 25 April 1993

]. McAllister and G. Madanna (1976) , English for Electrical Engineers (Longman)

I Compare these pairs of sentences:

Complete each sentence on the lines of the example.

7 Conditionals and hypothetical meaning

5 Ifl had a hammer, I'd hammer in the morning.

C Group these utterances according to the function of would in each.

B What is meant by function in A?

F What is the function of the expressions in italics?