Biology

By

Sunny Verma
What is Biology?
Biology is defined as the study of living organisms, their origins,
anatomy, morphology, physiology, behaviour, and distribution.

The term “Biology”, in the modern sense, was introduced through

the works of Michael Christoph Hanow in 1766. However, it was
introduced independently four more times through the works of
Thomas Beddoes (1799), Karl Friedrich Burdach (1800), Gottfried
Reinhold Treviranus (1802) and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1802).
Who is the father of biology?
Philosopher Aristotle
Who is the mother of biology?
Maria Sibylla Merian
Who first discovered biology?
Thomas Beddoes
Who is the Father of Zoology?
Aristotle
Who is the Father of Virology?
Martinus Beijerinck
 What is Living?

● All living organisms reproduce, grow and

metabolize.

● Another “organism” that borders between the

living and non-living are Prions.
 Classification of Living Being
Introduction
➔ The technique of classifying organisms is known as Taxonomy.
➔ The Swedish botanist Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus has developed the
modern taxonomic system. But He provided two type of classification
i.e Plant kingdom and animal Kingdom

R.H. Whittaker proposed the following five kingdoms:

➔ Animalia
➔ Plantae
➔ Monera
➔ Protista
➔ Fungi
In this hierarchy, Domain is the highest order
and the broadest category and Species is the
lowest order category.

Further based on the difference between

eukaryotes and prokaryotes (cells)
‘Domains’ classified into Five broad categories namely
a.Monera − It comprises the unicellular organisms, e.g. bacteria.

b.Protista − Similar to monera (unicellular), but more developed and complex.

It contains nucleus.

c. Plantae − All plants from smallest (such as algae) to the largest (such as
Pine, Eucalyptus trees, etc.) are studied under this kingdom.

d.Fungi − It is a group of eukaryotic organisms that comprises

microorganisms such as yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. The organisms of
this kingdom do not make their food, they are basically parasites.

e.Animalia − It includes all the multicellular and eukaryotic organisms (of

animal group).
Classification of Monera

➔ Bacteria normally comprises a large number of

prokaryotic microorganisms.
➔ Bacteria most probably were among the first life that
formed to appear on the Earth.
➔ Bacteria belong to the Monera kingdom.

Kingdom Monera is classified into three sub-kingdoms-

Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Cyanobacteria.

 Archaebacteria
● These are the most ancient bacteria found in the most extreme
habitats such as salty area (halophiles), hot springs
(thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
● The structure of the cell wall is different from that of the other
bacteria which helps them survive in extreme conditions.
● The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
● The nucleotide sequences of its t-RNA and r-RNA is unique.
 Eubacteria
● Eubacteria are also known as “true bacteria”.
● The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycans.
● It moves with the help of flagella.
● They are divided into two categories; gram-positive and
gram-negative, depending upon the nature of the cell wall and
the stain they take.
● Rhizobium and Clostridium are two eubacteria.
Cyanobacteria
● These are also known as blue-green algae.
● These bacteria are photosynthetic in nature.
● They contain chlorophyll.
● They are found in the aquatic region.
● Some of these even fix atmospheric nitrogen.
 Disadvantages of Bacteria
Bacteria cause many diseases and infection to living organisms.
Bacterial Diseases
Anthrax - caused by Bacillus anthracis
Brucellosis - caused by Brucella abortus
Botulism - caused by Clostridium botulinum
Coliform diseases - caused by Escherichia coli
Leprosy - caused by Mycobacterium leprae
Plague - caused by Yersinia pestis
Typhoid fever - caused by Salmonella typhi
Trachoma - caused by Chlamydia trachomatis
Diphtheria - caused by Corynebacterium diphtheria
Tetanus - caused by Clostridium tetani
Tuberculosis - caused by Mycobacterium bovis
Cholera - caused by Vibrio cholera
Syphilis - caused by Treponema pallidum
Whooping cough - caused by Bordetella pertussis
Gonrhoea - caused by Gonococcus
Protista
● Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor
animals or fungi. Protists are unicellular in nature but can also be
found as a colony of cells.
● Most protists live in water, damp terrestrial environments or even as
parasites.
● These organisms are usually unicellular and the cell of these
organisms contains a nucleus which is bound to the organelles.
Some of them even possess structures that aid locomotion like
flagella or cilia.
● Scientists speculate that protists form a link between plants, animals
and fungi as these three kingdoms diverged from a common
protist-like ancestor, billions of years ago.
The protozoans can be divided into four major groups:

1. Amoeboid protozoans – Mostly found in water bodies, either fresh or saline.

They have pseudopodia (false feet) which help to change their shape and to
capture and engulf food. E.g. Amoeba.
2. Flagellated protozoans – As the name suggests, the members of this group
have flagella. They can be free-living as well as parasitic. E.g. Euglena.
3. Ciliated protozoans – They have cilia all over their body which help in
locomotion as well as nutrition. They are always aquatic. E.g. Paramecium.
4. Sporozoans – These organisms are so-called because their life cycle has a
spore-like stage. For example, the malarial parasite, Plasmodium.
 Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are a group of organisms that are found everywhere from air,
water, land to the soil. They are also found in plants and animals.
General features of fungi are as follows:

1. Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular and non-motile organisms.

2. The growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.
3. The Kingdom Fungi consist of both unicellular (e.g. Yeast, Molds) and
multicellular (e.g. mushrooms) organisms.
4. Like plant cells, fungi have cell walls made up of complex sugar molecules called
chitin. But unlike plants, they do not undergo photosynthesis.
5. The cell wall is composed of chitin. The vegetative body of the fungi may be
unicellular or composed of microscopic threads called hyphae.
1. They have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Few species are
saprophytes i.e., they feed on dead and decaying organic
matters.
2. Some fungi are parasitic while some are symbionts. They can live
in a symbiotic relationship with algae, like blue-green algae.
These are called lichens.
3. Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means.
Asexual reproduction takes place by means of spores and sexual
reproduction takes place by means of gametic copulation,
somatic copulation, and Spermatization.
Plantae Kingdom
● The Plantae kingdom includes all sorts of
plants belonging to multicellular eukaryotes.
● These plants are autotrophs and they use
chlorophyll for the photosynthesis.
Classification of Plantae Kingdom
Based on distinct body structure, components, etc.
plantae kingdom is further classified as −

a. Thallophyta
b. Bryophyta
c. Pteridophyta
Let’s discuss each of them in brief −

Thallophyta
1. The plants of thallophyta do not have
well-differentiated body design.
2. The plants in thallophyta are known as algae and
they are predominantly aquatic.
Bryophyta
1. The plants of amphibian group are categorized as
bryophyta.
2. Though not distinctly developed, but the plant
body can be differentiated to form stem and leaf-like
structures.
 Gymnosperms belong to kingdom
Gymnosperm ‘Plantae‘ and sub-kingdom
1. The plants of gymnosperm ‘Embryophyta’. The fossil evidence
bear naked seeds. suggested that they originated
during the Paleozoic era, about 390
2. These plants are normally million years ago.
perennial, evergreen, and Basically, gymnosperms are plants
in which the ovules are not
woody. enclosed within the ovary wall,
unlike the angiosperms. It remains
3. Examples of gymnosperm exposed before and after
are pines (such as deodar, fertilisation and before developing
into a seed
cycas, etc.
Characteristics of Gymnosperms
Following are the important characteristics of gymnosperms:
1.They do not produce flowers.
2.Seeds are not formed inside a fruit. They are naked.
3.They are found in colder regions where snowfall occurs.
4.They develop needle-like leaves.
5.They are perennial or woody, forming trees or bushes.
6.They are not differentiated into ovary, style and stigma.
7.Since stigma is absent, they are pollinated directly by the wind.
8.The male gametophytes produce two gametes, but only one of them is functional.
9.They form cones with reproductive structures.
10.The seeds contain endosperm that stores food for the growth and development of the
plant.
11.These plants have vascular tissues which help in the transportation of nutrients and
water.
Xylem does not have vessels and the phloem has no companion cells and sieve tubes
Angiosperms
They are vascular plants with stems, roots, and leaves.
The seeds of the angiosperm are found in a flower. These
make up the majority of all plants on earth. The seeds
develop inside the plant organs and form fruit. Hence,
they are also known as flowering plants.
Angiosperms are the most advanced and beneficial group
of plants. They can grow in various habitats as trees,
herbs, shrubs, and bushes.
Characteristics of Angiosperms

All plants have flowers at some stage in their life. The flowers are the
reproductive organs for the plant, providing them with a means of
exchanging genetic information.
They are differentiated into stems, roots, and leaves.
The vascular system has true vessels in the xylem and companion cells
in the phloem.

The process of fertilization is quicker in angiosperms. The seeds are

also produced quickly due to the smaller female reproductive parts.
All angiosperms are comprised of stamens which are the reproductive
structures of the flowers. They produce the pollen grains that carry the
hereditary information.
 Classification of Angiosperms
The classification of angiosperms is explained below:
Monocotyledons
·The seeds have a single cotyledon.
·The leaves are simples and the veins are parallel.
·This group contains adventitious roots.
·Each floral whorl has three members.
·It has closed vascular bundles and large in number.
·For eg., banana, sugarcane, lilies, etc.
 Dicotyledons
·The seeds of these plants have two cotyledons.
·They contain tap roots, instead of adventitious roots.
·The leaves depict a reticulate venation.
·The flowers are tetramerous or pentamerous and the
vascular bundles are organized in rings.
·For eg., grapes, sunflower, tomatoes, etc.
Vegetative Parts of a Flower
The vegetative part of a flower consists of the following:
● Petals: This is a bright-coloured part that attracts bees, insects,
and birds. The colour of petals varies from plant to plant; some are
bright while some are pale coloured. Thus, petals help us to
differentiate one flower from another.
● Sepals: Sepal is the green-coloured part beneath the petals to
protect rising buds. Some flowers have fused petals-sepals while a
few have separated petals-sepals.
The reproductive parts of a flower consist of the following:
● Stamen: This is the male reproductive organ and is also known
as Androecium. It consists of two parts namely: anther and
filaments.
1. The anther is a yellowish, sac-like structure, involved in
producing and storing the pollens.
2. The filament is a slender, threadlike object, which functions by
supporting the anther.
● Pistil: This is the innermost part and the female reproductive
organ of a flower which comprises three parts -stigma, style and
ovary. This is collectively known as the pistil.
1. Stigma: It is the topmost part or receptive tip of carpels in
the gynoecium of a flower.
2. Style: It is the long tube-like slender stalk that connects
the stigma and the ovary.
3. Ovary: It is the ductless reproductive gland that holds a
lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where the seed
formation takes place.
Plant Tissue System
A tissue is a cluster of cells, that are alike in configuration and work together to attain a specific
function. Different types of plant tissues include permanent and meristematic tissues.
Meristematic tissue:
These tissues have the capability to develop by swift division. Depending on the section where the
meristematic tissues are existing, they are categorized as intercalary, lateral and apical meristems.
1.Apical meristem is existent at the growing tips or apical of stems and roots. Apical meristem
upsurges the length of the plant.
2.Lateral meristem is existent in the radial portion of the stem or root. Lateral meristem upsurges the
thickness of the plant.
3.Intercalary meristem is found at the internodes or at the base of the leaves. Intercalary meristem
upsurges the size of the internode.
Old meristematic cells lose the capability to distribute and convert into permanent tissues. This
procedure of capturing up a permanent function, size, and shape is termed as differentiation.
Permanent tissues:
These cells have lost their ability to distribute but are specialised to offer
elasticity, flexibility and strength to the plant. These tissues can be
additionally categorised into:
1.Simple Permanent Tissue: They can be classified into sclerenchyma,
collenchyma and parenchyma based on their purpose.
2.Complex Permanent Tissue: These tissues include phloem and xylem.
Xylem is valuable for the transportation of water and solvable constituents. It
is made up of xylem parenchyma, fibres, vessels and tracheids. Phloem is
valuable in the transportation of food particles. Phloem consists of phloem
parenchyma, phloem fibres, companion cells, sieve cells and sieve tubes.
Parenchyma
These are alive, polygonal cells with a big central vacuole, and have intercellular spaces amidst
them. Parenchymatous cells create ground tissue and pith.
1.Parenchyma consisting of chloroplasts are termed as chlorenchyma. The chlorenchyma helps
in photosynthesis.
2.Parenchyma which consists of big air voids is called aerenchyma. Buoyancy is the main
purpose the aerenchyma.
3.Some parenchymatous cells perform as storage chambers for starch in vegetable and fruits.

Collenchyma
These are stretched out, living cells with minute intercellular gaps. Their cell walls are made up
of pectin and cellulose. Collenchyma is found in the marginal regions of leaves and stems and
offers flexibility with the structural framework and mechanical support to plants.

Sclerenchyma
These are elongated, dead cells with lignin deposits in their cell wall. They have no intercellular
gaps. Sclerenchyma is found in the covering of seeds and nuts, around the vascular tissues in
stems and the veins of leaves. Sclerenchyma provides strength to the plant.
Xylem
It helps in the transport of dissolved substances and water all through
the plant. The diverse components of the xylem include vessels,
tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. Xylem fibres and
Tracheids are made up of lignin, which provides structural support to
the plant.
Phloem
This tissue helps in the transportation of food all through the plant. The
diverse elements of phloem include phloem fibres, sieve tubes, phloem
parenchyma and companion cells.
What are Stomata?
Stomata are the tiny openings present on the epidermis of leaves. We can see stomata
under the light microscope. In some of the plants, stomata are present on stems and
other parts of plants. Stomata play an important role in gaseous exchange and
photosynthesis. They control by transpiration rate by opening and closing.
Functions of Stomata
The main functions of stomata are:
1.Gaseous exchange- Stomatal opening and closure help in the gaseous exchange
between the plant and surrounding.
2.It helps in transpiration and removal of excess water in the form of water vapour.
3.Stomatal closure at night prevents water from escaping through pores.
4.It maintains the moisture balance according to weather by opening and closing.
5.Stomata facilitate carbon dioxide uptake and release of oxygen during the process of
photosynthesis.
Plant Growth Regulators
Plant growth regulators are essentially hormones that control various
functions related to the growth and development of the plant. They can be
of two types, namely:

Growth Inhibitors
abscisic acid
Benzoic acid
Salicylic acid
Coumarin

Growth Promoters
Auxins
Gibberellins
Cytokinins
The first phytohormone to be discovered is the Auxin and it was discovered by the biologist Charles
Darwin.
Auxins are one of the most important plant hormones.

Functions of Auxins
1. Facilitate flowering in plants
2. Used in the process of plant propagation.
3. Used by gardeners to keep lawns free from weeds.
4. Involved in the initiation of roots in stem cuttings.
5. Prevention of dropping of leaves and fruits at early stages.
6. Regulate xylem differentiation and assists in cell division.
7. Auxins are widely used as herbicides to kill dicot weeds.
8. Used to produce fruit without preceding fertilization.
9. Promote natural detachment (abscission) of older leaves and fruits.
10. Apical dominance may occur in which the growth of lateral buds is inhibited by the growth of
apical buds. In such cases, the shoot caps may be removed.
11. These are produced by the apex of root and shoot.
Gibberellins
Functions of Gibberellins
1. Delay senescence in fruits.
2. Involved in leaf expansion.
3. Break bud and seed dormancy.
4. Facilitate elongation of fruits such as apples and enhance their shape.
5. Used by the brewing industry to accelerate the malting process.
6. Used as the spraying agent to increase the yield of sugarcane by elongation of the
stem.
7. In young conifers, utilized to fasten the maturity period and facilitate early seed
production
8. Helps in increasing the crop yield by increasing the height in plants such as
sugarcane and increase the axis length in plants such as grape stalks.
9. Gibberellins are acidic in nature.
Cytokinins
These are produced in the regions where cell division occurs; mostly in the roots and shoots. They
help in the production of new leaves, lateral shoot growth, chloroplasts in leaves etc. They help in
overcoming apical dominance and delay ageing of leaves.
Functions of Cytokinins
1. Break bud and seed dormancy.
2. Promotes the growth of the lateral bud.
3. Promotes cell division and apical dominance.
4. They are used to keep flowers fresh for a longer time.
5. Used in tissue culture to induce cell division in mature tissues.
6. Facilitate adventitious shoot formation and lateral shoot growth.
7. Promotes nutrient mobilization that in turn assists delaying leaf senescence.
8. Helps in delaying the process of ageing (senescence) in fresh leaf crops like cabbage and
lettuce.
9. Involved in the formation of new leaves and chloroplast organelles within the plant cell.
10. Used to induce the development of shoot and roots along with auxin, depending on the ratio.
Abscisic acid
Functions of Abscisic acid
1. Stimulates closing of stomata in the epidermis.
2. Helps in the maturation and development of seeds.
3. Inhibits plant metabolism and seed germination.
4. It is involved in regulating abscission and dormancy.
5. It is widely used as a spraying agent on trees to regulate dropping of fruits.
6. Induces seed-dormancy and aids in withstanding desiccation and various
undesired growth factors.
Types of Respiration
There are two main types of respiration.

Aerobic Respiration
This type of respiration takes place in the mitochondria of all eukaryotic entities. Food
molecules are completely oxidised into the carbon dioxide, water, and energy is
released in the presence of oxygen. This type of respiration is observed in all the higher
organisms and necessitates atmospheric oxygen.

Anaerobic Respiration
This type of respiration occurs within the cytoplasm of prokaryotic entities such as
yeast and bacteria. Here, lesser energy is liberated as a result of incomplete oxidation
of food in the absence of oxygen. Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced during
anaerobic respiration.
The equation for aerobic cellular respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ————–> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

The three stages of Aerobic Cellular Respiration are

1. Glycolysis
2. The Krebs cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation.
The process of breaking down the food particles releases energy,
which is then utilized by our body. The energy released via aerobic
respiration helps plants and animals, including us, grow.
The process can be simply explained with the help of the following
equation:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Aerobic respiration is a continuous process and it happens all the
time inside the cells of animals and plants.
Anaerobic means “without air”. Therefore, this type of cellular
respiration does not use oxygen to produce energy. Sometimes
there is not enough oxygen around for some organisms to respire,
but they still need the energy to survive. Due to lack of oxygen,
they carry out respiration in the absence of oxygen to produce the
energy they require, which is referred to as anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration usually occurs in lower plants and
microorganisms. In the absence of oxygen, the glucose derived
from food is broken down into alcohol and carbon dioxide along
with the production of energy.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process by which plants create their own food by using
sunlight.

this process takes place inside a plant cell organelle called the chloroplast. These
organelles are found in the mesophyll layer, which is basically two layers of cells
present inside the leaves of the plant.

The various factors are:

● Light
● Carbon dioxide concentration
● Temperature
● Water
Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of light energy into
chemical energy which can then be utilized by living organisms. It
is a rather complex process which is carried out through various
stages.
Photosynthesis comprises two phases:
● The first phase is the photochemical phase or light-dependent
process. This phase is commonly known as the light reaction.
● The second phase is the biosynthetic phase of the dark
reaction of photosynthesis. This phase is the light-independent
process.
The light reaction occurs in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. When the light hits, chlorophyll-a
gets excited to a higher energy state followed by a series of reactions. This energy is converted
into energy molecules ATP and NADPH by using PS I and PS II. Also, hydrolysis occurs and
releases oxygen.

Dark Reaction
Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction. It is a light-independent process in which
sugar molecules are formed from the carbon dioxide and water molecules.
The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, where they utilize the products of the
light reaction.
Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata and proceed to the
Calvin cycle.
In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light reaction drives the reaction and
convert six molecules of carbon dioxide into one sugar molecule, i.e. glucose.
What is Calvin Cycle?
Calvin cycle is also known as the C3 cycle or light-independent or dark reaction of photosynthesis.
However, it is most active during the day when NADPH and ATP are abundant. To build organic
molecules, the plant cells use raw materials provided by the light reactions:
1. Energy: ATP provided by cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation, which drives the endergonic
reactions.
2. Reducing power: NADPH provided by photosystem I is the source of hydrogen and the energetic
electrons required to bind them to carbon atoms. Much of the light energy captured during
photosynthesis ends up in the energy-rich C—H bonds of sugars.
Plants store light energy in the form of carbohydrates, primarily starch and sucrose. The carbon and
oxygen required for this process are obtained from CO2, and the energy for carbon fixation is derived
from the ATP and NADPH produced during the photosynthesis process.
The conversion of CO2 to carbohydrate is called Calvin Cycle or C3 cycle and is named after Melvin
Calvin who discovered it. The plants that undergo the Calvin cycle for carbon fixation are known as C3
plants.
Cell?
A cell is defined as the most basic, structural and functional unit of all living
organisms. Essentially, a cell is a structure that contains organelles which
provide necessary functions to sustain itself.

Cell Theory
This scientific theory, initially formulated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann, proposed that all living organisms are composed of cells, and new
cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
Cell Organelles
Eukaryotes possess many cellular organelles that perform various functions. Some of these organelles,
such as the cell wall, are exclusive to plant cells.
● Cell Membrane
● Cell wall
● Mitochondria
● Plastids
● Ribosomes
● Cytoskeletons
● Centrosome
● Centrioles
● Nucleus
● Microbodies
● Cilia and Flagella
● Endomembrane systems which consist of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Plant
cells have centrally placed vacuoles.
 ● Robert Hooke first discovered cells
● Anton Von Leeuwenhoek described a living cell.
● Robert Brown discovered the nucleus, which contains the genetic material
of the cell.

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:
● Prokaryotes
● Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotic Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria
have a region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended.
This region is called the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea,
bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction. They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as
the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual
reproduction).
 Eukaryotic Cells
1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.
2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of
nutrients and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for
cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For
eg., the plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other
plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane
● The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in
and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is
present in all the cells.
● The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
● By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.
● It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
● Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external
factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
 Cell Wall
● The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
● The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular components. The
cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
● It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
● It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.

Cytoplasm
● The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
● Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
● The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus
● The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
● It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
● The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.
● The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.
 Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and
other cell organelles.
 Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each

human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of

substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the
metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
 Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the
transportation of materials within the cell.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so

because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
 Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell
and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the

pigment called chlorophyll.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Cell Division

Mitosis
This is one of the two types of cell division where a single cell
divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. In unicellular
organisms, this type of cell division typically contributes to
asexual reproduction. In multicellular organisms, mitosis is
helpful for the growth and repair of damaged cells. Mitosis is also
called equational division.
Meiosis
Also called reduction division, meiosis is another type of cell
division that commonly occurs during sexual reproduction. Here,
the chromosomes in the parent cell reduce by half, forming four
gamete cells which are genetically distinct from the parent cells.
Meiosis is very significant has it provides genetic diversity
among a population.
Cytokinesis?
Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm of a parental cell splits into two daughter
cells. Moreover, the process occurs concurrently with meiosis and mitosis in animal
cells.

stages of mitosis.
The stages of Mitosis are:
● Prophase – The chromosomes shorten and thicken.
● Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
● Anaphase – Chromatids break apart at the centromere and move to
opposite poles.
● Telophase – Two nuclei formed after nuclear envelopes reform around
each group of chromosomes.
Structure Of Nucleus
● Typically, it is the most evident organelle in the cell.
● The nucleus is completely bound by membranes.
● It is engirdled by a structure referred to as the nuclear envelope.
● The membrane distinguishes the cytoplasm from the contents of the nucleus
● The cell’s chromosomes are also confined within it.
● DNA is present in the Chromosomes, and they provide the genetic information
required for the creation of different cell components in addition to the
reproduction of life.