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GIS stands for geographic information system but what does that really mean?

A GIS system can do a lot of things.

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The most important thing to know is that a GIS is a system works with spatial data.

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GIS software works upon the data you provide it.
Just like other software, such as Excel or Word, you need to input data and can then
use the software to display and analyze that data.

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GIS software recreates or reproduces the real world as spatial data.

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More specifically, the spatial data is broken down into themed data “layers” such as
locations, boundaries of various kinds, socioeconomic variables, hydrology, and land
use/cover.

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These data layers can be assembled in any combination you want, depending on what
you want to highlight.

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Power of GIS is in the ability to detect trends and make quantified decisions that would
have otherwise been difficult just by hand or eye.

Once they have been overlaid in a particular combination, you can then conduct
analyses.

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The software you choose depends on what you will be doing with the data (displaying it vs.
creating a new map vs. conducting analysis), the size of the data (large datasets require
storage), and your audience (is it best to present the map on paper? Online? Do people need to
interact with it?).

There are three types of software with very different capabilities.

1. Geobrowsers like Google Maps and Apple Maps are generally only useful for displaying data.

2. Web based tools like Carto, ArcGIS Online, and Mapbox, allow you to upload data, customize
displays and perform basic analyses. Carto is licensed for MIT use and is free to use while you
are at MIT but charges a fee otherwise. ArcGIS Online has both a free, public version and a paid
version with additional features that MIT affiliates can access.

-Web-based software is the best way to add interactive elements. If you have programming
skills you can use tools like Leaflet or OpenLayers to create online maps. Otherwise ArcGIS
Online is easy to use and customize. Find out more about getting and account:
https://libguides.mit.edu/gis/webmap
Learn more about using ArcGIS Online: https://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-online/create-maps/
create-maps-and-apps.htm

3. Desktop software, which are installed locally, provide the fullest suite of GIS tools for basic
and advanced analyses and map creation. You will get hands on experience for each type of GIS
in this presentation series.

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• Arcgis Pro is a more complete set of GIS tools but is license software and you may
not have access to it beyond MIT. QGIS is free and open source but is a more limited
set of GIS tools.
• Along with the comprehensive support from Esri for Arcgis Pro, there is complete
documentation for all ArcGIS Pro tools. In QGIS tools are made by many people with
varying resources. Because of this there performance and documentation across
tools is inconsistent.
• Arcgis Pro only runs on Windows while Qgis runs on Windows, Apple, and Linux
machines.
• Both interfaces are similar so after you learn one software, it is fairly easy to use the
other
• For most uses, either software will work well so you may want to base your decision
on your computer’s resources, how frequently you will need to use it, what you want
to do, and the industry you plan to work in (or are currently working in). ESRI
products are frequently used in educational settings, municipal governments, and
large businesses and organizations. Because of cost considerations, QGIS may be
used in small businesses and non-profits.

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Now let’s discuss some applications you can do with a GIS.

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Many people use a GIS to look at satellite imagery or have it as a background to their
maps.

-materials from our remote sensing workshops are on our guide: libguides.mit.edu

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You can also make custom visualizations.

In this example, buildings in New York City have been color coded by land use and
extruded vertically to represent height.

It is also possible to create animations over time and record videos flying through your
map in a GIS.

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Maps also are used to share information, where design plays an important (even
persuasive) role.
See how the creator chose green for Irish ancestry, and a darker shade of green for
higher percentage

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GIS has many tools for acting upon datasets:
Some tools act on the geometry (clip), create new data (buffer), or analyze the data
values (spatial statistics).

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We will explore maps and data is this section of the presentation.

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Google Maps is a type of GIS, really a web mapping tool or geobrowser, and its maps
are created from multiple layers of spatial data. As shown previously, a layer is data
about a specific set of similar features, such as the location of schools or bicycle paths.

Question: Take a moment to determine what distinct layers are in this map.

Presenter should move on after a few responses come in.

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Answers: street networks, parks/open spaces, water, T stops, points of interest, etc.
Notes: data are organized by theme: infrastructure, hydrology, administrative
boundaries, etc.

-When you create your own maps you can choose which data layers to include and how
to visualize them to create a custom map.

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There are two main approaches to representing real world data, vector and raster.
Vector represents the world in points, lines, and polygons, while raster uses rows and
columns.

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In some cases data can be represented as either a vector or raster, but usually certain
types of data are better suited for a certain method of representation.

Vectors are composed of coordinates and are best suited to manmade features with
defined locations and boundaries.

Rasters are composed of pixels and are best suited to variables, usually environmental,
that change over surfaces such as temperature, precipitation, or elevation.

You are able to switch between vector and raster format to use different tools, which
you can see in our GIS Level 2 workshop materials.

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Here you see an example of points, lines, polygons, and all three combined

Question: Can anyone guess based on how these vector layers are color coded, also
known as symbolized, what these datasets may represent?
Answer: MBTA Stops, Lines, and Towns, where the lines have been symbolized by color

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Geographic data include both a frontend geometry, meaning what you see on the
screen in GIS software and a backend database.

Vector data’s frontend geometry is composed of coordinates and displayed as points,

lines and polygons. Here is a layer with polygon geometry.

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The backend database is called an attribute table. Each row is equivalent to one feature
on the map. In this example each row represents a different state polygon.

Each column is a different piece of information about that feature. In this example
there is information about the state name and the population per square mile.

Vector data can have a large number of columns associated with their geometries, each
of which can then be symbolized to produce different maps.

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The map can be symbolized based on any column in the attribute table, meaning the
color, size, shape, pattern, etc. of a feature can be changed to correspond to the data in
a particular column.

Here the map was color coded based on a qualitative (aka categorical) variable, state
name, where each unique state name was symbolized by a different color.

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Here the map was color coded based on a quantitative (aka numerical) variable,
population per square mile, where each class of values was symbolized by a different
color. We will talk about classes in depth later in the presentation.

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A shapefile is a open source format for vector data that can be opened in any GIS
software.

Shapefiles are often in a zipped (.zip) folder because they include several different files.
This folder needs to be unzipped to use in ArcGIS Pro, but files can be imported directly
from the .zip folder in QGIS.

The .shp includes the actual geometry of the data, the .dbf includes the attribute table,
and the .prj contains the map projection, which is covered more in GIS Level 2. Other
files include indexes that speed up the loading and display of the data. Keep these files
together when you move or share data in order for them to load properly.

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Here you see examples of rasters, such as aeriel photographs, digital elevation models,
and scanned maps. All of which are constructed from pixels.

Additional Notes:
Early maps were created from surveys and early digital geospatial data were “digitized”
from these maps. Data are now created using GPS. Some data are created from aerial
photographs. Data are constantly being updated

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Raster data is a continuous cell matrix. Each cell or pixel is the same size and has its
own value.

Rasters can only symbolize one variable at a time due to how its attribute table
functions.

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Here the map is color coded based on a quantitative (aka numerical) variable,
elevation, where each unique pixel value is symbolized by a shade of grey stretching
from black to white.

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Raster data have attribute tables with specific properties: a unique id for each
cell/pixel, the value of that cell, and the count of other cells with that same value.

Note: the map is the same elevation data symbolized with a different color ramp.

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Raster file formats include common image formats and there are many more raster file
formats that are not listed here.

There are often associated files that tell the GIS software where to place the raster on
the map, similar to how a .prj file works in a shapefile.

If you import an individual image, such as a .jpg of a scanned map, you will need to do
what is called “georeferencing” and tell the software how to align it with the rest of
your data.

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You can convert tabular data such as those in spreadsheets so long at the data contains
certain geospatial information (i.e. shared unique identifiers, lat/lon, and/or addresses).
See our GIS Level 2 workshop materials for hands on experience.

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GIS software can read common tabular data formats. If there is geographic information
included in the data table, GIS tools can be used to transform the table into a shapefile.

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Geodatabases are a file storage format used in ArcMap and ArcGIS Pro.
Geodatabases are similar to zipped files in that they can store and compress a variety
of different data types, including vectors, rasters, and data tables.
They are useful for organizing data and speeding up processing time when working with
large files. A disadvantage is that they can only be opened in ESRI software.

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GIS software can import and export data in a variety of formats. Some common import
formats include KML/KMZ from Google Earth and CAD files. Maps can be exported in
image formats for reports or presentations, such as CAD or Illustrator for further
development.

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Many people do not just need GIS software to conduct their research.
The ability to import and export data and maps allows you to work in a variety of
software before or after using GIS.
Common workflows include using GIS in conjunction with remote sensing software,
which is used to analyze satellite imagery, with 3D modeling software such as CAD or
Rhino, using attribute tables in statistical analysis software, and creating elaborate
maps designs with visual design software.

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There are characteristics of spatial data that make it unique from other types of data.
You need to know about these special features in order to find and use spatial data.

Spatial data is generalized, meaning it is simplified from what you would find in real life.
The more detailed your data are, the larger the files sizes, which means more data to
store and longer processing times when analyzing it in GIS software.

Depending on your project, you may need data with more or less detail. In this
example, the coastline outlined in red would be suitable for display on a county or state
map. It would be difficult to see a lot of the small inlets and islands at that scale so you
want something more generalized, with less detail.

The coastline outlined in blue would be suitable for a map of the town or something
smaller, such as a specific bay or beach. More detail is often useful when mapping or
analyzing a small area.

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Spatial data are also abstracted, meaning they include only what is necessary for your
map and analysis. It would be impossible to include every feature that you see in real
life on a map. Not only would it create large files, but the map would be difficult to
read.

This example includes data that have been abstracted in different ways, for different
purposes.
Example A is satellite imagery of an airport without any additional symbology.
Example B uses a symbol of an airplane to represent the airport.
Example C uses a polygon to represent the border of the airport property.
Example D uses polygons and lines to represent the airport border and the runways.

Which data symbology would you select if you wanted to do a land use study of
properties adjacent to the airport?
C - Because it shows the border, you can easily see what is adjacent. Example D also
shows the airport border, but includes runway information, which you do not need.
Which data symbology would you select if you wanted to create a map of potential new
develop within the airport? (pause)
D - Because it shows the airport layout. It would be important to know where the
runways are when planning future development.
Which data symbology would you select if you wanted to create a map of all airports in
a country? (pause)
B - Because it just shows the airport as one symbol. If you used the symbols pictured in
C or D, you map would be messy and difficult to read.

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The spatial data you make visible on a map depends on its scale, meaning how small or
large of an area you are showing. You should show enough detail at a particular scale so
that your viewer can clearly see all the features you have added.

Question: Can you spot any other features dependent on scale?

In the city map on the left, you can see points of interest, street widths, directions and
names, and public transportation stops. These are not visible in the regional map on
the right because they are not needed at that scale and would make the map
impossible to read. The regional map includes points that represent major cities,
highways, and larger state and national parks.

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Spatial data changes over time. The data pictured on the previous slides are only
accurate for that particular point in time. Coastlines may erode or be created in a
storm. An airport could expand or close. The names of stores or number of streets may
change.

In this example, you can see from the imagery that Spring Valley had a lot of
development from 1977 to 2006. Data for roads or houses will look different at
different points in time.

Note: These aerial images are from the Google Earth Historical Imagery Time Slider.

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Now that you know what type of spatial data to look for, where can you find it?
A lot of data is available freely online, especially for the US.
These are tips you can use in the future for data searches.

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Here we’ve listed 3 of the data repositories we frequently use when assisting
researchers.

At the top is the MIT Libraries GIS research guide which you can find by simply Googling
MIT GIS. If you hover over the Find Data tab, you’ll see a breakdown of GIS data sources
by geography and subject.

MIT also has a resource called Geoweb which includes freely available data as well as
licensed data restricted to MIT and other universities. The data restricted to use by MIT
community members consists largely of data purchased by the GIS team on specific
topics or areas of the world.

OpenStreet Map is an open repository of crowd sourced maps. The amount of GIS data
will vary by location.

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Now we will talk about metadata, aka information about our data.

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Metadata is a way of describing an information resource so you can better understand
the data. It often describes how and why a dataset was created as well as provides
information about any codes used within the dataset.

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Shown here are some common metadata sources for geospatial repositories around
Boston. Let’s go through each link and see how their metadata are represented
differently.

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Let’s talk about some data visualization principles for making great maps.

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Art & science = design & analysis
Simplifications of reality = you can’t show everything
Designed by people = there’s a motive behind their creation

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In this example, we see successive maps all using similar symbology but different
variables to argue the location a highway connector should be placed. Things to keep in
mind are:
-only relevant features (for a particular group) were selected to be in each map.
-each map is by a different creator and trying to convey a different message
-each map is good for a different group

Question: which is best, and what they think the solution should be?
Answer: (all correct, but all biased)

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You also want to keep in mind some key questions, such as who wants the map and
where it will be seen, both of which will affect the level of detail and whether or not
the map should be interactive.
Depending on the purpose for the map will affect what type you will create, such as
change through time vs. space, and/or combining multiple variables for decision
making.

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Stage 1: collecting your data (we talked about this at the beginning of the workshop)
Stage 2: symbolize your data (we will talk about the next 2 items now)
Stage 3: create a layout (add title, scale bar, legend, north arrow, etc.)

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There are many ways to symbolize vector data as points, lines, and polygons. While
color is one of the more common ways to symbolize data, this chart shows additional
ways to show differences among features on your map by varying size, pattern, shape
and orientation.

When choosing any type of symbology, it is important to think about accessibility,

especially in relation to color blindness. The Colorbrewer website allows you to filter
colors based on those that can be viewed by people with color-blindness. ArcGIS Pro
also has this option in its symbology menu.

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Raster data are symbolized differently from vector data, as you saw in the earlier
modules about types of spatial data, because they are continuous surfaces. Raster data
can be displayed by showing all data values, grouping values into categories, varying
colors across the surface based on the value, or creating a vector field using symbols,
which you might see in a map of wind direction and speed.

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When it comes to choosing color, you want to be mindful of they type of data you are
working with. Qualitative data often uses different colors for each category, while
quantitative data often uses one color or two if there is a diverging phenomena.

Examples of each would be:

Example of qualitative/categorical: land use
Example of sequential numbers: population
Example of diverging numbers: weather/political (e.g. red, blue, neutral)

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Let’s test our knowledge. In this example we have the variable “Internet Users (per 100
people)”.

Question: Can you tell where the highest internet users are?
Answer: No, doesn’t make sense with quantitative (numerical) data.

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Question: Can you tell where the highest internet users are?
Answer: Yes, this has an ascending trend which is reflected in the darker color
indicating greater intensity.

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Question: Can you tell where the highest internet users are?
Answer: It depends. Potentially, this would make sense if there was a certain
phenomena that occurred and you wanted to show above/below this value (white
colored area).

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One of the most commonly used types of maps is a choropleth map. Choropleth maps
use different shading and colors to display the quantity or value in defined areas.
Choropleth maps are best used with polygon data so that it’s easier to see color
variations.

This example of a choropleth map uses shades of 2 different colors, orange and teal, to
show spending per student by school districts. School district is the defined area and
spending per student the quantity.

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When designing a choropleth map, you have to make 2 basic choices:
-the number of classes you want your quantity value divided into
-the classification method for arranging the data into those classes

When choosing the number of classes, keep these points in mind:

-the more classes, the more variation you have . The human eye can’t distinguish
between large numbers of variations of the same color. It is best to have no more than
7 variations.
-the major types of classification method are Equal Intervals, Quantile, Natural Breaks
and Defined Intervals.

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equal interval classification classes have equal ranges : ranges such as 1-5, 5-10, 10-15
quantile classification, classes have equal counts.: 5 items in each class
Natural breaks optimizes class variation: the algorithm figures out where the breaks
should be
manual classification, the user sets the breaks based on prior knowledge of the data

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It’s ok that you can’t see the exact numbers where the breaks are. The important thing
is that these maps all use the same data (see histograms), but look different depending
on the classification method used (see the amount of each color based on breaks in
histograms).

Data source: SimplyAnalytics

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Once you have collected and symbolized your data, you are ready to create a layout for
your map.
In this example, the eye tends to be drawn more to the legend and highlighted area
than to the main map.

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In this rearranged map we have a much nicer visual flow, where the main map takes up
the majority of the frame, and inset maps are tucked into the top and bottom corners
for context.
Notice how the legend is not far from the main map for easy interpretation and there is
room below the map for discussion and source credits.

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Complete the take home exercise for either QGIS or ArcGIS Pro.

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Your exercise is based on data presented in a Washington Post article. The article was
about Jared Kushner’s use of maps to get federal funds meant for job starved areas, but
many other developers have used maps for persuasion as well. This is a map from the
article and it shows where the development was built. Data was left out to justify
building in this location. Will you choose the same location? Where should the
development really be built? If we have time, we’ll look at some maps that you have
created at the end of the workshop.

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