COLLEGE OF ARTS and SCIENCES,

EDUCATION and NURSING

PAASCU Accredited

GEE 102

Environmental
Science

Name of Student: Meiji Don S. Icban

Name of Teacher: Ms. Christine May A. Torres -Reyman
 Chapter 4

ENERGY TRANSFER: FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate food chain and food web.

2. Name and explain food chain and the trophic levels.
3. Discuss the feeding relationships.
4. Differentiate the primary and tertiary consumers.
5. Identify and analyze environmental issues and concerns.

Food Chain & Food Web

Food Chain refers to a sequence or chain of organisms existing in a

natural community in which each link of the chain feeds on the one below
and is eaten by the one above.

There are seldom more than six links in a food chain, with plants on
the bottom and the largest carnivores at the top.

The source of all food is the activity of autotrophs, mainly photosynthesis

by plants.

 They are called producers because only they can manufacture food
from inorganic raw materials.
 This food feeds herbivores, called primary consumers.
 Carnivores that feed on herbivores are called secondary consumers.
 Carnivores that feed on other carnivores are tertiary (or higher)
consumers.

Study the table below:

Each level of consumption in a food chain is called a trophic level. The

table gives one example of a food chain and the trophic levels represented in
it.
 Grass Grasshopper Toad Snake Hawk Bacteria of
→ → → → → decay
In general,
Herbivores Carnivores
Autotrophs
(Primary (Secondary, tertiary, etc.
(Producers) Decomposers
Consumers) consumers)
→ → →

Food Web is a complex pattern of interconnected food chains in a

community where the organisms are typically connected by arrows that show
the direction of energy flow.

Components:

Trophic Level: A level of nutrition or "link" in a food chain. In accordance

with the Second Law of Thermodynamics, food chains seldom have more the
six links.

Producers. The autotrophic photosynthetic plants that occupy the

first trophic level of a food chain.

Autotrophic. Mode of nutrition in which the organism is able to

synthesize its own energy-rich carbohydrate molecules.

Heterotrophic. Mode of nutrition in which an organism is unable to

synthesize its own energy-rich carbohydrate molecules, and is parasitic or
saprophytic on other organisms. Parasitic heterotrophs live on other living
organisms, while saprophytic heterotrophs depend on dead, decaying organic
matter.

Lichen. A symbiotic relationship between an alga (autotrophic

phycobiont or photobiont) and a fungus (heterotrophic mycobiont). This type
of symbiotic relationship is mutually beneficial to both organisms.
Primary Consumers: Plant eaters (herbivores) that occupy the second
trophic level of a food chain.

Herbivore. An animal the eats herbage or plant material. The largest

animals on land today are herbivores. The largest dinosaurs were also
herbivores.

Granivore. A herbivore (such as a rodent) with a diet primarily of

grains and seeds.

Omnivore. An animal that eats both plant and animal material. There
is some disagreement among biologists (especially vegetarians), but humans
are probably omnivores rather than carnivores or herbivores.

Insectivore. A predatory animal (such as a shrew or bat) with a diet

consisting chiefly of insects.

Carnivore. An animal that feeds on the flesh of other animals.

Secondary Consumers: Carnivorous animals that occupy the third trophic

level and feed on the herbivores of the second trophic level.

Predator. An animal that kills and feeds upon another animal. There
are some rare cases where an animal actually kills and eats its mate (after
mating).

Prey. An animal that is hunted and killed for food by another animal.

Tertiary Consumers: Larger carnivores of the fourth trophic level that kill
and eat the smaller carnivores (and herbivores) of the third and second
trophic levels.

Decomposers: Organisms of the fifth (or higher) trophic level (including

fungi and bacteria) that decompose the dead members of lower trophic
levels, thus returning essential elements, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, to
the ecosystem. These are the primary recyclers of the ecosystem. In some
food chains, the decomposers occupy the sixth trophic level and are preceded
by a fifth trophic level occupied by scavengers (like insect larvae).

The following illustration shows a simplified food web in an

ecosystem. The red arrows show the direction of energy flow.
 Food Web

Source: Koning, Ross E. 1994. Biotic Factors. Plant Physiology.

Feeding Relationships

Pyramid of Energy. Energy that is originally stored by the

autotrophic plants is dissipated along the food chain. The more links in the
food chain, the more dissipated or unusable energy. There is generally a 90
percent loss at each link of the food chain, creating a pyramid-shaped
diagram that is wider at the bottom and narrow at the top.

Pyramid of Mass & Numbers. The mass (weight) and numbers of

organisms decreases along a food chain (e.g. grass-grasshoppers-frogs-
snakes-hawk). It takes many pounds of grass (or numerous grass plants) to
support one hawk at the top of a food chain.

Percent Decrease At Each Trophic Level. To determine the

decrease in kilocalories for trophic level #2, subtract 1000 kcal of
grasshoppers from 10,000 kcal of grass in trophic level #1 = 9,000 kcal. This
decrease in kilocalories is divided by the starting number of kilocalories of
grass in trophic level #1 and the result or quotient is multiplied by 100 to
obtain the percent decrease. [10,000 - 1000 = 9,000; 9,000/10,000 x 100 =
90%.] Repeat these calculations to obtain percent decreases for trophic levels
#3, #4 and #5. Depending on the ecosystem, the percent decrease for each
trophic level is typically 80% to 90%.
 Pyramid of Energy

Source: Koning, Ross E. 1994 in Collins, 2001. Biotic Factors. Plant

Physiology.

The challenge for governments is to adopt policies that address

the increasing energy demand but within the long-term context
of climate change. Many elements can be considered: ways of
making coal cleaner; rapidly developing and supporting a suite
of renewable energy technologies with an emphasis on
increased energy efficiency; carbon caps and trading; and, of
course, looking hard at ways of reducing and localising energy
demand.
( Peter Garrett)

Reflect on THIS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
 Worksheet # 04

Name: Icban, Meiji Don S. Date:

Course/ Year: BSCE-1A Professor: Christine Reyman

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Food Chain refers to a sequence or chain of species found in a natural

world, where each component feeds on the one below it and is consumed
by the one above it.
2. Food Web is a dynamic pattern of intertwined food chains in a population,
with arrows suggesting energy transfer between organisms.

3. Consumers are a living being that must consume other animals to get the
calories it needs to survive.

4. Decomposers are organisms belonging to the fifth (or higher) trophic stage
(such as fungi and bacteria) that decompose the bodies of lower trophic
level members, contributing essential elements such as nitrogen and
phosphorus to the atmosphere.

5. Carnivores is a kind of organism that eats meat or animal flesh as its

primary source of nutrition.

6. Producers are Autotrophic photosynthetic plants occupy the first trophic

level of a food chain.

7. Omnivores are a species that feeds on both plant and animal matter.

8. Prey is a species that was hunted and slaughtered for food by another
animal.

9. Predator is a species that tracks down and consumes another creature.

There have been a few occasions that a mate has been killed and eaten by
another species (after mating).

10. Heterotrophic, since it lacks the ability to synthesize its own energy-rich
carbohydrate molecules, a parasitic or saprophytic organism feed on other
organisms. Saprophytic heterotrophs eat dead, decaying organic matter,
while parasitic heterotrophs eat living things
II. Completion.

1. There is generally a 90 percent loss at each link of the

food chain, creating a pyramid-shaped diagram that is wider at the
bottom and narrow at the top.
2. Food chain refers to a sequence or chain of organisms
existing in a natural community in which each link of the chain
feeds on the one below and is eaten by the one above.
3. Trophic level refers to a level of nutrition or "link" in a
food chain. In accordance with the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, food chains seldom have more the six links.
4. Food web is a complex pattern of interconnected food
chains in a community where the organisms are typically connected
by arrows that show the direction of energy flow.
5. A symbiotic relationship between an alga and a fungus. This type of
symbiotic relationship is mutually beneficial to both
organisms.
6. An animal that kills and feeds upon another animal. There are some
rare cases where an animal actually kills and eats its mate (after
mating) is called predator. .
7. Organisms of the fifth trophic level that decompose the dead
members of lower trophic levels, thus returning essential elements,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus, to the ecosystem are called
decomposers .
8. In some food chains, the decomposers occupy the sixth trophic level
and are preceded by a fifth trophic level occupied by
scavengers .
9. Parasitic heterotrophs live on other living organisms, while
Saprophytic heterotrophs depend on dead, decaying organic
matter.
10. The mass and numbers of organisms decreases along a food chain
(grass-grasshoppers-frogs-snakes-hawk). It takes many pounds of
grass to support one hawk at the top of a food chain. This is known
as pyramid mass and numbers .
 III. Discussions

1. Discuss the following comprehensively:

1.1 Feeding Relationships

Food chains and food webs reflect the feeding relationships in ecosystems. They put on a
show to show who eats who. As a result, they can mimic energy and resource flow in
environments. The different feeding functions in a food chain or network are referred to as
trophic stages. The trophic pyramid begins with producers at the top, followed by primary
customers, secondary consumers, and so on. There are usually only four to five trophic
stages in a food chain or network. Humans can be found in food chains at the second, third,
or fourth trophic levels. Grain producers, principal consumers such as goats, and tertiary
consumers such as salmon are all eaten by them. Energy is passed up the food chain from
one trophic level to the next. However, only about 10% of the overall energy stored in
organisms at one trophic level is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level. The
leftover energy is either used in metabolic processes or lost to the environment as heat. As a
result, each trophic stage's species has less resources available. This helps to understand
why trophic ratios barely exceed four or five. The sum of energy at different trophic levels
can be described using an energy pyramid. Since there is less energy at higher trophic
speeds, there are usually less animals. Organisms at higher trophic levels are larger, but
their numbers are lower, resulting in less biomass. Biomass refers to the total mass of
animals in a trophic period (or other grouping of organisms).

1.2 Secondary Consumers and Tertiary Consumers

The consumer is the animal that consumes the producers. In the food web, there are three
types of consumers: principal, secondary, and tertiary. The species that eat the producers are
known as primary consumers, and they are often herbivores. Secondary consumers are often
carnivores or omnivores that feed the main consumers. Secondary consumers may be
categorized as primary or tertiary consumers depending on their environment. Squirrels, for
example, are a major nut and fruit provider. A squirrel is referred to as a secondary
producer as it starts to consume insects or baby birds. This type of switching will occur at
any time and in any setting, depending on the food and predators in the area. Without
secondary consumers, the food chain remains incomplete. They get their calories by eating
primary consumers, which helps them to control the population of primary consumers.
Secondary consumers provide resources to tertiary consumers who chase them. Organisms
that feed on primary and secondary consumers are known as tertiary consumers. There are
mainly carnivores among them, but there are also omnivores. They are the pinnacle of the
food chain and the highest group of customers. They can be referred to as the predator of all
living things. Tertiary consumers often inhabit the top trophic stage and are therefore
preyed upon by no other animals; in this situation, they are referred to as "apex predators."
Scavengers and decomposers, on the other hand, will eat their bodies after they die. In a
food chain, there is also an apex predator above the tertiary consumer. However, as energy
is transferred through each trophic level, it is used up and lost as heat, resulting in a poor
energy supply in the higher levels. As a result, only four trophic stages are common, with
the tertiary user fulfilling the ecological function of the apex predator. Organisms at the
highest trophic levels play a crucial role in ecosystems. They monitor populations or change
the behavior of animals at lower trophic levels to influence their actions. Lower trophic
stage species may be carnivores, herbivores, or omnivores, and where their numbers are
limited, predation or grazing pressure on the trophic levels below is relieved.
 1.3 Food chain and the trophic levels

A food chain is a group of animals that eat each other to exchange energy
and nutrients. It is made up of three groups of suppliers and consumers:
major, secondary, and tertiary. The food chain is a metaphor for life's circle. It
demonstrates how the environment retains its equilibrium. It begins with the
producer, which is an organism capable of producing its own food as well as
the source of nutrients and energy for all other organisms. Plants or species
that feed on sunshine are the majority. The primary consumers, herbivores,
are the next link in the chain. The species that feed on the producers get all of
the energy and nutrients. The smallest organisms in the world are primary
consumers. Then there are secondary customers. These are species that eat
primary consumers, but depending on their habitat, they may also eat
producers. They may either be carnivores or omnivores. The tertiary users, or
carnivores, are the next group. The primary and secondary customers are the
ones they feed the most. The apex predator is at the top of the food chain.
There is an insect capable of devouring all other organisms. They are mostly
carnivores that get the least number of calories and nutrients. They are the
most ruthless of all predators.
A trophic level is a group of animals in an ecosystem that are on the same
level of the food chain. There are five main trophic stages in a food chain,
each with its own nutrient connection to the primary energy source. Any
ecosystem's primary source of energy is the Sun. Primary farmers, also
known as autotrophs, use solar radiation from the Sun as an energy source.
Plants and algae are the most common primary sources since they produce
their own food by photosynthesis. Primary producers make up the first
trophic stage. Consumers, also known as heterotrophs, make up the bulk of
trophic levels; heterotrophs are unable to produce their own food and must
feed on other organisms to survive. The second trophic level is herbivores,
also known as main consumers. They eat primary suppliers to get their
calories. In trophic stages three, four, and five, carnivores and omnivores can
be found. trophic stage three includes carnivores and omnivores that eat
herbivores; they are secondary consumers. At trophic stage four, carnivores
and omnivores that feed secondary consumers are known as tertiary
consumers. At trophic level five, apex predators are found; these animals
have no natural predators and hence are at the top of the food chain.
 1.4 Food Web

The food network is a useful tool for depicting feeding relationships between
species in an environment, disclosing species interactions and population function,
and understanding the complexities of energy transmission in an ecosystem. Food
webs are typically made up of several interconnected food chains. Each food chain
is represented by a sequence of arrows pointing from one species to the next,
indicating the transfer of food energy from one feeding population to the next. The
relationships — bonds or partnerships — between organisms in an ecosystem are
defined by food chains, but the importance of these relationships to energy
distribution and population dynamics varies. Some trophic interactions are more
important than others in deciding how energy flows through ecosystems. Some
connections have a greater effect on the demographic transition of certain animals
than others. The feeding relationships between species in a group are described
using food webs. Food webs may be used to describe the relationships between
animals. Both species in food chains are either basal (autotrophs like plants),
intermediate (herbivores and intermediate level carnivores like grasshoppers and
scorpions), or top predators (herbivores and intermediate level carnivores like
grasshoppers and scorpions) (high level carnivores such as fox).
 IV. Assignment.

Briefly discuss the following environmental news and issues:

1. Food Chain Length Depends On Size Of Pond (#4)

This environmental concern illustrates how the food chain is measured and how it is
determined. According to the conclusions of the study, larger lakes have longer food chains
than smaller lakes. Post hypothesized that the same concept could be generalized to
terrestrial food chains, such as vast trees and smaller tree pieces. They were against the
notion that energy supply might decide the length of the food chain in this case. It is
claimed that something other than energy supply, which is bound to the ecosystem's size,
limits the length of the food chain. They do not know what it is exactly, but they know it
isn't energy availability. Broad reservoirs, medium-sized lakes, and small lakes and ponds
near Madison, Wisconsin, and West Point, New York, were used to draw these conclusions
through observation and experimentation. Another aspect of the problem is that the study
aims to establish the trophic status of different species in food chains. One of the examples
given in the article is the difference between fish in a large lake and fish in a smaller lake.
They said that when it comes to deciding the length of the food chain, the size of the
ecosystem is more important than productivity and energy availability: Tiny, nutrient-rich,
and highly active lakes have shorter food chains than bigger, nutrient-poor, crystal-clear
lakes. Furthermore, food chains are longer in larger lakes with equal productivity levels
than in smaller lakes with similar productivity levels. The 10-pound fish from the large lake
has a higher trophic position than the 10-pound fish from the narrow lake. You are still
more likely to catch a big fish in a nutrient-rich, productive lake just because there are more
fish to catch, but we must bear in mind that the big fish from the broad lake is at the tip of a
larger food chain and might have swallowed more toxin.

2. All Specialized Insect Predators Not Suitable For Biological

Control (#5).
The article states why there are predators that are effective at managing their target
population, as well as predators that are inefficient. They observed and analyzed Indian
meal moths in this paper. The virus and wasp are two organisms that can regulate the
population of the moth, according to them. They did say, though, that the parasitoid wasp
has a big impact on the host species, but that the virus is completely inactive. They
concluded that variations in biological control could be explained by the strength of the
pairing between the meal moth host and parasitoid. The abundance of the host species is
determined by the abundance of the opponent, which reflects on the abundance of the host
while there are coupled host-enemy dynamics. This is the method by which the wasp can
effectively control the insect. Bjornstad's thesis has the potential to shine light on the elusive
nature of biological control. The article's main goal is to figure out which advanced enemy
species are powerful biological controls and which, while being specialized enemies, do
not.
 Chapter 5

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND PROCESSES

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Identify the significance of biogeochemical cycles.

2. Discuss the processes involved in the hydrologic cycle.
3. Relate carbon dioxide and oxygen cycle and their importance
4. Discuss phosphorus cycle.
5. Analyze an environmental issue and offer solutions

BioGeoChemical Cycles

The inorganic nutrients cycle through more than the organisms,

however, they also enter into the atmosphere, the oceans, and even rocks. A
Biogeochemical cycle refers to the overall chemical cycles through both the
biological and the geological world. Each chemical has its own unique cycle,
but all of the cycles do have some things in common.

Reservoirs are those parts of the cycle where the chemical is held
in large quantities for long periods of time. In exchange pools, on the other
hand, the chemical is held for only a short time. The length of time a
chemical is held in an exchange pool or a reservoir is termed its residence
time. The oceans are a reservoir for water, while a cloud is an exchange pool.

The Water Cycle

The water cycle (also know as the hydrologic cycle) is the paths
water takes through its various states -- vapor, liquid, soil -- as it moves
throughout the ocean, atmosphere, groundwater, streams, etc.

In the water cycle, energy is supplied by the sun, which drives

evaporation whether it is from ocean surfaces or from treetops.

The sun also provides the energy, which drives the weather
systems, which move the water vapor from one place to another.

Evaporation is the reverse process in which liquid water becomes

gaseous. Once water condenses, gravity takes over and the water is pulled to
the ground. Gravity continues to operate, either pulling the water
underground or across the surface. In either event, gravity continues to pull
water lower and lower until it reaches the oceans and other such depressions
may also serve as the lowest basin into which water can be drawn.

Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed from

a liquid state to a gaseous state. A considerable amount of heat, about 600
calories of energy for each gram of water, is exchanged during the change of
state. Typically, solar radiation and other factors such as air temperature,
vapor pressure, wind, and atmospheric pressure affect the amount of natural
evaporation that takes place in any geographic area. Evaporation can occur
on raindrops, and on free water surfaces such as seas and lakes. It can even
occur from water settled on vegetation, soil, rocks and snow. There is also
evaporation caused by human activities. Heated buildings experience
evaporation of water settled on its surfaces. Evaporated moisture is lifted into
the atmosphere from the ocean, land surfaces, and waterbodies as water
vapor. Some vapor always exists in the atmosphere.

Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the day.

Water inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as
water vapor through numerous individual leave openings. Plants transpire to
move nutrients to the upper portion of the plants and to cool the leaves
exposed to the sun. Leaves undergoing rapid transpiration can be
significantly cooler than the surrounding air. Transpiration is greatly affected
by the species of plants that are in the soil and it is strongly affected by the
amount of light to which the plants are exposed. Water can be transpired
freely by plants until a water deficit develops in the plant and it water-
releasing cells (stomata) begin to close. Transpiration then continues at a
must slower rate. Only a small portion of the water that plants absorb are
retained in the plants.

Vegetation generally retards evaporation from the soil. Vegetation

that is shading the soil, reduces the wind velocity. Also, releasing water
vapor to the atmosphere reduces the amount of direct evaporation from the
soil or from snow or ice cover. The absorption of water into plant roots,
along with interception that occurs on plant surfaces offsets the general
effects that vegetation has in retarding evaporation from the soil. The forest
vegetation tends to have more moisture than the soil beneath the trees.

Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes it's

physical state from a vapor, most commonly, to a liquid. Water vapor
condenses onto small airborne particles to form dew, fog, or clouds. The
most active particles that form clouds are sea salts, atmospheric ions caused
by lightning, and combustion products containing sulfurous and nitrous
acids. Condensation is brought about by cooling of the air or by increasing
the amount of vapor in the air to its saturation point. When water vapor
condenses back into a liquid state, the same large amount of heat ( 600
calories of energy per gram) that was needed to make it a vapor is released to
the environment.

Frozen water may be trapped in cooler regions of the Earth as snow

or ice, and may remain as such for very long periods of time. Lakes, ponds,
and wetlands form where water is temporarily trapped. The oceans are salty
because any weathering of minerals that occurs as the water runs to the ocean
will add to the mineral content of the water, but water cannot leave the
oceans except by evaporation, and evaporation leaves the minerals behind.

Thus, rainfall and snowfall are comprised of relatively clean water,

with the exception of pollutants picked up as the water falls through the
atmosphere.

Organisms play an important role in the water cycle. Most organisms

contain a significant amount of water (up to 90% of their body weight). This
water is not held for any length of time and moves out of the organism rather
quickly in most cases.

Animals and plants lose water through evaporation from the body
surfaces, and through evaporation from the gas exchange structures. In
plants, water is drawn in at the roots and moves to the gas exchange organs,
the leaves, where it evaporates quickly. This special case is called
transpiration because it is responsible for so much of the water that enters
the atmosphere.

Precipitation occurs when water condenses from a gaseous state in

the atmosphere and falls to earth. Precipitation is the process that occurs
when any and all forms of water particles fall from the atmosphere and reach
the ground. There are two sub- processes that cause clouds to release
precipitation, the coalescence process and the ice- crystal process. As water
drops reach a critical size, the drop is exposed to gravity and frictional drag.
A falling drop leaves a turbulent wake behind which allows smaller drops to
fall faster and to be overtaken to join and combine with the lead drop. The
other sub-process that can occur is the ice-crystal formation process. It
occurs when ice develops in cold clouds or in cloud formations high in the
atmosphere where freezing temperatures occur. When nearby water droplets
approach the crystals some droplets evaporate and condense on the crystals.
The crystals grow to a critical size and drop as snow or ice pellets.
Sometimes, as the pellets fall through lower elevation air, they melt and
change into raindrops.

Precipitated water may fall into a water body or it may fall onto land.
It is then dispersed several ways. The water can adhere to objects on or near
the planet surface or it can be carried over and through the land into stream
channels, or it may penetrate into the soil, or it may be intercepted by plants.
 When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high percentage of
precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation. The portion of
precipitation that appears in surface streams is called runoff. Runoff may
consist of component contributions from such sources as surface runoff,
subsurface runoff, or ground water runoff. Surface runoff travels over the
ground surface and through surface channels to leave a catchment area called
a drainage basin or watershed. The portion of the surface runoff that flows
over the land surface towards the stream channels is called overland flow.
The total runoff confined in the stream channels is called the streamflow.

Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water in

the chain of transportation events leading to streams. The interception can
take place by vegetal cover or depression storage in puddles and in land
formations such as rills and furrows.

When rain first begins, the water striking leaves and other organic
materials spreads over the surfaces in a thin layer or it collects at points or
edges. When the maximum surface storage capability on the surface of the
material is exceeded, the material stores additional water in growing drops
along its edges. Eventually the weight of the drops exceed the surface
tension and water falls to the ground. Wind and the impact of rain drops can
also release the water from the organic material. The water layer on organic
surfaces and the drops of water along the edges are also freely exposed to
evaporation.

Additionally, interception of water on the ground surface during

freezing and sub- freezing conditions can be substantial. The interception of
falling snow and ice on vegetation also occurs. The highest level of
interception occurs when it snows on conifer forests and hardwood forests
that have not yet lost their leaves.

Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water

through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The
surface phenomonon is governed by soil surface conditions. Water transfer is
related to the porosity of the soil and the permeability of the soil profile.
Typically, the infiltration rate depends on the puddling of the water at the
soil surface by the impact of raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil,
the initial soil moisture content, the decreasing water concentration as the
water moves deeper into the soil filling of the pores in the soil matrices,
changes in the soil composition, and to the swelling of the wetted soils that
in turn close cracks in the soil.

Water that is infiltrated and stored in the soil can also become the
water that later is evapotranspired or becomes subsurface runoff.
 Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and it's layers,
by gravity and capillary forces. The prime moving force of groundwater is
gravity. Water that is in the zone of aeration where air exists is called vadose
water. Water that is in the zone of saturation is called groundwater. For all
practical purposes, all groundwater originates as surface water. Once
underground, the water is moved by gravity. The boundary that separates the
vadose and the saturation zones is called the water table. Usually the
direction of water movement is changed from downward and a horizontal
component to the movement is added that is based on the geologic boundary
conditions.

Geologic formations in the earth's crust serve as natural subterranean

reservoirs for storing water. Others can also serve as conduits for the
movement of water. Essentially, all groundwater is in motion. Some of it,
however, moves extremely slowly. A geologic formation which transmits
water from one location to another in sufficient quantity for economic
development is called an aquifer. The movement of water is possible because
of the voids or pores in the geologic formations. Some formations conduct
water back to the ground surface. A spring is a place where the water table
reaches the ground surface. Stream channels can be in contact with an
unconfined aquifer that approach the ground surface. Water may move from
the ground into the stream, or visa versa, depending on the relative water
level. Groundwater discharges into a stream forms the base flow of the
stream during dry periods, especially during droughts. An influent stream
supplies water to an aquifer while and effluent stream receives water from
the aquifer.

Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in

surface streams. It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by
artificial diversions, storages or other works that society might have on or in
a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls
directly on the stream , surface runoff that flows over the land surface and
through channels, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and
moves laterally towards the stream, and groundwater runoff from deep
percolation through the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow enters the
stream quickly, while the remaining portion may take a longer period before
joining the water in the stream. When each of the component flows enter the
stream, they form the total runoff. The total runoff in the stream channels is
called streamflow and it is generally regarded as direct runoff or base flow.

Storage. There are three basic locations of water storage that occur in
the planetary water cycle. Water is stored in the atmosphere; water is stored
on the surface of the earth, and water stored in the ground. Water stored in
the atmosphere can be moved relatively quickly from one part of the planet
to another part of the planet. The type of storage that occurs on the land
surface and under the ground largely depend on the geologic features related
to the types of soil and the types of rocks present at the storage locations.
Storage occurs as surface storage in oceans, lakes, reservoirs, and glaciers;
underground storage occurs in the soil, in aquifers, and in the crevices of
rock formations.

The movement of water through the eight other major physical

processes of the water cycle can be erratic. On average, water the atmosphere
is renewed every 16 days. Soil moisture is replaced about every year.
Globally, waters in wetlands are replaced about every 5 years while the
residence time of lake water is about 17 years. In areas of low development
by society, groundwater renewal can exceed 1,400 years. The uneven
distribution and movement of water over time, and the spatial distribution of
water in both geographic and geologic areas, can cause exteme phenomena
such as floods and droughts to occur.

Hydrologic Cycle

The Carbon Cycle

 Carbon cycle is the movement of carbon, in its many forms, between
the biosphere, atmosphere, oceans, and geosphere.

Plants obtain carbon dioxide from the air and, through

photosynthesis, incorporate carbon into their tissues. Producers & consumers
- transform part of the carbon in their food back into carbon dioxide via
respiration. Decomposers - release the carbon tied up in dead plants &
animals into the atmosphere.

Another major exchange of carbon dioxide occurs between the

oceans and the atmosphere. The dissolved CO2 in the oceans is used by
marine biota in photosynthesis. Two other important processes are fossil fuel
burning and changing land use. In fossil fuel burning, coal,
oil, natural gas, and gasoline are consumed by industry, power plants, and
automobiles. Changing land use is a broad term which encompasses a host of
essentially human activities, including agriculture, deforestation, and
reforestation.

The global carbon cycle is out of balance, making rapid global

climate change more likely. Atmospheric CO2 levels are rising rapidly --
currently, they are 25% above where they stood before the industrial
revolution. Carbon dioxide forms when the carbon in biomass oxidizes as it
burns or decays. Many biological processes set in motion by people release
carbon dioxide. These include burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, & natural gas),
slash-and-burn agriculture, clearing land for permanent pasture, cropland, or
human settlements, accidental and intentional forest burning, and
unsustainable logging and fuelwood collection. Clearing vegetation cover
from a forested hectare releases much of the carbon in the vegetation to the
atmosphere, as well as some of the carbon lodged in the soil. Logging or
sustainable fuelwood collection can also degrade vegetation cover and result
in a net release of carbon.

The carbon cycle is relatively simple compared to water cycle. It is

complementary reactions of respiration and photosynthesis.

Respiration takes carbohydrates and oxygen and combines them to

produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.

Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide and water and produces

carbohydrates and oxygen. The outputs of respiration are the inputs of
photosynthesis, and the outputs of photosynthesis are the inputs of
respiration.

The reactions are also complementary in the way they deal with
energy. Photosynthesis takes energy from the sun and stores it in the carbon-
carbon bonds of carbohydrates; respiration releases that energy. Both plants
and animals carry on respiration, but only plants (and other producers) can
carry on photosynthesis.

The chief reservoirs for carbon dioxide are in the oceans and in rock.
Carbon dioxide dissolves readily in water. Once there, it may precipitate as a
solid rock known as calcium carbonate (limestone). Corals and algae
encourage this reaction and build up limestone reefs in the process.

On land and in the water, plants take up carbon dioxide and convert it
into carbohydrates through photosynthesis.

This carbon in the plant can possibly liberated to the atmosphere by

the plant through respiration; eaten by an animal, or it can be present in the
plant when the plant dies. Animals obtain all their carbon in their food, and,
thus, all carbon in biological systems ultimately comes from plants.

In the animal, the carbon also has the possibility to be released to the
atmosphere through respiration.

The carbon Cycle

It can either be respired by decomposers, or it can be buried intact

and ultimately form coal, oil, or natural gas.
 The fossil fuels can be mined and burned in the future; releasing
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Otherwise, the carbon in limestone or
other sediments can only be released to the atmosphere when they are
subducted and brought to volcanoes, or when they are pushed to the surface
and slowly weathered away.

Humans have a great impact on the carbon cycle because when we

burn fossil fuels we release excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This
means that more carbon dioxide goes into the oceans, and more is present in
the atmosphere. The latter condition causes global warming, because the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere allows more energy to reach the Earth from
the sun than it allows escaping from the Earth into space.

The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is present in the carbon dioxide as previously discussed in

the carbon cycle; it is also present in carbohydrates, in water, and as a
molecule of two oxygen atoms. Oxygen is released to the atmosphere by
autotrophs during photosynthesis and taken up by both autotrophs and
heterotrophs during respiration.

In fact, all of the oxygen in the atmosphere is biogenic; that is, it was
released from water through photosynthesis by autotrophs.

Almost all living things need oxygen. They use this oxygen during
the process of creating energy in living cells.

Just as water moves from the sky to the earth and back in the
hydrologic cycle, oxygen is also cycled through the environment. Plants
mark the beginning of the oxygen cycle. Plants are able to use the energy of
sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen
in a process called photosynthesis.

O2 + carbohydrates = CO2 + H2O + energy

This means that plants "breathe" in carbon dioxide and "breathe" out
oxygen. Animals form the other half of the oxygen cycle.
 Oxygen Cycle

We breathe in oxygen, which we use to break carbohydrates down

into energy in a process called respiration.

O2 + carbohydrates = CO2 + H2O + energy

Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is breathed out by

animals into the air.

So oxygen is created in plants and used up by animals, as is shown in

the picture above. But the oxygen cycle is not actually quite that simple.
Plants must break carbohydrates down into energy just as animals do.
During the day, plants hold onto a bit of the oxygen which they produced in
photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates. But in
order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, the
plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide just as
animals do. Even though plants produce approximately ten times as much
oxygen during the day as they consume at night, the night-time consumption
of oxygen by plants can create low oxygen conditions in some water
habitats.
Oxygen in Water

Oxygen in water is known as dissolved oxygen or DO. In nature,

oxygen enters water when water runs over rocks and creates tremendous
amounts of surface area. The high surface area allows oxygen to transfer
from the air into the water very quickly.

When the water in a stream enters a pond, microorganisms in the

pond begin to metabolize (break down) organic matter, consuming oxygen in
the process. This is another form of oxygen cycle - oxygen enters water in
rapids and leaves water in pools.

Oxygen uptake rate (O.U.R.) is the rate at which oxygen is consumed

by living organisms in the water. Since organisms are constantly using up
oxygen in the water and oxygen is constantly reentering the water from the
air, the amount of oxygen in water remains relatively constant. In a healthy
ecosystem, the rates of oxygen transfer (being used up) and oxygen uptake
are balanced in the water.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen cycle. Almost all of the nitrogen found in terrestrial

ecosystems originally comes from the atmosphere. Small proportions enter
the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. Most, however, is
biochemically fixed within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like
bacteria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds of
plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing
bacterial. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants
carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist
in a moist environment. Scientist estimate that biological fixation globally
adds approximately 140 million metric tons of nitogen to ecosystems every
year.

Nitrogen is critically important in forming the amino portions of the

amino acids, which in turn form the proteins of our body. Proteins make up
skin and muscle, among other important structural portions of your body,
and all enzymes are proteins. Since enzymes carry out almost all of the
chemical reactions in your body, it's easy to see how important nitrogen is.

The chief reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere, which is about 78%

nitrogen. Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is composed of two nitrogen atoms
bound to each other. It is a pretty non-reactive gas; it takes a lot of energy to
get nitrogen gas to break up and combine with other things, such as carbon or
oxygen.

Nitrogen gas can be taken from the atmosphere in two basic ways.
First, lightning provides enough energy to "burn" the nitrogen and fix it in
the form of nitrate, which is nitrogen with three oxygen attached. This
process is duplicated in fertilizer factories to produce nitrogen fertilizers.

The other form of nitrogen fixation is by nitrogen fixing bacteria,

which use special enzymes instead of the extreme amount of energy found in
lightning to fix nitrogen. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria come in three forms:
some are free-living in the soil; some form symbiotic, mutualistic
associations with the roots of bean plants and other legumes (rhizobial
bacteria); and the third form of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the
photosynthetic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which are found most
commonly in water. All of these fix nitrogen, either in the form of nitrate or
in the form of ammonia.

Most plants can take up nitrate and convert it to amino acids.

Animals acquire all of their amino acids when they eat plants. When plants
or animals die the nitrogen is returned to the soil. The usual form of nitrogen
returned to the soil in animal wastes or in the output of the decomposers, is
ammonia. Ammonia is rather toxic, but fortunately there are nitrite bacteria
in the soil and in the water, which take up ammonia and convert it to nitrite,
which is nitrogen with two oxygen.

Nitrite is also somewhat toxic, but another type of bacteria, nitrate

bacteria, take nitrite and convert it to nitrate, which can be taken up by plants
to continue the cycle.
 The Nitrogen Cycle

The Phosphorous Cycle

The phosphorus cycle is the simplest of the cycles. Phosphorus has

only one form, phosphate, which is a phosphorous atom with four oxygen
atoms. This heavy molecule never makes its way into the atmosphere; it is
always part of an organism, dissolved in water, or in the form of rock.

When rock with phosphate is exposed to water, the rock is weathered

out and goes into solution. Autotrophs take this phosphorous up and use it in
a variety of ways. It is an important constituent of cell membranes, DNA,
RNA, and ATP.

Heterotrophs (animals) obtain their phosphorous from the plants they

eat, although one type of heterotrophs, the fungi, excels at taking up
phosphorous and may form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with plant
roots. These relationships are called mycorrhizae; the plant gets phosphate
from the fungus and gives the fungus sugars in return.
 Animals also use phosphorous as a component of bones, teeth and
shells. When animals or plants die, the phosphate may be returned to the soil
or water by the decomposers. There, it can be taken up by another plant and
used again. This cycle will occur over and over until at last the phosphorous
is lost at the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean, where it becomes part
of the sedimentary rocks. Ultimately, this phosphorous will be released if the
rock is brought to the surface and weathered. Two types of animals play a
unique role in the phosphorous cycle. Humans often mine rock rich in
phosphorous.

Phosphorus Cycle

Source: Nasif Nahle, 1997. Biology Cabinet, Biology Advisory Bureau.

 Worksheet # 05

Name: Icban, Meiji Don S. Date:

Course/ Year: BSCE-1A Professor: Christine Reyman

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Reservoirs are the areas of the cycle where the chemical is stored in vast
amounts for a long time.
2. Evaporation is the mechanism by which liquid water turns into steam.

3. Condensation is the mechanism by which water vapor changes its physical

state from a vapor to a liquid, most generally.

4. Interception is the method of stopping water from flowing in a series of

transportation activities that leads to streams.

5. Infiltration is a physical mechanism that involves water moving across a

boundary region where the environment meets the soil surface conditions.

6. Transpiration is the biochemical mechanism that takes place mostly during

the day. Water vapor is transported from the interior of plants to the
atmosphere by multiple individual leaf openings.

7. Mycorrhizae is a symbiotic relationship in which heterotrophs get their

phosphorus from the plants they consume, though one kind of heterotroph,
fungi, excels at absorbing phosphorus from the plant's roots.

8. Phosphate is an atom of phosphorous with four oxygen atoms.

9. Biogeochemical Cycle refers to both the biological and geological world's

overall chemical processes.

10. Runoff is a surface stream flow that originates from a drainage basin or a
watershed.
II. Completion.

1. Heterotrophs obtain their phosphorous from the

plants they eat, although one type of heterotrophs, the fungi, excels
at taking up phosphorous and may form mutualistic symbiotic
relationships with plant roots.
2. The Phosphorous Cycle is the simplest of the cycles. Phosphorus
has only one form, phosphate, which is a phosphorous atom with
four oxygen atoms.
3. Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is composed of
two nitrogen atoms bound to each other. It is a pretty non-reactive
gas; it takes a lot of energy to get nitrogen gas to break up and
combine with other things, such as carbon or oxygen.
4. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from t
plants carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where
they can exist in a moist environment.
5. During the day, plants hold onto a bit of the oxygen, which they
produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to
break down carbohydrates.
6. Oxygen is released to the atmosphere by
autotrophs during photosynthesis and taken up by both autotrophs
and heterotrophs during respiration.
7. Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide and water and
produces carbohydrates and oxygen. The outputs of respiration are
the inputs of photosynthesis, and the outputs of photosynthesis are
the inputs of respiration.
8. Percolation is the movement of water though the soil,
and it's layers, by gravity and capillary forces. The prime moving
force of groundwater is gravity.
9. Frozen water may be trapped in cooler regions of the
Earth as snow or ice, and may remain as such for very long periods
of time. Lakes, ponds, and wetlands form where water is
temporarily trapped.
10. The water cycle is the paths water takes through its
various states -- vapor, liquid, soil -- as it moves throughout the
ocean, atmosphere, groundwater, streams, etc.
 III. Discussions

1. Discuss the following biogeochemical cycles briefly:

1.1 The Phosphorous Cycle

The mechanism of phosphorous migration across the lithosphere,

hydrosphere, and biosphere is known as the phosphorous cycle, and is one of
the biogeochemical processes. It is the most basic of all the loops.
Phosphorous is present in this cycle, but it only exists in one form: phosphate.
Phosphate is a compound of four oxygen atoms and one phosphorous atom.

1.2 The Carbon Dioxide Cycle.

The carbon dioxide cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon dioxide is

transported from the environment to animals and then returned to the atmosphere.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air to make food, and then emit oxygen,
which animals consume.

1.3 The Hydrologic Cycle.

The hydrologic cycle, also known as the water cycle, is a biogeochemical cycle
in which water moves and circulates continuously throughout the earth's
hydrosphere. It also prevents water from changing states when it travels across the
planet, preventing it from being solid, liquid, or gaseous. The sun powers the loop
by driving the atmosphere, which causes vapor to travel from one location to
another.

1.4 The Nitrogen Cycle

Most of the biogeochemical processes is the nitrogen cycle, in which nitrogen is

converted into various chemical forms as it circulates across the biosphere. Nitrogen
fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification are all essential processes
in this method.
 IV. Assignment.

1. Write your reaction about the environmental news/ issue on

“Carbonated Mars”.

According to this paper, scientists also discovered that carbon dioxide on Mars
could be lost in its atmosphere, a process that could be used to reduce global
warming on Earth. Carbonation exists on Mars, where it is blamed for the planet's
cold weather, which led to the planet's atmosphere's collapse

This breakthrough would help to solve the problem of global warming on the
planet. This discovery makes me proud, and it gives me hope that we can still save
the planet. This is some of the best environmental news I have ever seen. I am
overjoyed by this news because I care deeply for our planet, and global warming is
one of the challenges that threatens to kill it. That is also the source of the decline or
extinction of species in the polar regions. This is also the source of the freezing of
the Polar Regions, which can result in a slew of disasters and catastrophic events.
Carbonated Mars is also a good indicator because it has the potential to sustain life.
I do not see any drawbacks to this breakthrough because it has the potential to solve
one of Earth's biggest problems.

This revelation gives the Earth hope that it can indeed be healed. This discovery
answers many questions about Mars and resolves many challenges and mysteries. If
this finding really aids the world in mitigating global warming, we must be
responsible for protecting our mother Earth, as this discovery provides us with yet
another opportunity to preserve our habitat, which we must not waste.
 Chapter 6

HUMAN ECOLOGY AND SUCCESSION

Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the scope of human and population ecology.

2. Define the properties of population.
3. Name and discuss the factors influencing population growth.
4. Suggest ways to lessen the impact of rapid population growth.
5. Analyze an environmental issue and offer solutions

Human and Population Ecology Defined:

Human ecology is interdisciplinary. Neither ordinary biological

ecology nor human ecology is a discipline in the usual sense. Both have to
draw extensively on other disciplines relevant to understanding the behavior
of organisms (in our case, humans). The multidisciplinary commitments of
ecology and human ecology arise because the behavior of organisms is so
complex. It will often be important to understand how individuals tick,
requiring knowledge of human psychology and biology. Human groups are
elaborately organized, so the social context is often important.
Anthropologists, sociologists, and political scientists specialize in such
things. Humans interact intimately with other organisms, so disciplines from
agronomy to zoology will sometimes be useful. Some disciplines specialize
in theory development, such as economics and evolutionary biology. Others
specialize in certain important empirical tools, such as participant
observation in anthropology, laboratory experimentation in psychology, and
survey research in sociology and political science. Still other specialized
disciplines, such as history, archaeology, and paleontology, are devoted to
the long view. Since humans interact with environments, the
physical/chemical environmental disciplines such as climatology, hydrology,
and soil science will also be important to answer certain kinds of questions.
If we want to understand a particular facet of human behavior, we have to be
prepared to go shopping for ideas and methods in a variety of disciplines.

Population ecology studies organisms from the point of view of the

size and structure of their populations. A population ecologist studies the
interaction of organisms with their environments by measuring properties of
populations rather than the behavior of individual organisms.
Properties of Population

Properties of populations include:

1. Population Size
2. Population Density
3. Patterns of Dispersion
4. Demographics
5. Population Growth
6. Limits of Population Growth

All of these properties are not those of individual organisms but

instead are properties which exist only if one considers more than one
organism at any given time, or over a period of time.

"The characteristics of a population are shaped by the interactions

between individuals and their environments on both ecological and
evolutionary time scales, and natural selection can modify these
characteristics in a population."

Thus, population ecology also goes beyond consideration of just

population parameters and additionally considers how the characteristics of
individual organisms impact on population parameters

Population. A population in an ecological sense is a group of

organisms, of the same species, which roughly occupy the same geographical
area at the same time. Individual members of the same population can either
interact directly, or may interact with the dispersing progeny of other
members of the same population. Population members interact with a similar
environment and experience similar environmental limitations.

A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the

same geographic area. The study of factors that affect growth, stability, and
decline of populations is population dynamics.

Population size. A population's size depends on how the population is

defined. If a population is defined in terms of some degree of reproductive
isolation, then that population's size is the size of its gene pool. If a
population is defined in terms of some geographical range, then that
population's size is the number of individuals living in the defined area.
Ecologists typically are more concerned with the latter means of defining a
population since this is both easier to do and is a more practical measure if
one is interested in determining the impact of a given population on a given
ecosystem, or vice versa. “Although we can determine an average
population size for many species, the average is often of less interest than the
year-to-year or place-to-place trend in numbers.”
 Population density. Given that a population is defined in terms of
some natural or arbitrarily defined geographical range, then population
density may be defined as simply the number of individual organisms per
unit area. Different species, of course, exist at different densities in their
environments, and the same species may be able to achieve one density in
one environment and another in a different environment. Population densities
may additionally be determined in terms of some measure other than
population size per unit area such as population mass per unit area.

Patterns of dispersion. Individual members of populations may be

distributed over a geographical area in a number of different ways including
Clumped distribution (attraction); Uniform distribution (repulsion); and
Random distribution (minimal interaction/influence).

Clumping may result either from individual organisms being attracted

to each other, or individual organisms being attracted more to some patches
within a range than they are to other patches; the net effect is that some parts
of the range will have a large number of individuals whereas others will
contain few or none.

Patterns of Dispersion Within a Population’s Geographical Range

 A uniform distribution means that approximately the same distance
may be found between individual organisms; uniform distributions result
from individual organisms actively repelling each other.

A random distribution means that where individual organisms are

found is only minimally influenced by interactions with other members of
the same population, and random distributions are uncommon; "Random
spacing occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsions among
individuals of a population."

Both clumping and uniform distributions suggest that individual

organisms are either interacting with one another (actively seeking each
other out or actively avoiding each other), or are all competing with one
another for the same limited resources, regardless of the overall population
density.

Demographics. A population's demographics are its vital statistics,

particularly those statistics that can impact on present and future population
size. Two statistics that are of particular import are a population's age
structure and a population's gender ratio.

Population growth. The simplest case of population growth is that

which occurs when there exist no limitations on growth within the
environment.

All populations undergo three distinct phases of their life cycle:

1. growth
2. stability
3. decline

Population growth occurs when available resources exceed the

number of individuals able to exploit them. Reproduction is rapid, and death
rates are low, producing a net increase in the population size.
Population stability is often proceeded by a "crash" since the growing
population eventually outstrips its available resources. Stability is usually the
longest phase of a population's life cycle.
Decline is the decrease in the number of individuals in a population,
and eventually leads to population extinction.
Factors Influencing Population Growth

Nearly all populations will tend to grow exponentially as long as

there are resources available. Most populations have the potential to expand
at an exponential rate, since reproduction is generally a multiplicative
process. Two of the most basic factors that affect the rate of population
growth are the birth rate, and the death rate. The intrinsic rate of increase is
the birth rate minus the death rate.

Two Modes of Population Growth.

The Exponential curve (also known as a J-curve) occurs when there

is no limit to population size. The Logistic curve (also known as an S-curve)
shows the effect of a limiting factor (in this case the carrying capacity of the
environment).

Population Growth Potential Is Related to Life History

The age within its individual life cycle at which an organism

reproduces affects the rate of population increase. Life history refers to the
age of sexual maturity, age of death, and other events in that individual's
lifetime that influence reproductive traits. Some organisms grow fast,
reproduce quickly, and have abundant offspring each reproductive cycle.
Other organisms grow slowly, reproduce at a late age, and have few
offspring per cycle. Most organisms are intermediate to these two extremes.
Several Basic Controls Govern Population Size

The environment is the ultimate cause of population stabilization.

Two categories of factors are commonly used: physical environment and
biological environment. Three subdivisions of the biological environment are
competition, predation, and symbiosis.

Physical environment factors include food, shelter, water supply,

space availability, and (for plants) soil and light. One of these factors may
severely limit population size, even if the others are not as constrained. The
Law of the Minimum states that population growth is limited by the resource
in the shortest supply.

The biological role played by a species in the environment is called a

niche. Organisms/populations in competition have a niche overlap of a
scarce resource for which they compete. Competitive exclusion occurs
between two species when competition is so intense that one species
completely eliminates the second species from an area. In nature this is
rather rare. While owls and foxes may compete for a common food source,
there are alternate sources of food available. Niche overlap is said to be
minimal.

Population Decline and Extinction

Extinction is the elimination of all individuals in a group. Local

extinction is the loss of all individuals in a population. Species extinction
occurs when all members of a species and its component populations go
extinct. Scientists estimate that 99% of all species that ever existed are now
extinct. The ultimate cause of decline and extinction is environmental
change. Changes in one of the physical factors of the environment may cause
the decline and extinction; likewise the fossil record indicates that some
extinctions are caused by migration of a competitor.

Dramatic declines in human population happen periodically in

response to an infectious disease.

Human Impact

Human populations have continued to increase, due to use of

technology that has disrupted natural populations. Destabilization of
populations leads to possible outcomes:

 population growth as previous limits are removed

  population decline as new limits are imposed

Agriculture and animal domestication are examples of population

increase of favored organisms.

Pollution

Pollutants generally are releases of substances into the air and water.
Many lakes often have nitrogen and phosphorous as limiting nutrients for
aquatic and terrestrial plants. Runoff from agricultural fertilizers increases
these nutrients, leading to runaway plant growth, or eutrophication. Increased
plant populations eventually lead to increased bacterial populations that
reduce oxygen levels in the water, causing fish and other organisms to
suffocate.

Pesticides and Competition

Removal of a competing species can cause the ecological release of a

population explosion in that species competitor. Pesticides sprayed on wheat
fields often result in a secondary pest outbreak as more-tolerant-to-pesticide
species expand once less tolerant competitors are removed.

Removal of Predators

Predator release is common where humans hunt, trap, or otherwise

reduce predator populations, allowing the prey population to increase.
Elimination of wolves and panthers have led to increase in their natural prey:
deer. Large deer populations often cause over grazing that in turn leads to
starvation of the deer.

Introduction of New Species

Introduction of exotic or alien non-native species into new areas is

perhaps the greatest single factor to affect natural populations. More than
1500 exotic insect species and more than 25 families of alien fish have been
introduced; in excess of 3000 plant species have also been introduced. The
majority of accidental introductions may fail, however, once an introduced
species becomes established, its population growth is explosive.

Altering Population Growth

Humans can remove or alter the constraints on population sizes, with

both good and bad consequences. On the negative side, about 17% of the
1500 introduced insect species require the use of pesticides to control them.
 For example, bees are expanding their population and migrating from
one place to another. These killer bees are much more aggressive than the
natives, and destroy native honeybee populations.

On a positive note, human-induced population explosions can

provide needed resources for growing human populations. Agriculture now
produces more food per acre, allowing and sustaining increased human
population size.

Human action is causing the extinction of species at thousands of

times the natural rate. Extinction is caused by alteration of a population's
environment in a harmful way. Habitat disruption is the disturbance of the
physical environment of a species, for example cutting a forest or draining
wetlands. Habitat disruption in currently the leading cause of extinction.

Changes in the biological environment occur in three ways.

1. Species introduction: An exotic species is introduced into an area

where it may have no predators to control its population size, or
where it can greatly out compete native organisms.
2. Overhunting: When a predator population increases or becomes
more efficient at killing the prey, the prey population may decline or
go extinct. Examples today include big game hunting, which has in
many places reduced the predator (or in this case prey) population. In
human prehistory we may have caused the extinction of the
mammoths and mastodons due to increased human hunting skill.
3. Secondary extinction: Loss of food species can cause migration or
extinction of any species that depends largely or solely on that
species as a food source.

Overkill is the shooting, trapping, or hunting of a species usually for

sport or economic reasons. Unfortunately, this cannot eliminate "pest"
species like cockroaches and mice due to their large population sizes and
capacity to reproduce more rapidly than we can eliminate them. However,
many large animals have been eliminated or had their populations drastically
reduced (such as tigers, elephants).

The death of one species or population can cause the decline or

elimination of others, a process known as secondary extinction. Destruction
of river ecosystem, the place for many fishes, may cause the extinction of the
native fish. The extinction of the insect has caused some flowering plants to
become unable to reproduce new plant.
Ecological Succession

A directional change in an ecological community. Populations of

animals and plants are in a dynamic state. Through the continual turnover of
individuals, a population may expand or decline depending on the success of
its members in survival and reproduction. As a consequence, the species
composition of communities typically does not remain static with time.
Apart from the regular fluctuations in species abundance related to seasonal
changes, a community may develop progressively with time through a
recognizable sequence known as the sere. Pioneer populations are replaced
by successive colonists along a more or less predictable path toward a
relatively stable community. This process of succession results from
interactions between different species, and between species and their
environment, which govern the sequence and the rate with which species
replace each other. The rate at which succession proceeds depends on the
time scale of species' life histories as well as on the effects species may have
on each other and on the environment which supports them. In some cases,
seres may take hundreds of years to complete, and direct observation at a
given site is not possible. Adjacent sites may be identified as successively
older stages of the same sere, if it is assumed that conditions were similar
when each seral stage was initiated.

The course of ecological succession depends on initial environmental

conditions. Primary succession occurs on novel areas such as volcanic ash,
glacial deposits, or bare rock, areas which have not previously supported a
community. In such harsh, unstable environments, pioneer colonizing
organisms must have wide ranges of ecological tolerance to survive. In
contrast, secondary succession is initiated by disturbance such as fire, which
removes a previous community from an area. Pioneer species are here
constrained not by the physical environment but by their ability to enter and
exploit the vacant area rapidly.

As succession proceeds, many environmental factors may change

through the influence of the community. Especially in primary succession,
this leads to more stable, less severe environments. At the same time
interactions between species of plant tend to intensify competition for basic
resources such as water, light, space, and nutrients. Successional change
results from the normal complex interactions between organism and
environment which lead to changes in overall species composition. Whether
succession is promoted by changing environmental factors or competitive
interactions, species composition alters in response to availability of niches.
Populations occurring in the community at a point in succession are those
able to provide propagules (such as seeds) to invade the area, being
sufficiently tolerant of current environmental conditions, and able to
withstand competition from members of other populations present at the
same stage. Species lacking these qualities either become locally extinct or
are unable to enter and survive in the community.

Early stages of succession tend to be relatively rapid, whereas the

rates of species turnover and soil changes become slower as the community
matures. Eventually an approximation to the steady state is established with a
relatively stable community, the nature of which has aroused considerable
debate. Earlier, the so-called climax vegetation was believed to be
determined ultimately by regional climate and, given sufficient time, any
community in a region would attain this universal condition. This unified
concept of succession, the monoclimax hypothesis, implies the ability of
organisms progressively to modify their environment until it can support the
climatic climax community. Although plants and animals do sometimes
ameliorate environmental conditions, evidence suggests overwhelmingly that
succession has a variety of stable end points. This hypothesis, known as the
polyclimax hypothesis, suggests that the end point of a succession depends
on a complex of environmental factors that characterize the site, such as
parent material, topography, local climate, and human influences.

Actions of the community on the environment, termed autogenic,

provide an important driving force promoting successional change, and are
typical of primary succession where initial environments are inhospitable.
Alternatively, changes in species composition of a community may result
from influences external to the community called allogenic.

Whereas intrinsic factors often result in progressive successional

changes, that is, changes leading from simple to more complex communities,
external (allogenic) forces may induce retrogressive succession, that is,
toward a less mature community. For example, if a grassland is severely
overgrazed by cattle, the most palatable species will disappear. As grazing
continues, the grass cover is reduced, and in the open areas weeds
characteristic of initial stages of succession may become established.

In some instances of succession, the food web is based on

photosynthetic organisms, and there is a slow accumulation of organic
matter, both living and dead. This is termed autotrophic succession. In other
instances, however, addition of organic matter to an ecosystem initiates a
succession of decomposer organisms which invade and degrade it. Such a
succession is called heterotrophic.

Observed changes in the structure and function of communities result

from natural selection of individuals within their current environment. Three
mechanisms by which species may replace each other have been proposed;
the relative importance of each apparently depends on the nature of the
sequential and stage of development.
 1. The facilitation hypothesis states that invasion of later species
depends on conditions created by earlier colonists. Earlier species modify the
environment so as to increase the competitive ability of species which are
then able to displace them. Succession thus proceeds because of the effects
of species on their environment.

2. The tolerance hypothesis suggests that later successional species

tolerate lower levels of resources than earlier occupants and can invade and
replace them by reducing resource levels below those tolerated by earlier
occupants. Succession proceeds despite the resistance of earlier colonists.

3. The inhibition hypothesis is that all species resist invasion of

competitors and are displaced only by death or by damage from factors other
than competition. Succession proceeds toward dominance by longer-lived
species.

None of these models of succession is solely applicable in all

instances; indeed most examples of succession appear to show elements of
all three replacement mechanisms.

Succession has traditionally been regarded as following an orderly

progression of changes toward a predictable end point, the climax
community, in equilibrium with the prevailing environment. This essentially
deterministic view implies that succession will always follow the same
course from a given starting point and will pass through a recognizable series
of intermediate states. In contrast, a more recent view of succession is based
on adaptations of independent species. It is argued that succession is
disorderly and unpredictable, resulting from probabilistic processes such as
invasion of propagules and survival of individuals which make up the
community. Such a stochastic view reflects the inherent variability observed
in nature and the uncertainty of environmental conditions. In particular, it
allows for succession to take alternative pathways and end points dependent
on the chance outcome of interactions among species and between species
and their environment.

Consideration of community properties such as energy flow supports

the view of succession as an orderly process. The rate of gross primary
productivity typically becomes limited also by the availability of nutrients,
now incorporated within the community biomass, and declines to a level
sustainable by release from decomposer organisms. Species diversity tends
to rise rapidly at first as successive invasions occur, but declines again with
the elimination of the pioneer species by the climax community.

Stochastic aspects of succession can be represented in the form of

models which allow for transitions between a series of different “states.”
Such models, termed Markovian models, can apply at various levels: plant-
by-plant replacement, changes in tree size categories, or transitions between
whole communities. A matrix of replacement probabilities defines the
direction, pathway, and likelihood of change, and the model can be used to
predict the future composition of the community from its initial state.
 Worksheet # 06

Name: Icban, Meiji Don S. Date:

Course/ Year: BSCE-1 Professor: Christine Reyman

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1.Human Ecology is a term thought to be interdisciplinary. Biological ecology and

human ecology are not disciplining in the traditional context. Both must rely
heavily on other sciences to comprehend the behavior of organisms and yet in our
case, the humans.
2.Population is a term thought to be an ecological sense of organisms of the same
species that inhabits the same geographical area at the same time. Individual
members of the same population may communicate directly or with the offspring
of other members of the same population.
3.Clumping is a term thought to be an individual species that drawn to each other,
or to certain patches within a range rather than others. The clear consequence is
that some parts of the scale may have a wide number of individuals, while others
may have few to none.

4.Demographics is a term thought to be a vital data about a country, particularly

those that influence current and future population sizes. The age composition of a
population and the gender distribution of a population are two important figures.

5.Extinction is a term thought to be the complete annihilation of a group of people.

The disappearance of all members of a group is referred to as local extinction.
When a species and its component organisms become extinct, it is known as
extinction.

6.Pollutants is a term thought to be the chemicals that are released into the air or
water. Nitrogen and phosphorus are often restricting nutrients for marine and
terrestrial plants in many reservoirs.

7.Overhunting is a term used in the instances of prey population may decrease or go

extinct as the predator population grows or becomes more effective at killing the
prey.

8.Succession is a term that has long been thought to follow an ordered pattern of
improvements leading to a predictable end point, the climax population, which is
in balance with the surrounding world.

9.Autogenic is a term thought to be the behavior of the population on the ecosystem

are characteristic of primary succession where initial conditions are inhospitable
and provide a significant driving force facilitating successional transition.

10. Allogenic is a term stating that the changes in species composition of a

community may result from influences external to the community called
allogenic.
II. Completion.

1. Species diversity tends to rise rapidly at first as successive

invasions occur, but declines again with the elimination of the
pioneer species by the climax community .
2. A population in an ecological sense is a group of
organisms, of the same species, which roughly occupy the same
geographical area at the same time.
3. A uniform distribution means that approximately the same
distance may be found between individual organisms; uniform
distributions result from individual organisms actively repelling
each other.
4. A population's demographics are its vital statistics,
particularly those statistics that can impact on present and future
population size.
5. Population growth occurs when available resources
exceed the number of individuals able to exploit them.
Reproduction is rapid, and death rates are low, producing a net
increase in the population size.
6. Population densities may additionally be determined in
terms of some measure other than population size per unit area
such as population mass per unit area.
7. Competitive exclusion occurs between two species when
competition is so intense that one species completely eliminates
the second species from an area.
8. Loss of food species can cause migration or extinction of any
species that depends largely or solely on that species as a food
source is called secondary extinction .
9. Actions of the community on the environment, called
autogenic , provide an important driving force
promoting successional change, and are typical of primary
succession
10. The facilitation hypothesis states that invasion of later species
depends on conditions created by earlier colonists. Earlier species
modify the environment so as to increase the competitive ability
of species which are then able to displace them. Succession thus
proceeds because of the effects of species on their environment
 III. Discussions

1. Briefly discuss the following:

1.1 Factors Influencing Population Growth.

Here are few insights into the factors that influence population growth. If
resources are available, almost all populations will begin to expand exponentially.
Since reproduction is a multiplicative mechanism, most species could grow at an
exponential pace. The birth rate and the death rate are two of the most basic
indicators that influence population growth. The birth rate minus the death rate is
the inherent rate of growth. To clarify, there are two types of population growth
modes. When there is no limit to population size, the exponential curve (also
known as a J-curve) appears. The S-curve (also known as the logistic curve)
depicts the impact of a limiting factor (in this case the carrying capacity of the
environment).

1.2 Rapid Population Growth Impact.

To begin with, high demographic growth is expected to decrease per capita

income growth and well-being, thus increasing poverty. Second, high population
growth in heavily populated developing countries with land scarcity increases
landlessness and therefore hunger. Finally, the negative impact of rapid
demographic growth on infant health and schooling would almost certainly
exacerbate poverty in the next decade. Although the trajectory of these relations is
straightforward, it is unclear if they have a quantitatively significant effect on
poverty as traditionally measured. What is obvious, though, is that direct approaches
are the most possible way to reduce poverty. Constraining population growth is an
informal approach that, compared to a variety of other poverty alleviation strategies,
is unlikely to have a significant individual effect on poverty reduction in the near
term.
 1.3 The occurrence of changes in the biological environment.

There are three types of changes in the biological environment: 1.) species
emergence, 2.) overhunting, and 3.) secondary extinction. Let us start with the
Species introduction. It is an exotic species is introduced into an environment
where it may have no predators to keep the population in check or where it may
outcompete native organisms. Then there's overhunting, which occurs when a
predator population grows or becomes more effective at killing prey, causing the
prey population to collapse, or become extinct. Today's examples include big game
poaching, which has reduced the predator or in this case prey population in certain
areas. Increased human hunting ability may have led to the disappearance of
mammoths and mastodons in prehistoric times. Finally, secondary extinction
occurs when a food species is lost, which can result in migration or extinction of
any species that relies heavily or entirely on that species as a food source.

1.4 Ecological Succession.

The term Ecological Succession can be explained in various methods, and some
of its explanation will be mentioned here. The rate at which ecological succession
occurs is determined by the initial environmental conditions. Primary succession
occurs in environments that have never hosted a population before, such as
volcanic ash, glacial deposits, or bare earth. Pioneer colonizing species must have a
wide variety of ecological resistance to live in such extreme, unpredictable
conditions.
Then there is the Secondary succession, on the other hand, is caused when an
event, such as a fire, wipes out a former population. Pioneer species' ability to
penetrate and conquer an empty area is limited here, not in the real world. Many
environmental factors can change as succession progresses due to the community's
impact. This results in more stable, less extreme conditions, particularly in primary
succession. Simultaneously, interactions between plant species tend to exacerbate
competition for basic resources like water, light, space, and nutrients. The natural
dynamic interactions between organism and ecosystem result in changes in overall
species composition, which leads to successional transition.
IV. Assignment.

1. Write your reaction about the environmental news/ issue on

“Human Population ( #8 )”.

As the headline of the environmental news/issue on Human Population (#8),

“The world's population is nearing 8 billion. That's not great news” obviously
states that there is something wrong with that number. It is also mentioned that the
global population reached 5 billion in 1987, after thousands of years of
development. After 32 years, we are already approaching the 8 billion mark. This
news comes as a shock, and it will prompt many "what if" scenarios in the minds
of those who hear it. “What if another 30 years have passed?” for example. “How
many people will there really be?” If we estimate that we were at 5 billion for over
30 years before moving to 8 billion, we will be at over 10 billion in another 30
years. And, as reported in the article, the planet is expected to grow by 2 billion
people by 2050.
This will be difficult for people because, if we are having problems with
overpopulation today, imagine the effects on the world in the future. However, it
is surprising that there are many areas where the population is actually declining,
as well as one where the population is consistently increasing. Take, for example,
Japan and China, which have a persistently low fertility rate. In fact, the global
fertility rate has decreased from 3.2 births per woman in 1990 to 2.5 births per
woman in 2019, and this trend is projected to continue. These reductions,
however, are dwarfed by population increases in other countries. The population
of Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, is projected to double by 2050.
Furthermore, the article discusses why population change would impact many
nations, citing the fact that the least developing countries' life expectancy at birth
is 7.4 years lower than the global average. According to the UN, this is due to high
rates of infant and maternal mortality, as well as the HIV infection and instability
in conflict-torn countries. Which is why I believe that overpopulation has a
negative impact in many countries, especially those that are still in a state of
poverty or growth.
However, the article demonstrates that there are certain patterns that can be
seen in population growth statistics, and these are our generational behaviors,
which indicate that we are aging. In 2018, another benchmark was reached: for the
first time in history, people over 65 outnumber children under the age of five on a
global scale. When life expectancies increase and fertility rates fall, people are
reproducing less and living longer. Overall, if overpopulation continues, as
predicted above, it will raise a slew of “what if” concerns, as the future will be
uncertain and depend on data gathered today.