Unit – 3: Marine & Coastal Ecology

3.1. The shore environment. Physico-chemical and biological factors of intertidal zone. Distribution of life on rocky
shores, sandy shores and muddy shores.

The shore environment:

Marine coasts are dynamic environments which constantly change, like the ocean which partially shape them. The
sedimentologist Francis Shepard classified coasts as primary or secondary. Primary coasts are shaped by non-marine
processes, by changes in the land form. If a coast is in much the same condition as it was when sea level was stabilized
after the last ice age, it is called a primary coast. "Primary coasts are created by erosion (the wearing away of soil or
rock), deposition (the buildup of sediment or sand) or tectonic activity (changes in the structure of the rock and soil
because of earthquakes). An example of a primary coast is a river delta, which forms when a river deposits soil and
other material as it enters the sea. Secondary coasts are produced by marine processes, such as the action of the sea
or by creatures that live in it. Secondary coastlines include sea cliffs, barrier islands, mud flats, coral reefs, mangrove
swamps and salt marshes. Continental coastlines usually have a continental shelf, a shelf of relatively shallow water,
less than 200 metres deep, which extends 68 km on average beyond the coast. Since the continental shelf is usually
less than 200 metres deep, it follows that coastal habitats are generally photic, situated in the sunlit epipelagic zone.
This means the conditions for photosynthetic processes so important for primary production, are available to coastal
marine habitats. Because land is nearby, there are large discharges of nutrient rich land runoff into coastal waters.
Further, periodic upwellings from the deep ocean can provide cool and nutrient rich currents along the edge of the
continental shelf. As a result, coastal marine life is the most abundant in the world. It is found in tidal pools, fjords and
estuaries, near sandy shores and rocky coastlines, around coral reefs and on or above the continental shelf. Coastal
fish include small forage fish as well as the larger predator fish that feed on them. Forage fish thrive in inshore waters
where high productivity results from upwelling and shoreline run off of nutrients. Some are partial residents that
spawn in streams, estuaries and bays, but most complete their life cycle in the zone. There can also be a mutualism
between species that occupy adjacent marine habitats. For example, fringing reefs just below low tide level have a
mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs
protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments
in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water
and pollutants. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals,
which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.

Physico-chemical and biological factors of intertidal zone

Below is a summary of the main factors which can influence the distribution of organisms on the seashore.

DESICCATION occurs as a result of emersion at low tide; influences the upper and middle shore.

WAVE ACTION more wave action means the water splashes higher and so the zones occur higher up on the shore. The
strong force produced by powerful wave action will determine not just whether that organism can remain attached to
the rock but also may have an effect on its growth. E.g. Bladderwrack displays substantial variation in its shape, size
and number of bladders. See Ballantine's Exposure Scale.

LIGHT is needed for photosynthesis. Seaweeds need to be in seawater for this to occur. However, the water will filter
off some of the wavelengths of light and reduce the intensity. Small algae, e.g. some of the red algae, will
photosynthesise with very little light and occur under other larger algae. Seaweeds in mid-lower shore require
accessory pigments to absorb lower amounts of light penetrating the water.

TEMPERATURE: immersion in water buffers against temperature change. Upper shore species will have to tolerate the
greatest variation in temperature whilst it has least affect in the lower. High temperatures will increase the effect of
drying out. Increases salinity in pools

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ASPECT is the direction the shore faces. South facing will have more illumination and warmth, but dries faster; north
is cooler, darker and less likely to dry out. Thus, on a north facing slope community bands will be wider and higher up
the shore. Catenella (red alga) colonises north aspect whilst on south facing ones the lichen, Lichina replaces it.

SLOPE. A flatter shore may provide a greater area of substrate for colonising and will not drain as fast as a steeper one.

TURBIDITY is the cloudiness of the water. Large amounts of plankton can increase the turbidity, as will detritus and
sewage pollution. This restricts the light reaching the algae on the rocks.

SUBSTRATE. The hardness and size of rocks and boulders will influence an organisms ability to attach itself. Soft rocks
will be suitable for burrowers, e.g. piddocks. Large boulders and rocks give good shelter for animals and the angle of
dip of the rock strata may produce more crevices and pools. If stones are too small they will be mobile, moving around
in the surf and so prevent any organism from attaching itself to the rock.

FRESHWATER. Seepage of water from the cliff can dilute the seawater. Few of the organisms on the shore can tolerate
salinity changes. Enteromorpha is so tolerant it is a good indicator of freshwater on rocky shores. Upper shore
rockpools are vulnerable to salinity variation as water runs off the cliff.

BIOTIC. These are the biological factors influencing the community. Algal turf, like Osmundea and Chondrus, will slow
down the drainage on the shore and reduce desiccation. Grazing is very important. A high concentration of limpets
will reduce the establishment of the normally dominant brown seaweed. Removal of limpets from a shore, e.g. due to
oil pollution, results in a sudden "bloom" of algal growth, usually green. Inter-specific competition occurs when niches
of different species overlap. Knotted Wrack occupies a similar position in the middle shore to Bladderwrack. The latter
survives wave action better than the former, which is found on sheltered shores. Where they both occur competition
allows the former to dominate as it lives for many years longer. The fucoid algae have a "whiplash" affect, where water
movement causes a sweeping action of the alga across the rock and prevents the attachment of algae spores and the
settling of planktonic larvae. In this way it competes with barnacles. If the later does manage to become established
it may push out the wrack. Populations cannot become established unless juvenile forms are available to colonise the
rocks. This is called Supply-side Ecology. Most organisms living on the shore use the sea to disperse their young. The
seaweeds have microscopic spores and animals like topshells have larvae which settle on to the rock to begin growth.
If these young are not available the populations cannot get established.

Distribution of life on rocky shores, sandy shores and muddy shores.

Sandy Shore
Sandy shores, also called beaches, are coastal shorelines where sand accumulates. Waves and currents shift the sand,
continually building and eroding the shoreline. Long shore currents flow parallel to the beaches, making waves break
obliquely on the sand. These currents transport large amounts of sand along coasts, forming spits, barrier islands and
tombolos. Long shore currents also commonly create offshore bars, which give beaches some stability by reducing
erosion. Sandy shores are full of life, the grains of sand host diatoms, bacteria and other microscopic creatures. Some
fish and turtles return to certain beaches and spawn eggs in the sand. Birds habitat beaches, like gulls, loons,
sandpipers, terns and pelicans. Aquatic mammals, such sea lions, recuperate on them. Clams, periwinkles, crabs,
shrimp, starfish and sea urchins are found on most beaches. Beyond the high tide mark small dunes shift and reshape
under the influence of the wind while larger dunes stabilize the sand with vegetation.

Rocky Shore
The relative solidity of rocky shores seems to give them a permanence compared to the shifting nature of sandy shores.
In contrast to sandy shores, plants and animals can anchor themselves to the rocks. Competition can develop for the
rocky spaces. For example, barnacles can compete successfully on open intertidal rock faces to the point where the
rock surface is covered with them. Barnacles resist desiccation and grip well to exposed rock faces. However, in the
crevices of the same rocks, the inhabitants are different. Here mussels can be the successful species, secured to the
rock with their byssal threads. Rocky and sandy coasts are vulnerable because humans find them attractive and want
to live near them. An increasing proportion of the humans live by the coast, putting pressure on coastal habitats.

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Muddy Shore
Mudflats are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas
such as bays, bayous, lagoons, and estuaries. Mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud,
resulting from deposition of estuarine silts, clays and marine animal detritus. Most of the sediment within a mudflat
is within the intertidal zone, and thus the flat is submerged and exposed approximately twice daily. Mudflats are
typically important regions for wildlife, supporting a large population, although levels of biodiversity are not
particularly high. They are of particular importance to migratory birds.

3.2. Zonation and adaptation of organisms in the intertidal habitats.

Marine biologists divide the intertidal region into three zones (low, middle, and high), based on the overall average
exposure of the zone. The low intertidal zone, which borders on the shallow subtidal zone, is only exposed to air at
the lowest of low tides and is primarily marine in character. The mid intertidal zone is regularly exposed and
submerged by average tides. The high intertidal zone is only covered by the highest of the high tides, and spends
much of its time as terrestrial habitat. The high intertidal zone borders on the splash zone (the region above the highest
still-tide level, but which receives wave splash). On shores exposed to heavy wave action, the intertidal zone will be
influenced by waves, as the spray from breaking waves will extend the intertidal zone.

Supra-Littoral or Splash Zone : For our purposes we are defining this zone as the bit of shore above the highest tides
(extreme high water spring tides (EHWS)) and below the start of truly terrestrial vegetation. The upper limit of the
splash zone cannot be identified precisely because it depends on the size of the waves causing the splash and these
are different on every shore and every day has different wave conditions. On exposed shores the splash zone may
reach far above the height of the EHWS because the waves are usually large and splash very high up. See Skomer
above. On a typical exposed shore around Dale you'd expect a zone of anything from 5 to 30 metres in height
depending on the height of the cliffs.

PROBLEMS:
◾high salt content from spray
◾extremes of temperature
◾desiccating wind
◾very little water available
◾In full sunlight for most of the day

Lichens are the dominant organisms in the splash zone. They are colonisers of bare rock and are slow growing but long
lived. As they grow the action of acids and expansion of their cells can help to break up the rock into tiny fragments to
produce a raw soil. Lichens are made up from two different organisms, a fungus and an alga, together they form a
symbiotic, mutualistic relationship. Separately, they would require moist, sheltered conditions, together they survive
in very hostile places. The fungal partner makes up about 80% of the lichen. The algal partner is almost always either
a green alga (Chlorophyta) or a blue-green alga (Cyanobacteria). These salt-tolerant lichens form an important
community between the inter-tidal zone and the truly terrestrial communities on the cliff tops. Few marine animals
survive in the splash zone on exposed shores. The rough periwinkle (Littorina saxatilis agg.) and the small periwinkle
(Melarhaphe neritoides) are two that can. They can graze on lichens, have protective shells and all manner of other
attributes that allow them to survive here.

Upper Littoral or High Intertidal Zone : For our purposes we are taking this zone as the bit of the shore between the
highest tides (extreme high water spring tides (EHWS)) and the mean height of neap tides (MHWN).

PROBLEMS:
◾desiccation (drying out)
◾lots of sunlight
◾short time to obtain nutrients from the water
◾slow growth
◾low productivity
◾wide variation in temperature
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Lichens are still much in evidence on the upper shore. Fewer kinds of lichen survive on the upper shore than in the
splash zone. The most obvious is the black tar lichen (Verrucaria maura) which occurs as a distinctive black band along
the top of the shore. Seaweeds find the drier, brighter, wave exposed environment very difficult to cope with and you
will find few, if any of them on the upper parts of exposed shores. Amongst the Lichina you can find a small community
of very small organisms like the pseudo-scorpion and a bivalve, Lasaea. Marine animals that can cope with desiccation
and wave action begin to appear on the upper shore. Rough and small periwinkles (Littorina saxatilis agg. and
Melarhaphe neritoides) are small snails that graze on the algae and lichens. They avoid drying out by having shells and
by numerous other ingenious means. Barnacles are shelled crustaceans (like lobsters and crabs) which filter their food
from the water and are found in this zone. On very exposed shores with more or less continuous splash and spray
some species of barnacles can survive high up in the upper shore. Animals in this zone have to be able to withstand
desiccation and most of them do this most obviously by possession of a shell. There are lots of other interesting ways
of coping with the stresses of this zone that you can find out about by clicking on the hyperlinks. Marine animals begin
to appear in greater numbers and variety on the upper shore. Limpets (Patella vulgata) and rough periwinkles are
snails that graze on the algae and lichens. Barnacles are shelled crustaceans (like lobsters and crabs) which filter their
food from the water and are found towards the bottom of this zone. Animals in this zone have to be able to withstand
desiccation and most of them do this most obviously by posession of a shell. The soft bodied beadlet anemone (Actinia
equina) may be found in suitable microhabitats like moist crevices. There are lots of other interesting ways of coping
with the stresses of this zone that you can find out about by clicking on the links.

Middle Littoral or Mid-Intertidal Zone: We are taking the part of the shore between the average high water neap tide
(MHWN) and the average low water neap tide (MLWN) as the middle shore. As we move down the shore the quantity
and variety of living organisms begins to increase. The middle shore shows this big time, particularly towards the lower
end of it.

Abiotic issues important here:

Environmental conditions on the middle shore are more favourable for the majority of inter-tidal organisms. The
middle part of an exposed shore is subject to heavy wave action and is bathed in strong sunlight for much of the day.
It is also facing into the prevailing wind which makes it dry faster. We see an increase in biodiversity because of this
and biomass is greater as seaweeds can absorb nutrients and photosynthesise for longer. The image at the top shows
the seaweeds here as being bigger. Typical seaweeds of the middle shore are the brown alga bladderwrack (Fucus
vesiculosus), egg wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum) and the red seaweed pepper dulse (Osmundea pinnatifida). Amongst
the Lichina you can find a small community of very small organisms like the pseudo-scorpion and a bivalve, Lasaea.
The middle parts of exposed shores are often dominated by species which are capable of holding on tight against the
wave action and withstanding the heat of the sun and the drying of the wind. Limpets and barnacles are two such
creatures and they sometimes dominate the middle parts of exposed shores. Limpets are herbivores so there must be
some seaweed or lichen for them to eat. Presumably juvenile algae settle (from the plankton) but get eaten before we
can see them. The shore is immersed for a much greater % of the year (50-80% below mid-tide level) providing more
food and feeding time for filter feeders like barnacles and mussels. Carnivores like the dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus) may
now be found in sheltered microhabitats (cracks and crevices) feeding on the dense assemblages of barnacles (or
sometimes mussels). Top-shells (Gibbula umbilicalis, Osilinus lineatus) and different winkle species flat and edible
winkles now also begin to thrive. In pools, under stones and seaweed there are common shore crabs (Carcinus
maenas). These are very important predators, particularly on the molluscs. The sheltered conditions will allow many
animals that are not attached (like the crabs) to appear here including fish like the blenny or shanny.

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Lower Littoral or Low Intertidal Zone : For our purposes the lower shore is that part from the average low water
neap tide (MLWN) to the lowest the tide ever get i.e., extreme low water spring tides (ELWS).

◾relatively constant environment

Most inter-tidal organisms originated in the sea and do better wetter and in this relatively cushioned constant
environment. Abiotic environmental factors now start to become of less importance in controlling what can live where.
The benign environmental conditions means that there are lots more species (increased diversity) and much greater
abundance of those species. This means that biotic factors (interactions with other living organisms) become more
important than abiotic factors (interactions with the non-living part of the environment) in determining the
distributions of organisms.

Most algae are shade plants and are adapted to absorb low amounts of light energy. This applies especially to red
algae and many of them begin to appear on the lower shore eg. Dulse (Palmaria palmata), Irish moss (Chondrus
crispus), coral weed (Corallina officinalis) and many other species of red algae. The saw wrack (Fucus serratus) is
common in the upper part of the zone and may dominate it. Kelps (like the sugar kelp, L. saccharina) are large brown
algae that can dominate the shore towards the lower end of this zone.

Greater productivity of algae means more herbivores can survive (eg. Blue rayed limpets (Helcion pellucida), grey
topshell (Gibbula cineraria), and more herbivores means more carnivores like shore crabs (Carcinus maenas), blennies
(Lipophrys pholis) and starfish (Asterias rubens). Not only that but the food available to filter feeders is increased due
to longer feeding time so sponges like the breadcrumb sponge (Halichondria panicea) can do very well in these regions.
Filter feeding tube worms like the spiral tube worm (Spirorbis borealis) and the keeled tube worm (Pomatocerous
triqueter) also can be found in great quantity here. All these creatures die at some point and detritivores (who eat
dead stuff) also abound here. Porcelain crabs (Porcellanus platycheles) use their massive front claws to stir up the
sediment and feed on decaying material trapped on the bristles. Soft bodied predators/detritivores like the snake locks
anemone (Anemonia viridis) and the beadlet anemone (Actinia equina) also do well here (although A. equina can live
on the higher levels of the shore (see sheltered rocky shore upper shore section). Shrimps and prawns are
generalist feeders who will consume large amounts of dead animal material. All this means that factors like
competition and predation and interactions between organisms become more important as we move down this zone.

3.3. Benthos: Distribution of shallow water benthic organisms. Distribution and adaptation of deep-sea benthic
organisms. Marine animal associations: commensalisms symbiosis and parasitism.

Benthos, the assemblage of organisms inhabiting the seafloor. Benthic epifauna live upon the seafloor or upon bottom
objects; the so-called infauna live within the sediments of the seafloor. By far the best-studied benthos are the
macrobenthos, those forms larger than 1 mm (0.04 inch), which are dominated by polychaete worms, pelecypods,
anthozoans, echinoderms, sponges, ascidians, and crustaceans. Meiobenthos, those organisms between 0.1 and 1
mm in size, include polychaetes, pelecypods, copepods, ostracodes, cumaceans, nematodes, turbellarians, and
foraminiferans. The microbenthos, smaller than 0.1 mm, include bacteria, diatoms, ciliates, amoeba, and flagellates.

The variety and abundance of the benthos vary with latitude, depth, water temperature and salinity, locally
determined conditions such as the nature of the substrate, and ecological circumstances such as predation and
competition. The principal food sources for the benthos are plankton and organic debris from land. In shallow water,
larger algae are important, and, where light reaches the bottom, benthic photosynthesizing diatoms are also a
significant food source. Hard and sandy substrates are populated by suspension feeders such as sponges and
pelecypods. Softer bottoms are dominated by deposit eaters, of which the polychaetes are the most important. Fishes,
starfish, snails, cephalopods, and the larger crustaceans are important predators and scavengers.

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There are many examples in nature of two organisms living in close association with each other. The relationship can
consist of two animals, two plants, a plant and an animal, or even a fungus and an algae (such as in lichens). Biologists
have tried to give names to and define certain examples of 'living together' such as 'symbiosis' and 'mutualism' and
'parasitism' but it is often difficult to know where one type of association ends and another begins. It is probably better
to think of these associations as part of a broad continuum ranging from free-living organisms that depend on others
for food, to two organisms that will not survive unless they are always together such as the alga and fungus that
combine to form each lichen 'species'.
• Symbiosis: This comes from a Greek word simply meaning 'living together' and can be used to describe any
association between two organisms.
• Mutualism: This can be used to describe an association in which both organisms apparently benefit
• Commensalism: In this association one organism [the commensal] benefits, and the other [the host] is apparently
unaffected.
• Parasitism In this association one organism [the parasite] benefits, and the other [the host] is adversely affected
[weakened, sickened, damaged etc]. This description would also fit the relationship between a carnivore and its live
prey and a herbivore and the plant it feeds on, especially if they are very specialized in the food they eat. We normally
define parasites as orgamisms which cannot survive without their host and have special modifications to their body or
their life cycle for this association. In many ways though, the difference between a lion eating a gazelle and a flea
feeding on a dog, is a matter of relative size.

Many sea slugs have evolved close relationships with other organisms. The simplest associations are the many
nudibranchs which are permanently found on, or close by, the organisms they feed on. These in include dorids and
their sponges, aeolids on their cnidarians, polycerids on their bryozoans. Here are a few particular examples:

• Commensal crustaceans: The photos at the top of this page show two crustaceans, a copepod and a shrimp, which
live in close association with various nudibranchs. They illustarte the many crustaceans which are often found to have
close relationships to various sea slugs. In most cases we know nothing about the relationships, but they are generally
referred to as 'commensals'. The copepods are small crustacea often found living on dorid nudibranchs. They are easily
recognised because their two large egg sacs look like a pair of large 'tails'. Another more spectacular example is the
shrimp, Periclimenes imperator, which is always found living on large dorid nudibranchs such as the Spanish Dancer,
Hexabranchus, or on chromodorids such as Chromodoris tinctoria.

• Coral feeding nudibranchs: These nudibranchs live their lives on or under the coral colonies they feed on.

• Solar Powered Sea Slugs: Another quite different group of relationships have been discovered with sea slugs which
involves plants and plant organelles. One group, the herbivorous sacoglossan sea slugs keep chloroplasts and other
plant plastids alive from the plants they eat, and use the sugars they produce from photosynthesis for their own
nutrition. Another group of carnivorous nudibranchs also show various degrees of ability to harness solar power by
keeping whole single-celled plants (zooxanthellae) alive in their tissues for the same purpose.

• Gymnodoris nigricolor a nudibranch which lives with fishes of the Goby family, clinging on to, and apparently eating
their fins.

3.4. Coral reef ecology: Special features of coral reef habitats and distribution of coral reef organisms. Mangrove
systems: Special features of mangrove habitats and distribution of plants and animals in mangrove ecosystems.

Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals. Coral
reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built
from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps belong to a group of animals known
as Cnidaria, which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, coral polyps secrete hard carbonate
exoskeletons which support and protect their bodies. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated
waters. Often called "rainforests of the sea", coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. They
occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for 25% of
all marine species, including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates and other cnidarians.
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Paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They
are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water corals also exist on
smaller scales in other areas.

Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection. However, coral reefs are fragile
ecosystems, partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature. They are under threat from climate change,
oceanic acidification, blast fishing, cyanide fishing for aquarium fish, sunscreen use,[5] overuse of reef resources, and
harmful land-use practices, including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution, which can harm reefs by
encouraging excess algal growth.

Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems, providing complex and varied marine habitats that
support a wide range of other organisms. Fringing reefs just below low tide level have a mutually beneficial relationship
with mangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and
seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted,
while the mangroves and sea grass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This level
of variety in the environment benefits many coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use
the reefs for protection or breeding. Reefs are home to a large variety of animals, including fish, seabirds, sponges,
cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, cleaner shrimp,
spiny lobsters and crabs), mollusks (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea
cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting
cetaceans such as dolphins being the main exception. A few of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others
graze on algae on the reef. Reef biomass is positively related to species diversity. The same hideouts in a reef may be
regularly inhabited by different species at different times of day. Nighttime predators such as cardinal fish and
squirrelfish hide during the day, while damselfish, surgeonfish, triggerfish, wrasses and parrotfish hide from eels and
sharks.

Mangrove Ecosystems: Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangal
occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines. The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents
the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when
the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide
can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms
are also exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation, and are then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for
a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as
a number of other key environmental factors-thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.
The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine region for young organisms.
In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges,
and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the
muddy bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs munch on the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal muds
for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food
webs.

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 Unit – 4 : Environmental Monitoring and Bio deterioration
4.1 Anthropogenic activity and Environment: Environmental monitoring methods. Toxicology: Classification of
toxicants and xenobiotics including metals, pesticides, solvents and POPs. Lethal and sub lethal effects of pollutants,
evaluation of toxicity tolerance, bioassay.

Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical
environments, biodiversity, and other resources. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from
human activity. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced as a result of
human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.

Environmental monitoring methods: Environmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to
take place to characterise and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the
preparation of environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a
risk of harmful effects on the natural environment. All monitoring strategies and programmes have reasons and
justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in
environmental parameters. In all cases the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analysed statistically and published.
The design of a monitoring programme must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring
starts. Monitoring of Air, Soil, Water and ecological parameters are done.

Classification of toxicants and xenobiotics including metals, pesticides, solvents and POPs : Toxicity is the degree to
which a substance can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal,
bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ
such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). By extension, the word may be metaphorically used to describe toxic effects on
larger and more complex groups, such as the family unit or society at large. A central concept of toxicology is that
effects are dose-dependent; even water can lead to water intoxication when taken in too high a dose, whereas for
even a very toxic substance such as snake venom there is a dose below which there is no detectable toxic effect.
Toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to
bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints.

Heavy Metals: Metal toxicity or metal poisoning is the toxic effect of certain metals in certain forms and doses on life.
Some metals are toxic when they form poisonous soluble compounds. Certain metals have no biological role, i.e. are
not essential minerals, or are toxic when in a certain form. In the case of lead, any measurable amount may have
negative health effects. Often heavy metals are thought as synonymous, but lighter metals may also be toxic in certain
circumstances, such as beryllium and lithium. Not all heavy metals are particularly toxic, and some are essential, such
as iron. The definition may also include trace elements when considered in abnormally high, toxic doses. An option for
treatment of metal poisoning may be chelation therapy, which is a technique which involves the administration of
chelation agents to remove metals from the body.

POPs: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation
through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the
environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, bioaccumulate in
food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment. Many POPs are currently
or were in the past used as pesticides. Others are used in industrial processes and in the production of a range of goods
such as solvents, polyvinyl chloride, and pharmaceuticals. There are a few natural sources of POPs, such as volcanic
activity and vegetational fires, but most POPs are created by humans in industrial processes, either intentionally or as
byproducts

Ecotoxicology, Lethal & sublethal effects: Ecotoxicology is the study of the effects of toxic chemicals on biological
organisms, especially at the population, community, ecosystem level. Ecotoxicology is a multidisciplinary field, which
integrates toxicology and ecology. The ultimate goal of this approach is to be able to predict the effects of pollution
so that the most efficient and effective action to prevent or remediate any detrimental effect can be identified. In
those ecosystems that are already impacted by pollution ecotoxicological studies can inform as to the best course of

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action to restore ecosystem services and functions efficiently and effectively. Ecotoxicology differs from environmental
toxicology in that it integrates the effects of stressors across all levels of biological organisation from the molecular to
whole communities and ecosystems, whereas environmental toxicology focuses upon effects at the level of the
individual and below.

- Direct effects- direct consumption of a toxin or something that has been contaminated with a toxin by breathing,
eating, or drinking.

- Developmental and reproductive problems

- Indirect effects- organisms directly affected by the loss of food, which has declined due to toxins.

- Lethal and Sub-lethal effects- Toxins that kill an organism is lethal effects. However, toxins that do not kill but make
the organism sick or make it change its behavior;

- With chronic use of pesticides, this runs the risk of causing abnormalities in chromosome structure in humans, as
well as affecting the reproduction, nervous and cardiovascular system of any animals exposed.

- The genetics can be affected by toxicant exposure, direct changes can occur to the DNA, and if not repaired, the
changes can lead to the appearance mutations [10]

- Contaminants can modify the distribution of individuals in a population, effective population size, mutation rate and
migration rate.

4.2 Role of biotechnology in environmental pollution control: Indicator organisms, Test organisms, Monitoring
organisms, Enzymes.

Indicator organisms : Indicator organisms are used to measure such things as potential fecal contamination of
environmental samples. The presence of coliform bacteria, such as E. coli, in surface water is a common indicator of
faecal contamination. Coliform bacteria in water samples may be quantified using the most probable number (MPN)
method, a probabilistic test which assumes cultivable bacteria meet certain growth and biochemical criteria. If
preliminary tests suggest that coliform bacteria are present at numbers in excess of an established cut-off (the Coliform
Index), faecal contamination is suspected and confirmatory assays such as the Eijkman test are conducted. Coliform
bacteria selected as indicators of faecal contamination must not persist in the environment for long periods of time
following efflux from the intestine, and their presence must be closely correlated with contamination by other faecal
organisms. Indicator organisms need not be pathogenic. Non-coliform bacteria, such as Streptococcus bovis and
certain clostridia may also be used as an index of faecal contamination.

Test & Monitoring organisms: The history of Test Organisms or model organisms began with the idea that certain
organisms can be studied and used to gain knowledge of other organisms or as a control (ideal) for other organisms
of the same species. Model organisms offer standards that serve as the authorized basis for comparison of other
organisms. Model organisms are made standard by limiting genetic variance, creating, hopefully, this broad
applicability to other organisms. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster made the jump from nature to laboratory
animal in 1901. Insects were not the only organisms entering the laboratories as test subjects. Bacteria had also been
introduced and with the invention of the electron microscope. At the turn of the century much biomedical research
was being done using animals and especially mammalian bodies to further biologists’ understanding of life processes.
The mice turned out to be an almost perfect solution for test subjects for mammalian genetic research.

4.3 Coastal developmental activities-environmental issues. Micro and Macro fouling, corrosion of metals and alloys
in the sea, effects of bio-fouling and bio deterioration on marine structures.

Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces to the detriment of function. The fouling material
can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually
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distinguished from other surface-growth phenomena in that it occurs on a surface of a component, system or plant
performing a defined and useful function, and that the fouling process impedes or interferes with this function. The
variety among biofouling organisms is highly diverse and extends far beyond attachment of barnacles and seaweeds.
According to some estimates, over 1700 species comprising over 4000 organisms are responsible for biofouling.
Biofouling is divided into microfouling — biofilm formation and bacterial adhesion — and macrofouling — attachment
of larger organisms. Due to the distinct chemistry and biology that determine what prevents them from settling,
organisms are also classified as hard or soft fouling types. Calcareous (hard) fouling organisms include barnacles,
encrusting bryozoans, mollusks, polychaete and other tube worms, and zebra mussels. Examples of non-calcareous
(soft) fouling organisms are seaweed, hydroids, algae and biofilm "slime". Together, these organisms form a fouling
community.

Biofouling occurs everywhere but is most significant economically to the shipping industries, since high levels of
fouling on a ship's hull significantly increases drag, reducing the overall hydrodynamic performance of the vessel and
increases the fuel consumption. Biofouling is also found in almost all circumstances where water based liquids are in
contact with other materials. Industrially important impacts are on the maintenance of mariculture, membrane
systems (e.g., membrane bioreactors and reverse osmosis spiral wound membranes) and cooling water cycles of large
industrial equipment and power stations. Biofouling can occur in oil pipelines carrying oils with entrained water
especially those carrying used oils, cutting oils, oils rendered water-soluble through emulsification, and/or hydraulic
oils. Other mechanisms impacted by biofouling include microelectrochemical drug delivery devices, papermaking and
pulp industry machines, underwater instruments and fire protection system piping and sprinkler system nozzles. In
groundwater wells, biofouling build-up can limit recovery flow rates, as is the case in the exterior and interior of ocean-
laying pipes where fouling is often removed with a tube cleaning process. Besides interfering with mechanisms,
biofouling also occurs on the surfaces of living marine organisms, when it is known as epibiosis.

4.4 Environmental Policy and Environmental Impact Assessment. Anti-corrosion and fouling application of
biotechnology in controlling the bio deterioration of wood and synthetic substances in the sea. Red tides: Cause
character and effects on the organisms of Marine environment

Anti-fouling is the process of removing or preventing these accumulations from forming. In industrial processes, bio-
dispersants can be used to control biofouling. In less controlled environments, organisms are killed or repelled with
coatings using biocides, thermal treatments or pulses of energy. Nontoxic mechanical strategies that prevent
organisms from attaching include choosing a material or coating with a slippery surface, creation of an ultra-low fouling
surface with the use of zwitterions, or creation of nanoscale surface topologies similar to the skin of sharks and
dolphins which only offer poor anchor points.

Biocides are chemical substances that can deter or kill the microorganisms responsible for biofouling. Biocides are
incorporated into an anti-fouling surface coating, typically physical adsorption or through chemical modification of the
surface. Biofouling occurs on surfaces after formation of a biofilm. The biofilm creates a surface onto which
successively larger microorganisms can attach. In marine environments this usually concludes with barnacle
attachment. The biocides often target the microorganisms which create the initial biofilm, typically bacteria. Once
dead, they are unable to spread and can detach. Other biocides are toxic to larger organisms in biofouling, such as the
fungi and algae. The most commonly used biocide, and anti-fouling agent, is the tributyltin moiety (TBT). It is toxic to
both microorganisms and larger aquatic organisms. It is estimated that TBT derived anti-fouling coatings cover 70% of
the world's vessels. The prevalence of TBT and other tin based anti-fouling coatings on marine vessels is a current
environmental problem. TBT has been shown to cause harm to many marine organisms, specifically oysters and
mollusks. Extremely low concentrations of tributyltin moiety (TBT) causes defective shell growth in the oyster
Crassostrea gigas (at a concentration of 20 ng/l) and development of male characteristics in female genitalia in the
dog whelk Nucella lapillus (where gonocharacteristic change is initiated at 1 ng/l). Non-toxic anti-sticking coatings
prevent attachment of microorganisms thus negating the use of biocides. These coatings are usually based on organic
polymers, which allow researchers to add additional functions to such as antimicrobial activity.

Corrosion fouling : Corrosion deposits are created in-situ by the corrosion of the substrate. They are distinguished
from fouling deposits, which form from material originating ex-situ. Corrosion deposits should not be confused with
fouling deposits formed by ex-situ generated corrosion products. Corrosion deposits will normally have composition
related to the composition of the substrate. Also, the geometry of the metal-oxide and oxide-fluid interfaces may allow
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practical distinction between the corrosion and fouling deposits. An example of corrosion fouling can be formation of
an iron oxide or oxyhydroxide deposit from corrosion of the carbon steel underneath. Corrosion fouling should not be
confused with fouling corrosion, i.e., any of the types of corrosion that may be induced by fouling.

Red tides: Cause character and effects on the organisms of Marine environment

Red tide is a common name for a phenomenon known as an algal bloom (large concentrations of aquatic
microorganisms) when it is caused by a few species of dinoflagellates and the bloom takes on a red or brown color.
Red tides are events in which estuarine, marine, or fresh water algae accumulate rapidly in the water column, resulting
in coloration of the surface water. It is usually found in coastal areas. It kills many manatees every year. These algae,
known as phytoplankton, are single-celled protists, plant-like organisms that can form dense, visible patches near the
water's surface. Certain species of phytoplankton, dinoflagellates, contain photosynthetic pigments that vary in color
from green to brown to red. When the algae are present in high concentrations, the water appears to be discolored
or murky, varying in color from purple to almost pink, normally being red or green. Not all algal blooms are dense
enough to cause water discoloration, and not all discolored waters associated with algal blooms are red. Additionally,
red tides are not typically associated with tidal movement of water, hence the preference among scientists to use the
term algal bloom. Some red tides are associated with the production of natural toxins, depletion of dissolved oxygen
or other harmful effects, and are generally described as harmful algal blooms. The most conspicuous effects of these
kinds of red tides are the associated wildlife mortalities of marine and coastal species of fish, birds, marine mammals,
and other organisms.

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