Coastal Ecosystems:

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Barrier Islands
• Barrier islands are depositional offshore linear features, separated
from the mainland by a lagoon, and orientated parallel to the coast.
They are usually comprised of sand that is built above the high-tide
level and stabilised by vegetation. They are very variable in size, from
tens to hundreds of metres wide, hundreds to thousands of metres
long, and may support sand accumulations up to 100 m high.
Typically, barrier islands occur on coasts with a low gradient and low
tidal range, and thus over 10% of the world’s coasts have developed
barrier islands, including the Atlantic coast of the USA and some
European coasts, such as The Netherlands.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Importance of barrier islands
Adjacent barrier islands are separated from one another by tidal inlets.
The inlets allow the exchange of water from lagoon to sea, and also
facilitate sediment erosion, transport and deposition around the
barrier island. Barrier islands are very important for defending
vulnerable coastal lowlands behind them, principally by absorbing
wave-energy and protecting the coastline from severe storm wave
conditions.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Formation of the barrier island:
The formation of barrier islands is controversial, with three principal hypotheses
that may be applicable:
1. Emerged-transgressive model: Some barrier islands may represent offshore bars
that were formed during the previous glacial sea-level lowstand; with the post-
glacial rise in sea level they developed vertically using accumulated sediment
transported onshore during the transgression.
2. Submerged-transgressive model: This refers to barrier islands that may have
been coastal dunes during a lower sea level, but were isolated from landward
coastal lowlands through submergence and transgression by post-glacial sea-level
rise.
3. Emerged-stillstand model: The previous hypotheses consider barrier islands to
represent the continued development of inherited features (offshore bars or
dunes) from earlier sea-level lowstands; however, this theory suggests that barrier
islands have developed since post-glacial sea-level rise stabilised, approximately
4000 years ago, to produce the current sea-level stillstand
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Component of the barrier island ecosystem
• Sandy beach,
• Frontal and secondary dunes,
• Interior wetlands and maritime forest,
• A backshore zone (often marsh), and
• The lagoon or sound that separates the island from the mainland

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Figure3: A cross-section of a well-developed
barrier island and nearby mainland.
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Dunes: Dunes are a particularly fragile component of the barrier island ecosystem.
Despite their fragility, they play a critical role in maintaining the integrity of the
island and protecting development that occurs behind the dune line.
Beaches: The beaches of barrier islands tend to be low-lying and sloping and serve
as the first line of defense against the forces of wind, waves, currents, and coastal
storms. There is an intricate relationship between the dune and beach systems,
with a complex and ever-changing.
Inlets: connect lagoons and sounds behind islands with the ocean and are
constantly fluctuating.
Inlets are formed during storms, usually when storm-driven water is pushed into
the lagoon and then forced back out to sea again, carving the path of least
resistance as it moves. Once formed, an inlet may remain in place for several years,
although some inlets close much more rapidly. Tidal range and the amount of
sediment traveling through the longshore drift are major factors in determining the
life of an inlet.
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Coral reefs
The majority of reefs are composed of dead coral limestone, as only a
thin layer of the reef surface supports living coral. This coral limestone
is created by the activity of both small animals called polyps, which
build delicate limestone structures that become the coral colony, and
microscopic coralline algae that cement the delicate coral structures
into a hard limestone pavement.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Physical Characteristics of Coral Reefs
Coral animals can be found in several parts of the ocean, but the reef-
building types only live in places that meet a narrow range of environmental
conditions.
Reef-building corals have very specific habitat requirements. They are finicky
about the amount of salt in the water, water temperature and depth,
movement of currents, and available nutrients.
Reef-building corals favor waters where the salinity is about 34 parts per
thousand by weight, a little lower than average sea salinity. Coral reefs do
not exist in places where freshwater runs into the ocean and drastically
reduces the salinity. That is why there are no coral reefs in the part of the
Atlantic Ocean where the Amazon River meets the sea, even though other
physical factors of the region are ideal.
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Physical Characteristics of Coral Reefs
Although some species of coral can be found in deep, cold ocean
waters, stony coral, the type that forms hard skeletons, primarily exist
in warm ocean waters. Some reef-building coral species are hardier
than others, but water temperatures between 68°F (20°C) and 96.8°F
(36°C) are suitable for most, with 75.2°F (24°C) being the ideal.
. For this reason coral reefs are predominately scattered throughout
the tropical and subtropical western Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans
between the tropics of Cancer and of Capricorn. These are the areas of
the world that experience only small changes in weather between
seasons

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Coral reef ecology
• Some stony corals obtain their food from one-celled organisms called
zooxanthellae.
• Zooxanthellae are single-celled organisms that use sunlight for
photosynthesis and transfer 95% of the food they produce to coral polyps.
• Both coral and the zooxanthellae benefit from this association. The
zooxanthellae receive protection from currents and herbivores, as well as
some nutrients from waste produced by coral polyps. This kind of
association - where two different kinds of organisms benefit from each
other - is called a mutualistic association. These corals are called
hermatypic corals. Individuals polyps of hermatypic corals secrete calcium
carbonate (limestone) skeletons which, in time form coral reefs. Therefore,
hermatypic corals are also known as reef building corals.
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Types of coral reefs
• Depending on where they are located and how they are formed,
shallow-water tropical reefs can be classified into one of three major
groups:
• fringing reefs,
• barrier reefs, and
• atoll reefs.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
 Fringing reefs
Fringing reefs, which form along a coastline, are
the most common type. These develop at the
margin of a landmass where conditions are
suitable for coral growth. They are normally
located only in shallow waters and border the
coast very closely with only a narrow stretch of
water separating the reef from the shore. Because
sediment washes from the land out to the sea,
most fringing reefs have very little coral growing on
the shore side. However, the ocean side, which is
not exposed to as much sediment, is home to large
populations of live coral.
Fringing reefs are common in the Caribbean and
around the Hawaiian Islands.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
 Barrier reefs
Like fringing reefs, barrier reefs run parallel to the
shoreline, but they are located further out in the
ocean. A barrier reef is separated from the
shoreline by a lagoon, a deep, open body of water
with a sandy bottom. Lagoons are home to many
forms of life. The shallow sections contain large
underwater fields of grass. The root systems of
these plants help to trap sand, further adding to
the base of the lagoon. The barrier reefs are so
named because they form a barrier between the
lagoon and the ocean.
The largest reef in the world, the Great Barrier
Reef, is located off the eastern coast of Australia.
The Great Barrier Reef is more than 500,000 years
old Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Atoll reef
The third classification, the
atoll reef, is made of circular
coral structures. These
formations grow on top of
volcanoes that lie below the
ocean surface. Like barrier
reefs, atolls surround central
lagoons. These coral reefs are
commonly found in the Indo-
Pacific regions with the
largest atoll being Kwajalein,
which surrounds a 60-mile
(97-km) wide lagoon.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Coral stress
A common sign of coral stress is ‘bleaching’ (Brown and Ogden, 1993; Brown,
1997). This apparent bleaching is brought about by the coral polyps ejecting
zooxanthellae, and may be in response to:
● Water temperature variations below and above coral tolerance levels – this may
be a particular problem during pan-Pacific El Niño events that increase surface
water temperatures in some regions.
● Salinity variations brought about by increased freshwater run-off via rivers and
streams into coastal areas of coral reefs; seaward reefs may also be affected where
substantial rivers in flood jet freshwater out onto the continental shelf;
● Increased turbidity due to high concentrations of suspended silt limits light
availability for zooxanthellae photosynthesis – this problem is often linked to
increased river runoff in association with changing land practices, such as
deforestation and agriculture, which promote soil erosion; conversely, ultra-violet
stress may also cause bleaching in non-turbid waters

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Rocky Shores and Bluffs Rocky shores
• Rocky Shores and Bluffs Rocky shores form on high-energy coasts where
mountains meet the sea and at the base of sea cliffs. Active tectonic
environments, such as those in California, produce rocky coasts as a result of
mountain-building processes, faulting, and earthquakes. Rocky coasts also form
where ice and strong waves have removed fine-grained sediment. In Maine and
parts of Alaska, glaciers have scoured most of the sediment cover from the shore.
In the Arctic, ice gouging and rafting have removed sand-sized particles from
some beaches, leaving cobbles and boulders. The precipitous cliffs, steep-walled
bluffs, and rocky headlands that characterize much of the Pacific Northwest
coastline have been created by the geologic processes that shaped the western
margin of the North American continent. In contrast to the sloped shores of the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts, formed by the gradual submergence of the continental
shelf, the sheer walls and elevated terraces of the Pacific coast were created by
abrupt faulting and uplift. Headlands have withstood weathering and erosion,
whereas bluffs and sea cliffs have been continuously eroded by waves, storms,
and wind (California Coastal Commission, 1987).
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Coastal bluffs actually are the seaward edges of marine terraces,
shaped by ocean waves and currents and uplifted from the ocean floor.
Bluffs are composed mainly of sedimentary rocks such as sandstoned
shale that are highly susceptible to erosion. These loosely consolidated
deposits crumble easily; when wet, shales and siltstones disintegrate,
and clays and mudstones soften and liquefy.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Estuaries
-are perhaps the best known of tide-dominated coastal systems. They
are often semi-enclosed with a restricted opening to the sea, and
commonly occur where the sea has invaded and drowned valleys and
lowlands following the post-glacial rise in sea level. It is here that
mixing between saline sea water and fresh river water occurs.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Estuary types
Estuary types according to
Pritchard’s (1955) salt-balance
principle classification:
(a) stratified estuary; In estuaries
where the mixing of salt and fresh
water is minimal, the water column
becomes stratified, with a lower
high salinity layer and an upper
fresh layer (Fig. 3.10a). The layer
sequence is determined by density
differences, with denser sea water
occurring below the lighter and
buoyant fresh water.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
 Estuary types

(b) partially-mixed estuary; These are more

influenced by tides than stratified estuaries and
are typical of mesotidal to macrotidal settings.
Tidal turbulence, caused by the ebb and flood
entering and exiting the estuary, destroys the
interface between the salt-wedge and overlying
fresh water to produce a more gradual salinity
gradient through the water column (Fig. 4). Both
advection and diffusion processes operate, and
large density-driven eddies exist which help to
exchange salt water upwards and fresh water
downwards. A broad mixed salinity zone is
created, corresponding to the steepest part of the
vertical salinity gradient (i.e. halocline), which
shallows downstream, so that it is at the bed near
the estuary head and at the water surface
Ferdousi near
Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
the estuary mouth. Management
Estuary types
(c) well-mixed estuary: This estuary type
is dominated by tidal activity and
requires severely macrotidal and
hypertidal conditions to effectively mix
the waters, through both advection and
diffusion processes. A well-mixed
estuary, or vertically homogeneous
estuary, characteristically lacks a vertical
salinity gradient, so that salinity is
uniform from surface to bed at any
given point within the estuary (Fig

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Subdivisions of well-mixed estuary
there are three subdivisions within this category.
1. Where the estuary is particularly wide the Coriolis effect may separate the flows so that
the seaward river flow is restricted to the right side of the estuary (in the northern
hemisphere) and the landward tidal flow to the left, but within each flow salinity remains
uniform throughout the water column. This type has been referred to as a laterally
inhomogeneous estuary.
2. Some estuaries have no separation of river and tidal flows, and in such cases sufficient
mixing may give rise to uniform salinity at all points across an estuary, so producing a
laterally homogeneous estuary (also known as a sectionally homogeneous or type C
estuary by some authors). However, salinity does change with distance down the estuary,
so that minimum salinity occurs at the head and maximum salinity towards the mouth of
the estuary.
3. Where salinity is uniform both laterally across an estuary and longitudinally along the
length of an estuary, from head to mouth, then a truly homogeneous estuary (or type D
estuary) is defined. This type constitutes the theoretical end member of the spectrum of
estuary types, and opposes the highly stratified estuary
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Coastal Marshes
These are extremely productive habitats, formed primarily from river sediment and
home to saline-adapted plant life. Most are located along the Gulf and Atlantic
coasts.
Coastal marshes generally are classified according to their salinity regimes, with
four types commonly identified:
• salt marshes,
• brackish marshes,
• intermediate marshes, and
• freshwater marshes.
The majority of coastal marshes (some 70%) are salt marshes. Salinity levels in turn
influence the types of vegetation found in marshes, with some plant species, such
as mangroves and cordgrass, very resistant to high saline levels and other species,
such as sawgrass and water hyacinth, not very suited to saline water conditions
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Mangroves:
• The principal difference between salt marshes and mangroves is the greater above-
ground biomass in mangroves. There are many different species of mangrove trees, but
amongst the commonest genera seen at a mangrove shore are Rhizophora, which
possess dense networks of prop roots that extend into the sediment surface from the
above ground trunk, and Avicennia that have a horizontal below-ground root system that
sends up shoots called pneumatophores . Both strategies assist in anchoring the trees to
the substrate, and also the partial above-ground roots help to facilitate oxygen intake, as
the substrate is invariably anaerobic. Such root networks are also considered to promote
the trapping and deposition of sediment that is introduced into the mangal system, up to
approximately 2 mm/year.
• Salt marshes and mangroves are geographically distinct, with salt marshes dominating in
the temperate zones, whilst mangroves are restricted to lower latitudes between 32˚N
(Bermuda) and 38˚S (Australia). Zonation of mangrove species does occur, with Avicennia
and Rhizophora often characterising the seaward zones, whilst further inland species of
other genera such as Laguncularia appear.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management
Three main physical mangrove settings occur
(Woodroffe, 1993):
1. River-dominated setting – refers to substantial mangroves that exist on
many lowlatitude deltas, where the sediment is principally supplied by river
water; for example, the Fly River Delta in Papua New Guinea.
2. Tide-dominated setting – mainly associated with estuarine situations in
which sediment is supplied by tides and tidal currents; for example, the
South Alligator River in the Northern Territory of Australia.
3. Carbonate setting – restricted to coral reef settings where mangroves may
grow around cays and in protected areas behind storm shingle ramparts and
coral islands. The sediment here is of local derivation being supplied by wave
erosion of coral. However, if this supply is limited the mangroves may
develop organic-rich peat deposits. An example is Grand Cayman.
Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster
Management
Ecological and economic importance of
mangrove forest
Mangroves are ecologically rich and are refuges for many species of
birds and other animals. Also, the sheltered mangrove environment,
particularly creek networks, are known to act as nurseries for a number
of fish and sea-food (shrimp and prawn) species, some of which are
important food and profitable species for local communities.
Furthermore, dense mangals offer significant protection to coastal
communities from tropical storm waves and associated erosion.

Ferdousi Sultana, Dept. of Environemnetal Science and Disaster

Management