DISACCHARIDES - Carbohydrates

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 produced by linking two simple sugars.

Examples: Sucrose and lactose
REVIEWER 2Q MQA
POLYSACCHARIDES - Carbohydrates
produced by linking two or more simple
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
-are the building block molecule of all sugars.
living things. Examples: Starch and cellulose

Monomers - is a molecule that can react

chemically with another molecule of the GLYCOGEN - energy storage form in
same type to form a larger molecule. animals, fungi, and bacteria.
STARCH - energy storage form in plants
Polymers - a chain of repeating units of
monomers. CELLULOSE - a polysaccharide which
makes up most of the plant’s cell wall.
MAJOR TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL CHITIN - primary component of exoskeleton
MOLECULES
of insects, crab, spiders, etc.
Carbohydrates - composed chiefly of OLIGOSACCHARIDES - group of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in which the
sugars which are important for cell
ratio of H atom to O atom is 2:1
recognition and binding.
Carbohydrates, also known as carbs, are
vital at every stage of life. They're the body's
LIPIDS
primary source of energy and the brain's
preferred energy source. Carbs are broken - This is normally what we call fats
down by the body into glucose – a type of - Glycerol and fatty acids are the basic
sugar. Glucose is used as fuel by your body's
building blocks of fats (lipids).
cells, tissues, and organs.

⦁Macromolecule represented by the TYPES OF FATS

chemical formula (CH2O)n ( CH 2 O ) Saturated fats - fats with a single bond
⦁Monosaccharides is the building blocks. between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain.
They are saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Unsaturated fats - fats with at least one
MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES double bond within the fatty acid chain. ⦁
Monounsaturated – fats whose fatty acid
chain has one double bond. ⦁
MONOSACCHARIDES - One simple
Polyunsaturated – fats whose fatty acid has
sugar.
more than double bond.
Examples: Fructose, glucose, and
Essential fats - Omega 3 and Omega 6
galactose
Trans fat - another group of fatty acid people
often hear about when they listen to or read molecule because they are hydrophobic and
nutrition facts. insoluble in water.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS Cholesterol - is the most common steroid and

-are the major component of the cell is the precursor to vitamin D, testosterone,
membrane. estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol,
Composed of two body regions: and bile salts.

● Hydrophilic head
● Hydrophobic tails Hormones, molecules released by a
group of cells in the body to influence the

Cis Configuration - Unsaturated fats bend behavior or functioning of another group

because of the cis configuration. of cells.

Triglyceride - is formed by the joining of Ester bond, a form of covalent bond, the
three fatty acids to a glycerol backbone in a bond that links the carboxyl group of fatty
dehydration reaction (synthesis). acids to the hydroxyl group of glycerol in
lipids.

WAX PROTEIN
- Waxes are chains of lipids which are ● Are the most abundant compounds
composed of an ester of long-chain alcohol and found in any living organism.
fatty acids. ● Protein plays an important role in the

- Plant waxes are derived from mixtures of body.

long-chain hydrocarbons that contain a ● Proteins are made up of chemical building

functional group. blocks called amino acids.

● Protein molecules contain Nitrogen,
- Plant cuticle, a protective film that covers the
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
epidermis of leaves. It is secreted by epidermal
● Animal-based foods: such as meat, poultry,
cells.
fish, eggs, and dairy foods. Plant-based foods:
- Paraffin wax, a waxy white hydrocarbon
mixture used to make candles, lubricants, and such as soya, nuts and seeds, tofu, broccoli,
sealing materials. It is a petroleum product. peas, etc.
● There are 20 essential amino acids.
STEROIDS
- A steroid is an organic compound which has a
TYPES OF PROTEIN MOLECULES
molecular structure of four fused strings.
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
- The structure of steroids is not similar to
1. ENZYMES - Speed up biochemical
lipids, but they are classed as a lipid
reactions.
 2. HORMONES (Hormonal Protein) -
Chemical signaling molecules, they
regulate physiological processes, such as,
growth, metabolism, developments and
reproduction.
3. STRUCTURAL PROTEIN - Give structure
and support to the organization of cells,
tissues, and organs.
4. ANTIBODIES (Defensive Protein) -
The R-group or the side chain gives the
Core part of the immune system, flights molecule its unique identity. It can be
invading viruses, bacteria, and other divided into two major classes.
- Non-polar side chains and those
microorganisms. with side chains primarily consist
5. STORAGE PROTEIN - Store mineral ions of hydrocarbons.
in the body.
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
6. TRANSPORT PROTEIN - Carry vital The human body needs at least 20 types
materials to cells. of amino acids to stay healthy.
- Our bodies are capable of
7. RECEPTORS (Signal Protein) -
producing 11 of them.
Controls materials that enter and leave - 9 amino acids must be obtained
cells. from diet. These nine amino acids
are called essential amino acids.
8. CONTRACTILE PROTEINS -
Regulates the strength and speed of ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS AND
heart and muscle contraction. THEIR FUNCTION:

1. LEUCINE: Stimulates muscle

strength and growth, helps
regulate blood sugar, helps
prevent and treat depression.
2. ISOLEUCINE: Helps the body
produce energy and hemoglobin,
assists nitrogen growth in muscle
cells especially in children.
3. LYSINE: Helps the body absorb
calcium, helps in collagen production.
4. METHIONINE: Helps in cartilage
formation.
5. PHENYLALANINE: Turns into
tyrosine once ingested.
6. THREONINE: Supports a healthy
immune system, heart, liver and
central nervous system. It helps the
body in overall repair, energy, and
 growth. Supports the body’s joints Thymine (T), Cytosine (C),
and connective tissues. Guanine (G), and Uracil (C)
7. TRYPTOPHAN: Supports a healthy 2. Five-carbon sugar (Pentose
nervous system and brain health. sugar) - Deoxyribose, Ribose
Assists in sleeping, muscle growth 3. Phosphate group - Phosphate
and repair, and overall molecules
neurotransmitter function.
8. VALINE: Assist muscle growth and DNA and RNA
repair. Responsible for
endurance and maintenance of - The structure of RNA and DNA suggests the
good muscle health. evolutionary history of DNA.
9. HISTIDINE: Helps transport - RNA came before DNA. DNA is formed
because of the combining of RNA Strands.
neurotransmitters to the brain
- DNA is the nucleic acid containing the
and helps overall muscle genetic instructions about how cells will grow
health.- It helps in producing red and function, but it is RNA which conveys
and white blood cells. these instructions to cells and organelles of
cells.

TYPES OF PROTEIN ACCORDING TO

LEVEL OF STRUCTURE

Primary Structure - A linear chain of

amino acids.
Secondary Structure - Peptide chain
forms an alpha helix or a beta pleated
sheet.
Tertiary Structure - Alpha helix and beta
pleated sheet fold into 3-D shape due to
the interactions among the R-group of
amino acids.
Quaternary Structure - An aggregation of
many polypeptides. Nitrogenous bases
-The nitrogenous base of nucleic acids has a
NUCLEIC ACIDS ring structure.
- Molecules that allow organisms to - Adenine and guanine are called purines
transfer genetic information. because their structures contain two fused
- Nucleotides are the building blocks of carbon-nitrogen rings.
nucleic acids.
- Cytosine and thymine are called
- If the sugar component of a nucleic acid
pyrimidines, because their structures have
is ribose, the polymer is ribonucleic
only a single carbon-nitrogen ring.
acid (RNA).
- If it is deoxyribose, the polymer is
Pentose sugars
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
- The five-carbon sugar contained in DNA
is deoxyribose. For RNA it is ribose.
Components of nucleic acid:
- The second carbon of ribose is attached
to a hydroxyl group
1. Nitrogenous base (Purines and
- Deoxyribose is attached to a hydrogen
Pyrimidines) - Adenine (A),
 atom.
Functions of ATP at the cellular level
Phosphate
- A nucleotide can have a single phosphate 1. Active transport (may electricity) - Assists
group, or a chain of two to three the cell membrane in carrying materials against
phosphate groups, attached to the fifth the direction of electrochemical gradient.
carbon of the sugar. 2. Structural maintenance - Assists in
- It serves as part of the backbone of assembling the cytoskeletal elements of a cell. It
nucleic acids. Together with pentose supplies energy to flagella and chromosomes.
sugar, it gives nucleic acid its structural 3. Muscle contraction - Supplies the energy
framework and directionality. needed for muscle contraction and relaxation.
4. DNA and RNA synthesis - Adenosine of
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is a building block of RNA.
- It is a nucleotide which fulfills many
5. Cell signaling - It modulates neural
important biological functions even when
development, control of immune systems and
it is not used as a building block for
glial signaling.
nucleic acids.
- ATP has a function of its own as a
biomolecule. It carries a packet of
energy needed for many metabolic
functions at the cellular level.

Structure of ATP
- ATP is produced by the enzyme.
- ATP synthase which is located in
the mitochondria and chloroplasts
(plant cells).
- ATP has three structural
Components;
- CENTER: Sugar molecule (ribose).
- RIGHT SIDE: Nitrogenous base.
- LEFT SIDE: Phosphate group.