BIOLOGY BIOMOLECULES

PROPERTIES OF LIFE Carbon (element) - is capable of forming vast

numbers of compounds than any other
Cells - The structural and functional unit of life element.

Order or Organization The biological levels of Organic compounds - any of a large class of
organization of living things arranged from the chemical compounds in which one or more
simplest to most complex are: organelle, cells, atoms of carbon are covalently linked to atoms
tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, of other elements, most commonly hydrogen,
populations, communities, ecosystem, and oxygen, or nitrogen.
biosphere
Abundant elements - Hydrogen, Oxgyen,
Reproduction - Organisms reproduce their Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulfur
own kind. Single-celled organisms reproduce
first by replicating their DNA. Multicellular Inorganic compounds - any substance in
organisms produce through specialized which two or more chemical elements (usually
reproductive germ cells. When reproducing, other than carbon) are combined, nearly
genes containing DNA are passed along to the always in definite proportions.
offspring.
Macronutrients - Carbohydrates, fat and
Growth and Development - Inherited protein. They are the nutrients you use in the
information in the form of DNA controls how largest amounts.
organisms grow and develop as they mature.
All organisms follow specific instructions coded Micronutrients - are vitamins and minerals
by their genes. needed by the body in very small amounts.

Response to Stimulus from the Macromolecules - a very large molecule

Environment or Irritability - The changes in important to biophysical processes, such as a
the environmental conditions to which the protein or nucleic acid.
organisms respond are known as stimuli.
Every living organism responds when an Monomers - the smaller molecules act as
external stimulus acts on it. The movement building blocks.
towards a stimulus is considered a positive
response while moving away from it is a Polymers - the macromolecules that result
negative response. from their linkage

Energy processing or Metabolism - Dehydration reaction - a reaction that

Organisms take in energy to drive all their removes water as two molecules are bonded
activities. It is the sum of the chemical activity together.
of all body functions.
Hydrolysis - involves the reaction of an
Regulation or Homoestasis - Homeostasis is organic chemical with water to form two or
any self-regulating process by which an more new substances
organism tends to maintain stability while
adjusting to conditions that are best for its Carbohydrates - are the main source of
survival. energy for the body. Energy storage,
receptors, food, structural role in plants and
Evolutionary adaptatation - Adaptations of fungi cell walls, exoskeletons of insects
organisms to their environment.
Glucose C6H12O6 - a simple sugar, or
monosaccharide. The main type of sugar in the
blood and is the major source of energy for the
body's cells.
Fructose - or “fruit sugar,” is a A fatty acid whose hydrocarbon chain has one
monosaccharide, also has the chemical or more double bonds is called an
formula C6H12O6 but it differs structurally from unsaturated fatty acid.
glucose.
If a fatty acid lacks this double bond, all its
Monosaccharides - are made up of one single hydrocarbon chain contains the maximum
unit of sugar and thus cannot be broken down number of hydrogens attached per carbon
into simpler compounds.
atom (hence it is “saturated” with hydrogens)
Disaccharide (double sugar) - is the sugar and is called a saturated fatty acid
formed when two monosaccharides (simple
sugars) are joined. Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room
temperature and are referred to as oils.
Sucrose - is the most common disaccharide
and it is made by joining glucose with fructose. adipose cell - also called adipocyte or fat cell,
connective-tissue cell specialized to synthesize
Polysaccharides - are macromolecules, and contain large globules of fat.
polymers of hundreds to thousands of
monosaccharides linked by dehydration Phospholipid - major membrane lipids that
reactions. consist of lipid bilayers.

Starch - is a storage polysaccharide in plants Steroids - are lipids where the carbon skeleton
consisting of chains of glucose. contains four fused rings.

Glycogen - Animals store glucose as a Cholesterol - is a common component in

polysaccharide animal cell membranes and is also a precursor
for making other steroids, including sex
Cellulose - Another polysaccharide is a major hormones.
component of the tough walls that enclose
plant cells. Protein - is a polymer composed of blocks of
amino acids. Enzymes, structure, receptors,
Microfibrils - It is the most abundant organic transport, structural role in the cytoskeleton of
compound on Earth, and the way its a cell, and the cellular matrix.
monomers are arranged allows it to form
cable-like. Amino acids - are molecules that combine to
form proteins.
Lipids - are a diverse group of molecules with
one trait: they don’t mix well with water. They Peptide bond - formation between two amino
are thus hydrophobic, Energy storage, acids. In a peptide bond, the carbonyl C of one
membrane structure, insulation, hormones, amino acid is connected to the amino N of
pigments another.

Fat - is a large lipid made from two types of Polypeptide - a longer chain of linked amino
smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. acids.
The main function of fat is energy storage
The primary structure of a protein is this
Glycerol consists of three carbons, each precise sequence of amino acids in a
having a hydroxyl group (-OH). A fatty acid polypeptide chain. When the chain coils into
consists of a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a local patterns, a secondary structure is
hydrocarbon chain. The hydrocarbon chain is formed. Among these patterns are the alpha
the reason fats are hydrophobic. helix and the beta-pleated sheet. When a
protein becomes more three-dimensional, the
protein takes on a tertiary structure. When
more than one polypeptide chain contributes to
the shape of a protein, a quaternary structure Robert Hooke - refined the design of the
is formed. compound microscope around 1665.

Nucleic Acids - Storage and transfer of Microscope - instrument that produces

genetic information enlarged images of small objects.

Gene - discrete unit of inheritance or heredity Light microscopes - where light is passed
through a specimen and then the microscope
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - is the glass to magnify the image.
molecule that carries genetic information for
the development and functioning of an “Cell theory,” the idea that living organisms
organism. are composed of basic, structural units called
cells. The theory believes in three main ideas:
RNA (ribonucleic acid) - is a nucleic acid
present in all living cells that has structural 1. All living organisms are composed of one or
similarities to DNA, plays a role in assembling many cells.
polypeptides according to the instructions of 2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and
DNA. organization in organisms.
3. Cells must come from pre-existing cells.
Nucleotides - monomers that make up nucleic
acids Advancements in technology and improvement
in our understanding of the cell have also
DNA nucleotide can have one of four possible added the following additional concepts with
nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), regards to the cell theory:
cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
1. DNA is passed between cells during cell
RNA nucleotides also contain A, C, and G division.
bases but in place of thymine is the base 2. All cells of organisms have the same basic
uracil (U). chemical composition.
3. Energy flow occurs within cells.
RNA is single-stranded while DNA molecules
wind around each other forming a double- Anatomy of the Cell.
stranded helix. Because of their structure, Cells fall into one of two categories: prokaryotic
nucleotide bases bond with a specific and eukaryotic.
nucleotide base with A always pairing with T,
and C pairs with G. All cells share four common components:

DNA - is located in the cell as chromosomes, 1. The plasma membrane, which serves as
each carrying several genes. an outer covering that protects the insides of a
cell from its surrounding environment. It is
The roles of DNA and RNA in producing usually composed of phospholipids arranged in
proteins are referred to as gene expression. a bilayer;
2. Cytosol, which is a fluid region in the cell
Chromosomes - are thread-like structures where other cell components are found;
located inside the nucleus of animal and plant 3. Chromosomes, structures that contain
cells. genetic material in the form of DNA; and
4. Ribosomes, particles that synthesize
CELLS proteins.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek - a Dutch scientist The insides of both cell types are called the
known for his works with microscopy and cytoplasm but in eukaryotic cells, this refers to
considered one of the pillars of microbiology. the region between the nucleus and the
plasma membrane.
Because a eukaryotic cell is complex, it is Peroxisome - Helps break down fatty acids to
often used to teach the parts of a cell. The be used as cellular fuel.
following are components of the cell and the
general functions they perform: Ribosome - Sites of protein synthesis. Can be
found attached to the rough ER or free in the
Plasma Membrane - A semi-permeable layer cytosol.
that separates the insides of a cell from the
external environment and is the location of Vacuoles - Storage of food and other
chemical exchanges for many life functions. chemicals.

Cytoplasm - The fluid internal environment of Centriole - Organelle for cell division.
the cell where all internal components of the
cell (called “organelles”) are suspended. Chloroplasts - are present in plants and used
in photosynthesis.
Nucleus - Stores the genetic material of the
cell. In prokaryotes, this genetic material is PROKARYOTES
located in a region called the nucleoid.
Prokaryotes refer to organisms with cells that
Nuclear Membrane - Encloses the nucleus are simple, often single (unicellular), and lack a
and protects the genetic material. nucleus, or any other membrane-bound
organelle.
Nucleoplasm - The environment within the
nucleus. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of
the cell: a darkened region called the
Nucleolus - An area in the nucleoplasm where nucleoid.
the genetic material is highly concentrated.
Capsule - allows the cell to attach to surfaces
Nuclear Pore - Gateway of materials into or in its environment.
out of the nucleus.
Flagella are used for locomotion, while most
Mitochondrion - Produces energy for the pili are used to exchange genetic material
organism, having the moniker “powerhouse of during a type of reproduction called
the cell" due to this function. conjugation.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Sites for lipid EUKARYOTES

and protein synthesis.
A eukaryote, meanwhile, is composed of cells
Rough ER - Contains ribosomes and is the that have a membrane-bound nucleus and
site for protein synthesis. In addition, it also other membrane-bound compartments, called
functions as the cell’s membrane-making organelles, with specialized functions.
machine.
The word eukaryotic means “true nucleus,”
Smooth ER - Contains cell types used in due to the presence of a membrane-bound
metabolic processes, especially lipid synthesis, nucleus in these cells. The word “organelle”
as well as storage of calcium ions. means “little organ,” and organelles have
specialized functions, similar to how our
Golgi Apparatus - Site for modifying, sorting, organs have specific functions.
and storing of compounds synthesized by the
ER.

Lysosome - Contains digestive enzymes that

help break down food or damaged organelles.