Power Within Net-Jrf Book
Power Within Net-Jrf Book
Power Within Net-Jrf Book
NET
NTA
JRF
SET
PAPER 2
PSYCHOLOGY
Authors
PowerWithin Education
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PowerWithin Education One Stop Solution for Psychology Aspirants
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PREFACE
The key reason to compile this book is to provide a detailed knowledge about the NET/JRF/SET
examination to the aspiring candidates and also to help them understand the scope associated
with the exam. This book will serve as a complete package to help Psychology aspirants to crack
NET/JRF/SET exam conducted by the National Testing Agency in India.
The book is a storehouse of extensive and detailed content covering the full
latest syllabus of NET/JRF/SET prescribed by the NTA in 2019.
Key Features of the Book
As per the Latest syllabus of NET/JRF/SET exam changed
in 2019. Comprehensive coverage of each topic.
Free Online Mock Test accessible via www.powerwithineducation.com
5000+ MCQs support in the form of Mock Tests accessible via the website.
Free complimentary Resources to boost your Strategy, and
Preparation as per your learning style.
PowerWithin Education extends their humble gratitude to the authors, illustrators
and editors who made this compilation of notes possible. We wish all our dear
Psychology aspirants All the very Best for their exam preparations.
PowerWithin
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ABOUT US
ABOUT POWERWITHIN
An organization with a vision to change the scope and meaning of “training workshops” in
India. We provide need-based, experiential, and effective training sessions that help the
participants tap into their dormant potential, ignite their passion, and find their inner power.
PW Services:
Psychometric Assessments
Training Programs
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CONTENTS
Statistics 142-159
Attention 378-381
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Learning process 404 - 414
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PowerWithin Education One Stop Solution for Psychology Aspirants
Paper 1 Paper 2
Negative Marking 0 0
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What does it mean to Qualify NET Exam? What does it mean to have JRF?
The candidates qualifying only for Assistant Anyone who qualifies JRF, means they have also
Professor (i.e. those who qualified NET qualified NET exam. JRF stands for Junior
Exam only) are not to be considered for the Research Fellowship, which is a scholarship
award of JRF. Candidates who qualify the amount given to those who qualify JRF exam as
test for eligibility for Assistant Professor are well as enroll themselves in a Higher Education
governed by the rules and regulations for Program (such as MPhil or PhD).
recruitment of Assistant Professor of the
concerned universities/colleges/state For the process to cash into this amount, you
governments, as the case may be. can contact your concerned Universities after
enrolling PhD or MPhil Program. (Kindly
It means that if you have qualified NET then confirm with your concerned hospital or
you are eligible for becoming the Assistant institute for JRF as some MPhil Programs
Professor but this does not mean that they will might now support JRF scholarship or only
become Assistant Professor. The procedure, has their own Scholarship amounts.)
and other eligibility requirements posted by
Universities would be different for different Other than Scholarship JRF also offer
universities. Anywhere that you fulfill the many benefits. Some of them includes:
basic requirements (majorly depends on the
Direct Admission into MPhil and
API or the Academic Performance Index)
PhD Programs.
posted by a Colleges/University then you are
Stipend of Rs. 31,000/- + HRA for
eligible to appear for the Interview Process.
initial 2 years and Rs. 35,000/- +
This is why NET is the National Eligibility for
HRA for next 3 years
the Assistant Professor or Lecturer in India.
Candidates with JRF are preferred
*As per the guidelines by UGC, in 2021 and forth, over NET candidates in Research
NET Qualified + PhD degree is compulsory to Projects by government agencies
become the Assistant Professor in India. like UGC, NCERT, DRDO, IITs, etc.
and also by private universities.
NET JRF
Qualified for Assistant
Qualified the
Only Qualified for Assistant Professorship Professorship + JRF Scholarship
Exams means
Amount
NET has no Scholarship amounts.
Rs. 31,000/- + HRA per month (for
If enrolled into PhD, then Government First two 2 years)
Stipend Universities offer Rs. 8000/- to 10,000/- per
month Scholarship under non-NET Rs. 35,000/- + HRA per month (for
category (I.e. a Scholar who is not next 3 years)
receiving any aid from anywhere else).
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Scope and Opportunities in Psychology after Syllabus of NET exam is given by NTA. Most of
NET-JRF? the SET exams follow the older syllabus of NET
exam. The syllabus is similar or almost the
Becoming an Assistant Professor using same for NET exam with some topics added or
NET qualification. subtracted by the State or the Institute.
Taking Direct Admission into PhD and MPhil
Programs using NET or JRF qualification. NET Candidate can apply anywhere in India for
Stipend during MPhil and PhD for JRF Assistant Professorship but a SET candidate
qualified candidates. (NET has no stipend but can only apply for the colleges/universities
other benefits or a non-NET fellowship for under that State jurisdiction.
PhD and MPhil that can be availed via your As of now 15 states conduct their SET exams and
concerned University/Institute.
other States only follow the NET exam scores for
Eligible for Research Projects by many their selection criteria. These states are:
Government Agencies like UGC, NCERT,
and DRDO, and private agencies using Andhra Pradesh State Eligibility Test (APSET)
NET and JRF qualifications. Assam State Level Eligibility Test (Assam SLET)
Chhattisgarh State Eligibility Test (CG SET)
Gujarat State Eligibility Test (GSET)
What is SET and CSIR-NET exam? How are Himachal Pradesh State Eligibility Test (HP SET)
they different from NET-JRF Exam? Jammu & Kashmir State Eligibility Test (JK SET)
SET EXAM vs NET-JRF Exam Kerala State Eligibility Test (Kerala SET)
Karnataka State Eligibility Test (KSET)
SET or the State Eligibility Exam, in a nutshell, is Madhya Pradesh State Eligibility Test (MP SET)
the NET exam conducted by the State under their Maharashtra State Eligibility Test (MH SET)
jurisdictions. The SET exam is also conducted for Tamil Nadu State Eligibility Test (TNSET)
determining the eligibility of Indian nationals for Telangana State Eligibility Test (TSSET)
the Eligibility for Assistant Professor only in Uttarakhand State Eligibility Test (USET)
State Universities and Colleges in India. West Bengal State Eligibility Test (WB SET)
In simpler terms, many a times, institutes or Rajasthan State Eligibility Test (RSET)
States in India prefer to conduct their own exams
and not rely on NET Exam scores for Assistant CSIR UGC NET-JRF Exam or CSIR NET or
Professorship, these exams are called SET CSIR UGC NET
exams. NET Exam is conducted only in English
and Hindi languages whereas SET exams are It is similar to NTA UGC NET-JRF exam in
conducted in English and other languages every aspect other than the fact that it is for
recognized by Indian States/ Government. the Science and Technology field.
NET Exam is conducted twice a year whereas “It takes determination to see a dream come
SET exam is conducted only once a year. to pass. The question is not will you start,
but will you finish.” – Joel Osteen
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“ounce of good nervous tone is an examination
Preparing for the Exam: is worth many pounds of … study”.
Key to successfully crack an exam at times does By “good nervous tone”, James was addressing the
not just depend on the how smart you are, or how nervousness, or anxiety that an exam might provoke.
much you studied but whether or not you are Anxiety is natural and it is also natural to expect feeling
‘good at taking tests’ or not. One of the most less relaxed just before or during an exam. This same
important keys here is to be improve at taking the anxiety can also be caused during the preparation also or
tests. How can we improve there? Well, there is maybe while attempting Mock Tests, or maybe while trying
no one way to do it but let’s experiment together
to the understand the Exam itself.
on this using the following key points:
Let me just come forth and tell you that Anxiety is
Start by first answering to yourself, “Who Am natural because it is helpful. The “good nervous tone”,
I”? alert our senses, gives sharpened perception, and
Focus on your Learning Style, how is it that you provide readiness for action in an alarming situation.
study? Do you make a timetable? Or Do you make one
but unable to follow one? Do you make Notes or prefer Therefore, it can be helpful to know what good
studying from Visual or Presentational aids? Anxiety can do and how it is beneficial for you.
Additionally, learn to combat Anxiety effectively so
Your way of studying now, will help you to know that instead of hindering your preparation, it helps
what needs to be done to Ace at the exam. No exam you to stay focused, stay creative, stay on track and
is difficult, and never have I seen an easy one. You in perfect sync to the duration of the Preparation.
are unique, and so you need to study uniquely too.
Make a Plan
Know Your Exam Sounds cliché, I know. But here, I am not asking
This means knowing the Syllabus thoroughly. If you you make an ideal time table and make your
want to study in a relatively focused way then study plan accordingly. All I am asking you is to
connect with the exam first. You have to learn to tackle the fear of initiating. Many a times we
befriend the exam and not compete with it. simply procrastinate by thinking that we will
begin tomorrow and that tomorrow never comes.
Then, learn the basic details about the exam:
marking schemes, number of questions, I usually recommend my students to simply your
duration of the exams, etc. syllabus by separating Units/Topics that needs more
Once you’ve been through the basics, then move focus, and more study from Units that you are well
towards bringing together the Previous Year
Questions. If possible, you can find the Previous Year
Mock Tests and attempt the, first to know where you
stand. Since, you are looking forward for the NET
exam, that means either you had Psychology in your
Bachelors and Masters or you had a different
background in Bachelors but are doing Masters in
Psychology. In both these cases, move forward with
these Previous Year Mocks, they will help you when
you will begin studying the Notes or your Study
Material. These will help you to keep an eye for those
concepts that you have now seen in the Previous Year
papers. Also, this will help you to know which Units
and what kind of topics were focused on in which year. versed with or have covered earlier to comes
This knowledge is a bliss when attempting the exam naturally to you.
for the first time.
Anxiety and two sides of the Coin. This is a sample of my strategy that I
William James (1842-1910), an American Psychologist
provide with our Study Materials.
once advised his Harvard students that an
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Units that are your strength, start with their Mock have done. You have to crack the exam. Focus on
Test first and then go to the theory. For Units that yourself and Take your own Time. Remember, there
are challenging, begin with theory, then Take one is no secret ingredient. (KungFu Panda, is the move
Mock Test, then analyses, go back to the theory I recommend to help you better understand this line)
and re-attempt Mock Tests and post that attempt
more and more Mock Tests of that Unit. Study not like any student but like a Psychology
student
It is important to know that never try to score perfect in The NET-JRF Paper 2: Psychology syllabus that
your Mocks. Mock Tests are a strategy tool that will you would be preparing for will have most of the
help you to develop a certain state of mind for Test applied concepts that you also apply while
Taking, as well as help you to stay on track, and map preparing specially the ones you will learn in Unit
you Progress. Grow by taking one step at a time. 5 of the syllabus. Unit 8 Social Psychology is too
interesting. So, be a Psychology student
Take your time preparing for an exam that will also help you to
You are unique. You have your own pace, you own
revise, and learn so many beautiful concepts. So,
growth rate. Never ask too much around as to how
trust Psychology and the exam shall be cracked.
other’s preparation is going on or how much others
@powerwithinpsychology
@powerwihineduc
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CONTENT
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Chapter
Unit 1: Emergence of Psychology
1
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Before these experimental traditions could 1946 Psychology was started in university
consolidate, Sengupta left Calcutta. He of Patna under two separate wings
was succeeded by Girindra Shekhar Experimental Psychology and Department
Bose. Being a medical doctor and a of Applied Psychology.
psychiatrist who was in close contact with In 1956, The University Grants
Sigmund Freud, Bose showed much Commission was set-up; its responsibility
enthusiasm to promote psychoanalysis. In was to provide funds to various
1922 he founded the Indian universities to start Psychology
Psychoanalytic Society, which two years Departments. Due to this there were 32
later was affiliated with the departments in Psychology by 1960(this
International Psychoanalytic Society. has however increased now). Certain
Bose received his Ph.D. from Calcutta on centers also provided advanced studies in
the 'concept of repression', the first Ph.D. Psychology. Soon another changing trend
from any Indian University in psychology. was that psychology was being offered in
He established the Lumbini Park Mental colleges offering Engineering, Agriculture
Hospital in Calcutta in 1940, and in 1947 and in management colleges. A lot of
brought out a journal 'Samiksha'. The other centers such as NCERT, NIPCCD
Department started an Applied Psychology etc. started applied research in different
Wing in 1938, when Jung, Meyers, and fields of Psychology.
Spearman were invited to the Silver
Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Training for Clinical Psychologists was
Congress. provided in three major centres such as All
India Institute of Mental Health in
(In 1924 down south, Mr. Bangalore (now NIMHANS), Hospital for
M.V.Goplswamy was heading the Mental Disease, Ranchi and Mental
department in Mysore and he was trained Hospital in Calcutta. Around this time
in ‘Psychological Assessments’.) Clinical Psychologists also organized an
all India Association of their own, and its
B. POST-INDEPENDENCE first convention was held in October 1969,
at the All India Institute of Mental Health
Bangalore. The first time Education
The first generation of psychologists after Psychology was introduced at the MA
independence was people from the level as a paper was in 1961 in the
background of Philosophy. Separate University of Calcutta.
Psychology Departments were largely
The National Institute of Mental Health
started between 1940-1960.
and Neurosciences, Bangalore is an
Following the independence of India in institution of international repute for
1947, there were many efforts from the research in clinical psychology and
part of government to integrate social training clinical psychologists. The Central
science into science and technology Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi is another
research as part of the nation building highly reputed institution carrying out
programme. India’s first Prime Minister research in clinical psychology.
Jawaharlal Nehru was a great promoter of
History of Clinical Psychology in
psychology, encouraging students to go
NIMHANS; the department was started in
abroad to obtain their degrees under
the year 1954 as the department of
eminent psychology professors. He also
Psychology and Human Relations. It is
invited and encouraged psychologists to
one of the oldest and largest departments
research on certain issues in India. in NIMHANS. It is involved in clinical
Other departments of Psychology were services, human resource Development
soon established in Mysore and Patna. In and research activities. The first training
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Sixty years of Western psychology in India However, this crisis of the discipline’s
had not yielded any significant discoveries. identity was of concern for only a handful of
Nandy (1974) argued, "Indian psychologists. J.B.P. Sinha (1993) made a
psychology has become not merely distinction between the bulk and the front of
imitative and subservient but also dull psychological research. Not much has
and replicative" (p. 5). K.G. Agrawal changed in the mass produced bulk of the
(1973) called psychology in India as that research which 21 is still replicative and
of “adoptology‟. There was growing imitative. However, as a response to a long
disillusionment about the applicability of debate and changing global scenario, the
Western theories and their mindless testing front-runners have started taking indigenous
in India. The failure to resolve inner psychology more seriously.
conflicts of cherishing Indian cultural
values at the personal level and
maintaining high standards of objectivity F. 1980S: INDIGENIZATION
at the professional level was reflected in
Methodologically sophisticated but A journey toward indigenous psychology
socially irrelevant research. As a result, the core of indigenization is the belief that
Indian psychologists were increasingly all knowledge, including that of
marginalized in the society. A strong need psychology, is rooted in the prevalent
was felt to return to the cultural roots. D. world-view of a community and is
Sinha (1977) urged that the scientific conditioned by historical and sociocultural
understanding of Indian social reality factors. D. Sinha (1994) discussed in detail
should benefit from its vast treasure of the indigenization of psychology in India.
traditional psychological knowledge He refers to two facets of indigenization.
accumulated over centuries. He called for The first is purely the product of culture,
the development of an indigenous the concepts and categories which are
psychology with its own paradigms to 20 culture-bound. The second is the product
understands developmental problems of of the interaction of cultural 22 variables
the region. In short, psychology in India with concepts, theories and methods
was seeking its own identity. introduced from outside. J. B. P. Sinha
Indian psychologists were showing more (2002) has referred to these two as
interest in studying problems relevant to endogenous and exogenous indigenization.
the country using Indian concepts and He further expanded the domain by
theories. Neki (1973), for example, referring to two variants of each kind of
suggested a teacher-pupil model in clinical indigenization.
counseling to break cultural and social Taking lead from the above discussion, it
barriers. J.B.P. Sinha (1980) proposed a is argued in this paper that indigenous
new leadership style - nurturant task- research has moved along two different
master, which is more likely to succeed in streams. One considers indigenization as a
Indian work organizations. Kakar (1982, gradual process. A majority of
1991) studied the role of traditional psychologists in India are trained in
healers in maintaining mental health in Western models, and for them it is not
traditional societies. Ramchandra Rao feasible to make any sudden shift towards
(1983) and Palsane, Bhavasari, indigenously developed theories and
Goswami, and Evans (1986) developed a methods. It is but natural for them to
concept of stress based on ancient continue using concepts and tests
scriptures. Pande and Naidu (1992) borrowed from the West, albeit with
developed a measure to study the increasing sensitivity to the cultural
concept of detachment and its mental context. The same trend is observable in
health consequences.
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many other developing countries also conduct, but also to explore the methods
(Marriott, 1992) and means of transforming the person
The Canadian psychologist, John Adair, in pursuit of perfection in being,
saw indigenization as a gradual process, certainty in knowing and happiness in
and in collaboration with his Indian feeling. Indian psychology focuses on the
colleagues, developed a scale to measure inner-self which is accessible through
the degree of indigenization. Adair subjective methods of self-verification.
(1989) operationalized indigenization in The beginning of Indian psychology can
terms of - (1) cultural sensitivity of be traced in the writings of many eminent
research in designing a study and thinkers, like Vivekanand and Sri
discussing its findings, (2) citation from Aurobindo in the early part of the last
one’s own culture, (3) problem orientation, Century. The monumental work of
development of culture-based concepts, Jadunath Sinha (1934/1958; 1961) on
theories and methods, (5) culturally Indian psychology can be considered as a
anchored tests, and (6) cross-cultural landmark in formally establishing it as an
comparisons. independent discipline. The books of
Ramachandra Rao (Development of
Viewing retrospectively, this line of psychological thought in India, 1962)
thinking led to the development of three Ragunath Safaya (Indian Psychology,
streams of research: problem-oriented 1975) gave it further impetus in the early
research, cross-cultural psychology and years.
Indian psychology.
The scientific community is better
However, as noted by D. Sinha (1997), the prepared now than in the past to accept a
cross-cultural work only led to testing of psychology rooted in native wisdom and
Western theories on Indian samples. Very philosophical traditions. Psychologists in
rarely studies originated from the needs of India are increasingly aware of the wide
the Indian society or tested Indian concepts gap between their academic pursuits and
in other cultures. Indiscriminate search for the real-life problems of people. The
cultural differences and similarities made replicative nature of research endeavours,
such ventures superficial, without
antiquated and obsolete teaching
providing much understanding of the
programmes, and lack of applied
culture or the contemporary problems of
orientation have devoid the discipline of
Indian society. To a large extent cross-
any professional momentum. Indian
cultural psychology remained a psychologists want to break free from the
methodological enterprise and culture theoretical and methodological constraints
remained a peripheral concern (Misra & of the discipline to grapple with the real
Gergen, 1993). In recent years, cross- issues of development and to act as social
cultural psychology itself is going catalysts in the change process. Indian
through a crisis and the classical psychologists are also aware that if they
conception of culture, that was the basis fail to take up the challenge, they are
of most research in this area, is being likely to be completely marginalized.
seriously questioned (Miller, 1998).
Four factors have contributed to this
Indian psychology has developed around change of attitudes and perceptions of
the existential quest to overcome human Indian psychology.
suffering and in the process to raise the
person to higher levels of awareness and a. One is the failure of Western
achievement. Thus, Indian psychology psychology to deal with their own
endeavors not only to provide an societal problems. It has
understanding of the nature of a person, increasingly been realized that
the causes and consequences of his/her positivistic psychology only
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In our daily lives, our senses and limbs yoga, adoration and seeking of the
(Indriyagalu) are exposed to a variety of supreme Self as the Divine Being, and
objects and experiences and impact our here the insistence is on devotion; but the
mind (Manaus) in various ways. So how is knowledge is not subordinated, only
it that our mind functions well enough to raised, vitalized and fulfilled, and still the
always make the best decision for us? sacrifice of works continues; the double
path becomes the triune way of
In the modern society battle field is the knowledge, works and devotion. The Gita
symbol of challenges of our life. We all is not a book of practical ethics, but of the
have mountains of desires, dreams, duties spiritual life which permits us to transcend
and ambitions, obligations to family, the clash of all dharmas that the human
society and self. Each of us has our own mind can conceive, and to discover a new
society, family and culture in which we dharma, the law of divine action, divyam
embedded and through which our self, karma, by the attainment of divine
behavior, personality and behavior are freedom in which the nature of the
conditioned. Our life is the perfect individual transcends its limitations, the
example of a battle between good and evil. limitations of the nature subject to three
Many types of question are come to our gunas — tamas, rajas, and sattva, —
mind such as; who we are? What is the and attains to the divine nature
purpose and meaning of our life? What (sādharmyam).
happen to us when we die? It is the
existential question that is not directly PURUSHA & PRAKRITI: The
come on the surface but run like a river intellectual exposition of the Sankhya
beneath our busy life. Many time we come begins with the statement of two ultimate
across a situation where we are afraid to do principles of existence, — Purusha, the
the right thing because of social pressure inactive being, and Prakriti, the active
and conformity. We face conflict with a force of action. Purusha is a pure
choice regarding what we want to do over conscious Being, immobile, immutable
what we should do. Bhagavad Gita is a and self-luminous. Prakriti is Energy and
story that tells us about the importance of its process. The human soul evolves
doing the right thing, of conquering our through at least three levels of Prakriti, its
own darkness, regardless of the cost or three gunas:TAMAS, RAJAS, SATTVA.
struggle. The first level is the tāmasic or the
darkened state of inertia and utter
SRI AUROBINDO’s TAKE ON GITA resistance to change. Here, the law of the
masses, the rules of the herd like a
The argument of the Gita resolves itself subconscious beast or a half-conscious
into three great steps by which action rises man, drive him. Next comes the rājasic or
out of the human into the divine plane. The the egoic stage of kinesis and dynamic
first step is Karma yoga, the selfless movement. Finally, there is the third or
sacrifice of works, and here the Gita's sāttvic stage wherein the individual learns
insistence is on action. The second is to subordinate his ego and take from life
Jnanayoga, the self-realization and only what is rightfully his.
knowledge of the true nature of the self
and the world; and here the insistence is on
knowledge; but the sacrifice of works
continues and the path of Works becomes
one with but does not disappear into the
path of Knowledge. The last step is Bhakti
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base their doctrine on the principles of they claimed that the realization of their
love and prefer the Course of love or the knowledge leads to the goal.
Indian Bhakti to other means of reaching The system has two aspects:
God. They consider love to be the essence (1) Knowledge and (2) Practice.
of all religions and the cause of creation
and its Continuation. God is unknowable, According to the Sufis, the object of man's
but may be thought through some concrete creation is the acquisition of the
comparison. Phenomenal diversity is the knowledge of God. Knowledge of God
reflection of the supreme beauty. The includes the knowledge of the Creator and
attributes are identical with him in fact, the creation comprising the universe and
though distinct in our thought. In His the individuals and so on. The knowledge
absolute beauty, He is called Jamal and in of the soul and the things of the world is
His phenomenal Husn. an essential step towards the knowledge of
God.
Man possesses three natures, viz.
The Object Of man's creation, according
Sensual, which corresponds to the Indian to Sufism, is the acquisition Of knowledge
Tamas. Of God. The Sufis believe that the true
Intellectual, somewhat like the Indian knowledge of God can be gained only in
Rajas. intuition. The Sufis believe that the heart
Spiritual or the Indian Sat. of man is a mirror in which he can see the
vision of God. But the heart mirror is
He becomes virtuous or wicked according polluted with the dust of worldly desires.
to the predominance of one of the three To see the vision of Reality it is essential
said qualities. His mind must receive that it should be cleansed of completely.
gradual training for which a guide is The worldly desires are identified with
absolutely necessary. The selection and nafs. It is not easy to kill the nays even for
following of a spiritual guide is the most a moment. The theorists of the system
important duty of a Sufi. A bad or have evolved a method of practice to kill it
imperfect guide may lead him to evil or and to lead the novice to the realization of
leave him imperfect and bewildered. He knowledge of God.
must use all his intellectual ability and
human endeavor to find out the true guide The practice is two-fold: Firstly, to
and once obtained, he must obey his practice detachment from the
direction. worldliness and secondly to develop love
of God through Muraqaba (Meditation)
In all brevity, the essence of Sufi thought and Muhasaba (Self-examination) etc.
is that the life is full of miseries and that The practice is metaphorically called Safr
man can get salvation from the miseries (Journey) to God and the stages of
only by renouncing the worldly spiritual attainment on it are described as
possessions. Different doctrines were
Muqamat (gyations). The Salik
propounded at different times to achieve
(Practicant) realizes spiritual moods called
renunciation.
Hal (States) at some of the stations and at
Ibn Arabi believed that God and his the end.
existence are one: According to him, the
apparent separation is due to ignorance. PRINCIPAL TEACHINGS OF
Thus, there is considerable variety in their SUFISM
conceptions of knowledge, God, self and Absolute Being (God) is also Absolute
the world. However, each sect of the Sufis Beauty.
declared their respective system and their
doctrines to be the true knowledge and
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Since beauty tends towards manifestation, on solid moral and ethical principles,
Absolute Being developed the phenomenal Mysticism cannot flourish. In Arabic,
world.Man should practice virtues like Shariah means "road:' it is a clear
poverty, austerity, humility, fortitude and track, a well-traveled route that anyone
discipline. Ile should devote himself to the can follow. Second is the Tariqah,
ways of inwardness like withdrawal, which refers to the practice of Sufism.
silence, solitariness, and self-examination.
He should also keep in mind a constant
awareness of God with faith, awe and TARIQA, which literally means a path,
desire. These virtues, inwardness and like a trail in the forest or in the desert,
awareness will bring a sense of direct which is not pre-established and requires
communication with God. It would be the expert knowledge of a guide to
better if such slogans are raised which traverse. When one enters the tarigha, he
work as remainders of the mystic belief or she is initiated into a Sufi order with a
and aim and as aids to concentration on the help of a teacher (sheikh) who has
quest for unification. experience and knowledge of the path.
Man should follow these directions with Just as the Shariah refers to the
sufficient perseverance as they will external dimension of religion, the
advance through the standard mystic Tariqah refers to the inner practices
stages of concentration, apprehension of of Sufism. The guide you need in order
everything, sudden and unpredictable to find your way is the Sheikh, or Sufi
illumination, blissful ecstasy, sense of Teacher. The Shariah makes the outer
union with the deity, sense of nothingness
day-to-day life clean and attractive. The
and sense of the nothingness beyond
nothingness. Tariqah is designed to make the inner
life clean and pure. Each of these
supports the other.
THE FOUR STAGES OF
SUFISM HAQIQAH, or Truth: Haqiqah refers
According to Ibn Al-Arabi, the great to the inner meaning of the practices
Andalusian Sufi master, Islam consists of and guidance found in the Shariah and
four dimensions / stages, of practice and Tariqah. It is the direct experience of
understanding in Sufism, Shariah the mystical states of Sufism, direct
(religious Law), Tariqah (the mystical experience of the presence of God
path), Haqiqah (Truth), and Marifah within. Without this experience,
(Gnosis). Each is built upon the stages that seekers follow blindly, attempting to
go before. imitate those who know, those who
SHARIAH, which is the basic foundation have attained the station of Haqiqah.
for the next three stages. The Shariah The attainment of Haqiqah confirms
consists of teachings of Islam, basically and solidifies the practice of the first
the morality and ethics found in all two stages. Before Haqiqah all practice
religions. It provides guidance to us for is imitation. Without the deep inner
living properly in this world. Trying to understanding that comes from
follow Sufism without following the experience, one follows mechanically
Shariah is like trying to build a house on a the teachings and practices of others.
foundation of sand. Without an ordered
life built
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The The commanding self seeks to dominate and to control each individual. At
Commanding this level there is unbridled selfishness and no sense of morality or
Self compassion.
Regretful Self At this level, wants and desires still dominate, but now the person repents
from time to time and tries to follow higher impulses.At this second level,
people do not yet have the ability to change their way of life in a
significant way. However, as they see their faults more clearly, their regret
and desire for change grow. At this level, people are like addicts who are
beginning to understand the pain they have caused themselves and others.
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Inspired Self At the next level, the seeker begins to take genuine pleasure in prayer,
meditation, and other spiritual activities. Only now does the individual
taste the joys of spiritual experience. Now the seeker is truly motivated by
ideals such as compassion, service, and moral values. This is the beginning
of the real practice of Sufism. Before this stage, the best anyone can
accomplish is superficial outer understanding and mechanical outer
worship.
Though one is not free from desires and ego, this new level of motivation
and spiritual experience significantly reduces the power of these forces for
the first time. What is essential here is to live in terms of higher values.
Unless these new motivations become part of a way of life, they will
wither and die away. Behaviors common to the inspired self-include
gentleness, compassion, creative acts, and moral action. Overall, a person
who is at the stage of the inspired self seems to be emotionally mature,
respectable, and respected.
Contented Self The seeker is now at peace. The struggles of the earlier stages are basically
begins to let go, allowing the individual to come more closely in contact
with the Divine.
Pleased Self At this stage the individual is not only content with his or her lot, but
pleased with even the difficulties and trials of life, realizing that these
difficulties come from God. The state of the pleased self is very different
from the way we usually experience the world, focused on seeking
pleasure and avoiding pain.
Self-pleasing Those who have reached the next stage realize that all power to act comes
to God from God, that they can do nothing by themselves. They no longer fear
anythingor ask for anything.The Sufi sage Ibn 'Arabi described this level
as the inner marriage or self and soul. The self-pleasing to God has
achieved genuine inner unity and wholeness.
Pure / Serene / Those few who attain the final level have transcended the self entirely.
Secure Self There is no ego or no separate self is left, only union with God. At this
stage, the individual has truly realized the truth, "There is no god but God."
The Sufi now knows that there is nothing but God, that only the Divine
exists, and that any sense of individuality or separateness is an illusion.
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When an individual is ready and with These stages constitute the ascetic and ethical
God’s grace, the journey of spiritual discipline of Sufi. These stages are by one's
transformation begins and the nafs own efforts. Each of the stages is the result of
continues to transform first into the the stage preceding it. The path of Sufi is not
‘regretful self’, before turning into the finished until he travels all the stages. In each
‘inspired self’, and finally the stage he is to make himself perfect before
‘serene/secure self’. The process of advancing to the next. After completing all
spiritual transformation involves seven the stages, the seeker becomes Gnostic, A'rif
classical (main) stages. Repentence: It means, the sins are
abandoned and it is resolved never to return
MAIN STAGES OF SUFISM to them. A novice should think of his sins
with deep regret. Others should repent for
Islam has prescribed certain practices for
forgetting God. They should forget their sins
Muslims for attaining perfection in life.
These practices are Kalimah, Salat, Sawm, because the thought of the sins comes
Haj and Zakal. In addition to these, there between them and God.
are certain duties for a disciplined life. The
ritual practices in Islam are endless. The Abstinence: It means one should refrain
rituals of Sha'riat are not difficult to himself from indulgence. In Sufi sense, it may
follow. But there is another method which be of three types:(a) Abstaining from acts
is called Ma'rifat. It is called the path of which are doubtful (b) Abstaining from
Sufis. Ma'rifat is concerned mainly with whatever one's consciousness does not allow
immediate experience. This path is
(c) Abstaining from anything which diverts
described as a journey by Sufis. It has
attention from God.
seven stages which are called Maqamat.
The path is known as "Path" of Tariqat.
Renunciation: It means that one should give
There are differences in Sufis in regard to
up voluntarily those things which give
"Stages" but the main stages are as
physical enjoyment. It has itself three stages.
follows: -
(a) Renouncing something which may bring
name and fame. Investigating what to be
given up and what not to be given up. (c)
There are differences in Sufis in regard to
Not possessing nor wishing to possess any
"Stages" but the main stages are as
worldly thing.
follows: -
Repentence (Tawbah)
Poverty: It means to be stripped of every
Abstinence (Wisr) wish that can turn one's thought from God. It
Renunciation (Zuhd) may be of three types: (a) Neither to possess
Poverty (Faqr) nor seek anything (b) Not to possess anything
Patience (Sabr) but not to decline if offered (c) Not to possess
Trust (Tawakkul) anything but to seek the help of friends in
Satisfaction (Ridza) extreme need.
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first type is of one who can endure understanding of who we are as human
distress at one time but loses beings and what the purpose of our
patience at another time. The embodied existence here on earth is. It
second type is of one who is not reveals to us the principal aspects of our
moved and who does not complain nature and a way to transform our selves
of his bad circumstances, the third to become true instruments of
manifestation of Divine love, Divine
type is of one whose equilibrium of
consciousness and Divine action.
mind is not lost in any adversity.
Trust in God: It means complete The term ‘psycho-spiritual
transformation’ highlights the importance
dependence on God in all affairs. It
of the psychological dimension in the
is of two types: (a) Renunciation of
overall process of spiritual transformation. It
every personal initiative such as refers to transformation of consciousness by
seeking food, taking medicine, etc. means of psychological insight. Insight into
Admission of some personal our emotional nature may help purify our
initiative such as working for the emotions and emotional attachments.
purpose of subsistence etc.
Three principal aspects of the human
Satisfaction: In this stage the Sufi being and their relationship comprise the
does everything to please God. The triadic foundation of Sufi psychology: the
end Of the Sufi path is Fana nafs (self), ghalb (heart) and ruh (soul).
followed by Baqa. Fana means The spiritual destiny of each human being
passing away Of the individual depends on whether the soul, or nafs,
self. Fana is a state of losing or becomes the eventual winner of the inner
forgetting self- consciousness in a battle (jihad) between the tendencies
state of ecstasy. In the highest stage exercised by the nafs and the higher
of Fana, even the consciousness of qualities of the soul. If the nafs
attaining Fana disappears. This dominates, the heart becomes darkened
stage is known as Fana al-Fana and weakened and ineffective. If the
which makes the beginning of the forces of the soul take over the heart, it
final stage. Baqa means passing becomes transparent and illumined.
from the phenomenal self to the
real self.
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Hatha Yoga Path to physical Includes asanas (postures), pranayama (breath control),
practice of mudras, bandhas, kriyas, yogic diet, and deep relaxation.
Yoga. These practices help to purify and strengthen the body
and mind.
Raja Yoga Path of Balancing and controlling the mind utilizing the eight
concentration & limbs of Yoga delineated in the Yoga Sutras of
meditation. Patanjali. This leads ultimately to the state of samadhi,
or super-consciousness.
Bhakti Yoga Path of Through prayer, kirtan, puja, and practices that help
devotion. transcend the limited personality or ego, one attains
union with the Divine.
Karma Path of selfless By engaging in one’s duties without attachment to the
Yoga service. fruits (or results) of the action, one becomes a pure
channel of love and service.
Jnana Yoga Path of wisdom. With study, self-analysis, and awareness, one ceases to
identify with the body and mind, and realizes the
Oneness. The path of wisdom takes an analytical
approach to the question: “Who am I?”
Japa Yoga Path of Mantra The concentrated repetition of a mantra (a sound
Repetition. vibration representing an aspect of the Divine) leads to
an awareness of and attunement to this cosmic vibration.
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The Psychic Being is Sri Aurobindo's The historical facts of his life are
term for the Personal Evolving Soul, roughly these: He was born around 563
the principle of Divine spirit in every B.C. in what is now Nepal. near the
individual. The Psychic is the Indian border. His full name was
"Innermost Being", the permanent Siddhartha Gautama of the Sakyas.
being in us that stands behind and Siddhartha was his given name,
supports the physical, vital and mental Gautama his surname, and Sakya the
principles. It "uses mind, life and body name of the clan to which his family
as its instruments," undergoing their belonged. His father was a king, but as
fate yet also transcending them. there were then many kingdoms in the
subcontinent of India, it would be more
accurate to think of him as a feudal lord.
BUDDHISM By the standards of the day his
upbringing was luxurious. "l wore
Buddhism begins with a man. In his garments of silk and my attendants held
later years, when' India was a fire with a white umbrella over me My unguents
his message and kings themselves were always from Banaras." He appears
were bowing before him, people came to have been exceptionally handsome,
to him to ask who or what he was? for there are numerous references to
Buddha’s answer provided an identity "the perfection of his visible body. At
for his entire message. sixteen he married a neighboring
"Are you a god?" they asked. "An princess, Yasodharå, who bore a son
angel?" "NO." "A saint?" "Then what whom they called Rahula.
are you?" Buddha answered. "I am
awake." His answer became his title,
for this is what Buddha means. The ABOUT BUDDHA’S DEATH:
Sanskrit root budh denotes both to After an arduous meal at the age of 80
wake up and to know. Buddha, then, and around the year 43 B.C., the Buddha
means the "Enlightened One," or the died from dysentery after eating a meal
"Awakened One." While the rest of the
of dried boar's flesh in the home Of
world was wrapped in the womb of sleep,
Cunda the smith. Even on his death bed
dreaming a dream known as the waking
state of human life one of their numbers his mind moved toward others. In the
roused him. Buddhism begins with a midst of his pain, it occurred to him that
man who shook off the doze, the dream- Cunda might feel responsible for his
like vagaries of ordinary awareness. It death. "is request, therefore was that
begins with a man who woke up. Cunda be informed that of all the meal
he had eaten during his long life only
two stood out as having blessed him
exceptionally. One was the meal whose
strength hadenabled him to reach
enlightenment under the Bo Tree and
the Other One that was opening to him
the final gates to nirvana.
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Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati The eight stages can be grouped into
Wisdom (right understanding and
Developing awareness of the body, intention), Ethical Conduct (right
sensations, feelings and states of mind. speech, action and livelihood) and
Meditation (right effort, mindfulness
Right Concentration - Sammā Samadhi and concentration).
Developing the mental focus necessary for The Buddha described the Eightfold Path
this awareness. as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for
crossing a river. Once one has reached the
opposite shore, one no longer needs the
raft and can leave it behind.
(It means: Methodologically poor, Untestable (e.g. concept of denial) and Limited impact on
scientific psychology)
The ancient Greek philosophers gave us the basic categories of philosophy, beginning with
metaphysics. Metaphysics is the part of philosophy that asks questions such as "What is the
world made of?" and "What is the ultimate substance of all reality?" In fact, the ancient
Greeks were among the first to suggest that there is a "true" reality (noumenon) under the
"apparent" reality (phenomenon), an "unseen real" beneath the "unreal seen." The question
is, what is this true reality? Is it matter and energy, i.e. something physical? This is called
materialism. Or something more spiritual or mental, such as ideas or ideals? This is called
idealism.
Materialism and idealism constitute the two extreme answers. Later, we will explore some
other possibilities. A second aspect of philosophy is epistemology. Epistemology is the
philosophy of knowledge: How do we know what is true or false, what is real or not? Can
we know anything for certain, or is it ultimately hopeless?
Again, the Greeks outlined two opposing approaches to the problem of knowledge. One is
called empiricism, which says that all knowledge comes through the senses. The other is
rcalled rationalism, which says that knowledge is a matter of reason, thought.
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Socrates He, only, orated his teachings, Plato recorded his teachings in
(469-399 BCE) writing,
Plato Socrates and his student Plato believed that the mind was
(428-348 BCE): separate from the body, that it continued to exist after death, and that
ideas were innate.
PLATO:
Plato was an early proponent of individual differences. He
recognized that we as individuals naturally differ in general aptitude,
intelligence, and talent. He set forth a classification system to
qualitatively rate people as being individuals of gold, silver, brass, or
iron. In his work, The Republic, Plato describes a model for the
perfect society in which a small collection of people with superior
intellect, or the Guardians, governed under a philosopher king. Other
members of this utopian society were given jobs based on their own
personal strengths.
Those who expressed great courage were posted as warriors, those
who were endowed with a great appreciation of beauty and harmony
would serve as artists and poets, and people who displayed little
talent or ability would be delegated to the roles of servants and
slaves.
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Plato’s position on the soul and his theory of the world of forms
was an early view of mind brain dualism. The soul is in an
intermediate position between the world of forms, and the physical
world to which to body belongs. The body and soul, for Plato
existed as two separate entities.
Aristotle Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable from the body and
(384-322 BCE): that knowledge (ideas) grow from experience.
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MEMORY
In addition to how we sense objects, Aristotle covers how we
imagine objects or recall them. Recollection or memory is when the
senses are triggered that eventually causes a representation of the
object being sensed in the mind. Furthermore, Aristotle introduced
the idea that memory requires a process of recalling the image in the
mind. He says that the extent that we recall an image depends on how
we represent the object in our mind as well as how we associate it.
INTELLIGENCE
He believed that there are different types of intelligence or what he
called “practical wisdom”. He believed that there were different
ways to exercise these wisdoms including understanding
(knowing), action (doing), and production (making).
The different types of wisdoms paralleled Aristotle’s grouping of
works of which were his theoretical works, his practical works,
and his productive works. In relation to psychology today, Robert
Sternberg (2003) created the Triarchic Theories of Intelligence which
mirror Aristotle’s concepts of intelligence.
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Juan Huarte de San He lived and worked as a physician during the Spanish Renaissance
Juan (1529-88) era (Chilsom, 1910.)
Examen de Ingenious par alas Ciencias, or The Trial of Men’s
Wits, is a source of information about Huarte’s ideas on psychology.
Huarte’s writing was the first attempt at connecting psychology
and physiology. The Trial of Men’s Wits is considered the precursor
to educational psychology, behaviorism, neuropsychology and
psychiatry.
MIND-BODY DUALISM
Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind) body separation but
speculated on how the immaterial mind and the physical body
communicated. His definition of the mind was that it is “a thinking,
non-extended thing while the body is an extended, non-thinking
thing”. With these two ideas he concluded that the mind is distinct
from the body and can exist without it. This belief of the mind and
body being two separate things is referred to as “mind-body
dualism”.
Francis Bacon Bacon was one of the founders of modern science, especially the
(1561-1626) experimental method.
John Locke Locke held that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank sheet at birth and
(1632-1704) experience writes on it.
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TABULA RASA:
Theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content and
that therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception.
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was unreliable, at least it was not any more so than any other kind of observation.
At the same time, Johann Friederich Herbart (1776–1841) offered a system of psychology
that was both empirical and mathematical. If psychology needed to be mathematical to be a
true science, Herbart proposed that numbers could be assigned to mental events of different
intensities and a mathematical description of the relationship among them could be
formulated. Herbart could assign numbers to describe experiences of different intensities,
but he could not actually measure the subjective intensities in accord with an objective
standard.
Eduard Friederich Beneke (1798–1854) argued that it was premature to apply mathematics
to relationships among mental events absent more accurate empirical observations and
reliable means of measurement; psychology could hope to become an experimental
discipline by testing “empirical results and theoretical hypotheses under controlled
conditions and with the systematic variation of variables”.
Scientific Psychology
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The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat
was placed near him and he was allowed to play with it. The child
showed no fear of the rat. In later trials, the researchers made a loud
sound behind Albert’s back by striking a steel bar with a hammer
whenever the baby touched the rat. The child cried when he heard
the noise. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, the child was
again shown the rat. Now, however, he cried and tried to move away
from the rat.
The methods and subject matter of physiology, especially sensory physiology, helped to
provide the scientific basis for psychology.
SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
Johannes Müller (1801–1858), the “Father of Physiology,” produced the classic
systematic handbook (Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, 1833–1840) that set forth
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what was then known about human physiology and offered observations and hypotheses for
further research. Among the formulations that Müller provided in the Handbuch was the law
of specific nerve energies, which stated that the mind is not directly aware of objects as such
but can only be aware of the stimulation in the brain conveyed by sensory nerves.
The following Approaches would be understood using the following Case. The Case would
be discussed from the lens of each therapy, thus mentioned.
Case I:
(The Case study has been taken from Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for
Substance Abuse. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No.
34. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment.)
Last month she became symptomatic with AIDS. She has been HIV-positive for 5 years but
had not developed any illnesses related to the disease. Sandra has practiced safe sex with her
husband who knew of her HIV status. Recently, after learning from the physician at her
clinic about her HIV symptoms, she began to "shoot up," which led her back into treatment.
Out of fear, she came to the treatment center and asked to see a counselor at the clinic one
day after work. She is worried about her marriage and that her husband will be devastated by
this news. She is afraid she is no longer strong enough to stay away from drugs since
discovering the onset of AIDS. She is also concerned about her children and her job.
Uncertain of how she will keep on living, she is also terrified of dying.
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GESTALT PRINCIPLES
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our
perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These principles
or laws determine what we see or make of things or situation.
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imagines that this may be his fate if he does not subordinate his
desire for the mother.) Thus, the boy represses his incestuous desire,
adjusts to the reality principle, and waits for the day when he will be
the patriarch. In this way the boy identifies with his father and the
symbolic role of manhood.
The girl's route through the Oedipal stage is far more problematic in
Freud's view. "Realizing" that she is castrated and thus inferior, the
girl turns away from her similarly castrated mother and attempts to
"seduce" her father. When this fails, she returns to the mother and
identifies with her feminine role. However, she still envies the penis
that she will never have; so she unconsciously substitutes a desire to
have her father's baby. (How she goes about giving up this desire is
not made clear. Since she is already "castrated", fear of castration
will not do the job.) Needless to say, Freud's theory shows little
insight into femininity and the experience of women.
His claim that female sexuality is a "dark continent" says as much.
THE UNCONSCIOUS
As we say, the unconscious is that part of the mind that lies outside
the somewhat vague and porous boundaries of consciousness, and is
constructed in part by the repression of that which is too painful to
remain in consciousness. (Not everything in the unconscious is
repressed. However, repression is the ego's primary defense against
disruption.) Freud distinguishes repression from sublimation - the
rechanneling of drives that cannot be given an acceptable outlet. The
unconscious also contains what Freud calls laws of transformation.
These are the principles that govern the process of repression and
sublimation. In general, we can say that the unconscious serves the
theoretical function of making the relation between childhood
experience and adult behavior intelligible.
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LIMITATION OF PSYCHOANALYSIS:
1. Freud's hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable. It is not
clear what would count as evidence sufficient to confirm or refute
theoretical claims.
2. The theory is based on an inadequate conceptualization of the
experience of women.
3. The theory overemphasizes the role of sexuality in human
psychological development and experience.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ROOTS:
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to
prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the work of early
pioneers like Carl Rogers and the philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence
through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy,
personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-
actualization.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY:
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EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
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Cognitive Science is always influenced by the technology that surrounds it, and
revolution: psychology is no exception. Thus it is no surprise that beginning in
the 1960s, growing numbers of psychologists began to think about
the brain and about human behavior in terms of the computer, which
was being developed and becoming publicly available at that time.
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COGNITIVE REVOLUTION:
The cognitive revolution in psychology was a counter-revolution.
The first revolution occurred much earlier when a group of
experimental psychologists, influenced by Pavlov and other
physiologists, proposed to redefine psychology as the science of
behavior. Since the beginning of experimental psychology in the
nineteenth century, there had been interest in the study of higher
mental processes. Cognitive Revolution, as now it is termed, during
the time (in the late 1950s) was a discontinuous process that rejected
Behaviorism and accepted the model of Mind based on the computer.
This marked the beginning of the counter-revolution called Cognitive
revolution, and the view of mental processes that it spawned is called
‘cognitive Psychology’.
The reference to the discontinuous process here means (in a way) the
minds that were independently working without knowing that they
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MULTICULTURALISM IN INDIA
The management of cultural diversity within state has become an
increasingly prominent issue in recent times not only in developed
countries but also in developing countries like India. Diversity has
become the defining characteristic of our social and cultural worlds.
We are now constantly confronted with a multitude of ways in which
we can define ourselves, and categorize others. In fact, in itself India
isa multi-ethnic andmulti lingual society. The 2001census of India
reports 122 languages and 234 mother tongues.
MULTICULTURALISM IN COUNSELING:
Psychology is at a "pivotal period" in which the rules are being
changed in ways that we are only beginning to appreciate (Mahoney
& Pattetson, 1992). One clear indication that multiculturalism is
introducing a permanent paradigm shift and not merely a passing fad
in counselling is the strength of the multicultural controversies in the
field of counselling. By "paradigm shift" I refer to changes in the
underlying assumptions about psychology moving from a
monocultural to a multicultural basis with profound implications for
how psychology is applied in direct service. All change is painful and
the moreprofound the change the more the pain. As the counselling
profession responds to the requests and demands of many culturally
different special interest groups, the rules have begun to change,
causing controversy and confusion. Even when we recognize that the
old rules are not working, it is not easy to replace them with new
culturally different rules. The old rules of psychology focused on
dissonance reduction. The new rules focus on tolerance of ambiguity.
Smith, Harre, and VanLangenhove (1995) contrast the new with the
old paradigms. The new paradigms emphasize the following
qualities: (a) under-standing and description more than just
measuring, (b) predicting consequences more than causation, (c)
social significance more than statistical significance, (d) language
and discourse more than numerical reductionism, (e) holistic
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https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/Foundations-of-Multicultural-
Psychology-Intro-Sample.pdf
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conscious awareness into basic structures systems: the higher system was governed
of thoughts, images and sensations. by the laws of apperception; the lower
In practice, introspective reports tended to system by the laws of association. The
consist of simple judgments of the size, higher processes presupposed the lower
intensity and duration of physical stimuli, ones but they were not determined by
occasionally supplemented by judgments them. A complete psychology must
of the simultaneity and succession of therefore embrace both quantitative and
stimuli. Wundt’s ambition to construct a qualitative methods.
theory of the human mind began with this
simple technique of ‘mental chronometry’. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE USA
While Wundt embarked on what would
PERCEPTION AND APPERCEPTION eventually become ten volumes of
Wundt knew that experimental methods ‘Völkerpsychologie’, his students returned
were only useful for investigating the most home to launch scientific psychology in
elementary psychological processes. In his America. The first American experimental
theory, he distinguished between psychology research laboratory was
perceptions on the one hand, and what he established by G. Stanley Hall at Johns
called apperception on the other. Stimuli Hopkins University in 1883. Four years
outside awareness are merely perceived, he later, James McKeen Cattell founded one
said, whereas stimuli receiving attention at the University of Pennsylvania. They
are apperceived. Apperception was closely followed Wundt’s practice of
therefore affected by ‘higher level’ stocking their laboratories with
psychological processes such as motives, impressive-looking ‘brass instruments’.
innate tendencies, memory andso on. By 1913 there were ten times as many
Higher mental processes such as emotion psychological laboratories in the USA as
and language were not readily amenable to there were across the whole of Europe.
experimental investigation and could not
be reliably studied using introspection and FREUD
mental chronometry.
Psychodynamic psychology is an approach
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY to understanding human behavior that
focuses on the role of unconscious
Given the problems of investigating thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud
apperception, Wundt argued that there developed his theories about behavior
must therefore be an alternative to through extensive analysis of the patients
experimental psychology - a way to that he treated in his private clinical
investigate social, cultural and historical practice. Freud believed that many of the
phenomena beyond the confines of the problems that his patients experienced,
laboratory. This would be a kind of including anxiety, depression, and sexual
social psychology based on the historical dysfunction, were the result of the effects
analysis of human cultural products, of painful childhood experiences that the
especially language, myth and person could no longer remember. Freud’s
customs. Experimental psychology ideas were extended by other
rightlystudied the lower perceptual psychologists whom he influenced,
processes of sensation and perception. But including Carl Jung (1875–1961), Alfred
cultural psychology — or what Adler (1870–1937), Karen Horney (1855–
Wundt called ‘völkerpsychologie’ — 1952), and Erik Erikson (1902–1994).
examined the higher processes of These and others who follow the
thinking, emotion and other products of psychodynamic approach believe that it is
collective activity. Two different laws, possible to help the patient if the
Wundt explained, governed the two unconscious drives can be remembered,
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This joke makes light of the fact that seen when preschool girls develop a
Freud believed this stage to be crucial deep fondness for horses, unicorns,
in planting the seeds for a number of and other strong, masculine things or
adult personality traits. In the anal long, pointed objects. Freud proposed
stage the child is being toilet trained an unconscious drama during this stage
and is learning to hold in and to let out that he called his most important idea.
at appropriate times. Therefore, Freud It is called the Oedipus complex
proposed that personality traits related (some-times referred to as the Oedipal
to either holding in or letting out were conflict). This unconscious process is
formed during the anal stage. The named after the Greek story of
following traits are known as anal- Oedipus, the man who was raised by
retentive (finding pleasure from foster parents and grew up to
holding in): neatness, orderliness, unwittingly kill his biological father
punctuality, cleanliness, compulsive- and marry his biological mother. Freud
ness, perfectionism, and stinginess. said that a similar drama occurs in the
The following are called anal- unconscious minds of preschool boys,
expulsive (finding pleasure from who favor their mothers and fear their
letting out): being undisciplined, fathers (castration anxiety). The child
messy, disorderly, late, impulsive, and resents the father for getting all of the
overly generous. mother’s attentions. Many
psychoanalysts suggest a similar
3. PHALLIC: This stage occurs conflict for preschool girls, referred to
approximately during the preschool as the Electra complex; it is essentially
years. The term phallic means any the reverse of the situation for boys:
representation of the penis, which, love and desire for father, resentment
according to Freud, is the main for mother. According to
occupation of the unconscious during psychoanalytic theory, these
the childhood years of about three to complexes become so severe and
six among both boys and girls. It is at anxiety-producing that the child’s
this time, theoretically, that children unconscious must resolve them using a
become aware of whether or not they defense mechanism. The solution is for
have a penis, and Freud believed that the child to begin to identify with the
this causes a bit of anxiety in the same-sexed parent. The child begins to
unconscious parts of their minds. Boys, internalize the personality of the same-
Freud reasoned, become protective of sexed parent, thereby relieving the
their penis and fear having it taken anxiety and vicariously winning the
away. This is known as castration love of the opposite-sexed parent. For
anxiety and might be manifested in a a little boy, being like daddy means no
young boy’s fear of knives, scissors, or longer having to fear and resent him,
being bitten by dogs. Girls, Freud and it also means getting mommy’s
thought, feel resentful that they do not love through daddy. For a little girl, it
have a penis and hence seek phallic means winning daddy’s love by being
things and activities that will provide like mommy. This process is called
them with feelings of power and identification with the aggressor;
possession. This is known as penis sometimes simply known as
envy and might be identification. The result is that
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DILTHEY
shooting a man is a physical event.
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) was a However, understanding the event in
German Philosopher, best known for the human terms involves more than tracing
way he distinguished between the the path of the bullet and showing how the
natural and human sciences. Whereas bullet caused the man's death. We need to
the main task of the natural sciences is to know why she shot the man, not just how
arrive at law-based causal explanations, she did so.
the core task of the human sciences is the Dilthey defended his use of the term
understanding of the organizational Geisteswissenschaft (literally, "science of
structures of human and historical life. the mind" or "spiritual knowledge") by
He promoted psychology as a “human pointing out that other terms such as
science” (Geisteswissenschaft). His human "social science" and "cultural sciences" are
scientific psychology took as its subject equally one-sided and that the human
matter experience in its totality. mind or spirit is the central phenomenon
Appropriate methods included description from which all others are derived and
and analysis, with the goal of analyzable.
understanding. For Dilthey, the mind was Dilthey wanted psychology to remember
the medium through which meaning that its primary subject matter was the
was formed; thus, the content, rather subjective or psychological world itself,
than the structure, of the mind was of not just the physical properties that made
most interest to him. Understanding the this world possible. Dilthey suggested that
meaning of human historical events if we want to find out ‘why’, priority must
requires being able to organize them in be given to the psychological world – the
their proper contexts and to articulate the ways that people make sense of their
structural uniformities that can be found in experience and the meanings they attach to
this way. Dilthey’s reflections on the them. In other words, to understand why I
human sciences, historical am running, you will first need to
contextualization and hermeneutics understand my experience of the current
influenced many subsequent thinkers such situation and the meanings I assign to it,
as Husserl, Heidegger, Cassirer, Gadamer because only in this way can you find out
and Ricoeu. my motives and reasons for acting. This
Dilthey offered clear advice to psychology. task demands a social scientific approach.
First, he acknowledged that humans and So, what should psychology do? If the
human events both possess important psychological world was its proper subject
physical properties. As an example, your matter, then surely psychology was a
brain is a physical object and its physical humanitarian discipline? For this reason,
properties are going to be pretty important Dilthey felt a social scientific approach
if you want to think. I’m sure you’d was preferable. But the psychological
realized that (see ‘Aside’). This simple world can only exist through the physical
observation nonetheless creates a serious world. If I don’t have a physical body I
complication for psychology, because it can’t see or hear, for example. Psychology
means that our status as physical and couldn’t ignore this either. It needed to
material ‘objects’ has a massive effect on study the physical world as well and the
our capacity to be psychological. In other natural scientific model dominated in this
words, in order to fully grasp the domain.
psychological world, the discipline of A lifelong concern was to establish a
psychology must also engage with aspects proper theoretical and methodological
of the physical world. He wrote,explaining foundation for the "human sciences" (e.g.
human actions are fundamentally different history, law, literary criticism), distinct
from explaining physical events. A woman
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from, but equally "scientific" as, the "ideal types") and conflicting ways of
"natural sciences" (e.g. physics, conceiving of humanity's relation to
chemistry). He suggested that all human Nature, In Naturalism, represented by
experience divides naturally into two parts: Epicureans of all times and places, humans
that of the surrounding natural world, in see themselves as determined by nature, In
which "objective necessity" rules, and that the Idealism of Freedom (or Subjective
of inner experience, characterized by Idealism), represented by Friedrich
"sovereignty of the will, responsibility for Schiller and Immanuel Kant, humans are
actions, a capacity to subject everything to conscious of their separation from nature
thinking and to resist everything within the by their free will in Objective Idealism,
fortress of freedom of his/her own person". represented by G. W. F. Hegel, Baruch
Spinoza, and Giordano Bruno, humans are
This double-edged nature of psychology conscious of their harmony with nature.
was (and remains) both a challenge and an This approach influenced Karl Jaspers'
opportunity. Psychology had the chance to Psychology of Worldviews as well as
bridge the divide between the natural and Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy of Freedom.
social sciences and it could do so by
retaining a foot in both camps (Danziger, Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict
1990). Nomothetic and idiographic adherence to experimental analytical
knowledge, quantitative and qualitative paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic
methods, could all be embraced. It needed influences on modern psychology.
to study its subject matter from both
All this part is covered in Identity crisis of
perspectives. Wilhelm Wundt tried to
the Discipline (in the above sections after
support this vision (as did other early
‘Academic Psychology in India’ content)
psychologists), but it was not a vision that
psychology would ultimately sustain.
In his work Ideas Concerning a Essential aspects of knowledge
Descriptive and Analytic Psychology, he paradigms: Ontology,
introduced a distinction between epistemology, and methodology
explanatory psychology and descriptive
psychology. In his terminology,
explanatory psychology is the study of ONTOLOGY
psychological phenomena from a third-
person point of view, which involves their Ontology is the study of ‘being’ and is
subordination to a system of causality, concerned with ‘what is’, i.e., the nature of
while descriptive psychology is a existence and structure of reality as such
discipline that attempts to explicate how (Crotty, 1998) or what it is possible to
different mental processes converge in the know about the world (Snape & Spencer,
"structural nexus of consciousness." 2003). The SAGE Online Dictionary of
Social Research Methods (2006) defines
In his later work (1910), he used the
ontology as “a concept concerned with the
alternative term structural psychology for
existence of, and relationship between,
descriptive psychology.
different aspects of society such as social
actors, cultural norms and social
WELTANSCHAUUNGEN OR structures… Ontological issues are
WORLD VIEWS concerned with questions pertaining to the
In 1911, Dilthey developed a typology of kinds of things that exist within society”.
the three basic Weltanschauung, or World- For Richards, (2003), ontology is the
Views, which he considered to be "typical" assumptions we make about the kind and
(comparable to Max Weber's notion of nature of reality and what exists. Snape
and Spencer (2003) also define ontology
as the nature of the world and what we can
know about it.
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METHOD VS METHODOLOGY
Methods are ‘the techniques or procedures
used to gather and collect data related to
some research question or hypothesis’.
(Crotty, 2003: 3).
For e.g., in a Research, a Case Study
Methodology was used to design the given
research. Therefore, the use of two
methods – Interview Method and Reaction
Papers Method, is justified.
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Hence, the basic belief system of logical Etic/Emic dilemma: Inability of
general data to individual cases
positivism is-
Received view of natural science
Ontology: REALISM followed blindly by positivists
Epistemology: DUALIST &
OBJECTIVIST Human science should study web of meanings
Methodology: EXPERIMENTAL & that people live in.
MANIPULATIVE
POST-POSITIVISM
DISENCHANTMENT WITH CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
POSITIVISM
It believes that nature cannot be seen as it
Shattering of the ‘objectivist’ ideal of
positivism “really is” or how it “really works” except
Pluralization of life worlds through a value window. Thus, findings
Research conducted in the real world are value mediated. Reality is assumed to
Knowledge needs to be ‘locally’, be constantly evolving over time & is
‘temporally’ & ‘situationally’ relevant ‘apprehend able’. The reality is constantly
“Sensitizing Concepts” required to
approach social contexts shaped by social, political, cultural,
Recognition of central role of language & economic, gender, and ethnic forces.
discourse
This critical form of research is a meta-
Concern with process &individual rather
than statistics & variables process of investigation, which questions
Human face’ is lost in statistical currently held values and assumptions and
manipulations challenges conventional social structures.
Knowledge production is relative to It invites both researchers and participants
frames of reference
Truth is not absolute and is decided by to discard what they term ‘false
human judgment consciousness’ in order to develop new
ways of understanding as a guide to
POSITIVISM: Context stripping, effective action, confronting unjust social
Exclusion of meaning, Theory ladenness systems.
Crisis of representation
Exclusion of ‘discovery’
dimension in positivism
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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
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technique per se). It concerns itself with Epoch – refers to a ‘bracketing (or
how the ‘givens’ of human existence setting aside) of our initial
(death, anxiety, meaninglessness, isolation, assumptions, biases and prejudices
choice, freedom and responsibility) are within the therapeutic encounter in
negotiated (or not) through the order to fully engage with the
interpretations and meanings given to client and their material in a spirit
experience – to self, others and the world
of relative naivete.
and how in turn, this shapes our sense of
reality. As such, it regards that all peoples’ Description – to facilitate a
forms of human dilemma, tragedy and detailed description of the client’s
suffering (from the normative to the events, experiences and beliefs so
extraordinary) are fundamentally problems that meanings within meanings
about their ‘Being-in-the-world’. Thus, all may be identified and the implicit
clients’ difficulties are seen to reflect their made explicit;
attempts to avoid, resist or deny the angst Horizontalization – each
and uncertainty that authentic living descriptive element of an event or
demands (Spinelli, 1989). experience is regarded as having
The basic framework through which the equal value/significance so that an
existential-phenomenological approach initial hierarchy of assumptions is
aims to understand and clarify clients’ avoided as the client’s story
difficulties is through reference to the four unfolds (Spinelli, 1989).
realms of existence. These are as follows:
The Umwelt – the physical,
biological dimension, our CO-OPERATIVE ENQUIRY
embodied existence; Co-operative inquiry is one articulation of
The Mitwelt – the social/public action research. The original proposal for
dimension involving relating and experiential inquiry was put forward by
interacting with others; John Heron in 1971. This developed into
The Eigenwelt – the practice of co-operative inquiry. In co-
personal/psychological dimension, operative inquiry, all those involved in the
comprising our sense of identity; research endeavor are both co-researchers,
whose thinking and decision-making
The Uberwelt – the spiritual contributes to generating ideas, designing
dimension referring to our sense of and managing the project, and drawing
values,ideal and purpose (Deurzen- conclusions from the experience; and also
Smith, 1988). co-subjects, participating in the activity
that is being researched.
Although people inhabit all four
dimensions of existence at once, the
salience and significance of each may PARTICIPATIVE WORLDVIEW
become more/less apparent as the client’s
A participatory worldview is articulated
difficulties are explored and clarified in
based on a subjective-objective ontology;
increasing depth and understanding. In
an extended epistemology of experiential,
order to facilitate the exploration of
presentational, propositional, and practical
existence in these domains, there are three
ways of knowing; a methodology based
basic principles (or ‘rules’) of the
on cooperative relations between
existential-phenomenological method coresearchers; and an axiology that affirms
which are as follows: the primary value of practical knowing in
the service of human flourishing.
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Co-operative inquiry can be seen as In Phase II, the co-researchers now also
cycling through four phases of reflection become co-subjects: they engage in the
and action, drawing on a fourfold actions agreed, observing and recording
“extended” epistemology: the process and outcomes of their own and
Experiential knowing is through each other’s experience. In particular, they
direct face-to-face encounter with a are careful to notice the subtleties of
experience, to hold lightly the
person, place or thing; it is knowing
propositional frame from which they
through empathy and resonance, that
started so that they are able to notice how
kind of in-depth knowing which is practice does and does not conform to
almost impossible to put into words. their original ideas. This phase involves
Presentational knowing grows out of primarily practical knowledge: knowing
experiential knowing, and provides the how (and how not) to engage in
first form of expression through story, appropriate action, to bracket off the
drawing, sculpture, movement, dance, starting idea, and to exercise relevant
drawing on aesthetic imagery. discrimination.
Propositional knowing draws on In Phase III is, in some ways, the
concepts and ideas, and, touchstone of the inquiry method. It is a
Practical knowing consummates the stage in which the co-subjects become fully
other forms of knowing in action in the immersed in and engaged with their
world. experience. They may develop a degree of
openness to what is going on so free of pre-
conceptions that they see it in a new way.
In Phase I, a group of co-researchers come They may deepen into the experience so that
together to explore an agreed area of superficial understandings are elaborated
human activity. In this first phase, they and developed. Or they may be led away
agree on the focus of their inquiry and from the original ideas and proposals into
together develop a setof questions or new fields, unpredicted action and creative
propositions they wish to explore. They insights. It is also possible that they may get
agree to undertake some action, some so involved in what they are doing that they
practice, which will contribute to this lose the awareness that they are part of an
exploration, and agree to a set of inquiry group: there may be a practical
procedures by which they will observe and crisis, they may become enthralled, they
record their own and each other’s may simply forget. Phase III involves
experience. Phase I is primarily in the mainly experiential knowing, although it
mode of propositional knowing, although will be richer if new experience is
it will also contain important elements of expressed, when recorded, in creative
presentational knowing as group members presentational form through graphics, color,
use their imagination in story, fantasy, and sound, movement, drama, story, poetry, and
graphics to help them articulate their so on. In Phase IV, after an agreed period
interests and to focus on their purpose in engaged in phasesII and III, the co-
the inquiry. Once the focal idea—what the researchers reassemble to consider their
inquiry is about—is agreed upon, Phase I original propositions and questions in the
will conclude with planning a method for light of their experience. As a result, they
exploring the idea in action, and with may modify, develop or reframe them; or
devising ways of gathering and recording reject them and pose new questions. They
data from this experience. may choose, for the next cycle of action, to
focus on the same or on different aspects of
the overall inquiry. The group may also
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choose to amend or develop its inquiry new models in psychology that would
procedures—forms of action, ways of have relevance not only to India but also
gathering data—in the light of experience. to psychology in general.... By Indian
Phase IV is primarily the stage of psychology we mean a distinct
propositional knowing, although psychological tradition that is rooted in
presentational forms of knowing will form Indian ethos and thought, including the
an important bridge with the experiential variety of psychological practices that
and practical phases. In a more complete exist in the country". The Manifesto also
inquiry, the cycle will be repeated several recommended eight "necessary steps for
times. The group itself may become more responsibly promoting psychology in
cohesive and self-critical, more skilled in India" that ranged from preparing resource
its work and in the practices of inquiry. materials to offering student fellowships,
Ideally the inquiry is finished when the conducting seminars, offering courses,
initial (and emergent) questions and generating a website, and appointing a
concerns have been thoroughly addressed committee for follow-up action to ensure
in practice, when there is a new the implementation of the
congruence between the four kinds of recommendations.
knowing. It is, of course, rare for a group Rao and Paranjpe (2016) stated that Indian
to complete an inquiry so fully. It should psychology, “subscribes to methodological
be noted that the actual process is not as pluralism. Without rejecting objectivity,
straightforward as the model suggests: control, and simplicity of experimental
there are usually mini-cycles within major exploration, Indian psychology recognizes
cycles; some cycles will emphasize one the need to go beyond experimentation to
phase more than others; and some usefully capture the richness and manifold
practitioners have advocated a more complexity of human experience to
emergent process of inquiry, which is less embrace and accommodate
structured into phases; nevertheless, the phenomenological methods as coequals.”
discipline of the research cycle is
fundamental.
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INNER KNOWLEDGE.This consists other types of knowledge. According
of the sophisticated, expert variety of to the Indian tradition, a perfect
two types of knowledge of which knowledge of oneself automatically
subjective knowledge uses the naive gives in principle the possibility of
variety. Expert knowledge of Sri perfect knowledge of everything else.
Aurobindo's type three is the pure,
detached witness consciousness that As mentioned before, the realms of
allows genuinely “objective” objective and subjective knowledge (as
knowledge of whatever happens in defined here) are the only ones that can be
one's own inner nature. The expert accessed fully in the ordinary waking
variety of type two, knowledge by consciousness (or OWC).
intimate direct contact, allows one's
consciousness to touch directly the
consciousness in others and even in
things so that one can know these by
an intimate, unmediated direct contact.
SELF-KNOWLEDGE.This is the
expert variety of knowledge by identity
(type one) and it leads us directly to
who we are in the very essence of our
being. The little of real self-knowledge
that reaches our surface consciousness
may never attain to that level of
perfection, but in itself this type of
knowledge is intrinsically true and
perfect. It is the secret origin of
whatever there is of real truth in all
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CONTENTS
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH
UNIT METHODOLOGY
2 AND STATISTICS
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Control Variables/ Extraneous variables It does not vary as it held under control.
A control variable is a potential E.g., Temperature, Time of the day, etc.
independent variable that is held constant
during an experiment.
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sampling. Probability sampling is ideal if the strength of this technique. Because the
generalizability of results is important for sampling frame is not subdivided or
your study, but there may be unique partitioned, the sample is unbiased and the
circumstances where non-probability inferences are most generalizable amongst
sampling can also be justified. all probability sampling techniques.
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make up your sample of 200 firms. you can cluster these governments based
However, since there are many more small on their counties, randomly select a set of
firms in a sampling frame than large firms, three counties, and then interview officials
having an equal number of small, medium, from every official in those counties.
and large firms will make the sample less However, depending on between- cluster
representative of the population (i.e., differences, the variability of sample
biased in favor of large firms that are estimates in a cluster sample will generally
fewer in number in the target population). be higher than that of a simple random
This is called non-proportional stratified sample, and hence the results are less
sampling because the proportion of sample generalizable to the population than those
within each subgroup does not reflect the obtained from simple random samples.
proportions in the sampling frame (or the
population of interest), and the smaller EXTRA FOR REFERENCES
subgroup (large-sized firms) is over-
sampled. An alternative technique will be Matched-pairs sampling: Sometimes,
to select subgroup samples in proportion to researchers may want to compare two
their size in the population. For instance, if subgroups within one population based on
there are 100 large firms, 300 mid-sized a specific criterion. For instance, why are
firms, and 600 small firms, you can sample some firms consistently more profitable
20 firms from the “large” group, 60 from than other firms? To conduct such a study,
the “medium” group and 120 from the you would have to categorize a sampling
“small” group. In this case, the frame of firms into “high profitable” firms
proportional distribution of firms in the and “low profitable firms” based on gross
population is retained in the sample, and margins, earnings per share, or some other
hence this technique is called proportional measure of profitability. You would then
stratified sampling. Note that the non- select a simple random sample of firms in
proportional approach is particularly one subgroup, and match each firm in this
effective in representing small subgroups, group with a firm in the second subgroup,
such as large-sized firms, and is not based on its size, industry segment, and/or
necessarily less representative of the other matching criteria. Now, you have
population compared to the proportional two matched samples of high-profitability
approach, as long as the findings of the and low-profitability firms that you can
non-proportional approach is weighted in study in greater detail. Such matched-pairs
accordance to a subgroup’s proportion in sampling technique is often an ideal way
the overall population. of understanding bipolar differences
between different subgroups within a
Cluster sampling: If you have a given population.
population dispersed over a wide
geographic region, it may not be feasible Multi-stage sampling: The probability
to conduct a simple random sampling of sampling techniques described previously
the entire population. In such case, it may are all examples of single-stage sampling
be reasonable to divide the population into techniques. Depending on your sampling
“clusters” (usually along geographic needs, you may combine these single-
boundaries), randomly sample a few stage techniques to conduct multi-stage
clusters, and measure all units within that sampling. For instance, you can stratify a
cluster. For instance, if you wish to sample list of businesses based on firm size, and
city governments in the state of New York, then conduct systematic sampling within
rather than travel all over the state to each stratum. This is a two-stage
interview key city officials (as you may combination of stratified and systematic
have to do with a simple random sample), sampling. Likewise, you can start with a
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cluster of school districts in the state of its patrons, or its location (e.g., a shopping
New York, and within each cluster, select center close to a university will attract
a simple random sample of schools; within primarily university students with unique
each school, select a simple random purchase habits), and therefore may not be
sample of grade levels; and within each representative of the opinions of the
grade level, select a simple random sample shopper population at large. Hence, the
of students for study. In this case, you scientific generalizability of such
have a four-stage sampling process observations will be very limited. Other
consisting of cluster and simple random examples of convenience sampling are
sampling. sampling students registered in a certain
class or sampling patients arriving at a
NONPROBABILITY certain medical clinic. This type of
SAMPLING sampling is most useful for pilot testing,
where the goal is instrument testing or
It is a sampling technique in which some measurement validation rather than
units of the population have zero chance of obtaining generalizable inferences.
selection or where the probability of
selection cannot be accurately determined. Quota sampling: In this technique, the
Typically, units are selected based on population is segmented into mutually-
certain non-random criteria, such as quota exclusive subgroups (just as in stratified
or convenience. Because selection is non- sampling), and then a non-random set of
random, nonprobability sampling does not observations is chosen from each subgroup
allow the estimation of sampling errors, to meet a predefined quota. In proportional
and may be subjected to a sampling bias. quota sampling, the proportion of
Therefore, information from a sample respondents in each subgroup should
cannot be generalized back to the match that of the population. For instance,
population. Types of non-probability if the American population consists of
sampling techniques include: 70% Caucasians, 15% Hispanic-
Americans, and 13% African-Americans,
Convenience sampling: Also called and you wish to understand their voting
accidental or opportunity sampling, this is preferences in an sample of 98 people, you
a technique in which a sample is drawn can stand outside a shopping center and
from that part of the population that is ask people their voting preferences. But
close to hand, readily available, or you will have to stop asking Hispanic-
convenient. For instance, if you stand looking people when you have 15
outside a shopping center and hand out responses from that subgroup (or African-
questionnaire surveys to people or Americans when you have 13 responses)
interview them as they walk in, the sample even as you continue sampling other
of respondents you will obtain will be a ethnic groups, so that the ethnic
convenience sample. This is a non- composition of your sample matches that
probability sample because you are of the general American population. Non-
systematically excluding all people who proportional quota sampling is less
shop at other shopping centers. The restrictive in that you don’t have to
opinions that you would get from your achieve a proportional representation, but
chosen sample may reflect the unique perhaps meet a minimum size in each
characteristics of this shopping center such subgroup. In this case, you may decide to
as the nature of its stores (e.g., high end- have 50 respondents from each of the three
stores will attract a more affluent ethnic subgroups (Caucasians, Hispanic-
demographic), the demographic profile of Americans, and African- Americans), and
stop when your quota for each subgroup is
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Root TermLatin, ‘QUALITAS’ Latin
1. (The root term refers to a primary ‘QUANTITAS’
fromwhich focus on qualities, refers to The
the phrase has the features, of primary focus On
been entities- to differences In
historically distinction in kind. amount.
derived)
2. Definition Qualitative research Quantitative
methods focus on research Methods
discovering and attempt To
understanding the maximize
experiences, objectivity,
perspectives, and replicability, And
thoughts of generalizability Of
participants—that is, findings, and Are
qualitative research typically interested
explores meaning, in prediction.
purpose or reality.
3. Paradigms Interpretive Positivist
(Philosophical perspective. perspective i.e.
Assumptions) “Reality is in the objective reality.
form of multiple, “Reality is
intangible mental assumed to ‘exist’
constructions” i.e. out there”
multiple & Ontology:
subjective reality REALISM
where Epistemology:
researcher interacts OBJECTIVE
with that Methodology:
being researched. EXPERIMENTAL
Ontology: &
RELATIVIST MANIPULATIVE.
Epistemology:
SUBJECTIVE
Methodology:
HERMENEUTICAL
& DIALECTICAL.
4. Method/Types Phenomenology, Experimental,
of Research case study, quasi-
ethnography, experimental,
grounded theory, descriptive,
cultural studies. correlational.
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sometimes engaging
personally in those
activities as a
“participant
observer”.
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TRIANGULATION
Triangulation is the process by which which the data were collected or measured. By
several methods (data sources, theories or linking different methods, the researcher
researchers) are used in the study of one intends that each method
phenomena. The concept has its origin in Denzin (1989) differentiates between four
ancient Greek mathematics; in modern different types of triangulation:
times, it is employed in topographic
surveying as a checking system. Triangulation of Data
'Triangulation' is a process of verification Triangulation of
that increases validity by incorporating Investigators/Observers
several viewpoints and methods. In the
Triangulation of Theories
social sciences, it refers to the combination
of two or more theories, data sources, Triangulation of Methodologies
methods or investigators in one study of a
single phenomenon to converge on a single
construct, and can be employed in both DATA TRIANGULATION:
quantitative (validation) and qualitative
(inquiry) studies. Using one data origin may sometimes not
be ideal. Collecting information from
When researchers employ triangulation, more than one source can extend and
multiple measures are used to ensure that enhance the research process. Banister and
any data variance is not due to the way in colleagues suggest that more than one
enhances the other, since all the viewpoint, site, or source, increases
information that is collected potentially diversity, thus leading to increased
offers to be contextually richer than if it understanding of the research topic.
were seen from only one vantage point.
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The authors propose it can be helpful to It involves the use of different theoretical
look at data collected at different times, or perspectives in the study of one problem.
stages, of fieldwork, in order to re-evaluate Theoretical triangulation explores, and is
(“research”) the material. This might mean informed by, more than one theory or
checking if anything has been overlooked theoretical framework. It acknowledges,
or given too much emphasis, during the and allows for, the broad range of theories,
research process. The use of triangulation complexity and diversity of the real world
can be very helpful when verification of and how different theories may be
data is needed. accounted for in research.
The approach supports research being a METHODOLOGICAL
reflexive, organic process, enriched by TRIANGULATION:
researchers’ increasing depth of
It involves using more than one research
knowledge as they investigate the area.
method or data collection technique. Here
This is linked to the role of reflexivity in
the researcher chooses the method of
qualitative research, considered by many
inquiry according to the question being
to be an essential component in qualitative
researched e.g. by observing behaviours
inquiry (Banister et al., 2011). Other
(an observational approach) or exploring
factors which may be considered include
how participants feel e.g. using interviews.
whether flaws were found in the research
Triangulated techniques are helpful for
design, how the research study might be
cross-checking and used to provide
improved or refined, what further research
confirmation and completeness, which
might be needed etc. Some researchers
brings 'balance' between two or more
advocate keeping a journal or diary
different types of research. The purpose is
recording these reflexions during the
to increase the credibility and validity of
actual research process.
the results.
INVESTIGATOR TRIANGULATION:
Although triangulation is generally
It means that more than one researcher is considered helpful when using qualitative
involved in the research. Investigator methods, it can just as equally be applied
triangulation has the potential to enrich the to quantitative or mixed methods research.
research process, however, it also flags up It is a pragmatic and strategic approach,
the possibility of difficulties in using this whether applied to qualitative or
method. qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln,
1998). It may be viewed as providing a
The authors suggest that- “it cannot be way of expanding the research perspective
assumed that that those around the table and becomes another means of
will have an equally shared degree of strengthening research findings.
responsibility and contribution. If not, then
once again fairness is challenged and 'TRIANGULATION' AS AN
ultimately more problems are created than EFFECTIVE TOOL OF RESEARCH
solved.” METHODOLOGY
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studies. There are basically three types of research, with agreement between two
biasness: firstly, the measurement bias is independent researchers being similar to
caused by the way in which data are the notion of inter-rater reliability, and
collected; secondly, sampling bias causes agreement between two observations of
as all the population under study are not the same phenomenon by the same
covered; and thirdly, procedural bias researcher akin to test -retest reliability. To
occurs when participants are put under ensure dependability, interpretive
some kind of pressure to provide researchers must provide adequate details
about their phenomenon of interest and the
information.
social context in which it is embedded so
RIGOR IN INTERPRETIVE as to allow readers to independently
RESEARCH / QUALITATIVE authenticate their interpretive inferences.
RESEARCH Credibility. Interpretive research can be
While positivist research employs a considered credible if readers find its
“reductionist” approach by simplifying inferences to be believable. This concept is
social reality into parsimonious theories akin to that of internal validity in
and laws, interpretive research attempts to functionalistic research. The credibility of
interpret social reality through the interpretive research can be improved by
subjective viewpoints of the embedded providing evidence of the researcher’s
participants within the context where the extended engagement in the field, by
reality is situated. These interpretations are demonstrating data triangulation across
heavily contextualized, and are naturally subjects or data collection techniques, and
less generalizable to other contexts. by maintaining meticulous data
However, because interpretive analysis is management and analytic procedures, such
subjective and sensitive to the experiences as verbatim transcription of interviews,
and insight of the embedded researcher, it accurate records of contacts and
is often considered less rigorous by many interviews, and clear notes on theoretical
positivist (functionalist) researchers. and methodological decisions, that can
Because interpretive research is based on allow an independent audit of data
different set of ontological and collection and analysis if needed.
epistemological assumptions about social Confirmability. Confirmability refers to the
phenomenon than positivist research, the extent to which the findings reported in
positivist notions of rigor, such as interpretive research can be independently
reliability, internal validity, and confirmed by others (typically,
generalizability, do not apply in a similar participants). This is similar to the notion
manner. However, Lincoln and Guba of objectivity in functionalistic research.
(1985) [16] provide an alternative set of Since interpretive research rejects the
criteria that can be used to judge the rigor notion of an objective reality,
of interpretive research. confirmability is demonstrated in terms of
Dependability. Interpretive research can be “inter-subjectivity”, i.e., if the study’s
viewed as dependable or authentic if two participants agree with the inferences
researchers assessing the same derived by the researcher. For instance, if
phenomenon using the same set of a study’s participants generally agree with
evidence independently arrive at the same the inferences drawn by a researcher about
conclusions or the same researcher a phenomenon of interest (based on a
observing the same or a similar review of the research paper or report),
phenomenon at different times arrives at then the findings can be viewed as
similar conclusions. This concept is similar confirmable.
to that of reliability in positivist
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PROCEDURE OF OBSERVATION:
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TYPES OF OBSERVATION
ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
Can be used where experimental method Allows better understanding of the natives
perspectives.
cannot be used.
Original behavior can be observed. Being a member, there is access to the
private or the tabooed data.
Any kind of reliance on any kind of
informant is reduced and thus a higher
objectivity is obtained.
LIMITATION: LIMITATION:
Cause-effect relationship Cannot be Mental and Physical strain.
established. Expectancyeffectmightbiasthe
Replication opportunities are absent. observation.
Observer bias can produce subjectivity in May lead to emotional binding with the
the findings. group under study and may dilute
researcher’s objectivity.
Primary problem unique to observation is that it is simply descriptive in nature and does not allow
us to assess the relationship among events.
SURVEY [INTERVIEW,
QUESTIONNAIRES] one opportunity to collect data from each
informant. Therefore, questions needs to
QUESTIONNAIRES be clear, comprehensive and effective. The
A notable feature: There is usually only steps in developing questions is very
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similar to developing questions for a semi- types of data. For example, closed
structured interview. questions provide people with a fixed set
of responses, whereas open questions
Closed Questions allow people to express what they think in
their own words.
Also called, MCQ’s. They are straight-
forward, quick to answer and lie within Sometimes researchers use an interview
intellectual range of the majority of schedule. This is a set of prepared
population. questions designed to be asked exactly as
worded. Interviews schedules have a
The responses are easily turned into standardised format which means the same
quantitative data. questions are asked to each interviewee in
Types of Closed Questions: the same order.
a. Checklist: Presents a range of Quite often interviews will be recorded by
possible answers to tick as many as the researcher and the data written up as a
may apply. transcript (a written account of interview
b. Questions: Answering the question questions and answers) which can be
by placing in rank-order in terms of analyzed at a later date.
preferences, frequency, etc. The interviewer must ensure that they take
special care when interviewing vulnerable
c. Graded Response Questions: groups, such as the children. For example,
Expresses degree of magnitude. children have a limited attention span and
Such as asking for degree of for this reason lengthy interviews should
be avoided.
agreement.
Also the language the interviewer uses
Open-ended questions: Inviting a more should be appropriate to the vocabulary of
precise, and personal response. the group of people being studied. For
example, the researcher must change the
The MCQ’s though are relatively language of questions to match the social
inexpensive to analyze, poses a major background of respondents' age /
drawback of fixed alternative questions is educational level / social class / ethnicity
putting answers in people’s mouth. In etc.
such situations, open-ended questions
allow a free response from the respondent. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS:
It is always advisable to conduct a ‘pilot
study’ for testing the questionnaires due to STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
their limitations in true representation.
Pilot Survey is the replica and rehearsal of This is also known as a formal interview.
the main survey. This allows bringing in The questions are asked in a set /
light the weakness of the questionnaires standardized order and the interviewer will
and also of the survey techniques. not deviate from the interview schedule or
probe beyond the answers received (so
they are not flexible). These are based on
INTERVIEWS structured, closed-ended questions.
Interviews are different from Strengths Structured interviews are easy
questionnaires as they involve social to replicate as a fixed set of closed
interaction. Unlike questionnaires questions are used, which are easy to
researchers need training in how to quantify – this means it is easy to test for
interview (which costs money). reliability.
Researchers can ask different types of
questions which in turn generate different
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Structured interviews are fairly quick to They also have increased validity because
conduct which means that many interviews it gives the interviewer the opportunity to
can take place within a short amount of probe for a deeper understanding, ask for
time. This means a large sample can be clarification & allow the interviewee to
obtained resulting in the findings being steer the direction of the interview etc.
representative and having the ability to be Limitations
generalized to a large population.
It can be time consuming to conduct an
Limitations unstructured interview and analyze the
Structure interviews are not flexible. qualitative data (using methods such as
This means new questions cannot be thematic analysis).
asked impromptu (i.e. during the Employing and training interviewers is
interview) as an interview schedule expensive, and not as cheap as
must be followed. collecting data via questionnaires. For
The answers from structured interviews example, certain skills may be needed
lack detail as only closed questions are by the interviewer. These include the
asked which generates quantitative data. ability to establish rapport & knowing
This means a research will won't know when to probe.
why a person behaves in a certain way.
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confidential and respect their privacy. This clothing) of the interviewer can have an
is difficult when using a group interview. effect on the rapport between the
For example, the researcher cannot interviewer and interviewee.
guarantee that the other people in the Ethnicity: People have difficulty
group will keep information private. interviewing people from a different ethnic
Group interviews are less reliable as they group.
use open questions and may deviate from
the interview schedule making them EXPERIMENTAL (IMPORTANT
difficult to repeat. Group interviews may FOR PAPER 1 – RESEARCH
sometimes lack validity as participants APTITUDE & PAPER II)
may lie to impress the other group
members. They may conform to peer Experimental research, often considered to
pressure and give false answers. be the “gold standard” in research designs,
is one of the most rigorous of all research
THE INTERVIEWER EFFECT designs. In this design, one or more
independent variables are manipulated by
Because an interview is a social interaction the researcher (as treatments), subjects are
the appearance or behavior of the randomly assigned to different treatment
interviewer may influence the answers of levels (random assignment), and the
the respondent. This is a problem as it can results of the treatments on outcomes
bias the results of the study and make them (dependent variables) are observed. The
invalid. unique strength of experimental research is
For example, the gender, ethnicity, body its internal validity (causality) due to its
language, age, and social status of the ability to link cause and effect through
interview can all create an interviewer treatment manipulation, while controlling
effect. for the spurious effect of extraneous
For example, if a researcher was variable. Experimental research is best
investigating sexism amongst males, suited for explanatory research (rather than
would a female interview be more for descriptive or exploratory research),
preferable than a male? It is possible that if where the goal of the study is to examine
a female interviewer was used male cause-effect relationships. It also works
participants may lie (i.e. pretend they are well for research that involves a relatively
not sexist) to impress the interview, thus limited and well-defined set of
creating an interviewer effect. independent variables that can either be
manipulated or controlled. Experimental
research can be conducted in laboratory or
DESIGN OF INTERVIEWS field settings.
First you must choose whether to use a
structured or non-structured interview. Experimental research can be grouped into
Next, you must consider who will be the two broad categories: true experimental
interviewer, and this will depend on what designs and quasi-experimental designs.
type of person is being interviewed. There Both designs require treatment
are a number of variables to consider: manipulation, but while true experiments
also require random assignment, quasi-
Gender and age: This can have a big
experiments do not. Sometimes, we also
effect on respondent’s answer,
refer to non-experimental research, which
particularly on person issues.
is not really a research design, but an all-
Personal characteristics: Some people inclusive term that includes all types of
are easier to get on with than others. research that do not employ treatment
Also, the accent and appearance (e.g. manipulation or random assignment, such
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Limitation: Limitation:
There is less control over extraneous They may be more expensive and time
variables that might bias the results. This consuming than lab experiments. There is
makes it difficult for another researcher to no control over extraneous variables that
replicate the study in exactly the same might bias the results. This makes it
way. difficult for another researcher to replicate
the study in exactly the same way.
3. NATURAL EXPERIMENT
KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
Natural experiments are conducted in the
everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
Ecological validity: The degree to
participants, but here the experimenter has
which an investigation represents
no control over the IV as it occurs
real-life experiences.
naturally in real life.
Experimenter effects: These are the
For example, Hodges and Tizard's
ways that the experimenter can
attachment research (1989) compared the
accidentallyinfluencethe
long term development of children who
participant through their
have been adopted, fostered or returned to
appearance or behavior.
their mothers with a control group of
children who had spent all their lives in
Demand characteristics: The clues
their biological families.
in an experiment that lead the
participants to think they know
Strength:
what the researcher is looking for
(e.g. experimenter’s body
Behavior in a natural experiment is more
language).
likely to reflect real life because of its
natural setting, i.e. very high ecological
Independent variable (IV):
validity.
Variable the experimenter
manipulates (i.e. changes) –
There is less likelihood of demand
assumed to have a direct effect on
characteristics affecting the results, as the dependent variable.
participants may not know they are being
studied.
Dependent variable (DV): Variable
the experimenter measures. This is
Can be used in situations in which it would the outcome (i.e. result) of a study.
be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the
independent variable, e.g. researching
Extraneous variables (EV): All
stress.
variables, which are not the
independent variable, but could
affect the results (DV) of the
experiment. EVs should be
controlled where possible.
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It is an interpretive method and this
analysis of this research provides is subjective and entirely
insights into how the kids of different dependent on the ability of the
geographical locations and researcher.
backgrounds respond to sports and the In this method, it is impossible to
impact of sports on their all-round control external variables and this
development.
constantly alters the nature of the
research.
Study animal migration patterns
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES
Field research is used extensively to
study flora and fauna. A major use case Cross-cultural research is a scientific
is scientists monitoring and studying method of comparative research which
animal migration patterns with the focuses on systematic comparisons that
change of seasons. Field research helps compares culture to culture and explicitly
collect data across years and that helps aims to answer questions about the
draw conclusions about how to safely incidence, distributions, and causes of
expedite the safe passage of animals. cultural variation and complex problems
across a wide domain, usually worldwide.
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and to identify what may be universal and and characteristic ways of interrelating
variable about human cultures, as well as that are shared with neighbouring and
to discover reasons why the variation interacting groups, and shared among
exists. Cross-cultural psychologists dispersed groups that have common
generally collect primary data, they do not historical experiences and similarities,
make use of secondary data derived from including common origin, common
national surveys on issues such as crime membership in historical civilizations, and
rate, gross national product, etc. however, languages that are mutually understood or
their comparison tend to be limited often that derive common families. Lines of
only to two-cultures (the investigator’s cleavage, conflict, and marginality, of
own and one other). course, are part of cultural phenomena.
Elements and relationships that individuals
PERSPECTIVES IN CROSS- or communities have in common are
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY shared in a variety of ways. Some, such as
the more intensive patterns of interaction
Basically, there are two types of that derive from common residence, joint
perspectives in cross-cultural psychology: experience, and discourse in a common
the Absolutist Approach and the Relativist language or system of signs, are relatively
approach. The absolutists view in cross- well bounded. Other patterns of sharing or
cultural psychology is that psychological similarity derive from processes of
phenomena are basically the same in all dispersal: migration, Diasporas, the
cultures while the relativists view in cross- trajectory of lives lived through spatial
cultural psychology is that psychological movements, social mobility, careers, and
phenomena should be studied only from distinctive histories.
“within” a culture where these phenomena Interactions are by no means limited to
occur. localities, but to the trajectories of
inhabitants who move through and
TYPES OF CULTURES: between localities. Cultures consist of
SUBCULTURES OR POPULATIONS shared constructions that emerge out of
social interactions of sets of individuals
Culture is a matrix of behaviours, beliefs, who inhabit overlapping social and
practices and values that typifies a physical spaces. Coherence may be
particular group of people. It deals with a viewed as an emergent property, but may
variety of things that influence all aspects be present or absent to varying degrees
of behaviour; emphasizes group influence and along varying dimensions or
rather than individual variability and trajectories.
essential part of the meaning-formation
process.
PHENOMENOLOGY
Human communities have a variety of
practices, beliefs, social roles, norms, Phenomenology is a research method that
expressions, forms of organization and emphasizes the study of conscious
conflicts (economic, political, legal, experiences as a way of understanding the
religious, expressive and artistic) that reality around us. It is based on the ideas
exhibit various sorts of internal coherence of German philosopher Edmund Husserl in
as well as cleavages within communities. th
the early 20 century who believed that
These coherences and cleavages bear
human experience is the source of all
many close connections to the different
knowledge. Phenomenology is concerned
historical experiences, physical and social with the systematic reflection and analysis
environments in which people live. They
include configurations of elements
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AXIAL CODING:
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two-by-two tables, diagrams, or figures, or sample of texts for accuracy and adequacy.
other illustrative displays. However, if the coding schema is biased
or incorrect, the resulting analysis of the
Concept mapping is a graphical entire population of text may be flawed
representation of concepts and and non-interpretable. However, software
relationships between those concepts (e.g., programs cannot decipher the meaning
using boxes and arrows). The major behind the certain words or phrases or the
concepts are typically laid out on one or context within which these words or
more sheets of paper, blackboards, or phrases are used (such as those in
using graphical software programs, linked sarcasms or metaphors), which may lead
to each other using arrows, and readjusted to significant misinterpretation in large
to best fit the observed data. scale qualitative analysis.
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her or his audience. To repeat, when they are being told (Bakhtin, 1986).
narratives are looked on within the Bruner (1984) maintained that you always
framework of sociocultural theory, we create or hear about a narrative in terms
have to remember the interlinking between of your life experiences and background.
the individual and her or his context. As
UNDERSTANDING NARRATIVE
individuals are telling their stories, they
RESEARCH:
are not isolated and independent of their
context. On the contrary, it is important to Narrative research is a term that subsumes
remember that the individual in question is a group of approaches that in turn rely on
irreducibly connected to her or his social, the written or spoken words or visual
cultural and institutional setting (Wertsch, representation of individuals. These
1991). Narratives, therefore, capture both approaches typically focus on the lives of
the individual and the context. individuals as told through their own
stories. The emphasis in such approaches
Like all of us, teachers tell and retell their
is on the story, typically both what and
stories of experience both for themselves
how is narrated.
and for others in different social settings,
at different times and for different Narrative research can be considered
addressees. This means that the both a research method in itself but also
perspective on their experiences constantly the phenomenon under study.
changes form as they gain new experiences
and engage in dialogues with other people Narrative methods can be considered “real
(Heikkinen, 2002). Stories cannot be world measures” that are appropriate when
viewed simply as abstract structures “real life problems” are investigated. In a
isolated from their cultural context. They basic linear approach, they encompass the
must be seen as rooted in society and as study of the experiences of a single
experienced and performed by individuals individual embracing stories of the life and
in cultural settings (Bruner, 1984). Human exploring the learned significance of those
knowledge and personal identities are individual experiences. However, in most
therefore continually constructed and cases one will be creating an aggregate of
revised. Experience of the world, like each narratives each bearing on the others.
person’s perception of While some types of qualitative analysis
her-orhimself, is a continuously have a standard set of procedures,
developing narrative that is constantly narrative research is questionable in this
forming and changing form. Here human regard. One of the weaknesses of
knowledge is regarded as a plurality of studying narratives is that the text is by
small narratives, local and personal in its own nature linguistically subjective. i.e.
nature, that are always under construction difficult to quantitatively access in an
(Heikkinen, 2002). There isno single, objective manner since it is subjective i.e.
dominant, or static reality but, rather, a personally meaningful.
number of realities that are constructed in
the process of interactions and dialogues. A number of data collection methods can be
Human knowledge of the world is thus used, as the researcher and the research
relative. It is dependent on the individual’s subjects work together in this collaborative
past and present experiences, her or his dialogic relationship. Data can be in the
values, the people the stories are being told form of field notes; journal records;
to (the addressees), and when and where interview transcripts; one’s own and other’s
observations; storytelling; letter
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(Polkinghorne, 1988, p. 1), then it makes interviews and other sources, such as
sense to argue that the stories we tell are observation. The client also reports detail
such because they reflect the stories we are of events from his or her point of view.
(McAdams, 1993) The researcher then writes up the
information from both sources above as
Narrative Methods the case study, and interprets the
information.The research may also
In recent years, a number of qualitative, in-
continue for an extended period of time, so
depth interviewing techniques have been processes and developments can be
designed to elicit explicitly narrative studied as they happen.
accounts--some open-ended and
unstructured, others semi-structured and Amongst the sources of data the
guided; the free association narrative psychologist is likely to turn to when
interview method (Hollway& Jefferson, carrying out a case study are observations
2008), the biographic-narrative of a person’s daily routine, unstructured
interpretive method--an interview interviews with the participant herself (and
technique that leads into personal with people who know her), diaries,
experience, lived situations and life- personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs,
histories, or narrative oriented inquiry, to notes) or official document (e.g. case
name a few. notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).
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they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. adopt a holistic point of view (i.e.
they focus on the individual case without humanistic psychologists).
reference to a comparison group.
LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDIES
Interpreting the information means the
researcher decides what to include or leave Can’t generalize the results to the
out. A good case study should always wider population.
make clear which information is the Researchers' own subjective
factual description and which is an feeling may influence the case
inference or the opinion of the researcher. study (researcher bias).
Difficult to replicate.
STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDIES Time-consuming.
Provides detailed (rich qualitative) Because a case study deals with only one
information. person/event/group we can never be sure
Provides insight for further whether the conclusions drawn from this
research. particular case apply elsewhere.
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With very large samples where median, is the middle value within a
observations are independent and range of values in a distribution. This is
random, the frequency distribution tends computed by sorting all values in a
to follow a plot that looked like a bell- distribution in increasing order and
shaped curve (a smoothed bar chart of selecting the middle value. In case there
the frequency distribution) similar to that are two middle values (if there is an even
shown in Figure 14.2, where most number of values in a distribution), the
observations are clustered toward the average of the two middle values
center of the range of values, and fewer represent the median. In the above
and fewer observations toward the example, the sorted values are: 15, 15,
extreme ends of the range. Such a curve 15, 18, 22, 21, 25, 36. The two middle
is called a normal distribution. values are 18 and 22, and hence the
median is (18 + 22)/2 = 20.
Central tendency is an estimate of the Lastly, the mode is the most frequently
center of a distribution of values. There occurring value in a distribution of values. In
are three major estimates of central the previous example, the most frequently
tendency: mean, median, and mode. The occurring value is 15, which is the mode of
arithmetic mean (often simply called the the above set of test scores. Note that any
“mean”) is the simple average of all value that is estimated from a sample, such as
values in a given distribution. Consider a mean, median, mode, or any of the later
set of eight test scores: 15, 22, 21, 18, estimates are called a statistic.
36, 15, 25, 15. The arithmetic mean of
these values is (15 + 20 Dispersion refers to the way values are spread
21+20+36+15+25+15)/8= around the central tendency, for example, how
20.875. Other types of means include tightly or how widely are the values clustered
geometric mean (n th root of the product around the mean. Two common measures of
of n numbers in a distribution) and dispersion are the range and standard
harmonic mean (the reciprocal of the deviation. The range is the difference between
arithmetic means of the reciprocal of the highest and lowest values in a distribution.
each value in a distribution), but these The range in our previous example is 36-15 =
means are not very popular for statistical 21.
analysis of social research data. The
second measure of central tendency, the
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willing to accept before we collect data (p If our t test produces a t-value that results
.05 is a common value that is used). in a probability of .01, we say that the
After we collect data, we calculate a test likelihood of getting the difference we
statistic with a formula. We compare our found by chance would be 1 in 100 times.
test statistic with a critical value found on We could say that it is unlikely that our
a table to see if our results fall within the results occurred by chance and the
acceptable level of probability. Modern difference we found in the sample
computer programs calculate the test probably exists in the populations from
statistic for us and also provide the exact which it was drawn.
probability of obtaining that test statistic
with the number of subjects we have. Five factors contribute to whether the
difference between two groups’ means
STUDENT’S TEST (T TEST): can be considered significant:
When the difference between two How large is the difference between
population averages is being the means of the two groups?
investigated, a t test is used. In other Other factors being equal, the
words, a t test is used when we wish to greater the difference between the
compare two means (the scores must be two means, the greater the
measured on an interval or ratio likelihood that a statistically
measurement scale). We would use a t test significant mean difference exists.
if we wished to compare the reading If the means of the two groups are
achievement of boys and girls. With a t far apart, we can be fairly
test, we have one independent variable and confident that there is a real
one dependent variable. The independent difference between them.
variable (gender in this case) can only How much overlap is there between
have two levels (male and female). The the groups? This is a function of
dependent variable would be reading the variation within the groups.
achievement. If the independent had Other factors being equal, the
more than two levels, then we would use smaller the variances of the two
a one-way analysis of variance groups under consideration, the
(ANOVA). greater the likelihood that a
statistically significant mean
The test statistic that a t test produces is a difference exists. We can be more
t-value. Conceptually, t-values are an confident that two groups differ
extension of z-scores. In a way, the t- when the scores within each group
value represents how many standard units are close together.
the means of the two groups are apart. How many subjects are in the two
samples? The size of the sample is
With a t test, the researcher wants to state extremely important in determining
with some degree of confidence that the the significance of the difference
obtained difference between the means of between means. With increased
the sample groups is too great to be a sample size, means tend to become
chance event and that some difference also more stable representations of
exists in the population from which the group performance. If the
sample was drawn. In other words, the difference we find remains
difference that we might find between the constant as we collect more and
boys’ and girls’ reading achievement in more data, we become more
our sample might have occurred by confident that we can trust the
chance, or it might exist in the population. difference we are finding.
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The samples have been randomly This is concerned with the difference
drawn from their respective between the average scores of a single
populations sample of individuals who are assessed
The scores in the population are at two different times (such as before
normally distributed treatment and after treatment). It can
The scores in the populations have the also compare average scores of
same variance (s1=s2) Note: We samples of individuals who are paired
use a different calculation for the in some way (such as siblings,
standard error if they are not. mothers, daughters, persons who are
Pair-difference t test (a.k.a. t-test for matched in terms of a particular
dependent groups, correlated t test) df= n characteristics).
(number of pairs) -1
T-test for Independent Samples (with
two options)
This is concerned with the difference
between the averages of two
populations. Basically, the procedure
compares the averages of two samples
that were selected independently of each
other, and asks whether those sample
averages differ enough to believe that
the populations from which they were
selected also have different averages. An
example would be comparing math
achievement scores
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How do I decide which type of t test to
use?
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
WHITNEY TEST, KRUSKAL-
[SIGN TEST, WILCOXON SIGNED
WALLIS TEST, FRIEDMAN].
RANK TEST, MANN-
A non-parametric test (sometimes called a
distribution free test) does not assume
anything about the underlying distribution
(for example, that the data comes from a
normal distribution). That’s compared to
parametric test, which makes assumptions
about a population’s parameters (for
example, the mean or standard deviation);
When the word “non parametric” is used
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in stats, it doesn’t quite mean that you Use this test to estimate the median of a
know nothing about the population. It population and compare it to a reference
usually means that you know the value or target value.
population data does not have a normal
distribution. The sign test is a statistical test to compare
the sizes of two groups. It is a non-
For example, one assumption for the one- parametric or “distribution free” test,
way ANOVA is that the data comes from a which means the test doesn’t assume the
normal distribution. If your data isn’t data comes from a particular distribution,
normally distributed, you can’t run an like the normal distribution. The sign test
ANOVA, but you can run the is an alternative to a one sample t test or a
nonparametric alternative—the Kruskal- paired t test. It can also be used for
Wallis test. ordered (ranked) categorical data.
If at all possible, you should us parametric The null hypothesis for the sign test is that
tests, as they tend to be more accurate. the difference between medians is zero.
Parametric tests have greater statistical For a one sample sign test, where the
power, which means they are likely to find median for a single sample is analyzed.
a true significant effect. Use nonparametric
tests only if you have to (i.e. you know HOW TO CALCULATE A
that assumptions like PAIRED/MATCHED SAMPLE SIGN
normality are being violated). TEST: (FOR REFERENCE)
Nonparametric tests can perform well with
non-normal continuous data if you have a https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece
sufficiently large sample size (generally ntral.com/sign-test/
15-20 items in each group). 1-SAMPLE WILCOXON
SIGNED RANK TEST.
TYPES OF NONPARAMETRIC
TESTS With this test, you also estimate the
population median and compare it to a
When the word “parametric” is used in reference/target value. However, the test
stats, it usually means tests like ANOVA assumes your data comes from a
or a t test. Those tests both assume that the symmetric distribution (like the Cauchy
population data has a normal distribution. distribution or uniform distribution).
Non-parametric do not assume that the
data is normally distributed. The only non- The Wilcoxon signed rank test (also called
parametric test you are likely to come the Wilcoxon signed rank sum test) is a
across in elementary stats is the chi-square non-parametric test. When the word “non-
test. However, there are several others. For parametric” is used in stats, it doesn’t quite
example: the Kruskal Willis test is the mean that you know nothing about the
non-parametric alternative to the One-way population. It usually means that you know
ANOVA and the Mann Whitney is the the population data does not have a normal
non-parametric alternative to the two- distribution. The Wilcoxon signed rank
sample t test. test should be used if the differences
between pairs of data are non-normally
THE MAIN NON-PARAMETRIC distributed.
TESTS ARE:
1-SAMPLE SIGN TEST. Two slightly different versions of the test
exist:
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https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece
ntral.com/mann-whitney-u-test/
SPEARMAN RANK
MOOD’S MEDIAN TEST. CORRELATION.
Use this test instead of the sign test when Use when you want to find a correlation
you have two independent samples. between two sets of data. The Spearman
rank correlation coefficient, rs, is the
Mood’s median test is used to compare the nonparametric version of the Pearson
medians for two samples to find out if they correlation coefficient. Your data must be
are different. For example, you might want ordinal, interval or ratio. Spearman’s
to compare the median number of positive returns a value from -1 to 1, where:
calls to a hotline vs. the median number of
negative comment calls to find out if +1 = a perfect positive
you’re getting significantly more negative correlation between ranks
comments than positive comments (or vice -1 = a perfect negative
versa). correlation between ranks
0 = no correlation
This test is the nonparametric alternative to between ranks.
a one way ANOVA; Nonparametric means
that you don’t have to know what
distribution your sample came from (i.e. a
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https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece
ntral.com/spearman-rank-correlation-
definition-calculate/
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POWER 1 It is the probability of correctly rejecting
a false null hypothesis.
Power is defined as the probability of 2 With low power, the null hypothesis is
correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis. unlikely to be rejected. When the null
In terms of our example, it is the hypothesis is not rejected, the experiment
probability that given there is a difference is inconclusive.
between the population means of the new
method and the standard method, the
sample means will be significantly FACTORS AFFECTING POWER
different. The probability of failing to
reject a false null hypothesis is often Several factors affect the power of a
referred to as β. Therefore, power can be statistical test. Some of the factors are
defined as: under the control of the experimenter,
whereas others are not.
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COHEN'S D
It is an appropriate effect size for the
comparison between two means. It can be
used, for example, to accompany the
reporting of t-test and ANOVA results. It
2 All except (A) is also widely used in meta-analysis.
3 Only decreasing the significance level.
The others have no effect. To calculate the standardized mean
difference between two groups, subtract
EFFECT SIZE the mean of one group from the other (M1
– M2) and divide the result by the standard
deviation (SD) of the population from
which the groups were sampled.
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PEARSON R CORRELATION
Cohen suggested that d=0.2 be considered
This parameter of effect size summarizes
a 'small' effect size, 0.5 represents a
the strength of the bivariate relationship.
'medium' effect size and 0.8 a 'large' effect
The value of the effect size of Pearson r
size. This means that if two groups' means
correlation varies between -1 (a perfect
don't differ by 0.2 standard deviations or
negative correlation) to +1 (a perfect
more, the difference is trivial, even if it is
positive correlation).
statistically significant.
CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS:
PARTIAL CORRELATION,
MULTIPLE CORRELATION.
PARTIAL CORRELATION,
MULTIPLE CORRELATION
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LIMITATIONS OF
CORRELATIONS
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or ratio) data for both x and y whereas the moment correlation coefficient, there are
Spearman rho correlation coefficient coefficients which are instead measures of
applied to ranked (ordinal) data for both x association which are also in common use.
and y. It is often the case that the data
variables are not at the same level of For the purposes of correlation
measurement, or that the data might coefficients, we can generally lump the
instead of being quantitative be categorical interval and ratio scales together as just
(nominal or ordinal). In addition to quantitative. In addition, the regression of
correlation coefficients based on the x on y is closely related to the regression
product moment and thus related to the of y on x, and the same coefficient applies.
Pearson product
Quantitative X Ordinal
Variable Y/X X Nominal X
(Interval/Ratio)
Quantitative Y Pearson’s r - -
(Interval/Ratio)
Tetrachoric r
Biserial
(Both variables are
Ordinal Y (Artificial Dichotomous- -
dichotomous + Continuous
+
Continuous)
Normally distributed)
Point-
biserial
Phi
Nominal Y (Dichotomous- Rank Biserial
Coefficient
Dichotomous)
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continuous-level data contain more show that the test of the phi coefficient is
variance information than nominal data equivalent to the chi-square test.
and thus make any correlation analysis
more reliable. Remember, one of the ways chi-square is
interpreted is as a test of independence.
The test of independence refers to whether
BISERIAL CORRELATION: or not two varables are related. If two
variables are related, they are correlated.
Biserial correlation (rbis) is a
correlational index that estimates the So, when we conduct a chi-square test, and
strength of a relationship between an we want to have a rough estimate of how
artificially dichotomous variable (X) and a strongly related the two variables are, we
true continuous variable (Y). Both can examine phi. Squaring phi will give
variables are assumed to be normally you the approximate amount of shared
distributed in their underlying populations. variance between the two variables, as
does r-square.
The biserial correlation coefficient is
also a correlation coefficient where one of If both variables instead are nominal and
the samples is measured as dichotomous, dichotomous, the Pearson simplifies even
but where that sample is really normally further. First, perhaps, we need to
distributed. In such cases, the point- introduce contingency tables. A
biserial correlation generally under-reports contingency table is a two dimensional
the true value of the association. The table containing frequencies by category.
biserial correlation coefficient provides a For this situation it will be two by two
better estimate in this case. since each variable can only take on two
values, but each dimension will exceed
The phi-coefficient and the tetrachoric two when the associated variable is not
correlation coefficient are two measures dichotomous. In addition, column and row
of association for dichotomous headings and totals are frequently
variables. appended so that the contingency table
ends up being n + 2 by m + 2, where n and
PHI COEFFICIENT m are the number of values each variable
can take on. The label and total row and
There is another special case of correlation column typically are outside the gridded
called "phi" (or f, the Greek letter f ). Phi portion of the table, however.
represents the correlation between two
dichotmous variables. As with the point- EXTRA FOR REFERENCES
biserial, computing the Pearson correlation
for two dichotomous variables is the same Cramer's V
as the phi.
Cramer's V is used to examine the
Similar to the t-test/correlation association between two categorical
equivalence, the relationship between two variables when there is more than a 2 X 2
dichotomous variables is the same as the contingency (e.g., 2 X 3). In these more
difference between two groups when the complicated designs, phi is not
dependent variable is dichotmous. The appropriate, but Cramer's statistic is.
appropriate test to compare group Cramer's V represents the association or
differences with a dichotmous outcome is correlation between two variables. I've
the chi-square statistic. And, we can also also seen this statistic referred to as
"Cramers Phi".
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TETRACHORIC CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT
The tetrachoric correlation coefficient, rtet, Ranks are discrete so in this manner it
is used when both variables are differs from the Spearman. The tetrachoric
dichotomous, like the phi, but we need correlation is used in a variety of contexts,
also to be able to assume both variables one important one being in Item Response
really are continuous and normally Theory (IRT) analyses of test scores, a
second in the conversion of co-morbity
distributed. Thus it is applied to ordinal vs.
statistics to correlation coefficients.
ordinal data which has this characteristic.
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predicting is called the criterion variable the regression line and consists of the
and is referred to as Y. The variable we predicted score on Y for each possible
are basing our predictions on is called the value of X. The vertical lines from the
predictor variable and is referred to as points to the regression line represent the
X. When there is only one predictor errors of prediction. As you can see, the
variable, the prediction method is called red point is very near the regression line;
simple regression. In simple linear its error of prediction is small. By contrast,
regression, the topic of this section, the the yellow point is much higher than the
predictions of Y when plotted as a function regression line and therefore its error of
of X form a straight line. prediction is large.
Linear regression consists of finding the The error of prediction for a point is the
best-fitting straight line through the points. value of the point minus the predicted
The best-fitting line is called a regression value (the value on the line).
line. The black diagonal line in Figure 2 is
By far, the most commonly-used criterion column in Table 2 shows the squared
for the best-fitting line is the line that errors of prediction. The sum of the
minimizes the sum of the squared errors of squared errors of prediction shown in
prediction. That is the criterion that was Table 2 is lower than it would be for any
used to find the line in Figure 2. The last other regression line.
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1 Plug X = 4 into the equation to find Y'= high high-school GPAs are close to
3(4)-2=10 the regression line, whereas the
2 Plug A = 40 into the equation to find B'= points for low high-school GPA
2.3(40) + 9.5 = 101.5 students are not.
3 Predicted value, B' = 2.3(32.5) + 9.5 = The errors of prediction are
84.25; Error of prediction = B - B' = 95.25 distributed normally. This means
- 84.25 = 11 that the deviations from the
4 The most common criterion used to regression line are normally
determine the best-fitting line is the line distributed. It does not mean that X
that minimizes the sum of squared errors or Y is normally distributed.
of prediction. This line does not need to go
through any of the actual data points, and KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
it can have a different number of points
above it and below it. INFLUENCE
It is possible for a single observation to
have a great influence on the results of a
ASSUMPTIONS regression analysis. It is therefore
important to be alert to the possibility of
Although no assumptions were needed to influential observations and to take them
determine the best-fitting straight line, into consideration when interpreting the
assumptions are made in the calculation of results.
inferential statistics. Naturally, these
assumptions refer to the population, not The influence of an observation can be
the sample. thought of in terms of how much the
predicted scores for other observations
Linearity: The relationship between would differ if the observation in question
the two variables is linear. were not included.
Homoscedasticity: The variance
around the regression line is the A common rule of thumb is that an
same for all values of X. A clear observation with a value of Cook's D over
violation of this assumption is 1.0 has too much influence. As with all rules
shown in Figure 1. Notice that the of thumb, this rule should be applied
predictions for students with high judiciously and not thoughtlessly.An
high-school GPAs are very good, observation's influence is a function of two
whereas the predictions for factors: (1) how much the observation's
students with low high-school value on the predictor variable differs from
GPAs are not very good. In other the mean of the predictor variable and (2)
words, the points for students with the difference between the predicted score
for the observation and its actual score. The
former factor is called the
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1 The Studentized residual measures the (HSGPA) and their total SAT score
distance which is based on the error of the (verbal + math). The values of b (b1 and
prediction for the observation. It is the b2) are sometimes called "regression
combination of an observation's leverage coefficients" and sometimes called
and distance that determines its influence. "regression weights." These two terms are
synonymous.The multiple correlation (R)
is equal to the
1 The standard error of the estimate is a correlation between the predicted scores
measure of the accuracy of predictions. and the actual scores.
The regression line is the line that
minimizes the sum of squared deviations INTERPRETATION OF
of prediction (also called the sum of REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
squares error), and the standard error of the
estimate is the square root of the average A regression coefficient in multiple
squared deviation. regression is the slope of the linear
relationship between the criterion variable
and the part of a predictor variable that is
MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION independent of all other predictor
variables.
In simple linear regression, a criterion
variable is predicted from one predictor The sum of squares uniquely attributable
variable. In multiple regression, the to a variable is computed by comparing
criterion is predicted by two or more two regression models: the complete
variables. For example, in the SAT case model and a reduced model. The
study, you might want to predict a complete model is the multiple regression
student's university grade point average on with all the predictor variables included
the basis of their High-School GPA (HSGPA and SAT in this example). A
reduced model is a model that leaves out
one of the predictor variables.
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Common variance is the amount of variance (e.g., the person got a call from
variance that is shared among a set of her babysitter that her two-year old son
items. Items that are highly correlated will ate her favorite lipstick).
share
a lot of variance.
o Communality (also called h2)
is a definition of common EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:
variance that ranges between 0 ANOVA [ONE-WAY,
and 1. Values closer to 1 FACTORIAL], RANDOMIZED
suggest that extracted factors BLOCK DESIGNS, REPEATED
explain more of the variance of
MEASURES DESIGN, LATIN
an individual item.
SQUARE, COHORT STUDIES,
Unique variance is any portion of
variance that’s not common. There are
TIME SERIES, MANOVA,
ANCOVA. SINGLE-SUBJECT
two types:
o Specific variance: is variance DESIGNS.
that is specific to a particular
item (e.g., Item 4 “All EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
computers hate me” may have
variance that is attributable to
ANOVA [One-way, Factorial]
anxiety about computers in
addition to anxiety about Two-group Experimental Designs /
SPSS). One-way ANOVA Design
o Error variance: comes from
errors of measurement and The simplest true experimental designs are
basically anything unexplained two group designs involving one
by common or specific treatment group and one control group,
and are ideally suited for testing the
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The effect E of the experimental treatment expected to influence both treatment and
in the pretest posttest design is measured control groups in a similar (random)
as the difference in the posttest and pretest manner. The selection threat is controlled
scores between the treatment and control via random assignment. However,
groups: additional threats to internal validity may
exist. For instance, mortality can be a
E=(O2–O1)–(O4–O3) problem if there are differential dropout
rates between the two groups, and the
Statistical analysis of this design pretest measurement may bias the posttest
involves a simple analysis of variance measurement (especially if the pretest
(ANOVA) between the treatment and introduces unusual topics or content).
control groups. The pretest posttest
design handles several threats to internal Posttest-only control group design: This
validity, such as maturation, testing, and design is a simpler version of the pretest-
regression, since these threats can be posttest design where pretest
measurements are omitted.
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FACTORIAL DESIGNS
Two-group designs are inadequate if your
research requires manipulation of two or
more independent variables (treatments).
In such cases, you would need four or
higher-group designs. Such designs, quite
popular in experimental research, are
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commonly called factorial designs. Each vary with the time of instruction (1.5 or 3
independent variable in this design is hours per week). In this case, you have
called a factor , and each sub-division of a two factors: instructional type and
factor is called a level . Factorial designs instructional time; each with two levels
enable the researcher to examine not only (in-class and online for instructional type,
the individual effect of each treatment on and 1.5 and 3 hours/week for instructional
the dependent variables (called main time), as shown in Figure 8.1. If you wish
effects), but also their joint effect (called to add a third level of instructional time
interaction effects). (say 6 hours/week), then the second factor
The most basic factorial design is a 2 x 2 will consist of three levels and you will
factorial design, which consists of two have a 2 x 3 factorial design. On the other
treatments, each with two levels (such as hand, if you wish to add a third factor such
high/low or present/absent). For instance, as group work (present versus absent), you
let’s say that you want to compare the will have a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. In
learning outcomes of two different types of this notation, each number represents a
instructional techniques (in-class and factor, and the value of each factor
online instruction), and you also want to represents the number of levels in that
examine whether these effects factor.
Factorial designs can also be depicted factorial design should have a minimum
using a design notation, such as that shown sample size of 20 (this estimate is derived
on the right panel of Figure 10.4. R from Cohen’s power calculations based on
represents random assignment of subjects medium effect sizes). So, a 2 x 2 x 2
to treatment groups, X represents the factorial design requires a minimum total
treatment groups themselves (the sample size of 160 subjects, with at least
subscripts of X represents the level of each 20 subjects in each cell. As you can see,
factor), and O represent observations of the cost of data collection can increase
the dependent variable. Notice that the 2 x substantially with more levels or factors in
2 factorial design will have four treatment your factorial design. Sometimes, due to
groups, corresponding to the four resource constraints, some cells in such
combinations of the two levels of each factorial designs may not receive any
factor. Correspondingly, the 2 x 3 design treatment at all, which are called
will have six treatment groups, and the 2 x incomplete factorial designs. Such
2 x 2 design will have eight treatment incomplete designs hurt our ability to draw
groups. As a rule of thumb, each cell in a inferences about the incomplete factors.
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For example, you could be studying the month exercise training programme on
glucose levels of the patients at 1 month, 6 blood pressure and want to measure blood
months, and 1 year after receiving pressure at 3 separate time points (pre-,
nutritional counseling. midway and post-exercise intervention),
We can analyse data using a repeated which would allow you to develop a time-
measures ANOVA for two types of study course for any exercise effect. For (2), you
design. Studies that investigate either (1) might get the same subjects to eat different
changes in mean scores over three or more types of cake (chocolate, caramel and
time points, or (2) differences in mean lemon) and rate each one for taste, rather
scores under three or more different than having different people taste each
conditions. For example, for (1), you different cake. The important point with
might be investigating the effect of a 6- these two study designs is that the same
people are being measured more than once
on the same dependent variable (i.e., why
it is called repeated measures).
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Fewer patients are needed
HYPOTHESIS FOR REPEATED overall. In a traditional
MEASURE DESIGN experiment, you would need x
For our exercise-training example, the null patients per experimental
hypothesis (H0) is that mean blood group, plus a control; If you
pressure is the same at all time points (pre- had three experimental
3 months, and 6 months). The alternative conditions (e.g. nutrition,
hypothesis is that mean blood pressure is exercise, drugs) plus a control,
significantly different at one or more time you would need 4x patients. In
points. A repeated measures ANOVA will a repeated measures design,
not inform you where the differences you would only need one group
between groups lie as it is an omnibus of patients of size x, because all
statistical test. The same would be true if
patients are given all
you were investigating different conditions
conditions.
or treatments rather than time points, as
used in this example. If your repeated Fewer patients are needed to
measures ANOVA is statistically detect an effect size.
significant, you can run post hoc tests that Higher statistical power:
can highlight exactly where these controlling for variability
differences occur. between subjects is built in.
DISADVANTAGES INCLUDE:
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
Order effects: the possibility
that the position of the
ADVANTAGES INCLUDE: treatment in the order of
treatmentsmatters.
Randomizationor
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The Latin square design, perhaps, with any combination of levels involving
represents the most popular alternative the two blocking factors assigned to one
design when two (or more) blocking treatment only, rather than to all!
factors need to be controlled for. A Latin
square design is actually an extreme
example of an incomplete block design,
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TIME SERIES MEASURING BEHAVIOR AS A
Time series analysis is a technique for TIME SERIES
analyzing time series data, or variables that
continually changes with time. Examples According to Daniel T. Kaplan and Leon
of applications include forecasting stock
Glass (1995), there are two critical features
market fluctuations and urban crime rates.
of a time series that differentiate it from
This technique is popular in econometrics,
cross-sectional data-collection procedures:
mathematical finance, and signal
processing. Special techniques are used to Repeated measurements of a given
correct for auto-correlation, or correlation behavior are taken across time at
within values of the same variable across equally spaced intervals. Taking
time. multiple measurements is essential for
Time-series analysis (TSA), thus, is a understanding how any given behavior
statistical methodology appropriate for unfolds over time, and doing so at
longitudinal research designs that involve equal intervals affords a clear
single subjects or research units that are investigation of how the dynamics of
measured repeatedly at regular intervals that behavior manifest at distinct time
over time. TSA can be viewed as the scales.
exemplar of all longitudinal designs. TSA
can provide an understanding of the The temporal ordering of
underlying naturalistic process and the
measurements is preserved. Doing so
pattern of change over time, or it can
is the only way to fully examine the
evaluate the effects of either a planned or
unplanned intervention. dynamics governing a particular
process. If we expect that a given
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stimulus will influence the development of considerable time period. The time series
a behavior in a particular way, utilizing is the only design to furnish a continuous
summary statistics will completely ignore record of fluctuations in the experimental
the temporal ordering of the data and variables over the entire course of the
likely occlude one’s view of important program. Such record keeping should
behavioral dynamics. constitute an integral part of the
experimental program; problems of
Linear computations such as mean and reactivity (Webb, Camp-bell, Schwartz,
variance merely describe global properties &Sechrest, 1966) area voided by
of a data set and thus may fail to capture incorporating the measurement operations
meaningful patterns that only can be as a natural part of the environment to
identified by looking at the sequential which one wishes to generalize. Second,
dependency between time points. the time-series design functions as an
Consequently, time-series techniques heuristic device. When coupled with a
provide a valuable approach in studying care-fully kept historical log of potentially
psychological processes, which are, by relevant non-experimental events, the time
their very nature, fundamentally embedded series is an invaluable source of post hoc
in time. hypotheses regarding observed, but
This design involves successive unplanned, changes in program variables.
observations throughout a programmed Moreover, where treatment programs
intervention and assesses the require practical administrative decisions,
characteristics of the change process. It is the time series serves as a source of
truly the mainstay of the proposed design hypotheses regarding the most promising
package because it serves several decisions, and later as a
simultaneous functions. First, it is feedback source regarding the
descriptive. The descriptive function of the consequences and effectiveness of such
time series is particularly important when decisions.
the intervention extends over a
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RESULTS
Under these circumstances, use of a single
If the overall multivariate test is ANOVA test would be preferable.
significant, we conclude that the respective
effect (e.g., textbook) is significant. ASSUMPTIONS
However, our next question would of
Normal Distribution: - The dependent
course be whether only math skills
variable should be normally distributed
improved, only physics skills improved, or
within groups. Overall, the F test is robust to
both. In fact, after obtaining a significant
non-normality, if the non-normality is
multivariate test for a particular main
caused by skewness rather than by outliers.
effect or interaction, customarily one
Tests for outliers should be run before
would examine the univariate F tests for
performing a MANOVA, and outliers
each variable to interpret the respective
should be transformed or removed.
effect. In other words, one would identify
the specific dependent variables that Linearity - MANOVA assumes that there
contributed to the significant overall effect. are linear relationships among all pairs of
dependent variables, all pairs of covariates,
and all dependent variable-covariate pairs
MANOVA is useful in experimental
situations where at least some of the in each cell. Therefore, when the
independent variables are manipulated. It relationship deviates from linearity, the
has several advantages over ANOVA. power of the analysis will be
First, by measuring several dependent compromised.
variables in a single experiment, there is a Homogeneity of Variances: -
better chance of discovering which factor Homogeneity of variances assumes that
is truly important. Second, it can protect the dependent variables exhibit equal
against Type I errors that might occur if levels of variance across the range of
multiple ANOVA’s were conducted predictor variables. Remember that the
independently. Additionally, it can reveal error variance is computed (SS error) by
differences not discovered by ANOVA adding up the sums of squares within each
tests. group. If the variances in the two groups
However, there are several cautions as are different from each other, then adding
well. It is a substantially more complicated the two together is not appropriate, and
design than ANOVA, and therefore there will not yield an estimate of the common
can be some ambiguity about which within-group variance. Homoscedasticity
independent variable affects can be examined graphically or by means
each dependent variable. Thus, the of a number of statistical tests.
observer must make many potentially Homogeneity of Variances and
subjective assumptions. Moreover, one Covariances: In multivariate designs,
degree of freedom is lost for each with multiple dependent measures, the
dependent variable that is added. The gain homogeneity of variances assumption
of power obtained from decreased SS error described earlier also applies. However,
may be offset by the loss in these degrees since there are multiple dependent
of freedom. Finally, the dependent variables, it is also required that their
variables should be largely uncorrelated. If intercorrelations (covariances) are
the dependent variables are highly homogeneous across the cells of the
correlated, there is little advantage in design. There are various specific tests of
including more than one in the test given this assumption.
the resultant loss in degrees of freedom.
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LIMITATIONS
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on the third day. Note how the sequence of Sometimes an individual’s behavior is so
time is depicted on the x-axis (horizontal severe that the researcher cannot wait to
axis) and the dependent variable (outcome establish a baseline and must begin with
variable) is depicted on the y-axis (vertical an intervention. In this case, a B-A-B
axis). design is used. The intervention is
implemented immediately (before
establishing a baseline). This is followed
by a measurement without the intervention
and then a repeat of the intervention.
Generally, in single subject research we
count the number of times something
occurs in a given time period and see if it
occurs more or less often in that time
period after implementing an intervention.
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be due either to practice or to the fact that the understanding that it might be some
some subjects liked to play solitaire, were other type of unit than subject.
better at the game and thus practiced more.
Since the subjects are self-selected, it is Error Factors
not possible to attribute the differences The error factor, designated as E, is not a
between groups to practice, enjoyment of factor in the sense of the previous factors
the game, natural skill in playing the game, and is not included in the experimental
or some other reason. It is possible, design. It is necessary for future
however, to say that the groups differed. theoretical development.
Even though causal inference is not Relationships Between Factors
possible, blocking factor can be useful. A
The following two relationships between
factor that accounts for differences in the
factors describe a large number of useful
scores adds power to the experiment. That
designs. Not all possible experimental
is, a blocking factor that explains some of
designs fit neatly into categories described
the differences between scores may make
by the following two relationships, but
it more likely to find treatment effects. For most do.
example, if males and females performed
significantly different in the solitaire Crossed
experiment, it might be useful to include When two factors are crossed, each level
sex as a blocking factor because of each factor appears with each level of
differences due to gender would be the other factor. An "X" indicates a
included in the error variance otherwise. crossing relationship.
In other cases blocking factors are For example, consider two factors, A and
interesting in their own right. It may be B, were A is gender (a1 = Females, a2 =
interesting to know that freshmen, Males) and B is practice (b1 = none, b2 =
sophomores, juniors, and seniors differ in one hour, b3 = five hours, and b4 = twenty
attitude toward university authority, even hours). If gender was crossed with
though causal inferences may not be made. practice, A X B, then both males and
In some cases the pre-existing condition is females would participate in all four levels
quantitative, as in an IQ score or weigh. In of practice. There would be eight groups
these cases it is possible to use a median of subjects including: ab11, females who
split where the scores above the median had no practice, ab12, females who had
are placed in one group and the scores one hour of practice, and so forth to ab24,
below the median are placed in another. males who practiced twenty hours. An
Variations of this procedure divide the additional factor may be added to the
scores into three, four, or more design, say handedness (C), where c1 =
approximately equal sized groups. Such right handed and c2 = left handed. If the
procedures are not recommended as there design of the experiment was A X B X C,
are better ways of handling such data then there would be sixteen groups,
(Edwards, 1985). including abc231, left-handed males who
practiced five hours.
Unit Factors
If subjects (S) are crossed with treatments
The unit factor is the entity from which a
(A), S X A, each subject sees each level of
score is taken. In experimental
the treatment conditions. In a very simple
psychology, the unit factor is usually a
experiment such as the effects of caffeine
subject (human or animal), although
on alertness (A), each subject would be
classrooms, dormitories, or other units
exposed to both a caffeine condition (a1)
may serve the same function. In this text,
and a no caffeine condition (a2). For
the unit factor will be designated as S, with
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relabeled as b1 ,b3, and b3, respectively, effects of gender and current religious
but it would be clear from the preference, for example.
experimental design specification that Treatment factors, however, may be nested
peanut butter and chicken, cheese and fish, or crossed with subjects. The effect of
and red meat and vegetables, were caffeine on alertness could be studied by
qualitatively different, even though they all dividing the subjects into two groups, with
share the same label. one receiving a beverage with caffeine and
While any factor may possibly be nested one group not. This design would nest
within any other factor, the critical nesting subjects with caffeine and be specified as
relationship is with respect to subjects. If S S(A), or simply A, as the S is often
is nested within some combination of other dropped when the design is completely
factors, then each subjects appear under between subjects.
one, and only one, combination of factors If subjects appeared under both caffeine
within which they are nested. These effects conditions, receiving caffeine on one day
are often called the Between Subjects and no caffeine on the other, then subjects
effects. If S is crossed with come would be crossed with caffeine. The
combination of other factors, then each design would be specified as S X A. In
subject see all combinations of factors with this case the S would remain in the design.
which they are crossed. These effects are
referred to as Within Subjects effects.
As mentioned earlier subjects are REFERENCE ARTICLE
necessarily nested within blocking factors. :http://onlinestatbook.com/2/analysis_of_v
Subjects are necessarily nested within the ariance/anova_designs.html
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Answers
1 False, both t tests and ANOVAs use
both. In a t test, the difference between
means is in the numerator and the
denominator is based on differences within
groups. In an ANOVA, the variance of the
group means (multiplied by n) is the
numerator. The denominator is based on
differences within groups.
True
A
C
True. When a subject provides more
than one data point, the values are not
independent, thus violating one of the
assumptions of between-subjects ANOVA.
13 F is defined as MSB/MSE. Since both
MSB and MSE are variances and negative
variance is impossible, an F score can
never be negative.
14 k-1 = 7-1 = 6
15 N-k = 105-7 = 98
16 The F distribution has a long tail to the
right which means it has a positive skew.
2
F equals t = 6.25.
Sum of squares total equals sum of
squares condition + sum of squares error.
Divide sums of squares by degrees of
freedom to get mean squares. Then divide
MSB by MSE to get F which equals 42.
F=t(square)
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CONTENTS
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CHARACTERISTICS:
(TABLE)
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ASSUMPTIONS:
There are many assumptions that must be made when using psychological tests. The following
are what we consider the most important assumptions:
Psychological tests measure what they say they measure, and any inferences that are drawn
about test takers based on their test scores are appropriate.
An individual's behavior, and therefore test scores, will remain unchanged over time.
Individuals understand test items similarly.
Individuals can report about themselves accurately.
Individuals will report their thoughts and feelings honestly.
The test scores an individual receives is equal to his or her true ability plus some error, and
this error may be attributable to the test itself the examiner, the examinee, or the environment.
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HISTORY OF TESTING:
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Some scholars believe that the use of intelligence, and in 1905 he and Théodore
psychological tests can be traced to 2200 Simon published the first test of mental
BCE in ancient China. Most scholars agree ability, the Binet–Simon Scale. Parisian
that serious research efforts on the use and school officials used this scale to decide
usefulness of psychological tests did not which children, no matter how hard they
th
begin until the 20 century with the advent tried, were unable to profit from regular
of intelligence testing. Intelligence Tests school programs (Binet & Simon,1905).
Alfred Binet and the Binet–Simon Scale Lewis Terman and the Stanford Binet
th
Late in the 19 century, Alfred Binet Binet’s work influenced psychologists
founded the first experimental psychology across the globe. Psychological testing
research laboratory in France. In his lab, became a popular method of evaluation, and
Binet attempted to develop experimental the Binet–Simon Scale was adapted for use
techniques to measure intelligence and in many countries. In 1916, Lewis Terman,
reasoning ability. He believed that an American psychologist, produced the
intelligence was a complex characteristic Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, an
that could be determined by evaluating a adaptation of Binet’ s original test. This test,
person’s reasoning, judgment, and problem- developed for use with Americans ages 3
solving abilities. Binet tried a variety of years to adulthood, was used for many
tasks to measure reasoning, judgment, and years. A revised edition of the Stanford–
problem solving on his own children as well Binet remains one of the most widely used
as on other children in the French school intelligence tests today.
system. Binet was successful in measuring
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS test takers to answer questions or perform
V/S PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS tasks to measure personal attributes. The
Psychological assessments and concept of a psychological test is
psychological tests both are methods of represented by the lighter circle in the
collecting important information about figure. With psychological tests, test takers'
people, and both are also used to help answers to questions or their performance on
understand and predict behavior (Kline, some task is not initially expressed in
2000, Maloney & Ward, 1976). Assessment, physical units of any kind; instead, scores
however, is a broader concept than are derived according to some
psychological testing. Psychological predetermined method. In some cases, the
assessment involves multiple methods, such end result of a psychological test is not a
as personal history interviews, behavioral derived score at all, but rather a verbal
observations, and psychological tests, for description of an individual. For example,
gathering information about an individual. there are some personality tests that,
Psychological assessment involves both an although they have rules for scoring or
objective component and a subjective summarizing information, do not produce
component (Matarazzo, 1990), and overall scores. Instead, these tests yield
psychological tests are only one tool in the profiles. The MBTI is an example of such a
assessment process. For example, a clinical test. Psychological tests can be considered
psychologist may conduct a psychological psychological measurements when a sample
assessment of a patient and, as a part of this of behavior can be expressed as a numerical
assessment, may administer a psychological score.
test such as the MMPI. Although most psychological tests are
measurements, not all psychological tests,
strictly defined, meet the definition of a
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS V/S measurement. Throughout the remainder of
MEASUREMENTS this text, we follow the common practice of
Although the meanings overlap, referring to all psychological tests as
psychological test and measurement are not measurements because most of them are, but
synonyms. Measurement, broadly defined, is keep in mind the distinctions we have drawn
the assignment of numbers according to in this section.
specific rules. Psychological tests require
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derived score or scaled scores. Results of cases, surveys focus on individual outcomes
surveys, on the other hand, are often and are constructed using scales. In such
reported at the question level by providing cases, the survey approximates a
the percentage of respondents who selected psychological test.
each answer alternative. Of course, in some
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STANDARDIZED OR NON- Objective tests are structured and
STANDARDIZED require test takers to respond to
structured true/false questions, multiple-
Standardized tests are those that have choice questions, or rating scales. What
been administered to a large group of the test taker must do is clear, for
individuals who are similar to the group example, answer true or false, circle the
for whom the test has been designed. For correct multiple-choice answer, or circle
example, if a test is designed to measure the correct item on the rating scale. The
the writing ability of high school GRE, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales,
students, the test would be administered General Aptitude Test Battery, and most
to a large group of high school students. classroom tests are examples of
This group is called the standardization objective tests. Another example of an
sample—people who are tested to obtain objective test is the NEO Personality
data to establish a frame of reference for Inventory, an objective self-report
interpreting individual test scores. These instrument designed to identify what
data, called norms, indicate the average makes individuals unique in their
performance of a group and the thinking, feeling, and interaction with
distribution of scores above and below others. Although there are two forms of
this average. For example, if you took the inventory, both measure five broad
the SAT, the interpretation of your score personality dimensions: neuroticism,
included comparing it with the SAT extroversion, openness, agreeableness,
standardization sample to determine and conscientiousness. Test takers are
whether your score was high or low in asked to indicate whether they strongly
comparison with others and whether you disagree, disagree, are neutral, agree, or
scored above average, average, or below strongly agree with each of 240
average. In addition, standardized tests statements. These statements are about
always have specific directions for their thoughts, feelings, and goals. P
administration and scoring.
Projective tests are unstructured. They
Non-standardized tests do not have require test takers to respond to
standardization samples and are more unstructured or ambiguous stimuli such
common than standardized tests. Non-
as incomplete sentences, inkblots, and
standardized tests are usually
abstract pictures. The role of the test
constructed by a teacher or trainer in a taker is less clear than with a
less formal manner for a single standardized test. People who use
administration. For example, in many projective tests believe that test takers
cases, the exams you take in your project themselves into the task they are
college courses are non-standardized asked to perform and that their responses
tests. are based on what they believe the
stimuli mean and, on the feelings, they
OBJECTIVE OR experience while responding. These tests
PROJECTIVE tend to elicit highly personal concerns.
They are often used to detect
Sometimes people make a distinction unconscious thoughts or personality
between objective and projective tests.
to
characteristics, and they may be used
identify the need for psychological
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Personality tests measure human character thousands of tests into 19 major subject
or disposition. The first personality tests categories:
were designed to assess and predict clinical Achievement
disorders. These tests remain useful today
Behavior assessment
for determining who needs counseling and Developmental
who will benefit from treatment programs. Education
Newer personality tests measure "normal" English
personality traits. For example, the Myers— Fine arts
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is often used Foreign languages
by industrial/organizational psychologists to
Intelligence
increase employees' understanding of Mathematics
individual differences and to promote better
Miscellaneous (for example,
communication between members of work courtship and marriage, driving
teams. Career counselors also use the MBTI
and safety education, etiquette)
to help students select majors and careers Multi-aptitude batteries
consistent with their personalities. Neuropsychological
Personality tests can be either objective or Personality
projective. The MBTI is an example of an Reading
objective personality test. Projective Science
personality tests, such as the TAT, serve the Sensorimotor
same purpose as some objective personality
tests, but they require test takers to respond Reference books such as the Mental
to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli. Measurements Year book often indicate
whether a test is (a) a test of maximal
SUBJECT TESTS performance, a behavior observation test, or
self-report test; (b) standardized or non-
Many popular psychological testing
reference books also classify tests by standardized; and (c) objective or projective.
subject. For example, the Seventeenth
Mental Measurements Yearbook (Geisinger,
Spies, Carlson, & Plake, 2007) classifies
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The item writer must be fully aware of those meanings of a word so that confusion in
persons for whom the test is meant. He must writing the items may be avoided. He must
also be aware of the intelligence level of be able to convey the meaning of the items
those persons so that he may manipulate the in the simplest possible language.
difficulty level of the items for proper
adjustment with their ability level. He must Expert opinion:
also be able to avoid irrelevant clues to
correct responses. After writing down the items, they must be
submitted to a group of subject experts for
Familiarity with different types of items: their criticism or suggestions, which must
then be duly modified.
The item writer must be familiar with
different types of items along with their Cultivate a rich source of ideas:
advantages and disadvantages. He must also
be aware of the characteristics of good items The item writer must also cultivate a rich
and the common probable errors in writing source of ideas for items. This is because
items. ideas are not produced in mind
automatically but rather require certain
Command on language: factors or stimuli. The common source of
such factors are textbooks, journals,
The item writer must have a large discussions, questions for interview, coarse
vocabulary. He must know the different outlines and other instructional materials.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
ITEM It must have discriminating power, that is, it
must clearly distinguish between those who
An item must have the following possess the trait and those who do not.
characteristics;
To the point:
Clarity:
It should not be concerned with the trivial
An item should be phrased in such a manner aspects of the subject matter, that is, it must
that there is no ambiguity regarding its only measure the significant aspects of
meaning for both the item writer as well as knowledge or understanding.
the examinees who take the test.
Not encourage guesswork:
Moderately difficult:
As far as possible, it should not encourage
The item should not be too easy or too guesswork by the subjects.
difficult.
Clear in reading:
Discriminating power:
It should not present any difficulty in
reading.
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Independent for its meaning: It should not be such that its meaning is
dependent upon another item and/or it can
be answered by referring to another item. for
ITEM ANALYSIS: norm-referenced and criterion-referenced
Item analysis uses statistics and expert tests, but they differ in specific, significant
judgment to evaluate tests based on the ways.
quality of individual items, item sets, and The item analysis is one of the most
entire sets of items, as well as the important steps in the process of test
relationship of each item to other items. It construction. It gives us two kinds of
“investigates the performance of items information i.e. The idea about difficulty
considered individually either in relation to index of the item and index of validity;
some external criterion or in relation to the index of validity is also known as internal
remaining items on the test”. It uses this consistency or discriminative power of the
information to improve item and test quality. statement.
Item analysis concepts are similar
ITEM DIFFICULTY: of.75. An item answered correctly by 35%
Item difficulty is the percentage of people of the examinees has an item difficulty level
who answer an item correctly. It is the of .35.item difficulty is a characteristic of
relative frequency with which examinees the item and the sample that takes the test.
choose the correct response. It has an index For example, a vocabulary question that
ranging from a low of 0 to a high of +1.00. asks for synonyms for English nouns will be
Higher difficulty indexes indicate easier easy for American graduate students in
items. An item answered correctly by 75% English literature, but difficult for
of the examinees has an item difficult level elementary children.
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TEST STANDARDIZATION:
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND
NORMS
means consistency of the test result, internal
RELIABILITY: consistency and consistency of results over a
Reliability refers mainly to stability, internal period of time.
consistency and equivalence of a measure. According to Anastasi and Ubrina (1982)
Reliability is one of the most essential “Reliability refers to the consistency of
characteristic of a test. If a test gives same scores obtained by the same persons when
result on different occasions, it is said to be they are re-examined with the same test on
reliable. So Reliability different occasions, or with different sets of
equivalent items, or under other variable
examining conditions.”
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METHODS OF ESTIMATING RELIABILITY:
There are different methods of establishing training, akin to parallel tests, the correlation
the reliability of the test. They are: between the scores assigned by Rater 1 and
by Rater 2 to persons can be used to
determine interrater reliability – the
INTER-RATER OR INTER- consistency among raters (in the sense of
OBSERVER RELIABILITY relative or deviation scores assigned)
Measures the degree to which different
observers give consistent estimates of the
STRATIFIED COEFFICIENT
same persons. Often with essay and other ALPHA
constructed-response tests, two (or more)
raters score individuals’ performance. Each A reliability estimates that takes account this
rater would provide a performance score for stratification is stratified coefficient alpha.
each individual (e.g., a total score summed Tests may contain different types of items
over open-ended test items). Assuming that can be categorized. For example,
“parallel raters” are created by selection and reading achievement tests may include both
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vocabulary and reading comprehension strata, coefficient alpha will be smaller than
items. Or, a battery of tests might be stratified alpha.
categorized into subsets as is done with the
Wechsler intelligence test with both verbal
(e.g., information, comprehension, TEST - RE-TEST RELIABILITY
arithmetic) and performance (e.g., block Measures the consistency of measurement
design, picture arrangement, matrix on two separate occasions. This type of
reasoning) categories. When components Reliability is estimated by the Pearson
(items or subtests) fall within categories or product - moment coefficient of correlations
strata, we might view the composite as a between two administrations of the same
result of stratified random sampling of inventory. Estimation is based on the
subtests or items. When we have such correlation between scores of two or more
stratification, we would expect that items or administrations of the same inventory. In
subtests within a stratum would correlate designing a reliability study to produce two
more highly with each other than with items sets of observations, one might give the
or subtests in other strata. When the same test on two occasions, separated (say)
stratification holds up and correlations by two weeks.
within strata are higher than those between
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PARALLEL-FORMS RELIABILITY Guilford: The alternative form method
indicates both equivalence of content and
Estimating reliability by means of the stability of performance.
equivalent form method involves the use of
two different but equivalent forms of the ADVANTAGES:
test. Parallel form reliability is also known
as Alternative form reliability or Equivalent This procedure has certain advantages
form reliability or Comparable form over the test-retest method:
reliability.
Here the same test is not repeated.
In this method two parallel or equivalent
forms of a test are used. By parallel forms Memory, practice, carryover effects and
we mean that the forms arc equivalent so far recall factors are minimized and they do not
as the content, objectives, format, difficulty effect the scores.
level and discriminating value of items,
length of the test etc. arc concerned. The reliability coefficient obtained by this
method is a measure of both temporal
Parallel tests have equal mean scores, stability and consistency of response to
variances and inter co-relations among different item samples or test forms. Thus,
items. That is, two parallel forms must be this method combines two types of
homogeneous or similar in all respects, but reliability.
not a duplication of test items. Let the two
forms be Form A and Form B. Useful for the reliability of achievement
tests.
The reliability coefficient may be looked
upon as the coefficient correlation between This method is one of the appropriate
the scores on two equivalent forms of test. methods of determining the reliability of
The two equivalent forms are to be possibly educational and psychological tests.
similar in content, degree, mental processes
tested, and difficulty level and in other LIMITATIONS:
aspects.
It is difficult to have two parallel forms of
One form of the test is administered on the a test. In certain situations (i.e. in
students and on finishing immediately Rorschach) it is almost impossible.
another form of test is supplied to the same
group. The scores, thus obtained are When the tests are not exactly equal in
correlated which gives the estimate of terms of content difficulty, length, the
reliability. Thus, the reliability found is comparison between two set of scores
called coefficient of equivalence. obtained from these tests may lead to
erroneous decisions.
Gulliksen 1950: has defined parallel tests as
tests having equal means, equal variance and Practice and carryover factors cannot be
equal inter co-relations. completely controlled.
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why people prefer such methods in which Test scores of second form of the test are
only one administration of the test is generally high.
required.
Although difficult, carefully and cautiously
5. The testing conditions while constructed parallel forms would give us
administering the Form B may not be the reasonably a satisfactory measure of
same. Besides, the testes may not be in a reliability. For well-made standardized tests,
similar physical, mental or emotional state at the parallel form method is usually the most
both the times of administration. satisfactory way of determining the
reliability.
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY All the items of the test are generally
RELIABILITY arranged in increasing order of difficulty and
administered once on sample. After
Measures the consistency of results across
administering the test it is divided into two
items within a test.
comparable or similar or equal parts or
halves.
SPLIT - HALF RELIABILITY The scores are arranged or are made in two
Split-half method is an improvement over sets obtained from odd numbers of items
the earlier two methods, and it involves both and even numbers of items separately. As
the characteristics of stability and for example a test of 100 items is
equivalence. The above discussed two administered.
methods of estimating reliability sometimes The scores of individual based on 50 items
seems difficult. of odd numbers like 1, 3, 5, 99 and scores
It may not be possible to use the same test based on even numbers 2, 4, 6… 10 are
twice and to get an equivalent forms of test. separately arranged. In part ‘A’ odd number
Hence, to overcome these difficulties and to items are assigned and part ‘B’ will consist
reduce memory effect as well as to of even number of items.
economize the test, it is desirable to estimate After obtaining two scores on odd and even
reliability through a single administration of numbers of test items, co-efficient of
the test. correlation is calculated. It is really a
In this method the test is administered once correlation between two equivalent halves of
on the sample and it is the most appropriate scores obtained in one sitting. To estimate
method for homogeneous tests. This method reliability, Spearman-Brown Prophecy
provides the internal consistency of a test formula is used.
scores.
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Split-half can also be calculated using: Flanagan Formula: This formula is very
Rulon - Guttmann’s formulas: In this close to Rulon's formula. In this formula
method, the variance of the differences the variance of two halves are added
between each person’s scores on the two instead of difference between two
half-tests and the variance of total scores halves.
are considered.
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to compute the inter-correlation of the items correlation between the items are equal, all
of the test and correlation of each item with the items measure essentially the same
all the items of the test. J. Cronbach called it ability and the test is homogeneous in
as coefficient of internal consistency. nature. Like split-half method this method
In this method, it is assumed that all items also provides a measure of internal
have same or equal difficulty value, consistency.
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EXAMPLE
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CRONBACH’S ALPHA
Unsatisfactory internal consistency
This method is commonly used as a measure
reliability. An important property of
of internal consistency or reliability of a test.
coefficient alpha is that its value tends to
This was developed by Lee Cronbach in
increase with an increase in the number of
1951. As an extension of the Kuder-
scale items. Therefore, coefficient alpha
Richardson formula (KR20). This method
may be artificially, and inappropriately,
uses the variance of scores of odd, even and
inflated by including several redundant scale
total items to work out the reliability. The
items 48 another coefficient that can be
coefficient alpha, or Cronbach’s alpha, is the
employed in conjunction with coefficient
average of all possible split-half coefficients
alpha is coefficient beta.
resulting from different ways of splitting the
scale items.47This coefficient varies from 0 Coefficient beta assists in determining
to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally whether the averaging process used in
indicates calculating coefficient alpha is masking any
. inconsistent items
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(II) HOMOGENEITY OF ITEMS: both the tests have a restricted spread of
scores.
Homogeneity of items has two aspects: item
reliability and the homogeneity of traits (IV) DISCRIMINATIVE VALUE:
measured from one item to another. If the
items measure different functions and the When items can discriminate well between
inter-correlations of items are ‘zero’ or near superior and inferior, the item total-
to it, then the reliability is ‘zero’ or very low correlation is high, the reliability is also
and vice-versa. likely to be high and vice-versa.
The difficulty level and clarity of expression Clear and concise instructions increase
of a test item also affect the reliability of test reliability. Complicated and ambiguous
scores. If the test items are too easy or too directions give rise to difficulties in
difficult for the group members it will tend understanding the questions and the nature
to produce scores of low reliability. Because
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of the response expected from the testee (VII) RELIABILITY OF THE SCORER:
ultimately leading to low reliability.
The reliability of the scorer also influences
(VI) ITEM SELECTION: reliability of the test. If he is moody,
fluctuating type, the scores will vary from
If there are too many interdependent items one situation to another. Mistake in him give
in a test, the reliability is found to be low. rises to mistake in the score and thus leads
to reliability.
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ERRORS IN RELIABILITY: SYSTEMATIC ERROR
At a time, scores are not consistent because Systematic error is caused due to
some other factors also affect reliability e.g. instruments, machines, and measuring tools.
It is not due to individuals.
Noise
Health VALIDITY:
Time
Validity is the extent to which a test measure
what it is supposed to measure. It is the most
There is always a chance of 5% error in
critical dimension of test development.
reliability which is acceptable.
Simply stated, validity is what a test
measure and how well it does this.
TYPES OF ERRORS
In 1954, the American Psychological
Random error Association (APA) defined four categories
Systematic error of validity including content, predictive,
concurrent, and construct. In 1966, the
association combined predictive and
RANDOM ERROR
concurrent validity into a single grouping
called criterion validity (American
Random error exists in every measurement
Psychological Association, 1966) which
and is often major source of uncertainty.
remains the current classification (American
These errors have no particular assignable
Educational Research Association,
cause. These errors can never be totally
American Psychological Association, &
eliminated or corrected. These are caused by
National Council on Measurement and
many uncontrollable variables that are
Education, 1985). These aspects of validity
inevitable part of every analysis made by
are often mistakenly considered as three
human being. These variables are impossible
types of validity rather than a concept
to identified, even if we identify some they
about how a score can be interpreted.
cannot be measured because most of them
are so small.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
Face validity estimates whether a test judge whether it actually measures for
measure what it claims to measure. It is what it is constructed.
the extent to which a test seems relevant,
important, and interesting. It is the least Content validity is the degree to which
rigorous measure of validity. It pertains a test matches a curriculum and
to the fact that whether test looks valid accurately measures the specific training
or not. For this, the proposed instrument objectives on which a program is based.
is to be sent to the experts in the related Typically, it uses expert judgment of
area and are requested to qualified experts to determine if a test is
accurate, appropriate, and fair.
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An example of construct validity can be method is the total score on the test
evaluated in the following example. A itself. It verifies that a particular item
researcher seeks to provide evidence of or section measures the same
construct validity in a multi-item scale, characteristic individually that the
designed to measure the concept of ‘self- test as a whole measures. It can be
image’. These findings would be sought: determined in two ways. (a) By
High correlations with other scales comparing the performance of upper
designed to measure self-concepts and with criterion group with that of the lower
reported classifications by friends criterion group. Biserial correlation
(convergent validity) between ‘Pass-Fail’ on each item and
total test score is computed and items
Low correlations with unrelated constructs yielding significant item test
of brand loyalty and variety-seeking correlations are retained. (b) By
(discriminant validity) correlating sub-test scores with total
Brands that are congruent with the score. Any subtest having low
individual’s self-concept are more preferred, correlation is estimated. Internal
as postulated by the theory (nomological consistency correlation are
validity) essential as they help to characterize
A high level of reliability. the behavior domain or trait sampled
by the test.
This type of validity is concerned with what
qualities does a test measure. It is evaluated
by demonstrating that certain explanatory b. Factorial Validity
constructs account for some degree of
performance on the test. Construct validity Factor analysis is a refined statistical
can be estimated by following two methods. technique for analyzing
interrelationships of behavior data.
a. Internal Consistency The factorial validity of a test is the
Test falling under personality correlation between he test and the
domain are validated by this method. factor common to the test.
The essential character of this
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one in which you carried out your research. Interaction of subject selection and
For example, if the subjects are all males research
from one ethnic group, your findings might Descriptive explicitness of the
not apply to females or other ethnic groups. independent variable
Or, if you conducted your research in a The effect of the research
highly controlled laboratory environment, environment
your findings may not faithfully represent Researcher or experimenter effects
what might happen in the real world. Data collection methodology
The effect of time
Population characteristics (subjects)
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A. PERCENTILE NORMS
A percentile rank is a type of converted score that expresses a student’s score relative to their
group in percentile points.
This indicates the percentage of students
Easy to calculate.
tested who made scores equal to or lower Easy to understand and interpret.
than the specified score. If the percentile No assumption about the
characteristics of populations (not
norms is to be made meaningful, it should telling about how much have one
be a sample which is made homogenous scored but how better has one
with respect to gender, age and other factors. scored).
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C. STANDARD SCORES
All characteristics of original
distribution of raw score are retained
These are derived scores, which designates without any change in distribution.
Example: z-scores (0 mean, 1 SD).
an individual’s position with respect to the
They can be compared only if both the
total range and distribution of scores. distributions are approximately same. If
Standard scores indicate, in terms of one is skewed and other is normally
standard deviation as to how far a particular distributed, then they cannot be
score is from the mean of the distribution. compared.
Mean is taken as zero point and therefore
stand scores can be minus or plus. As they
have fixed mean and standard deviation and
thus there are different types of standard
T – scores
Normalised
transformation
Stanine
Standard scores
Linear
z - score
transformation
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A. AGE NORMS:
For Normative Transformation:
Here, the raw scores of skewed An age norm relates the level of
distributions are adjusted to produce performance to the age of the people taken
aconverted and
normal frequency distribution the test. It is the median score on a test
to a standard base. obtained by persons of a given chronological
Example: T-score and Stanine scores. age.
While age norms tend to emphasize the
T-SCORE: Developed by McCall (1922) average level at a given age, it is important
T - Scores are standard scores to remember that there is considerable
which are based on: Mean of variability within the same age. It implies
50, Standard
deviation of 10.
Range 20-80. that some children at one age will perform
on a test will perform similarly to children at
STANINE: Developed by US Air Force other ages.
during World War II.
It is a abbreviation for “standard nine”.
Scores are expressed in digits ranging 1 to 9. B. GRADE NORMS:
1 (lowest) and 9 (highest) .
Characteristics: Mean = 5, SD = 1.96 A grade norm is the median score on a test
obtained by students of a given grade level.
They are most popular when reporting
2. QUALITATIVE NORM: achievement levels of school children, and
are useful for teachers to understand as to
Developmental norms are developed for how well the students are progressing at a
psychological constructs which develop; for grade level.
example, intelligence, reasoning,
vocabulary, mathematical ability, etc. They
SHORTCOMINGS:
are supplemented by percentiles or standard
scores. They have considerable appeal for
Also, age and grade norms assume that
descriptive purposes, and for certain the growth in psycho-motor, cognitive,
research purpose. and affective domains is uniform over
the entire rangeof age or grade. But that
Age norms is not the case.
Grade norms Therefore, these norms can be
misinterpreted to be implying that the
Gender Norms rate of increase in tested abilities is
constant from year to year.
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As, there is no fixed zero point with these measured, and increasing the value in
types of scales, thus, the result of no fixed successive equal units on the scale up to the
zero is best demonstrated through an desired limit.
example. Let’s say we want to measure
individuals’ “need for achievement” with a 4. RATIO SCALE
particular scale. With an interval level of
measurement, the scores can be interpreted Ratio scale measurement differs from
to mean that someone with a score of 15 is interval measurement only in that it implies
as different from someone with a score of the existence of a potential absolute zero
20, as someone with a score of 20 compared value. Good examples of ratio scales are
to someone with a score of 25. However, length, time and number of correct answers
there is no universally accepted level of on a test. It is possible to have zero (no)
“zero need for achievement.” Therefore, we length, for something to take no time, or for
cannot conclude that someone with a score someone to get no answers correct on a test.
of 20 has half the need for achievement as
does a person with a score of 40. In order to An important corollary of having an
make that claim, we would need to have an absolute zero is that, for example, if person
absolute zero point on the scale. A is six feet tall and person B is three feet
tall, it is true to say that person A is twice as
Though very few Interval Scales have been tall as person B. The ratio of scores to one
developed in the areas of social sciences, we another now carries some sensible meaning
can achieve interval measurement of which was not the case for the interval scale.
attributes such as (a) interest, attitude, Thus, a Ratio Scale has all the
personality, motivation, and so on, (b) characteristics of Nominal, Ordinal and
status, reading interests, and so on and (c) Interval Scales and,
recall, relevance or usefulness of in addition, an absolute or natural zero point
information for this purpose. We can design representing the absence of magnitude of a
numerical rating scales beginning from an variable/ attribute.
arbitrary zero point representing the total
absence of an attribute or quality being
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PROBLEMS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL Absolute zero, in case of psychological
measurement, means a situation where the
MEASUREMENTS
property being measured does not exist. The
absolute zero is available in case of physical
1. INDIRECTNESS OF
quantities, like length, but is very difficult to
MEASUREMENT
decide in the case of psychological
attributes.
Various psychological attributes are
accessible to research and measurement only
WE MEASURE A SAMPLE OF
indirectly.
BEHAVIOUR NOT THE
For example, if a researcher is interested in
COMPLETE BEHAVIOUR
measuring the personality dimensions of a
subject, then it is something that is not
In psychological measurements, a complete
directly available for measurement as
set of behavioral dimensions is not possible
physical quantities- like length- are visible
and we take only a carefully chosen sample
and
of behavioral dimensions to assess the
concretely available for observation and
attributes in question.
assessment. The only way to measure it is to
Although the sample is chosen only after
assess the
fulfilling the various psychometric criteria,
person on a set of overt or covert responses
like randomness, representativeness, and so
(for example, by administering a
on, it is always questionable to reach at a
psychological test)
conclusion about an aspect of behavior, only
related to his personality or other
by measuring a small, though representative
psychological attributes of interest.
part of it.
2. LACK OF ABSOLUTE ZERO
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SCALING TECHNIQUES:
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Rank order scaling is commonly used to CONSTANT SUM SCALE DATA ARE
measure attributes of products and serv-ices SOMETIMES TREATED AS METRIC.
as well as preferences for brands. Rank
order data are frequently obtained from Although this may be appropriate in the
respondents in conjoint analysis, since rank limited context of the stimuli scaled, these
order scaling forces the respondent to results are not generalizable to other stimuli
discriminate among the stimulus objects. not included in the study. Hence, strictly
Moreover, compared with paired speaking, the constant sum should be
comparisons, this type of scaling process considered an ordinal scale because of its
more closely resembles the shopping comparative nature and the resulting lack of
environment. It also takes less time and generalizability.
eliminates intransitive responses. The main advantage of the constant sum
If there are ‘n’ stimulus objects, only (n– scale is that it allows for fine discrimination
scaling decisions need be made in rank among stimulus objects without requiring
order scaling. too much time. It has two primary
disadvantages, however Respondents may
However, in paired comparison scaling, [n allocate more or fewer units than those
(n– 1)/2] decisions would be required. specified. For example, a respondent may
Another advantage is that most respondents allocate 108 or 94 points. The researcher
easily understand the instructions for must modify such data in some way or
ranking. The major disadvantage is that this eliminate this respondent from analysis.
technique produces only ordinal data. Another potential problem is rounding error
Finally, under the assumption of transitivity, if too few units are used. On the other hand,
rank order data can be converted to the use of a large number of units may be
equivalent paired comparison data, and vice too taxing on the respondent and cause
versa. confusion and fatigue.
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roughly normal distribution of objects over aloud everything you are thinking.’
the whole set. Another comparative scaling Everything that the respondent says is tape
technique is magnitude estimation. In this recorded. This record of the respondent’s
technique, numbers are assigned to objects verbalized thought processes is referred to as
such that ratios between the assigned a protocol. Protocols have been used to
numbers reflect ratios on the specified measure consumers’ cognitive responses in
criterion. For example, respondents may be actual shopping trips as well as in simulated
asked to indicate whether they agree or shopping environments. An interviewer
disagree with each of a series of statements accompanies the respondent and holds a
measuring attitude towards banks. Then they microphone into which the respondent talks.
assign a number between 0 to 100 to each Protocols, thus collected, have been used to
statement to indicate the intensity of their determine the attributes and cues used in
agreement or disagreement. Providing this making purchase decisions, product usage
type of number imposes a cognitive burden behavior, and the impact of the shopping
on the respondents. environment on consumer decisions.
Another particularly useful procedure (that Protocol analysis has also been employed to
could be viewed as a very structured measure consumer response to advertising.
combination of observation and depth Immediately after seeing an ad, the
interviewing) for measuring cognitive respondent is asked to list all the thoughts
responses or thought processes consists of that came to mind while watching the ad.
verbal protocols. Respondents are asked to The respondent is given a limited amount of
‘think out loud’ and verbalize anything time to list the thoughts so as to minimize
going through their heads while making a the probability of collecting thoughts
decision or per-forming a task. The generated after, rather than during, the
researcher says ‘If you think anything, say it message. After the protocol has been
aloud, no matter how trivial the thought may collected, the individual’s thoughts or
be.’ Even with such an explicit instruction, cognitive responses can be coded into three
the respondent maybe silent. At these times, categories as illustrated:
the researcher will say ‘Remember to say
Protocols are, typically, incomplete. The cannot or will not verbalize. The researcher
respondent has many thoughts that she or he must take the incomplete record and infer
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CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE The form of the continuous scale may vary
considerably. For example, the line may be
It is also referred to as a graphic rating vertical or horizontal; scale points, in the
scale, respondents rate the objects by form of numbers or brief descriptions, may
placing a mark at the appropriate position on be provided; and if provided, the scale
a line that runs from one extreme of the points may be few or many. Three versions
criterion variable to the other. Thus, the of a continuous rating scale.
respondents are not restricted to selecting
from marks previously set by the researcher.
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Once the respondent has provided the LIKERT SCALE
ratings, the researcher divides the line into
as many categories as desired and assigns Named after its developer, Rensis Likert, the
scores based on the categories into which Likert scale is a widely used rating scale that
the ratings fall. requires the respondents to indicate a degree
of agreement or disagreement with each of a
The advantage of continuous scales is that series of statements about the stimulus
they are easy to construct; however, scoring objects. Typically, each scale item has five
is cumbersome and unreliable. Moreover, response categories, ranging from ‘strongly
continuous scales provide little new disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’.
information. Hence, their use in marketing
research has been limited. Recently, To conduct the analysis, each statement is
however, with the increased popularity of assigned a numerical score, ranging either
computer-assisted personal interviewing and from –2 to +2 or from 1 to 5. The analysis
other technologies, their use has become can be conducted on an item-by-item basis
more frequent. (profile analysis), or a total (summated)
score can be calculated for each respondent
by summing across items. The Likert scale
ITEMISED RATING SCALES is also referred to as a summated scale.
In an itemized rating scale, respondents are The Likert scale has several advantages. It is
provided with a scale that has a number or easy to construct and administer, and
brief description associated with each respondents readily understand how to use
category. The categories are ordered in the scale, making it suitable for Internet
terms of scale position; and the respondents surveys, mail, telephone or personal
are required to select the specified category interviews. The major disadvantage of the
that best describes the object being rated. Likert scale is that it takes longer to
Itemized rating scales are widely used in complete than other itemized rating scales
marketing research and form the basic because respondents have to read and fully
components of more complex scales, such as reflect upon each statement.
multi-item rating scales. We first describe
the commonly used itemized rating scales –
the Likert, semantic differential and Stapel
scales.
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Individual items on a semantic differential several modifications of the basic scale have
scale may be scored either on a –3 to +3or on been proposed.
a 1 to 7 scale. The resulting data are STAPEL SCALE
commonly analyzed through profile analysis.
In profile analysis, means or median values on The Stapel scale, named after its developer,
each rating scale are calculated and compared Jan Stapel, is a unipolar rating scale with10
by plotting or statistical analysis. This helps categories numbered from –5 to +5, without
determine the overall differences and a neutral point (zero).30This scale is usually
similarities among the objects. To assess presented vertically. Respondents are asked
differences across segments of respondents, to indicate by selecting an appropriate
the researcher can compare mean responses of numerical response category how accurately
different segments. Although the mean is most or inaccurately each term describes the
often used as a summary statistic, there is object. The higher the number, the more
some controversy as to whether the data accurately the term describes the object, as
obtained should be treated as an interval scale. shown in Figure. In this example, Dresdner
On the other hand, in cases when the is perceived as not having high-quality
researcher requires an overall comparison of products and having somewhat poor service.
objects, such as to determine bank preference, The data obtained by using a Stapel scale
the individual item scores are summed to can be analyzed in the same way as semantic
arrive at a total score. Its versatility makes the differential data. The Stapel scale produces
semantic differential a popular rating scale in results similar to the semantic differential.
marketing research. It has been widely used in The Stapel scale’s advantages are that it
comparing brand, product and company does not require a pre-test of the adjectives
images. It has also been used to develop or phrases to ensure true bipolarity and that
advertising and promotion strategies and in it can be administered over the telephone.
new product development studies. Some researchers, however, believe the
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Stapel scale is confusing and difficult to the Stapel scale issued least. Nonetheless,
apply. Of the three itemized rating scales this scale merits more attention than it has
considered, received.
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BALANCED VERSUS UNBALANCED balanced. If the distribution of responses is
SCALE likely to be skewed, however, either
In a balanced scale, the number of favorable positively or negatively, an unbalanced scale
and unfavorable categories is equal; in an with more categories in the direction of
unbalanced scale, the categories are unequal. skewness may be appropriate. If an
Examples of balanced and unbalanced scales unbalanced scale is used, the nature and
are given in Figure. In general, in order to degree of imbalance in the scale should be
obtain objective data, the scale should be taken into account in data analysis.
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may be improved by a non-forced scale that each test taker gets, in essence, a different
includes a ‘no opinion’ category. test, one that is customized to his or her own
ability level. One valuable outcome of the
CAT process is that a computer adaptive test
COMPUTER-BASED is often shorter than a traditional test
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING because fewer items are needed to determine
Computers have had a large impact on how test taker ability level. Thus, computer
tests can be administered. An important adaptive tests also take less time to
contribution of the computer is called administer. The ability level of the test taker
computer adaptive testing (CAT). CAT is is often very precisely determined using
being widely adopted in tests of CAT because more items are presented at
achievement and aptitude. In a CAT the test taker’s individual capability level. In
situation, often a small set—perhaps two or a more traditional testing situation, the test
three—of midlevel difficulty locator items taker is presented with items that will be too
are given to all test takers. Depending on easy and too difficult. Developing such tests
whether the individual passes or fails the takes tremendous amounts of resources.
items, subsequent items are presented that Item characteristics must be determined, and
better match the test taker’s ability level. So, each item must be highly reliable to be
if I fail all of the first locator items, the next included in the test item bank. To carry out
item I get will be easier than the locator the item analyses properly, thousands of
items. If I pass them all, I will be presented cases are needed to have stable item
with a harder item. If I pass one and fail the parameter estimates. Therefore, it is not
others, I will be presented with an item at surprising that the large testing corporations
about the same difficulty as the locator are the ones most likely to develop CAT
items. Thus, whereas traditional tests present capacity in test delivery.
all test takers with the same items, in CAT,
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AREAS OF TESTING: INTELLIGENCE, CREATIVITY, NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTS, APTITUDE, PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, INTEREST INVENTORIES
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The fastest way to locate a test and/or obtain Unpublished Experimental Measures
test reviews is through the World Wide (Goldman & Mitchell, 2002) provides
Web. Test locator services can be accessed another resource. The experimental
via www.unl.edu/buros, and www.ets.org, measures in this source are not
PsycINFO, PsycLIT, and ERIC searches commercially available but have been used
pull up tests used in all types of research. by researchers and are often available at low
The periodically updated Directory of or no cost.
SOME INTELLIGENCE TESTS experience than are others and that these
The term intelligence has caused much individuals have higher levels of general
controversy in the literature. However, it is mental ability. The reviews are confined to
generally agreed that tests purporting to two major commercially available
measure this construct assess general mental intelligence tests. Strong theoretical
ability. An assumption of all general frameworks have guided the development of
intelligence tests is that some individuals are these tests and given rise to the
better able to benefit and learn from administration and scoring procedures used.
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(regarded to a big amount of ideas), verbal, musical, dancing, etc. Moreover, the
flexibility (associated to constant change in skills to handle these ways of expression
the ideas which were generated), elaboration represent another aspect which determines a
(connected to beautifying basic ideas), person’s degree of creativity. Due to the fact
remote associations, interest, and cognitive that in Western culture verbal and graphic
styles, can be distinguished within the group creativity are socially valued over other
of skills required to integrate former and forms of expression, both them are the most
current perceptions. All these cognitive analyzed in education contexts.
operations get their expression through
different means, such as graphic,
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NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS Neuropsychological tests are typically
A neuropsychological evaluation typically administered to a single person working
includes an interview with a clinical with an examiner in a quiet office
neuropsychologist and assessment with a environment, free from distractions. As
series of neuropsychometric tests. such, it can be argued that
Neuropsychometric tests measure a wide neuropsychological tests at times offer an
range of abilities to determine an estimate of a person's peak level of cognitive
individual’s strengths and weaknesses. The performance. Neuropsychological tests are a
test results are compared to standardized core component of the process of conducting
norms and estimates of the person's pre- neuropsychological assessment.
injury abilities. A neuropsychological Most neuropsychological tests in current use
evaluation is often completed soon after an are based on traditional psychometric
individual has a traumatic brain injury or if theory. In this model, a person's raw score
an individual seems to be having difficulties on a test is compared to a large general
related to an undiagnosed brain injury from population normative sample, that should
the past. From the perspective of people ideally be drawn from a comparable
with brain injury and their significant others, population to the person being examined.
it is important to know what a Normative studies frequently provide data
neuropsychological evaluation is and how stratified by age, level of education, and/or
the results can be beneficial. ethnicity, where such factors have been
Neuropsychological tests are specifically shown by research to affect performance on
designed tasks used to measure a a particular test. This allows for a person's
psychological function known to be linked performance to be compared to a suitable
to a particular brain structure or pathway. control group, and thus provide a fair
They usually involve the systematic assessment of their current cognitive
administration of clearly defined procedures functioning.
in a formal environment.
LONDON OF TOWER TEST: two boards with pegs and several beads with
It is a test used in applied clinical different colors. The examiner (usually a
neuropsychology for the assessment of clinical psychologist or a neuropsychologist)
executive functioning specifically to detect uses the beads and the boards to present the
deficits in planning, which may occur due to examinee with problem-solving tasks.
a variety of medical and neuropsychiatric
conditions. It is related to the classic
problem-solving puzzle known as the Tower
of Hanoi. The test was developed by the
psychologist Tim Shallice and consists of
PACED AUDITORY SERIAL
ADDITION TEST (PASAT):
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differences in the things they liked versus 1966 version of the SVIB included 399
things they did not like to do (e.g., work items that mapped onto 54 occupations for
with people, perform repetitive tasks, men.
engage in artistic work, etc.). Not only did A more recent version of the SVIB, called
this apply to work-related tasks but also to the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
school subjects, hobbies, books, (SCII) was published in 1974 (Campbell,
entertainment, and so forth. For years, 1974). The men’s and women’s forms were
Strong set out to differentiate men in one merged into a single form and a theoretical
profession from men in other professions basis for the interests was proposed. This
based on their likes and dislikes. Thus, the theoretical linkage was based on the work of
SVIB is primarily an empirically based John Holland (1959, 1971), whose Self-
scale. Items on the SVIB are activities and Directed Search will be discussed next. The
are responded to by the test taker with CSII was revised in 1977 (Campbell, 1977),
“like,” “dislike,” or “indifferent.” Strong in 1981 (Campbell & Hansen, 1981), and
used items for each scale (e.g., the dentistry again in 1985 (Hansen & Campbell, 1985).
scale) where the professional group The 1981 version attempted to use more up-
answered statistically differently from “men to-date samples for norming purposes. The
in general.” When someone takes the SVIB, 1985 version attempted to expand the
the interests that are most like certain number and types of occupations
professions form the basis of the career represented in the inventory. This included
counseling process. In 1933, Strong created adding nonprofessional vocations into the
a form of the SVIB that included professions inventory.
that were also populated by women. The
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I score highest on the “E for enterprising” occupations, then, would most likely be
scale. In addition, I note that my next two compatible with my aspirations, interests,
highest scales are “A for artistic” and “S for and skills. Several revisions of the SDS
Social.” Then, going to the occupational occurred between 1971 and 1985. The 1994
finder, I can locate occupations that have revision (SDS Form R) was to make the
been defined as being “EAS.” These SDS more useful for counselors and clients.
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TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL unstructured and semi structured);
ASSESSMENT TOOLS USED IN biographical data; case study, the
MILITARY SELECTION. psychological tests are the most popular and
reliable, because of its psychometric
qualities. Types of psychological tests used
Among the many psychological assessment in selection of military personnel include,
technique available for military selections aptitude test, achievement tests, and
which include observation (participant and personality tests.
non-participant); interview (structured,
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through planned instruction, such as training achievement scores can indicate the need for
or classroom instruction. Achievement test remediation or repeating a course grade. In
scores are often used in an educational the military most achievement test are
system to determine what level of diversified and are used for placement or
instruction for which a student is prepared. promotion or selection for special mission. It
High achievement scores usually indicate a is usually based on the supposed experiences
mastery of grade-level material, and the on the joband can take different forms at
readiness for advanced instruction. Low different times.
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SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR Sensitivity (Utilitarian vs. Sensitive; Factor
QUESTIONNAIRE (OR 16PF) I),Vigilance (Trusting vs. Vigilant; Factor
This is an ideal measure for people with L), Abstractedness (Grounded vs.
healthy personalities on like MMPI which is Abstracted; Factor M),Privateness
used mainly for assessment of (Forthright vs. Private; Factor N),
psychopathology. The 16PF measures 16 Apprehension (Self-Assured vs.
basic personality traits which contain 185 Apprehensive; Factor O), Openness to
items and can help a person better Change (Traditional vs. Open to Change;
understand where their personality falls Factor Q1), Self-Reliance (Group-Oriented
amongst those traits: Warmth (Reserved vs. vs. Self-Reliant; Factor Q2),Perfectionism
Warm; Factor A), Reasoning (Concrete vs. (Tolerates Disorder vs. Perfectionistic;
Abstract; Factor B) Emotional Stability Factor Q3),Tension (Relaxed vs. Tense;
(Reactive vs. Emotionally Stable; Factor Factor Q4). This type of assessment might
C),Dominance (Deferential vs. Dominant; be administered so that a person can better
Factor E), Liveliness (Serious vs. Lively; understand themselves, and it can also help a
Factor F), Rule-Consciousness (Expedient professional better understand what type of
vs. Rule-Conscious; Factor G), Social approach or strategy to employ in treatment
Boldness (Shy vs. Socially Bold; Factor H), to best help the person.
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ability to learn rapidly. Once the individual completed by a machine. As this happens,
has settled into the job, however, the the job requirements are shifting from
strength of the relationship between physical strength and motor coordination to
intelligence and job performance starts to cognitive dexterity. In Reich's (1991) terms,
decrease. In jobs which impose variable we are moving from a world of doers to a
demands and where learning is constantly world of symbol analysts. The new
occurring, intelligence tests will prove more technologies devalue experience and
useful for predicting performance. increase the value of the ability to learn
Furthermore, there are many occupational (Hunt, 1995), precisely the sort of thing that
settings where the tasks are quite complex is predicted by tests of intelligence.
and in these situations intelligence tests can However, the trend is not completely in the
be useful. Indeed, with the increasing direction of greater complexity. Some jobs
complexity of modern day work situations, that formerly required cognitive skills no
it is possible that the predictive validity of longer do so because a machine (e.g., a
intelligence tests will increase in calculator) now takes care of the cognitive
occupational settings. The introduction of work. Time will tell whether intelligence
automation is a familiar scene everywhere in becomes more or less important in the
the workplace. Tasks that were once workforce of the future. For a thorough
performed by manual labour are now being analysis of this issue, see Hunt (1995).
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PERSONALITY TESTS
they tell. However, although projective
In terms of widespread usage, the techniques are powerful tools for personality
assessment of personality ranks second only assessment they are not used by many
to intelligence and achievement testing. practitioners. They take a lot of time to
There are two basic forms of personality administer and a lot of training before
testing: self-report measures and projective reaching a reasonable degree of proficiency.
techniques such as the Rorschach and the
Self-report methods of personality
Thematic Apperception Test. The assessment have proven to be much more
Rorschach, better known to most people as popular. As the term implies, self-report
the inkblot test, is one of the earliest forms tests rely upon the test-taker responding to a
of personality assessment, having first made set of standard statements by indicating
its appearance in 1921. The test presents a
whether they agree or disagree with the
series of 10 stimulus cards to the test taker,
statements (if the answer is a simple yes-no)
who is required to state what he or she can
or choosing a number to indicate the extent
see in the card. The theory upon which the
of their agreement or disagreement with the
test is based claims that the way a person
item. There are so many self-report forms
perceives and interprets the test material
around these days that it is extremely
reflects fundamental aspects of his or her
unlikely that the reader has not encountered
psychological functioning, including this form of test before. In the development
personality. The Thematic Apperception of self-report personality inventories, several
Test (TAT) also makes use of pictures, but approaches have been followed in
employs them in a different way. A series of formulating, assembling, selecting, and
19 pictures and one blank card is shown to grouping items. Among the major
the test taker who is asked to make up a procedures in current use are those based on
story about each picture. In the case of the
a) content validation, b) empirical
blank card, the task is to imagine a picture
criterion keying, and c) factor analysis.
on the card and then tell a story about it. The a) Content-related validation. These
rationale underlying the use of the TAT is personality inventories are generally formed
much the same as that for the Rorschach; from lists of known problems which the
there is an expectation that people will individual can then tick as affecting them or
project much of themselves into the stories not affecting them. This is the technique
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used in the development of the Life stress for scores on the test. Factor analysis can be
Inventory described earlier in this chapter. used to help select items for inclusion in a
Empirical criterion keying. This personality test or to identify how many
method builds upon the previous method but dimensions underlie tests developed by
takes a more statistical approach, looking for either of the first two methods. Cattell's
items that separate "normal" from Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16
"abnormal" response patterns. In a purely PF) was developed using this method. The
hypothetical example, if it became known so-called Big Five Factor Model (Costa &
that schizophrenics showed a fear of clocks, McCrae, 1991), perhaps the dominant model
an item assessing attitude to clocks could be of personality in occupational testing
included in a test designed to detect settings, was also based on factor analysis.
schizophrenia. It is not important that we The big five personality factors are: 1.
have no idea why clocks might inspire fear Neuroticism (N): indicates an individual’s
in this group. The important thing is that level of emotional stability, ranging from
people with the disorder have the fear whilst calm and even-tempered up to
others don't, so empirical criterion keying maladjustment and emotional distress. 2.
would suggest that such an item could be Extraversion (E): indicates a person’s degree
included. The best known example of a of sociability and preference for interacting
personality test developed through the use of with people. 3. Openness (O): measures
empirical criterion keying is the Minnesota openness to experience, and is related to
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). divergent thinking and creativity. Low
The MMPI is a very large self-administered scorers tend to be conventional and
test, comprising numerous sub-scales. The conservative. 4. Agreeableness (A):
sub-scales were developed empirically by measures how a person views others. Low
criterion keying of items, the criterion being scorers tend to be competitive while high
traditional psychiatric diagnosis. The latest scorers favor cooperative interactions with
revision of the MMPI has resulted in it being others. 5. Conscientiousness (C): indicates a
separated into two forms, the MMPI-2 and person’s ability to control impulses and
the MMPI-A (for use with adolescents). The desires. High C is associated with strong
California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is will and high need for achievement, while
another very well-known instrument that low C is associated with a more
was based on the MMPI. It consists of 434 lackadaisical approach to life.
items to be answered true or false. Half of
these items came from the MMPI. The CPI
has been widely used in industry as well as APPLICATIONS OF PERSONALITY
in clinical practice. c) Factor analysis. As TESTING
mentioned earlier, factor analysis is a The two traditional areas for the application
technique for detecting patterns of of personality tests have been clinical
correlations among test scores that indicate settings and occupational settings. Recently,
underlying dimensions that are responsible personality tests have become popular in the
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new field of sport psychology, where they against the wealth of other data collected in
are used to gain insights into factors that individualized testing.
affect performance.
PERSONALITY TESTING IN
PERSONALITY TESTING IN OCCUPATIONAL SETTINGS
CLINICAL SETTINGS Personality testing also has a very strong
Personality testing has a long history in tradition in job selection testing where the
clinical settings, where it has obvious 16 PF and more recently the Five Factor
relevance to the analysis of personality Inventory, a measure of the big five
disorders. Perhaps the most common use of personality factors (NEO-FFI: Costa &
personality tests stems from the profile that McCrae, 1991), have proved very popular.
can be obtained following their This popularity continues despite evidence
administration. A profile is a line linking an that personality tests do not predict job
individual's scores on various parts of a test. performance very well, even for sales
Figure 15.1 shows a profile on an ability positions (Hunter, 1986). Robertson and
test. Similar profiles can be constructed for Smith (1989) report a validity coefficient as
personality tests. The resulting pattern can low as .15 in personnel selection testing. In
be inspected for signs of abnormality. A contrast, the coefficient for ability tests
single high or low score on its own may not ranges between .25 and .45. The use of
indicate any problems but a combination of personality testing in occupational settings is
test scores may well be indicative of not confined to selection testing, it has also
particular syndromes, such as schizophrenia. proved very popular as an aid in training
These forms of profile analysis have not courses. The Myers Briggs Type Indicator
lived up to expectations for two main (MBTI) is one of the best-known personality
reasons. Firstly, variations among subtest tests because it is used so often in
scores could arise from a variety of workshops on career decision making, team
circumstances, only some of them building, conflict resolution, time
pathological. Secondly, the diagnostic management, relationship counselling, and a
categories that provided the criteria for number of other applications. The MBTI is
profile analysis are themselves subject to based on the theory of psychological types
debate. For example, what does it mean to proposed by Carl Jung. Psychological types
say that a particular pattern indicates represent combinations of two or more traits
schizophrenia when schizophrenia itself is or attributes that are stable and shape the
not a clearly defined condition? Profile way individuals think and behave. The
analysis may tell us something about group MBTI classifies people into 16 types and
characteristics but it is prone to error when one of the reasons for its success lies in the
applied to individual cases. A more fruitful fact that all types are seen as being valuable
approach is to treat the pattern information with each having particular strengths and
as a source of hypotheses that can be tested weaknesses. There are many clones of the
MBTI that also seek to describe people in
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terms of types. They are frequently used in has included a graph which shows a quite
management courses. Such type indicators steady increase in the number of sports-
can be extremely valuable in workshop specific tests since 1975. The proportion is
settings where they serve as a basis for now close to 45%. As one might expect,
discussion of the different perspectives given the nature of sport, these new tests are
individuals may have on work situations, primarily in the areas of anxiety, motivation,
home life, and so on. For career selection mental skills, and specific sporting factors
purposes, there are as yet no data to support such as team cohesion (Fogarty, 1995).
claims that knowledge of type (or
personality) is a useful in predicting job
TESTS OF VOCATIONAL AND
performance.
CAREER INTERESTS
Another category of test that has proved to
PERSONALITY TESTING IN SPORT be very popular in educational and
SETTINGS occupational settings is the career interest
The latest field of psychology to embrace inventory. The best known of these are the
personality testing in a big way is sport tests based on Holland's model of career
psychology. Much of the testing centers on decision making. The Self-Directed Search
what is now known as "sport person ology" - (SDS) is the most popular of these tests and
the study of personality characteristics as has an Australian version which is in
determinants of sporting success. As in widespread use in this country. Holland
occupational testing, the findings so far have (1985) believed that the most productive
not been very promising. When the approach to career decision making involved
personality profiles of elite athletes are an investigation of the individual's
compared with those of novice athletes, personality type. He proposed a six-category
there are differences. Elite athletes are more typology: Realistic (R), Investigative (I),
aggressive, more focused, less anxious, and Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E),
so on, but individual differences on these and Conventional (C). He believed that this
traits do not predict who is going to be an six-category system could be used to not
elite athlete. That is to say, the tests of only describe the major types of people but
personality have concurrent validity but also to describe the work environments they
poor predictive validity. Talent are likely to encounter in Western society.
identification programme have grappled Holland's assumption was that people seek
unsuccessfully with this problem for years. environments that allow them to express
Perhaps more situation-specific personality their interests, and by knowing something
tests will help to improve the predictive about their general orientation we are in a
validity of personality tests in both better position to judge where they will be
occupational and sports settings. There is no happiest working. Holland's tests, or
doubt that serious attempts are now being derivatives of them, are widely used in
made to develop personality tests that are educational and occupational settings to
suited to sports situations. Ostrow (1990, p. assist with career decision making.
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no need to present a whole lot of easy items algorithms built into the software can
to a very capable person. It is a waste of quickly estimate a person's level of
time. Similarly, there is no need to present a cognitive functioning on the ability being
lot of difficult items to a person who has no measured, rather than the person's total
chance of solving them. In a traditional score. Such an estimation is possible
paper-and-pencil test, everyone is given the because the difficulty level of each item is
same instructions, the same items, and the known beforehand and the test can draw
same time in which to complete the test. In upon a large bank of items covering all
an adaptive, computerized test situation, the possible ability levels.
If you can imagine that the higher items are simultaneously. In some cases, testing time
more difficult you can see that each time the is halved because fewer items have to be
person is correct, a more difficult item is presented. Adaptive computer testing can be
selected. When the item is incorrect, the used with other types of test (e.g.,
computer selects an item from an easier personality), but so far, their application has
level. In the oversimplified representation mostly been with intelligence and
shown in Figure 15.4, the person's ability achievement tests. Apart from test
level is somewhere near to the levels administration, computers are increasingly
assessed by items 3, 5, and 7. Above that being used to write test reports on the basis
level, the items are incorrect. Below that of scores collected during a computerized
level and the items are correct. In actual administration of the test or entered by the
practice, it is not quite this easy, but the test administrator.
principle is clear. At some point, There is a real question mark hanging over
performance will alternate between success the issue of the lack of flexibility of reports
and failure. The test is then ended and the written by a computer. Such reports are
level at which this occurred is reported as based on test scores only and omit the large
the ability estimate for that individual. amount of data that can be collected in a
Adaptive tests are not new in psychology face-to-face testing situation. When using
and education, many individually tests of maximal performance, for example,
administered tests are adaptive (e.g., the a clinician can report the amount of effort
Stanford Binet), but computers allow whole put into the test, a computer cannot. In
groups of people to be tested
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Type I error rejecting null hypothesis The error of measurement is nothing but the
(H0) when it is true, error committed while substituting the
Type II error accepting null hypothesis observed/obtained score for the
(H0) when it is false. corresponding true score. Suppose we are
interested in assigning every person a true
score, but instead of true score, we assign
The most often used measures of ‘test the observed score. Whatever be the
errors’ are the four types of errors, namely: difference between these two scores, it is
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nothing but the error of measurement. Thus, those terms in reverse order. In a regression
the error of measurement is the error made analysis, X values are any values from
while substituting the observed score for the which you want to predict, and Y values are
true score. any values to which you want to predict.
Based on this theory, error of measurement Unfortunately, those predictions are never
is: perfect because prediction errors occur.
Such errors may be due to unreliable
E=X – t measurement in either the Y or X variable,
or due to unsystematic differences between
Where, E is the error score the two sets of numbers.
X is the observed score t
is the true score. When you are trying to predict Y values
from X values, it would be useful to know
ERROR OF SUBSTITUTION what the distribution of those prediction
errors is so you can interpret your
Error of substitution is the error made while predictions wisely. An example of such a
substituting a score on one test for a score situation might be a case where you use
on a parallel test. In other words, error of regression analysis to predict TOEFL scores
substitution is the difference between two from the PERFECT test at your institution.
observed scores on parallel tests. You must first conduct a study based on a
Mathematically, error of substitution is: large number of students who took both
d=x1 – x2 tests. Then using regression analysis, you
build a regression equation of the form Y =
Where, d is the difference a + b X. Based on your analysis, you will
x1 is the observed score on one test and know the values of a (the intercept) and b
x2 is the observed score on another test. (the slope), and can then plug in the X value
(or PERFECT test score) for a student who
The above definition of the error of has never taken the TOEFL. Solving for Y
substitution would be applicable in case we will then give you that student's predicted Y
are interested to find the differences between (or predicted TOEFL score). All of this is
the results obtained by one researcher beyond the scope of this explanation, but is
employing one psychological test and necessary in order to get even a basic
another researcher employing a parallel understanding of what the standard error of
form of the same psychological test.[ estimate is. We assume that any student's
Standard Error of Estimate Conceptually, predicted Y score is our best estimate of that
the standard error of estimate is related to score, but we recognize that there are
regression analysis in that it typically sampling errors around that estimate, just as
provides an estimate of the dispersion of the there were for estimating the population
prediction errors when you are trying to mean and true scores. Those sampling errors
predict Y values from X values in a are normally distributed and, in this case,
regression analysis. have a standard deviation called the standard
error of estimate.]
In order to understand the previous sentence,
you will first need to understand three bits of
jargon: prediction errors, Y values, and X
values. Again, I would like to deal with
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Error of estimating or predicting observed Error in estimating true score is the error
score is the error made while a regression made in predicting the true score from the
equation is used to estimate or predict the observed score while applying the best
scores on one test from scores on a parallel fitting regression equation or least square
test. In other words, it is the error made solutions. In other words, error of estimating
while predicating the score on one form of the true score is the error difference between
the test on the basis of the other form of the the true score and the predicated value of the
same test with the use of least square true score.
solutions, that is, regression equation.
SPEED vs. POWER TESTS difficulty, all of which are well within the
ability level of the persons for whom the test
A psychological test is "an objective and is designed; but the time limit is such that no
standardized measure of a sample of examinee can attempt all the items. Under
behavior". Psychological Tests can be such conditions, each person’s score reflects
classified on various dimensions. One only the speed with which he worked.
classification which is based on the rate of
performance distinguishes between Speed According to Gulliksen, a pure Speed Test
Test and Power Test. is a test composed of items so easy that the
subjects never give the wrong answer to any
SPEED TESTS: of them, that is, there would be no attempted
item that would be incorrect and,
Speed Tests are the ones in which individual consequently, the score for each person
differences depend entirely on the speed of would equal the number of items attempted.
performance. Items are of uniform
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For example, a test in grade school where perfect score. Achievement examinations,
students are asked to complete as many for e.g., fall in this category.
multiplication facts as possible in two In a pure Power Test, all the items are
minutes is an example of a pure speeded attempted so that the score on the test
test. Pure speeded tests are not useful unless depends entirely upon the number of items
the underlying construct being measured is that are answered and answered correctly.
one where speed is important (e.g., a typing Therefore, in such tests, the items cannot be
task). of trivial difficulty because that would not
produce a desirable distribution of scores.
In speeded tests, the only way to get Power tests assess individual differences
variance on the test scores for a group of test without any effects of imposed time limits
takers on a speeded test is to control the changing scores. Power tests often are made
amount of time given to the test taker. up of items that vary in their level of
Variability of test scores is a strong difficulty. The power test designer should
determinant of a test’s reliability, so the time ensure that the test is long enough to cover
limit should be set to ensure maximum the content domain, but not so long that
variance in the test scores. there is not enough time available for most
people to complete the test.
Some speeded tests often take into account
the individual difference of age. It is a well- DIFFERENCES
established empirical finding that as
individuals age, their response times to A speed test is one in which each
stimuli slow. Older individuals simply take item is trivially easy but is
longer to complete tasks than do younger administered within such a strict
individuals. When administering a speeded time limit that it is impossible to
test, ensure that the test manual has answer all questions. For example,
addressed the issue of age. Usually this is the examinee might be given 60
done by adding a constant to scores of seconds for a 100-item test made up
individuals within certain age bands. For of questions. It is assumed that,
example, individuals between 30–39 years given enough time, the person could
of age taking the Wonderlic Personnel Test answer every item correctly.
(1999) add one point to their raw score. However, the strict time limit makes
Similar adjustments to raw scores are made it impossible to complete every item.
for each decade up to 60 years of age and Individual differences in test scores
over. are thus a function of the speed with
which the examinee responds to
individual items; the faster the
POWER TESTS: person works, the more items he or
she will complete. The test-retest
Power Tests, on the other hand, have time method is useful for assessing the
limits long enough to permit everyone to reliability of speed tests. In a speed
attempt all the items. But the difficulty of test, items are often trivial and fairly
items increases gradually and the test meaningless. It is precisely for this
includes certain items which are too difficult reason that the usual barrier to the
for anyone to solve, so that no one can get a use of the test-
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will contain. The format of the test is The administration and instruction should
decided on the basis of the purpose of the include whether the test should be conducted
test. on individual or in group setting, specific
requirements should be mentioned
(stationary, setting etc) the time limit to
STEP 3: COMPOSING TEST ITEMS: complete the test should be mentioned, there
While composing test items it is preferred should be a proper script for administrator a
that two and a half times more items are good script encourages the testee to give
developed as we go further with the steps of accurate answers and also it should be
construction. In multiple choice mentioned if prior training is required. The
questionnaire format, a multiple choice item instructions should also have an example for
consists of a problem, known as the stem, the testee; this will make him/her more clear
and a list of suggested solutions, known as and have a better understanding.
alternatives. The alternatives consist of one
correct or best alternative, which is the STEP 5: PILOT TESTING:
answer, and incorrect or inferior Pilot testing is done in two phases. The
alternatives, known as distracters. The number of participants depends upon the
distracters shouldn’t be too easy or too size and complexity of target audience. The
difficult they should be realistic more the setting of the pilot test should mirror the
options lessen the chance of guessing the planned test setting. The questions that
right answers. In true and false that is should be asked after administration include,
dichotomous items format the effect of “Do you understand meaning of each
guessing is higher as only two options are item?”, “Do you understand test
available. Forced choice question format instructions?”, “Do you object to content of
which are usually used in scales, chances of any item? Why?”, “Do you think test
guessing is low. assesses your skills properly?” Then revise
Subjective answers like projective or drop certain items and collect the data.
techniques, there are chances of response
biases. Social desirability, there is tendency STEP 6: ITEM ANALYSIS:
to choose responses which are socially Item analysis is analyzing property of each
desirable it can be reduced by using item.
ipsative, a scale could also be used to see
social desirability. Acquiescence that is the Item difficulty is done only in test
tendency to agree with the idea presented construction and not in scale
which can be controlled by using reverse construction because in scale items are
scoring. Random responding or faking, not measuring success or failure in an
various tests like lie scales and acquiescence item but the degree to which a trait is
scale are developed also usually questions present.
are framed differently and randomly if the D= R/N
testee responds randomly to the similar Where, D is difficulty value; also
questions measuring the same thing that denotedby P.
means he/she is faking. R is number of people answered correctly
to an item.
STEP 4: WRITING DOWN THE N is total number of people answering an
ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS: item.
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Item discrimination is the ability to The advantage to making a large item pool
discriminate people who have high becomes more apparent as test revision
ability and low ability in test and high proceeds. Poor items can be eliminated in
trait and low trait in scale. favor of those that were shown on the test
V= DU- DL tryout to be good items. Even when working
Where, V is item discrimination with a large item pool, the revising test
DU is difficulty value of upper developer must be aware of the domain the
group DL is difficulty value of test should sample.
lower group Having balanced all these concerns, the test
developer ends up coming with a better
Item reliability is inter- item revised test. The next step includes
correlation. Forced Nominal is found in administering this revised test under
scale and perfectly nominal in test. In standardized conditions to a second
scale, correlation is found by tetra- appropriate sample of examinees.
choleric/ rank order/ Pearson moment. When the item analysis of data derived
from a test administration indicates that the
Item validity is the correlation of an test is not yet in its finished form, the steps
item to the test scores. It is found by bi- of revision, tryout and item analysis are
serial/ point bi-serial/ Pearson product repeated until the test is satisfactory and
moment formula. standardization can occur.
Test Revision in the life cycle of an existing
STEP 7: REVISING THE TEST: test:
Test revision as a stage in developing a There are no hard and fast rules of revising
new test an existing test as such. Test are usually
revised due to the following conditions -
After the new test is conceptualized,
constructed, tried out and item analyzed The stimulus materials look dated and the
current test takers cannot relate to them.
(both quantitatively and qualitatively), what
remains is to mould the test into its final The verbal content of the test is not readily
understood by current test takers.
form. On the basis of the huge amount of
information that is generated at the item- The test norms are no longer adequate as a
analysis stage, some items from the original result of group membership changes in the
population of potential test takers.
item fool will be eliminated and others will
be re-written. The steps to revise an existing test parallel
those to create a brand new one. In test
There are several ways to approaching test conceptualizing phase, the test developer
revision: must think through the objectives of the
One is to characterize each item according revision and how they can best be met. In
to its strengths and weaknesses and balance the test construction phase, the proposed
them. changes are made. Test tryout, item
analysis and test revision follow.
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CROSS -VALIDATION AND CO- - Alternate/Parallel form of reliability
VALIDATION:
Cross Validation: Revalidation of a test on STEP 9: ESTABLISHING VALIDITY:
a sample for test takers other than those on Test validity may be defined as the degree to
whom test performance was originally found which a test measures what it is intended to
to be a valid predictor of some criterion. Co measure. A test can be reliable without
Validation: Test validation process being valid, but not the other way round
conducted on 2/more tests using the same (Groth-Marnat 2003). For example, tests of
sample of test takers. processing speed that involve naming of
IRT (Item Response Theory) can be used to alphabets or digits are usually highly
build and revise tests as well. reliable, but they may actually measure
reading skills and not processing speed
(Roivainen 2011). Most psychological
STEP 8: ESTABLISHING constructs, such as processing speed,
RELIABILITY OF THE TEST: intelligence or personality are abstract by
Reliability refers to how consistently a test nature and cannot be directly observed.
measures a characteristic. More the They must be studied by indirect means.
consistency, greater the reliability. In other However, psychological theories and the
words, a test is reliable if it yields the same definition of psychological constructs
scores on being administered on the same change over time. Therefore, the first
set of people for the second (or more) time. concern of a test constructor is to 28
Factors such as test taker’s consider whether the test items they have
psychological/physical state, environmental selected are representative of the construct
conditions, test form, etc are sources of being measured. This aspect of validity is
chance or random measurement error in the usually referred to as content validity.
assessment process. If there were no random Content validity is subjective by nature, as it
errors of measurement, the individual would is based on the judgment of the test
get the same test score, the individual's developers. Criterion validity refers to the
"true" score, each time. The degree to which correlation between a test and an outside
test scores are unaffected by measurement measure. For example, IQ scores are highly
errors is an indication of the reliability of correlated with school grades. If
the test. The reliability of a test is indicated performance on a test item has zero
by the reliability coefficient. It is denoted by correlation with education, then that item is
the letter "r," and is expressed as a number probably a poor measure of intelligence.
ranging between 0 and 1.00, with r = 0 Predictive validity involves outside
indicating no reliability, and r = 1.00 measurements that are performed sometimes
indicating perfect reliability. It is normal to after the psychological test, for example, the
not find a test with perfect reliability. The correlation of school grades with IQ scores
larger the reliability coefficient, the more from a test taken a year earlier (Blacker &
reliable the test scores. Endicott 2000, Morgan et al. 2001)
The following are the types of reliability
estimates: - Validity is arguably the most important
Test retest reliability criteria for the quality of a test. The term
Inter-rater reliability validity refers to whether or not the test
Internal consistency reliability measures what it claims to measure. On a
test with high validity the items will be
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closely linked to the test’s intended focus. case, there is no justification for using the
For many certification and licensure tests test results for their intended purpose. There
this means that the items will be highly are several ways to estimate the validity of a
related to a specific job or occupation. If a test including content validity, concurrent
test has poor validity, then it does not validity, and predictive validity. The face
measure the job-related content and validity of a test is sometimes also
competencies it ought to. When this is the mentioned.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
CONTENT VALIDITY
While there are several types of validity, the either masters or non-masters on the content
most important type for most certification measured by the test are identified, and the
and licensure programs is probably that of test is administered to them under realistic
content validity. Content validity is a logical exam conditions. Once the tests have been
process where connections between the test scored, the relationship is estimated between
items and the job-related tasks are the Test Validity examinees’ known status
established. If a thorough test development as either masters or non-masters and their
process was followed, a job analysis was classification as masters or non-masters (i.e.,
properly conducted, an appropriate set of pass or fail) based on the test. This type of
test specifications were developed, and item validity provides evidence that the test is
writing guidelines were carefully followed, classifying examinees correctly. The
then the content validity of the test is likely stronger the correlation is, the greater the
to be very high. Content validity is typically concurrent validity of the test is.
estimated by gathering a group of subject PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
matter experts (SMEs) together to review Another statistical approach to validity is
the test items. Specifically, these SMEs are predictive validity. This approach is similar
given the list of content areas specified in to concurrent validity, in that it measures the
the test blueprint, along with the test items relationship between examinees'
intended to be based on each content area. performances on the test and their actual
The SMEs are then asked to indicate status as masters or non-masters. However,
whether or not they agree that each item is with predictive validity, it is the relationship
appropriately matched to the content area of test scores to an examinee's future
indicated. Any items that the SMEs identify performance as a master or non-master that
as being inadequately matched to the test is estimated. In other words, predictive
blueprint or flawed in any other way, are validity considers the question, "How well
either revised or dropped from the test. does the test predict examinees' future status
as masters or non-masters?" For this type of
CONCURRENT VALIDITY
validity, the correlation that is computed is
Another important method for investigating
between the examinees' classifications as
the validity of a test is concurrent validity.
Concurrent validity is a statistical method master or non-master based on the test and
using correlation, rather than a logical their later performance, perhaps on the job.
method. Examinees who are known to be This type of validity is especially useful for
test purposes such as selection or
admissions.
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FACE VALIDITY
One additional type of validity that you may STEP 10: DEVELOPING NORMS:
hear mentioned is face validity. Like content Valid norms are an essential aspect of test
validity, face validity is determined by a validity. Test results are usually interpreted
review of the items and not through the use by comparing the performance of an
of statistical analyses. Unlike content individual to norms based on a
validity, face validity is not investigated representative sample of the population. The
through formal procedures and is not more closely the standardization sample
determined by subject matter experts. resembles the respondent in terms of age,
Instead, anyone who looks over the test, education, sex and health, the more reliable
including examinees and other stakeholders, the comparison is between test norms and
may develop an informal opinion as to the respondent’s test score. Sir Francis
whether or not the test is measuring what it Galton at the first time developed the logic
is supposed to measure. While it is clearly of for norm based testing in the 18th century.
some value to have the test appear to be Norms refers to information regarding the
valid, face validity alone is insufficient for group performance of a particular reference
establishing that the test is measuring what it on a particular measure for which a person
claims to measure. A well-developed exam can be compared to. Norms mean
program will include formal studies into standardized score. Scores on psychological
other, more substantive types of validity. test are most commonly interpreted by
The validity of a test is critical because, reference to norm that represents the test
without sufficient validity, test scores have performance on standardization sample.
no meaning. The evidence you collect and Norms always represent the best
document about the validity of your test is performance.
also your best legal defense should the exam Basically there are two purposes of norms:
program ever be challenged in a court of Norms indicate the individual’s relative
law. While there are several ways to standing in the normative sample and thus
estimate validity, for many certification and permit evaluation of his/her performance in
licensure exam programs the most important refer to other persons.
type of validity to establish is content Norms provide compared measures that
validity permitted a direct comparison of the
individual performance on difference test.
TYPES OF NORMS
NATIONAL NORMS: educational level, age, sex, race, present or
The most general and most commonly used intended field of study, socioeconomic level
type of norms is the National Norms, of parents (educational, occupational, and
appropriate to the educational and age level economic determinations), and sometimes,
(or levels) for which the test is constructed. for achievement test norms.
One of the problems in defining the national Schrader has pointed out that national norms
norms group arises from the large number, have the distinct advantage of being simple,
variety, and communities, that are correlated definite and unique. National norms also have
with and relevant to the test scores. The the advantage that, to the extent that
variables that are associated with the publishers succeed in providing truly precise
characteristics of students include and unbiased national norms, it is possible to
achieve score comparability across the tests of
different publishers. On the other hand,
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equivalents, they yield the usual kind of provide the particular interpretive
percentile rank that describes the person’s information required at the time.
relative standing in relation to other
individuals who are of the same age or in the STEP 11: DEVELOPING THE
same grade. INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL:
It is important to note that the substitution of An ideal test manual is expected to include
age and grade norms for age and grade standard stimulus content, ways to
equivalents effectively separates the administer the test, way to score objectively,
function of norms from that of scales. Thus specific, local normative data and
it is possible to develop a metric for a standardized method of interpretation, with
system of test forms and, entirely established reliabilities and validities.
independently, to develop a collection of Publishers may, however, present
different kinds of norms – differentiated, for correlations of test scores with some other
example, by grade, by region, by sex, by criterion (perhaps another well-known
type of community, etc. – without achievement test) as evidence of the validity
committing the scale to any ne of these sets or usefulness of the new test. The test
of norms. The scale remains constant, so publisher will probably collect the pertinent
long as the test is appropriate and relevant to information and data into a manual for the
times. The norms on the other hand are free test.
to develop and change as necessary to
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CONTENTS
The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems – Structure and functions. Neuroplasticity.
Muscular and Glandular system: Types and functions Biological basis of Motivation: Hunger,
Thirst, Sleep and Sex. Biological basis of emotion: The Limbic system, Hormonal regulation
of behavior. Genetics and behavior: Chromosomal anomalies; Nature-Nurture
controversy [Twin studies and adoption studies]
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UNIT
4 Biological Basis
Of Behavior
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DIVISIONS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY
Physiological Psychology
Psychopharmacology
Neuropsychology
Psychophysiology
Cognitive Neuroscience
Comparative Psychology
For simplicity, they are presented as distinct approaches; but there is much overlap
among them, and many bio psychologists regularly follow more than one approach.
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COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: genetics (the study of genetic
influences on behavior.
Cognitive neuroscience is the youngest
division of biopsychology, but it is
currently among the most active and SENSORY SYSTEMS:
exciting. Cognitive neuroscientists GENERAL AND SPECIFIC
study the neural bases of cognition, a SENSATIONS, RECEPTORS
term that generally refers to higher AND PROCESSES
intellectual processes such as thought,
Sensory receptors are specialized cells,
memory, attention, and complex
usually neurons, which detect and respond
perceptual processes. Because of its
to physical and chemical stimuli. Most are
focus on cognition, most cognitive
exquisitely sensitive to highly specific
neuroscience research involves human
inputs, or sensory modalities, such as
subjects; and because of its focus on
movement, odor chemicals or visible light
human subjects, its methods tend to be
photons. Detection of the physical stimulus
noninvasive, rather than involving
commonly occurs in a morphologically
penetration or direct manipulation of
and physiologically specialized cell region,
the brain. The major method of
while information about the stimulus is
cognitive neuroscience is functional
transmitted by action potentials along a
brain imaging (recording images of the
sensory axon to the animal's central
activity of the living human brain)
nervous system.
while a subject is engaged in a
particular cognitive activity.
Thus, a major role of sensory receptors is
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY: to help us learn about the environment
around us, or about the state of our
Comparative psychology is the internal environment. Stimuli from
division of biopsychology that deals varying sources, and of different types, are
generally with the biology of behavior, received and changed into the
rather than specifically with the neural electrochemical signals of the nervous
mechanisms of behavior. Comparative system. This occurs when a stimulus
psychologists compare the behavior of changes the cell membrane potential of a
different species in order to understand sensory neuron. The stimulus causes the
the evolution, genetics, and sensory cell to produce an action potential
adaptiveness of behavior. Some that is relayed into the central nervous
comparative psychologists study system (CNS), where it is integrated with
behavior in the laboratory; others other sensory information—or sometimes
engage in ethological research i.e. the higher cognitive functions—to become a
study of animal behavior in its natural conscious perception of that stimulus. The
environment. The two important areas central integration may then lead to a
of biopsychological research that also motor response. Describing sensory
employ comparative analysis are often function with the term sensation or
considered as part of comparative perception is a deliberate distinction.
psychology. One of these is Sensation is the activation of sensory
evolutionary psychology (a subfield receptor cells at the level of the stimulus.
that focuses on understanding behavior Perception is the central processing of
by considering its likely evolutionary sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern.
origins. The other is behavioral Perception is dependent on sensation,
but not all
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FUNCTIONAL RECEPTOR TYPES nociceptor. Physical stimuli, such as
pressure and vibration, as well as the
A third classification of receptors is by sensation of sound and body position
how the receptor transduces stimuli into (balance), are interpreted through a
membrane potential changes. Stimuli are mechanoreceptor. Another physical
of three general types. Some stimuli are stimulus that has its own type of receptor
ions and macromolecules that affect is temperature, which is sensed through a
transmembrane receptor proteins when thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to
these chemicals diffuse across the cell temperatures above (heat) or below (cold)
membrane. Some stimuli are physical normal body temperature.
variations in the environment that affect
receptor cell membrane potentials. Other SENSORY MODALITIES
stimuli include the electromagnetic
radiation from visible light. For humans, Ask anyone what the senses are, and they
the only electromagnetic energy that is are likely to list the five major senses—
perceived by our eyes is visible light. taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight.
Some other organisms have receptors that However, these are not all of the senses.
humans lack, such as the heat sensors of The most obvious omission from this list is
snakes, the ultraviolet light sensors of balance. Also, what is referred to simply as
bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory touch can be further subdivided into
birds. pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-
follicle position, on the basis of the type of
Receptor cells can be further categorized mechanoreceptors that perceive these
on the basis of the type of stimuli they touch sensations. Other overlooked senses
transduce. Chemical stimuli can be include temperature perception by
interpreted by a chemoreceptor that thermoreceptors and pain perception by
interprets chemical stimuli, such as an nociceptors. Within the realm of
object’s taste or smell. Osmoreceptors physiology, senses can be classified as either
respond to solute concentrations of body general or specific.
fluids. Additionally, pain is primarily a
chemical sense that interprets the presence A GENERAL SENSE is one that is
of chemicals from tissue damage, or distributed throughout the body and has
similar intense stimuli, through a
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receptor cells within the structures of other modality represents the sensation of a
organs. Mechanoreceptors in the skin, specific type of stimulus. For example, the
muscles, or the walls of blood vessels are general sense of touch, which is known as
examples of this type. General senses often somatosensation, can be separated into
contribute to the sense of touch, as light pressure, deep pressure, vibration,
described above, or to proprioception itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement.
(body movement and detect changes that
occur in muscles, tendons, ligaments and (EXTRA FOR REFERENCE –
joint tissues) and kinesthesia (body IMPORTANT FOR NET)
movement), or to a visceral sense, which AUDITION (HEARING)
is most important to autonomic functions
(i.e. detect changes that occur in internal Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of
organs). sound waves into a neural signal that is
made possible by the structures of the ear
A SPECIAL SENSE is one that has a (Figure 4). The large, fleshy structure on
the lateral aspect of the head is known as
specific organ devoted to it, namely the
eye, inner ear, tongue, or nose. The senses the auricle. Some sources will also refer to
this structure as the pinna, though that term
of taste and smell (detected by
chemoreceptors), hearing and equilibrium is more appropriate for a structure that can
be moved, such as the external ear of a cat.
(detected by mechanoreceptors), and vision
(detected by photoreceptors) are the The C-shaped curves of the auricle direct
sound waves toward the auditory canal.
(detected by photoreceptors) are the five
special senses. They require specialized The canal enters the skull through the
external auditory meatus of the temporal
sensory receptors within large, complex
sensory organs in the head region. bone. At the end of the auditory canal is
the tympanic membrane, or ear drum,
which vibrates after it is struck by sound
Each of the senses is referred to as a
waves. The auricle, ear canal, and
sensory modality. Modality refers to the
tympanic membrane are often referred to
way that information is encoded, which is
as the external ear. The middle ear consists
similar to the idea of transduction. The
of a space spanned by three small bones
main sensory modalities can be described
called the ossicles. The three ossicles are
on the basis of how each is transduced.
the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are
The chemical senses are taste and smell.
Latin names that roughly translate to
The general sense that is usually referred
hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The malleus is
to as touch includes chemical sensation in
attached to the tympanic membrane and
the form of nociception, or pain. Pressure,
articulates with the incus. The incus, in
vibration, muscle stretch, and the
turn, articulates with the stapes. The stapes
movement of hair by an external stimulus,
is then attached to the inner ear, where the
are all sensed by mechanoreceptors.
sound waves will be transduced into a
Hearing and balance are also sensed by
neural signal. The middle ear is connected
mechanoreceptors. Finally, vision involves
to the pharynx through the Eustachian
the activation of photoreceptors.
tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure
across the tympanic membrane. The tube
Listing all the different sensory modalities, is normally closed but will pop open when
which can number as many as 17, involves the muscles of the pharynx contract during
separating the five major senses into more swallowing or yawning.
specific categories, or submodalities, of
the larger sense. An individual sensory
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The inner ear is often described as a bony scala vestibule extends from the oval
labyrinth, as it is composed of a series of window, travelling above the cochlear
canals embedded within the temporal duct, which is the central cavity of the
bone. It has two separate regions, the cochlea that contains the sound-
cochlea and the vestibule, which are transducing neurons.
responsible for hearing and balance,
respectively. The neural signals from these EQUILIBRIUM (BALANCE)
two regions are relayed to the brain stem
through separate fiber bundles. However, Along with audition, the inner ear is
these two distinct bundles travel together responsible for encoding information about
from the inner ear to the brain stem as the equilibrium, the sense of balance. A
vestibulocochlear nerve. Sound is similar mechanoreceptor—a hair cell with
transduced into neural signals within the stereocilia—senses head position, head
cochlear region of the inner ear, which movement, and whether our bodies are in
contains the sensory neurons of the spiral motion. These cells are located within the
ganglia. These ganglia are located within vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is
the spiral-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas
The cochlea is attached to the stapes head movement is sensed by the
through the oval window. semicircular canals. The neural signals
generated in the vestibular ganglion are
The oval window is located at the transmitted through the vestibulocochlear
beginning of a fluid-filled tube within the nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum.
cochlea called the scala vestibule. The
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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS system (brain and the spinal cord), and
OF NEURONS bring motor information from the central
nervous system to the motor organs
NEURONS (muscles and the glands).
SOMA: The soma (cell body) contains the actively engaged during the cell
nucleus and much of the machinery that reproduction and protein synthesis. Its
provides for the life processes of the cell. shape varies considerably in different
The genetic material of the neuron is kinds of neurons.
stored inside the nucleus and it becomes
DENDRITES: Dendron is the Greek word for tree, and the dendrites of the neuron look very
much like tress. Dendrites are branch-like specialized structures emanating from the soma.
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They are the receiving ends of a neuron. which become active when a signal arrives
Their function is to receive the incoming in electrochemical or biochemical form.
neural impulses from adjacent neurons or The received signals are passed on to soma
directly from the sense organs. On and then to axon so that the information is
dendrites are found specialized receptors, relayed to another neuron.
AXON: The axon is a long, slender tube, TERMINAL BUTTONS: The bud at the
often covered by myelin sheath, which is a end of a branch of an axon, forms synapses
fatty covering interrupted at the nodes of with another neuron, sends information to
ranvier. It carries information from the that neuron. Terminal buttons have a very
cell body to the terminal buttons. The special function: when an action potential
transferred excitation is focused by the traveling down the axon reaches them;
axon hillock on the axon and carried down they secrete a chemical called a
the axon to its terminal arborization at the neurotransmitter. This chemical either
next set of synapses. The basic message it excites or inhibits the receiving cell and
carries is called an action potential. When thus helps to determine whether an action
it reaches a point where the axon branches, potential occurs in its axon. An individual
it splits but does not diminish in size. Each neuron receives information from the
branch receives a full-strength action terminal buttons of axons of other neurons,
potential. and the terminal buttons form synapses
with other neurons.
.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
The membrane defines the boundary of the membrane are a variety of protein molecules
cell. It consists of a double layer of lipid that have special
(fatlike) molecules. Embedded in the
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The cell is filled with cytoplasm, a SUPPORTING CELLS
jellylike substance that contains small Neurons constitute only about half the
specialized structures such as volume of the CNS. The rest consists of a
mitochondria, which break down variety of supporting cells. Neurons have a
nutrients such as glucose and provide the very high rate of metabolism but they have
cell with energy to perform its functions. no means of storing nutrients, they must
Mitochondria produce a chemical called constantly be supplied with nutrients and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can oxygen or they will quickly die. Thus,
be used throughout the cell as an energy supporting cells support and protect
source. neurons, which is very important to our
Mitochondria contain their own genetic existence.
information and multiply independently of GLIA or GLIAL CELLS
the cells in which they live. We inherit our The most important supporting cells of the
mitochondria from our mothers. The central nervous system are the neuroglia,
nucleus is present deep inside the cell and or “nerve glue”.
contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes
consist of long strands of deoxyribonucleic Glial cells surround neurons and hold
acid (DNA). The chromosomes contain the them in place, controlling their supply
recipes for making proteins. of nutrients and some of the chemicals
they need to exchange messages with
Proteins are important in cell functions. other neurons.
The cytoskeleton gives the neuron its
They insulate neurons from one
shape. It is made up of various kinds of
another so that neural messages do not
protein strands, linked to each other and
forming a cohesive mass. Besides get scrambled.
providing structure, proteins also serve as They even act as housekeepers,
enzymes, causing particular molecules to destroying and removing the carcasses
join together or split apart. Proteins are of neurons that are killed by disease or
also involved in transporting substances injury.
within the cell. For e.g., axoplasmic There are three most important types of
transport, is an active process that propels glial cells:
substances from one end of the axon to the
other. This transport is accomplished by 1. ASTROCYTE (or astroglia):
long protein strands called microtubules. Astrocyte means “star-shaped cell”.
Microtubules serve as railroad tracks,
guiding the progress of the substances It plays the following functions:
being transported. Movement from the Astrocytes provide physical support to
soma to the terminal buttons is called neurons. They serve as the matrix that
anterograde axoplasmic transport holds neurons in place. These cells also
(Antero- means “toward the front”). surround and isolate synapses, limiting
Retrograde axoplasmic transport carries the dispersion of neurotransmitters that
substances from the terminal buttons back are released by the terminal buttons.
to the soma. (Retro- means “toward the PHAGOCYTOSIS (PHAGEIN, “TO
back”). Energy for both forms of transport EAT”; KUTOS, “CELL”): When
is supplied by ATP, produced by the neurons die, certain kinds of astrocytes
mitochondria. take up the task of cleaning away the
debris. When these astrocytes contact a
piece of debris from a dead neuron,
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they push themselves against it, finally small portion of uncoated axon between
engulfing and digesting it. This the segments. This bare portion of axon
process is called phagocytosis. If there is called a node of Ranvier, after its
is a considerable amount of injured discoverer. During the development of
tissue to be cleaned up, astrocytes will the CNS, oligodendrocytes form
divide and produce enough new cells processes shaped something like canoe
to do the task. Once the dead tissue is paddles. Each of these paddle-shaped
broken down, a framework of processes then wraps itself many times
astrocytes will be left to fill in the around a segment of an axon and thus,
vacant area, and a specialized kind of produces layers of myelin. Each paddle
astrocyte will form scar tissue, thus becomes a segment of an axon’s
walling off the area. myelin sheath.
They help to control the chemical
composition of the fluid surrounding MICROGLIA: They are the smallest
neurons by actively taking up or of the glial cells. Like some types of
releasing substances whose astrocytes, they act as phagocytes,
concentrations must be kept within engulfing and breaking down dead and
critical levels. dying neurons. They importantly serve
They produce some chemicals that as one of the representatives of the
neurons need to fulfill their functions. immune system in the brain, protecting
Finally, astrocytes are involved in the brain from invading
providing nourishment to neurons. microorganisms. They are primarily
Recent evidence suggests that responsible for the inflammatory
astrocytes receive nutrients from the reaction in response to brain damage.
capillaries, store them, and release
them to neurons when needed
SCHWANN CELLS
(Tsacopoulos and Magistretti, 1996;
Magistretti et al., 1999). Most axons in the PNS are myelinated. In
the peripheral nervous system, the
Schwann cells perform the same functions
as the oligodendrocytes in the CNS of
2. OLIGODENDROCYTES: The
supporting axons and producing myelin.
principal function of oligodendrocytes The myelin sheath occurs in segments, as
is to provide support to axons and to it does in the CNS; each segment consists
produce the myelin sheath, which of a single Schwann cell, wrapped many
insulates most axons from one another. times around the axon. In the PNS, a
Myelin, 80 percent lipid and 20 percent Schwann cell provides myelin for only one
protein, is produced by the axon, and the entire Schwann cell and not
oligodendrocytes in the form of a tube merely a part of it surrounds the axon.
surrounding the axon. This tube does
not form a continuous sheath rather it
consists of a series of segment with a
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NEURAL IMPULSES A neuron affects other neurons by
releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to
The central nervous system (CNS) goes chemical receptors. The effect upon the
through a three-step process when it postsynaptic (receiving) neuron is
functions: sensory input, neural determined not by the presynaptic
processing, and motor output. The sensory (sending) neuron or by the
input stage is when the neurons (or neurotransmitter itself, but by the type of
excitable nerve cells) of the sensory organs receptor that is activated. A
are excited electrically. Neural impulses neurotransmitter can be thought of as a
from sensory receptors are sent to the brain key, and a receptor as a lock: the key
and spinal cord for processing. After the unlocks a certain response in the
brain has processed the information, neural postsynaptic neuron, communicating a
impulses are then conducted from the brain particular signal. However, in order for a
and spinal cord to muscles and glands, presynaptic neuron to release a
which is the resulting motor output. neurotransmitter to the next neuron in the
chain, it must go through a series of
changes in electric potential from neuron
STAGES OF NEURAL IMPULSES to neuron. In order for a neuron to move
from resting potential to action potential—
” Resting potential” is the name for the a short-term electrical change that allows
electrical state when a neuron is not an electrical signal to be passed from one
actively being signaled. A neuron at neuron to another—the neuron must be
resting potential has a membrane with stimulated by pressure, electricity,
established amounts of sodium (Na+) and chemicals, or another form of stimuli. The
potassium (K+) ions on either side, leaving level of stimulation that a neuron must
the inside of the neuron negatively charged receive to reach action potential is known
relative to the outside. as the threshold of excitation, and until it
reaches that threshold, nothing will
The action potential is a rapid change in happen. Different neurons are sensitive to
polarity that moves along the nerve fiber different stimuli, although most can
register pain.
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covered by a myelin sheath), this process difference, as ions diffusing within the
is described as saltatory because voltage- cell have less resistance in a wider space.
gated channels are only found at the Damage to the myelin sheath from
nodes of Ranvier, and the electrical disease can cause severe impairment of
events seem to “jump” from one node to nerve-cell function. In addition, some
the next. Saltatory conduction is faster poisons and drugs interfere with nerve
than continuous conduction. The impulses by blocking sodium channels in
diameter of the axon also makes a nerves.
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ALL-OR-NONE SIGNALS REUPTAKE
There are two types of possible reactions influenced by the charge an adjacent cell.
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All synapses have a few common (Na+) suddenly rush through open
characteristics: sodium gates into a nerve cell. If the
membrane potential reaches -55 mV, it
Presynaptic cell: a specialized area has reached the threshold of excitation.
within the axon of the giving cell Additional sodium rushes in, and the
that transmits information to the membrane of the stimulated cell
dendrite of the receiving cell. actually reverses its polarity so that the
Synaptic cleft: the small space at outside of the membrane is negative
the synapse that receives relative to the inside. The change in
neurotransmitters. voltage stimulates the opening of
G-protein coupled receptors: receptors additional sodium channels (called a
that sense molecules outside the voltage-gated ion channel), providing
cell and thereby activate signals what is known as a positive feedback
within it. loop. Eventually, the cell potential
Ligand-gated ion channels: receptors reaches +40 mV, or the action
that are opened or closed in potential.
response to the binding of a 3. REPOLARIZATION. The
chemical messenger. “downswing” of repolarization is
Postsynaptic cell: a specialized area caused by the closing of sodium ion
within the dendrite of the receiving channels and the opening of potassium
cell that contains receptors ion channels, resulting in the release of
designed to process positively charged potassium ions (K+)
neurotransmitters. from the nerve cell. This expulsion acts
to restore the localized negative
THE ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE membrane potential of the cell.
4. REFRACTORY PHASE. The
The stages of an electrical reaction at a refractory phase is a short period of
synapse are as follows: time after the repolarization stage.
Shortly after the sodium gates open,
1. RESTING POTENTIAL. The they close and go into an inactive
membrane of a neuron is normally at conformation where the cell’s
rest with established concentrations of membrane potential is actually even
sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions lower than its baseline -70 mV. The
(K+) on either side. The membrane sodium gates cannot be opened again
potential (or, voltage across the until the membrane has completely
membrane) at this state is -70 mV, with repolarized to its normal resting
the inside being negative relative to the potential, -70 mV. The sodium-
outside. potassium pump returns sodium ions to
DEPOLARIZATION. the outside and potassium ions to the
A stimulus begins the depolarization of inside. During the refractory phase this
the membrane. Depolarization, also particular area of the nerve cell
referred to as the “upswing,” occurs membrane cannot be depolarized; the
when positively charged sodium ions cell cannot be excited.
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different results. Like electrical reactions, membrane, but chemical reactions also
chemical reactions involve electrical require chemical messengers, such as
modifications at the postsynaptic neurotransmitters, to operate.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN The response is always the same sign
ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL as the source. For example,
SYNAPSES depolarization of the presynaptic
membrane will always induce a
Electrical synapses are faster than depolarization in the postsynaptic
chemical synapses because the membrane, and vice versa for
receptors do not need to recognize hyperpolarization.
chemical messengers. The synaptic The response in the postsynaptic
delay for a chemical synapse is neuron is generally smaller in
typically about 2 milliseconds, while amplitude than the source. The amount
the synaptic delay for an electrical of attenuation of the signal is due to the
synapse may be about 0.2 membrane resistance of the presynaptic
milliseconds. and postsynaptic neurons.
Because electrical synapses do not Long-term changes can be seen in
involve neurotransmitters, electrical electrical synapses. For example,
neurotransmission is less modifiable changes in electrical synapses in the
than chemical neurotransmission. retina are seen during light and dark
adaptations of the retina.
SYNAPTICS TRANSMISSION When the electrical impulse (action
Synaptic transmission is the process by potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles,
which one neuron communicates with they release their contents of
another. Information is passed down the neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then
axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse carry the signal across the synaptic gap.
known as action potential. Once the action They bind to receptor sites on the post-
potential reaches the end of the axon it synaptic cell, thereby completing the
needs to be transferred to another neuron process of synaptic transmission.
or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic Chemical synapses enable the transmission
gap between the presynaptic neuron and of information (action potentials) from one
post-synaptic neuron. At the end of the neuron to another. These synapses require
neuron (in the axon terminal) are the chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
synaptic vesicles, which contain chemical
The process of synaptic transmission
messengers, known as neurotransmitters.
involves four steps:
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II. NEUROTRANSMITTER zones, places found at the pre-synaptic
RELEASE membrane. Once an action potential
The terminal of a neuron serves as the arrives at the presynaptic neuron terminal,
storage of vesicles containing there would be a considerable influx of
neurotransmitter when at rest. These calcium ions, causing the neurotransmitter
vesicles are strategically located in active to be released from the vesicles.
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NEUROTRANSMITTERS postsynaptic cell membrane open up to
receive neurotransmitters from vesicles in
the presynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
transmit signals from a neuron across a
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
synapse to a target cell. Neurotransmitters
hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell
are chemicals that transmit signals from a
neuron to a target cell across a synapse. (that is, decreasing the voltage gradient of
When called upon to deliver messages, the cell, thus bringing it further away from
they are released from their synaptic an action potential), while excitatory
vesicles on the presynaptic (giving) side of neurotransmitters cause depolarization
the synapse, diffuse across the synaptic (bringing it closer to an action potential).
cleft, and bind to receptors in the Neurotransmitters match up with receptors
membrane on the postsynaptic (receiving) like a key in a lock. A neurotransmitter
side. binds to its receptor and will not bind to
receptors for other neurotransmitters,
An action potential is necessary for making the binding a specific chemical
neurotransmitters to be released, which event.
means that neurons must reach a certain
threshold of electric stimulation in order to There are several systems of
complete the reaction. A neuron has a neurotransmitters found at various
negative charge inside the cell membrane synapses in the nervous system. The
relative to the outside of the cell following groups refer to the specific
membrane; when stimulation occurs and chemicals, and within the groups are
the neuron reaches the threshold of specific systems, some of which block
excitement this polarity is reversed. This other chemicals from entering the cell and
allows the signal to pass through the some of which permit the entrance of
neuron. When the chemical message chemicals that were blocked before.
reaches the axon terminal, channels in the
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synapse by reuptake. A pump in the cell the amino acid from the synaptic cleft so
membrane of the presynaptic element, or that it can be recycled, repackaged in
sometimes a neighboring glial cell, clears vesicles, and released again.
BIOGENIC AMINES
Another class of neurotransmitter is the groups in them, but do not have carboxyl
biogenic amine, a group of groups and are therefore no longer
neurotransmitters made enzymatically classified as amino acids.
from amino acids. They have amino
NEUROPEPTIDES DOPAMINE
A neuropeptide is a neurotransmitter Dopamine is the best-known
molecule made up of chains of amino neurotransmitter of the catecholamine
acids connected by peptide bonds, group. The brain includes several distinct
similar to proteins. However, proteins are dopamine systems, one of which plays a
long molecules while some neuropeptides major role in reward-motivated behavior.
are quite short. Neuropeptides are often Most types of reward increase the level
released at synapses in combination with of dopamine in the brain, and a variety of
another neurotransmitter. addictive drugs increase dopamine
neuronal activity. Other brain dopamine
systems are involved in motor control and
in controlling the release of several other
important hormones.
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EFFECT ON THE SYNAPSE effect. Glutamate is considered an
excitatory amino acid because Glu
The effect of a neurotransmitter on the receptors in the adult cause depolarization
postsynaptic element is entirely dependent of the postsynaptic cell. Glycine and
on the receptor protein. If there is no GABA are considered inhibitory amino
receptor protein in the membrane of the acids, again because their receptors cause
postsynaptic element, then the hyperpolarization, making the receiving
neurotransmitter has no effect. The cell less likely to reach an action potential.
depolarizing (more likely to reach an
action potential) or hyperpolarizing (less THE RIGHT DOSE
likely to reach an action potential) effect is
also dependent on the receptor. When Sometimes too little or too much of a
acetylcholine binds to the nicotinic neurotransmitter may affect an organism’s
receptor, the postsynaptic cell is behavior or health. The underlying cause
depolarized. However, when acetylcholine of some neurodegenerative diseases, such
binds to the muscarinic receptor, it might as Parkinson’s, appears to be related to
cause depolarization or hyperpolarization overaccumulation of proteins, which under
of the target cell. normal circumstances would be regulated
by the presence of dopamine. On the other
The amino acid neurotransmitters hand, when an excess of the
(glutamate, glycine, and GABA) are neurotransmitter dopamine blocks
almost exclusively associated with just one glutamate receptors, disorders like
schizophrenia can occur.
KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
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UPPER MOTOR NEURON: first neuron synapses on the lower motor neuron in
in the motor command pathway with its the spinal cord
cell body in the cerebral cortex that
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THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ACTIVITY OF THE CNS
(CNS) The nervous system has three main
The central nervous system is made up of functions: gathering sensory information
the brain and spinal cord, which process from external stimuli, synthesizing that
sensory input and provide instructions to information, and responding to those
the body. stimuli. The CNS is mainly devoted to the
The CNS includes the brain and spinal “information synthesizing” function.
cord, which together comprise the body’s During this step in the process, the brain
main control center. Together with the and spinal cord decide on appropriate
peripheral nervous system (PNS), the CNS motor output, which is computed based on
performs fundamental functions that the type of sensory input. The CNS
contribute to an organism’s life and regulates everything from organ function
behavior. to high-level thought to purposeful body
movement. Thus, the CNS is commonly
thought of as the control center of the
body.
STRUCTURE OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
rest of the body. The pons houses the
The CNS is comprised of the brain, brain
control centers for respiration and
stem, and spinal cord.
inhibitory functions. The medulla also
helps regulate respiration, as well as
- BRAIN cardiovascular and digestive functioning.
The brain is found in the cranial cavity and
consists of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It - SPINAL CORD
houses the nerve centers responsible for
coordinating sensory and motor systems in The spinal cord is a tail-like structure
the body. The cerebrum, or the top portion embedded in the vertebral canal of the
for the brain, is the seat of higher-level spine. The adult spinal cord is about 40 cm
thought. It is comprised of two long and weighs approximately 30 g. The
hemispheres, each controlling the opposite spinal cord is attached to the underside of
side of the body. the medulla oblongata, and is organized to
serve four distinct tasks:
The cerebellum is located underneath the
- to convey (mainly sensory)
backside of the cerebrum, and governs
balance and fine motor movements. Its information to the brain;
main function is maintaining coordination to carry information generated in the
throughout the body. brain to peripheral targets like skeletal
(Discussed in detail ahead) muscles;
to control nearby organs via the
autonomic nervous system;
- BRAIN STEM to enable
The brain stem is connected to the sensorimotor
underside of the brain. It consists of the functions to
midbrain, pons, and medulla. The midbrain control
is found in between the hindbrain and the posture and
forebrain. It regulates motor function and other
allows motor and sensory information to
fundamental
pass from the brain to the
movements.
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The spinal cord connects the brain and brain, where they are processed and
brain stem to all of the major nerves in the synthesized into instructions for the rest of
body. Spinal nerves originate from the the body. This data is then sent back
spinal cord and control the functions of the through the spinal cord to muscles and
rest of the body. Impulses are sent from glands for motor output
receptors through the spinal cord to the
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LOWER-LEVEL STRUCTURES: THE HINDBRAIN
The brain’s lower-level structures consist The hindbrain, which includes the medulla
of the brain stem, the spinal cord, and the oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, is
cerebellum. responsible some of the oldest and most
primitive body functions. Each of these
The brain’s lower-level structures consist structures is described below.
of the brain stem and spinal cord, along
with the cerebellum. With the exception of
the spinal cord, these structures are largely MEDULLA OBLONGATA
located within the hindbrain, diencephalon The medulla oblongata sits at the transition
(or interbrain), and midbrain. These lower zone between the brain and the spinal cord.
dorsal structures are the oldest parts of the It is the first region that formally belongs
brain, having existed for much of its to the brain (rather than the spinal cord). It
evolutionary history. As such they are is the control center for respiratory,
geared more toward basic bodily processes cardiovascular, and digestive functions.
necessary to survival. It is the more recent
layers of the brain (the forebrain) which
are responsible for the higher-level
cognitive functioning (language,
reasoning) not strictly necessary to keep a
body alive.
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PONS
The pons connects the medulla oblongata muscle coordination. However, it is also
with the midbrain region, and also relays responsible for balance and posture, and it
signals from the forebrain to the assists us when we are learning a new
cerebellum. It houses the control centers motor skill, such as playing a sport or
for respiration and inhibitory functions. musical instrument. Recent research shows
The cerebellum is attached to the dorsal that apart from motor functions the
side of the pons. cerebellum also has some role in emotional
sensitivity.
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HYPOTHALAMUS physical actions occur. The cerebral cortex
The hypothalamus is a small part of the is considered the ultimate control and
brain located just below the thalamus. information-processing center in the brain.
Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere with
motivated behaviors like sexuality, The cortex is made of layers of neurons
combativeness, and hunger. The with many inputs; these cortical neurons
hypothalamus also plays a role in emotion: function like mini microprocessors or logic
parts of the hypothalamus seem to be gates. It contains glial cells, which guide
involved in pleasure and rage, while the neural connections, provide nutrients and
central part is linked to aversion, myelin to neurons, and absorb extra ions
displeasure, and a tendency towards and neurotransmitters. The cortex is
uncontrollable and loud laughing. When divided into four different lobes (the
external stimuli are presented (for parietal, occipital, temporal, and frontal
example, a dangerous stimuli), the lobes), each with a different specific
hypothalamus sends signals to other limbic function.
areas to trigger feeling states in response to
the stimuli (in this case, fear). The cortex is wrinkly in appearance.
Evolutionary constraints on skull size
brought about this development; it allowed
CEREBRAL CORTEX for the cortex to become larger without our
The cerebral cortex is the outermost brains (and therefore craniums) becoming
layered structure of the brain and controls disadvantageously large. At times it has
higher brain functions such as information been theorized that brain size correlated
processing. The cerebral cortex, the largest positively with intelligence; it has also
part of the mammalian brain, is the been suggested that surface area of cortex
wrinkly gray outer covering of the (basically, “wrinkles” of the brain) rather
cerebrum. While the cortex is less than than brain size that correlates most directly
1/4″ thick, it is here that all sensation, with intelligence. Current research
perception, memory, association, thought, suggests that both of these may be at least
and voluntary. The “valleys” of the partially true, but the degree to which they
wrinkles are called sulci (or sometimes, correlate is not clear.
fissures); the “peaks” between wrinkles are
called gyri. While there are variations from
person to person in their sulci and gyri, the
brain has been studied enough to identify
patterns. One notable sulcus is the central
sulcus, or the wrinkle dividing the parietal
lobe from the frontal lobe.
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CEREBRUM to dominate the functions of speech,
Beneath the cerebral cortex is the language processing and comprehension,
cerebrum, which serves as the main and logical reasoning, while the right is
thought and control center of the brain. It more dominant in spatial tasks like vision-
is the seat of higher-level thought like independent object recognition (such as
emotions and decision making (as opposed identifying an object by touch or another
to lower-level thought like balance, nonvisual sense). However, it is easy to
movement, and reflexes). exaggerate the differences between the
functions of the left and right hemispheres;
The cerebrum is composed of gray and both hemispheres are involved with most
white matter. Gray matter is the mass of all processes. Additionally, neuroplasticity
the cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses of (the ability of a brain to adapt to
neurons interlaced with one another, while experience) enables the brain to
white matter consists of the long, myelin- compensate for damage to one hemisphere
coated axons of those neurons connecting by taking on extra functions in the other
masses of gray matter to each other. half, especially in young brains.
(Discussed more in referenced section)
CORPUS CALLOSUM
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES AND
LOBES OF THE BRAIN The two hemispheres communicate with
one another through the corpus callosum.
The brain is divided into two hemispheres The corpus callosum is a wide, flat bundle
and four lobes, each of which specializes of neural fibers beneath the cortex that
in a different function. connects the left and right cerebral
hemispheres and facilitates
BRAIN LATERALIZATION interhemispheric communication. The
corpus callosum is sometimes implicated
The brain is divided into two halves, called
in the cause of seizures; patients with
hemispheres. There is evidence that each
epilepsy sometimes undergo a corpus
brain hemisphere has its own distinct
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THE PARIETAL LOBE to another. The CNS includes the brain,
The parietal lobe is associated with brain stem, and spinal cord, while the PNS
sensory skills. It integrates different types includes all other sensory neurons, clusters
of sensory information and is particularly of neurons called ganglia, and connector
useful in spatial processing and navigation. neurons that attach to the CNS and other
The parietal lobe plays an important role in neurons.
integrating sensory information from
various parts of the body, understanding The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
numbers and their relations, and provides the connection between
manipulating objects. It also processes internal or external stimuli and the
information related to the sense of touch. central nervous system to allow the
body to respond to its environment.
The parietal lobe is comprised of the
The PNS is made up of different kinds
somatosensory cortex and part of the of neurons, or nerve cells, which
visual system. The somatosensory cortex communicate with each other
consists of a “map” of the body that through electric signaling and
processes sensory information from neurotransmitters.
specific areas of the body. Several portions
The PNS can be broken down into two
of the parietal lobe are important to
systems: the autonomic nervous
language and visuospatial processing; the
system, which regulates
left parietal lobe is involved in symbolic
involuntary actions such as
functions in language and mathematics,
breathing and digestion, and the
while the right parietal lobe is specialized
somatic nervous system, which
to process images and interpretation of governs voluntary action and body
maps (i.e., spatial relationships). reflexes.
The autonomic nervous system has two
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS complementary parts: the
SYSTEM (PNS) sympathetic nervous system, which
The peripheral nervous system connects activates the “fight-or-flight-or-
freeze” stress response, and the
the central nervous system to
parasympathetic nervous system,
environmental stimuli to gather sensory
which reacts with the “rest-and-
input and create motor output.
digest” response after stress.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is The somatic nervous system
one of the two major components of the coordinates voluntary physical
body’s nervous system. In conjunction action. It is also responsible for our
with the central nervous system (CNS), the reflexes, which do not require brain
PNS coordinates action and responses by input.
sending signals from one part of the body
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DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL breathing rate. Together, these two
NERVOUS SYSTEM systems maintain homeostasis within the
The PNS can also be divided into two body: one priming the body for action, and
separate systems: the autonomic nervous the other repairing the body afterward.
system and the somatic nervous system.
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The somatic nervous system keeps the
The autonomic nervous system regulates body adept and coordinated, both through
involuntary and unconscious actions, such reflexes and voluntary action. The somatic
as internal-organ function, breathing, nervous system controls systems in areas
digestion, and heartbeat. This system as diverse as the skin, bones, joints, and
consists of two complementary parts: the skeletal muscles. Afferent fibers, or nerves
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. that receive information from external
Both divisions work without conscious stimuli, carry sensory information through
effort and have similar nerve pathways, pathways that connect the skin and skeletal
but they generally have opposite effects on muscles to the CNS for processing. The
target tissues. information is then sent back via efferent
nerves, or nerves that carry instructions
The sympathetic nervous system activates from the CNS, back through the somatic
the “fight or flight” response under system. These instructions go to
sudden or stressful circumstances, such as neuromuscular junctions—the interfaces
taking an exam or seeing a bear. It between neurons and muscles—for motor
increases physical arousal levels, raising output.
the heart and breathing rates and dilating
the pupils, as it prepares the body to run or The somatic system also provides us with
confront danger. These are not the only reflexes, which are automatic and do not
two options; “fight or flight” is perhaps require input or integration from the brain
better phrased as “fight or flight or freeze,” to perform. Reflexes can be categorized as
where in the third option the body stiffens either monosynaptic or polysynaptic based
and action cannot be taken. This is an on the reflex arc used to perform the
autonomic response that occurs in animals function. Monosynaptic reflex arcs, such
and humans; it is a survival mechanism as the knee-jerk reflex, have only a single
thought to be related to playing dead when synapse between the sensory neuron that
attacked by a predator. Post-traumatic receives the information and the motor
stress disorder (PTSD) can result when a neuron that responds. Polysynaptic reflex
human experience this “fight or flight or arcs, by contrast, have at least one
freeze” mode with great intensity or for interneuron between the sensory neuron
large amounts of time. and the motor neuron. An example of a
polysynaptic reflex arc is seen when a
The parasympathetic nervous system person steps on a tack—in response, their
activates a “rest and digest” or “feed and body must pull that foot up while
breed” response after these stressful simultaneously transferring balance to the
events, which conserves energy and other leg.
replenishes the system. It reduces bodily
arousal, slowing the heartbeat and
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For References (This will help you as white (“fatty”) material, much like the
connect the dots and know the concept fat on a raw piece of chicken or beef.
in detail) Actually, gray matter may have that color
ascribed to it because next to the white
matter, it is just darker—hence, gray.
Nervous tissue, present in both the CNS
and PNS, contains two basic types of cells:
neurons and glial cells. (Discussed above)
Looking at nervous tissue, there are
regions that predominantly contain cell
bodies and regions that are largely
composed of just axons. These two regions
within nervous system structures are often
referred to as gray matter (the regions
with many cell bodies and dendrites) or
white matter (the regions with many
axons). The colors ascribed to these
regions are what would be seen in “fresh,”
or unstained, nervous tissue. Gray matter is
not necessarily gray. It can be pinkish
because of blood content, or even slightly
tan, depending on how long the tissue has
been preserved. But white matter is white
because axons are insulated by a lipid-rich
substance called myelin. Lipids can appear
.
visual stimuli, which takes place in the
FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS OF cerebral cortex, or for the reflexive
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM responses of smooth muscle tissue that are
processed through the hypothalamus.
The nervous system can also be divided on
the basis of its functions, but anatomical There are two ways to consider how the
divisions and functional divisions are nervous system is divided functionally.
different. The CNS and the PNS both First, the basic functions of the nervous
contribute to the same functions, but those system are sensation, integration, and
functions can be attributed to different response. Secondly, control of the body
regions of the brain (such as the cerebral can be somatic or autonomic—divisions
cortex or the hypothalamus) or to different that are largely defined by the structures
ganglia in the periphery. The problem with that are involved in the response. There is
trying to fit functional differences into also a region of the peripheral nervous
anatomical divisions is that sometimes the system that is called the enteric nervous
same structure can be part of several system that is responsible for a specific set
functions. For example, the optic nerve of the functions within the realm of
carries signals from the retina that are autonomic control related to
either used for the conscious perception of gastrointestinal functions.
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BASIC FUNCTIONS of touch. There are actually more senses
than just those, but that list represents the
The nervous system is involved in major senses. Those five are all senses that
receiving information about the receive stimuli from the outside world, and
environment around us (sensation) and of which there is conscious perception.
generating responses to that information Additional sensory stimuli might be from
(motor responses). The nervous system can the internal environment (inside the body),
be divided into regions that are responsible such as the stretch of an organ wall or the
for sensation (sensory functions) and for concentration of certain ions in the blood.
the response (motor functions). But there
is a third function that needs to be RESPONSE
included. Sensory input needs to be
integrated with other sensations, as well as The nervous system produces a response
with memories, emotional state, or on the basis of the stimuli perceived by
learning (cognition). Some regions of the sensory structures. An obvious response
nervous system are termed integration or would be the movement of muscles, such
association areas. The process of as withdrawing a hand from a hot stove,
integration combines sensory perceptions but there are broader uses of the term. The
and higher cognitive functions such as nervous system can cause the contraction
memories, learning, and emotion to of all three types of muscle tissue. For
produce a response. example, skeletal muscle contracts to
move the skeleton, cardiac muscle is
SENSATION influenced as heart rate increases during
exercise, and smooth muscle contracts as
The first major function of the nervous the digestive system moves food along the
system is sensation—receiving information digestive tract. Responses also include the
about the environment to gain input about neural control of glands in the body as
what is happening outside the body (or, well, such as the production and secretion
sometimes, within the body). The sensory of sweat by the eccrine and merocrine
functions of the nervous system register sweat glands found in the skin to lower
the presence of a change from homeostasis body temperature.
or a particular event in the environment,
known as a stimulus. The senses we think Responses can be divided into those that
of most are the “big five”: taste, smell, are voluntary or conscious (contraction of
touch, sight, and hearing. The stimuli for skeletal muscle) and those that are
taste and smell are both chemical involuntary (contraction of smooth
substances (molecules, compounds, ions, muscles, regulation of cardiac muscle, and
etc.), touch is physical or mechanical activation of glands). Voluntary responses
stimuli that interact with the skin, sight is are governed by the somatic nervous
light stimuli, and hearing is the perception system and involuntary responses are
of sound, which is a physical stimulus governed by the autonomic nervous
similar to some aspects system, which are discussed in the next
section.
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response that will be generated. Seeing a three balls and one strike, and the batter
baseball pitched to a batter will not wants to let this pitch go by in the hope of
automatically cause the batter to swing. getting a walk to first base. Or maybe the
The trajectory of the ball and its speed will batter’s team is so far ahead; it would be
need to be considered. Maybe the count is fun to just swing away.
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HOW MUCH OF YOUR BRAIN
DO YOU USE? An easy way to see how much of the brain
a person uses is to take measurements of
brain activity while performing a task. An
Have you ever heard the claim that example of this kind of measurement is
humans only use 10 percent of their functional magnetic resonance imaging
brains? Maybe you have seen an (fMRI), which generates a map of the most
advertisement on a website saying that active areas and can be generated and
there is a secret to unlocking the full presented in three dimensions. This
potential of your mind—as if there were procedure is different from the standard
90 percent of your brain sitting idle, just MRI technique because it is measuring
waiting for you to use it. If you see an changes in the tissue in time with an
ad like that, don’t click. It isn’t true. experimental condition or event.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
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NEUROPLASTICITY cells leads to pronounced increase in
synaptic strength between those cells, a
theory that is widely accepted today. Cell
(NOTE: Topic is covered in detail, not assembly, or Hebbian theory, asserts that
required to go into this much detail. “cells that fire together wire together,”
Details are given so as to give you a meaning neural networks can be created
comprehensive idea of the concept and its through associative experience and
practicality) learning. Since Hebb’s discovery,
neuroscientists have continued to find
HEBBIAN THEORY evidence of plasticity and modification
within neural networks.
In 1949, neuroscientist Donald Hebb
proposed that simultaneous activation of
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Neuroplasticity occurs on a variety of levels, rats illustrate how the brain changes in
ranging from minute cellular changes response to experience: rats that lived in
resulting from learning to large-scale cortical more enriched environments had larger
remapping in response to injury. The role of neurons, more DNA and RNA, heavier
neuroplasticity is widely recognized in cerebral cortices, and larger synapses
healthy development, learning, memory, and compared to rats that lived in sparse
recovery from brain damage. During most of environments.
the 20th century, the consensus among
neuroscientists was that brain structure is A surprising consequence of
relatively immutable after a critical period neuroplasticity is that the brain activity
during early childhood. It is true that the associated with a given function can move
brain is especially “plastic” during to a different location; this can result from
childhood’s critical period, with new neural normal experience, and also occurs in the
connections forming constantly. However, process of recovery from brain injury. In
recent findings show that many aspects of fact, neuroplasticity is the basis of goal-
the brain remain plastic even into adulthood. directed experiential therapeutic programs
in rehabilitation after brain injury. For
Plasticity can be demonstrated over the example, after a person is blinded in one
course of virtually any form of learning. eye, the part of the brain associated with
For one to remember an experience, the processing input from that eye doesn’t
circuitry of the brain must change. simply sit idle; it takes on new functions,
Learning takes place when there is either a perhaps processing visual input from the
change in the internal structure of neurons remaining eye or doing something else
or a heightened number of synapses entirely. This is because while certain parts
between neurons. Studies conducted using of the brain have a typical function, the
brain can be “rewired”—all because of
plasticity.
SYNAPTIC PRUNING
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EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (Read only if you find Neuroplasticity interesting and want
to know more about it)
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EFFECTS OF EXPERIENCE ON somatosensory cortex; Thus, once the
THE REORGANIZATION OF THE brain has adapted to abnormal
ADULT CORTEX environmental conditions, it acquires the
ability to adapt more effectively if it
The second line of research on adult encounters the same conditions again.
neuroplasticity deals with the effects of Although the cellular mechanisms
experience on the reorganization of adult underlying changes to adult sensory cortex
cortex. Experience in adulthood can lead are unknown, there are numerous
to reorganization of sensory and motor possibilities. Experience has been shown
cortical maps. For example, Mühlnickel to increase, decrease, or otherwise modify
and colleagues (1998) found that tinnitus cortical synapses, buttons, and dendritic
(ringing in the ears) produces a major spines.
reorganization of primary auditory cortex;
The discovery of adult neuroplasticity is
Elbert and colleagues (1995) showed that
changing the way that we humans think
adult musicians who play stringed
about ourselves. More importantly for
instruments that are fingered with the left
those with brain damage, it has suggested
hand (e.g., the violin) have an enlarged
some promising new treatment options.
hand representation area in their right
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Early regenerative changes (e.g., an linked to them by synapses; this is called
increase in size) indicate that the cell body Trans neuronal degeneration. In some
is involved in a massive synthesis of the cases, transneuronal degeneration spreads
proteins that will be used to replace the from damaged neurons to the neurons on
degenerated axon. But early regenerative which they synapse; this is called
changes in the cell body do not guarantee anterograde transneuronal
the long-term survival of the neuron; if the degeneration. And in some cases, it
regenerating axon does not manage to spreads from damaged neurons to the
make synaptic contact with an appropriate neurons that synapse on them; this is
target, the neuron eventually dies. called retrograde transneuronal
Sometimes, degeneration spreads from degeneration.
damaged neurons to neurons that are
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There are three possibilities. First, if the PNS by producing both neurotrophic
original Schwann cell myelin sheaths factors and cell-adhesion molecules
remain intact, the regenerating peripheral (CAMs). The neurotrophic factors released
axons grow through them to their original by Schwann cells stimulate the growth of
targets at a rate of a few millimeters per new axons, and the cell-adhesion
day. Second, if the peripheral nerve is molecules on the cell membranes of
severed and the cut ends become separated Schwann cells mark the paths along which
by a few millimeters, regenerating axon regenerating PNS axons grow. In contrast,
tips often grow into incorrect sheaths and oligodendroglia, which myelinate CNS
are guided by them to incorrect axons, do not clear debris or stimulate or
destinations; that is why it is often difficult guide regeneration; indeed, they release
to regain the coordinated use of a limb factors that actively block regeneration.
affected by nerve damage even if there has Furthermore, oligodendroglia tends to
been substantial regeneration. And third, if survive for long periods of time (e.g.,
the cut ends of a severed mammalian months) after nerve damage, thus
peripheral nerve become widely separated chronically inhibiting regeneration of the
or if a lengthy section of the nerve is axons.
damaged, there may be no meaningful If the factors that promote accurate
regeneration at all; regenerating axon tips regeneration in lower vertebrates can be
grow in a tangled mass around the identified and applied to the human brain,
proximal stump, and the neurons it might be possible to cure currently
ultimately die. untreatable brain injuries. Remarkably,
Some CNS neurons are capable of when invertebrates lose an entire limb, the
regeneration if they are transplanted to the regenerating axons release a factor that
PNS, whereas some PNS neurons are not promotes regeneration of that limb.
capable of regeneration if they are
transplanted to the CNS. Clearly, there is
something about the environment of the
PNS that promotes regeneration and
something about the environment of the
CNS that does not. Schwann cells, which
myelinate PNS axons, clear the debris
resulting from neural degeneration and
promote regeneration in the mammalian
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3. NEURAL REORGANIZATION: imaging technology to study the cortices of
blind individuals. The findings are
Adult mammalian brains have the ability consistent with the hypothesis that there is
to reorganize themselves in response to continuous competition for cortical space
experience. by functional circuits. Without visual input
Most studies of neural reorganization to the cortex, there is an expansion of
following damage have focused on the auditory and somatosensory cortex, and
sensory and motor cortex of laboratory auditory and somatosensory input is
animals. Sensory and motor cortex are processed in formerly visual areas. There
ideally suited to the study of neural seems to be a functional consequence to
reorganization because of their this reorganization: Blind volunteers have
topographic layout. The damage-induced demonstrated skills superior to those of
reorganization of the primary sensory and sighted controls on a variety of auditory
motor cortex has been studied under two and somatosensory tasks.
conditions: following damage to peripheral
nerves and following damage to the
cortical areas themselves. MECHANISMS OF NEURAL
REORGANIZATION:
The following studies have been
particularly influential: Two kinds of mechanisms have been
proposed to account for the reorganization
Kaas and colleagues (1990) assessed of neural circuits: a strengthening of
the effect of making a small lesion in existing connections, possibly through
one retina and removing the other. release from inhibition, and the
Several months after the retinal lesion establishment of new connections by
was made, primary visual cortex collateral sprouting.
neurons that originally had receptive Indirect support for the first mechanism
fields in the lesioned area of the retina comes from two observations:
were found to have receptive fields in Reorganization often occurs too quickly to
the area of the retina next to the lesion; be explained by neural growth, and rapid
remarkably, this change began within reorganization never involves changes of
minutes of the lesion. more than 2 millimeters of cortical surface.
Indirect support for the second mechanism
Sanes, Suner, and Donoghue (1990) comes from the observation that the
transected the motor neurons that magnitude of long-term reorganization can
controlled the muscles of rat’s be too great to be explained by changes in
vibrissae (whiskers). A few weeks existing connections. Although sprouting
later, stimulation of the area of motor and release from inhibition are considered
cortex that had previously elicited to be the likely mechanisms of cortical
vibrissae movement now activated reorganization following damage, these are
other muscles of the face. not the only possibilities.
CORTICAL REORGANIZATION
FOLLOWING DAMAGE IN
HUMANS:
Demonstrations of cortical reorganization
in controlled experiments on nonhumans
provided an incentive to search for similar
effects in human clinical populations. One
such line of research has used brain-
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4. RECOVERY OF FUNCTION biographical study of doctors and
AFTER BRAIN DAMAGE: neuroscientists with brain damage, and he
observed a surprising degree of what
Recovery of function in humans after appeared to be cognitive recovery. His
nervous system damage is a poorly results suggested, however, that the
understood phenomenon. Nevertheless, observed improvement did not occur
there is a general consensus that recovery because these patients had actually
of function is most likely when lesions are recovered lost brain function but because
small and the patient is young. their cognitive reserve allowed them to
Neuroplastic phenomena are presumed to accomplish tasks in alternative ways.
underlie recovery of function. However, it Cognitive reserve has also been used to
has proven difficult to provide strong explain why educated people are less
evidence for this assumption. Recovery of susceptible to the effects of aging-related
function after nervous system damage is brain deterioration.
difficult to study because there are other Several recent experiments in laboratory
compensatory changes that can easily be animals have shown that various
confused with it. treatments are maximally effective only if
Cognitive reserve (roughly equivalent to initiated within a few days of the brain
education and intelligence) is thought to damage. This finding has a potentially
play a role in the improvements observed vital implication: It suggests that
after brain damage that do not result from rehabilitation of human patients with brain
true recovery of brain function. Let me damage should begin as soon as possible
explain. Kapur (1997) conducted a after the damage occurs.
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neurons or myelin, under guidance from be done (Li et al., 2008). First, techniques
surrounding tissue. for promoting the survival, maturation, and
Many studies triggered a frenzy of the establishment of correct connections
research activity. Effective treatment for with surviving cells need to be identified.
severe CNS damage appeared to be within Second, methods for encouraging
reach. However, it quickly became functional recovery have to be developed.
apparent that much research still needs to
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the fingernails are digging into the palm of involved cutting off the stump or various
the hand. parts of the neural pathway between the
Based on the premise that phantom limb stump and the cortex. Unfortunately, these
pain results from irritation at the stump, treatments haven’t worked.
surgical efforts to control it have often
AN OVERVIEW
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PRODUCING BRAIN LESIONS: brain lesions employs an excitatory
amino acid such as kainic acid, which
It is easy to destroy parts of the brain kills neurons by stimulating them to death.
immediately beneath the skull; we Lesions produced this way are referred to
anesthetize the animal, cut open its scalp, as excitotoxic lesions. When an excitatory
remove part of its skull, and cut through amino acid is injected through a cannula
the dura mater, bringing the cortex into into a region of the brain, the chemical
view. Then we can use a suction device to destroys neural cell bodies in the vicinity
aspirate the brain tissue. To accomplish but spares axons that belong to different
this tissue removal, we place a glass neurons that happen to pass nearby. This
pipette on the surface of the brain and suck selectivity permits the investigator to
away brain tissue with a vacuum pump determine whether the behavioral effects
attached to the pipette. Brain lesions of of destroying a particular brain structure
subcortical regions (regions located are caused by the death of neurons located
beneath the cortex) are usually there or by the destruction of axons that
produced by passing electrical current pass nearby. When we produce subcortical
through a stainless steel wire that is coated lesions by passing RF current through an
with an insulating varnish except for the electrode or infusing a chemical through a
very tip. We guide the wire stereotaxically cannula, we always cause additional
so that its end reaches the appropriate damage to the brain. Therefore, we cannot
location. (Stereotaxic surgery: Brain simply compare the behavior of brain-
surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to lesioned animals with that of unoperated
position an electrode or cannula in a control animals; the incidental damage to
specified position of the brain). Then we the brain regions above the lesion may
turn on a lesion-making device, which actually be responsible for some of the
produces radio frequency (RF) current- behavioral deficits we see. What we do is
alternating current of a very high operate on a group of animals and
frequency. The passage of the current produce sham lesions- a “placebo”
through the brain tissue produces heat that procedure that duplicates all the steps of
kills cells in the region surrounding the tip producing a brain lesion except turn on the
of the electrode. Lesions produced by lesion maker or start the infusion. This
these means destroy everything in the group of animals serves as a control group;
vicinity of the electrode tip, including if the behavior of the animals with brain
neural cell bodies and the axons of neurons lesions is different from that of the sham-
that pass through the region. A more operated control animals, we can conclude
selective method of producing that the lesions caused the behavioral
deficits.
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Most of the time, investigators produce from entering or leaving that region, thus
permanent brain lesions, but sometimes it effectively producing a temporary lesion
is advantageous to disrupt the activity of a (usually called a reversible brain lesion).
particular region of the brain temporarily. Muscimol is a drug that stimulates
The easiest way to do so is to inject a local GABA receptors, inactivates a region of
anesthetic or a drug called Muscimol into the brain by inhibiting the neurons located
the appropriate part of the brain. The there. (GABA is the most important
anesthetic blocks action potentials in axons inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.)
STEREOTAXIC SURGERY
fixes the animal’s head in a standard
Stereotaxis literally means “solid position and a carrier that moves an
arrangement”; more specifically, it refers electrode or a cannula through measured
to the ability to locate objects in space. A distances in all three axes of space. To
stereotaxic apparatus contains a holder that perform stereotaxic surgery, one must first
study a stereotaxic atlas.
STEREOTAXIC ATLAS
junction is called bregma, from the Greek
A collection of drawings of sections of the word meaning “front of head.” Bregma in
brain of a particular animal with a rat’s skull serves as a convenient
measurements that provide coordinates for reference point. If the animal’s skull is
stereotaxic surgery. oriented in a specific way, a particular
region of the brain is found in a fairly
No two brains of animals of a given constant position, relative to bregma. A
species are completely identical, but there stereotaxic atlas contains photographs
is enough similarity among individuals to or drawings that correspond to frontal
predict the location of particular brain sections taken at various distances
structures relative to external features of rostral and caudal to bregma.
the head. For instance, a subcortical
nucleus of a rat might be so many Thus, by finding a neural structure (which
millimeters ventral, anterior, and lateral to we cannot see in our animal) on one of the
a point formed by the junction of several pages of a stereotaxic atlas, we can
bones of the skull. determine the structure’s location relative
to bregma (which we can see). Because of
The skull is composed of several bones variations in different strains and ages of
that grow together and form sutures animals, the atlas gives only an
(seams). The heads of newborn babies approximate location. We always have to
contain a soft spot at the junction of the try out a new set of coordinates, slice and
coronal and sagittal sutures called the stain the animal’s brain, see the actual
fontanelle. Once this gap closes, the location of the lesion, correct the numbers,
and try again.
STEREOTAXIC APPARATUS distances along the three axes: anterior–
A stereotaxic apparatus operates on simple posterior, dorsal–ventral, and lateral–
principles. The device includes a head medial. Once we obtain the coordinates
holder, which maintains the animal’s skull from a stereotaxic atlas, we anesthetize the
in the proper orientation, a holder for the animal, place it in the apparatus, and cut
electrode, and a calibrated mechanism that the scalp open. We locate bregma, dial in
moves the electrode holder in measured
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the appropriate numbers on the stereotaxic and the animal is taken out of the
apparatus, drill a hole through the skull, stereotaxic apparatus and allowed to
and lower the device into the brain by the recover from the anesthetic. Stereotaxic
correct amount. In all cases, once surgery apparatuses can also be made for humans.
is complete, the wound is sewn together,
If we hope to study the tissue in the form it and stain various cellular structures to see
had at the time of the organism’s death, we anatomical details. Slicing is done with a
must destroy the autolytic enzymes microtome (literally, “that which slices
(autolytic means “self-dissolving”), small”). Slices of brain tissue are usually
which will otherwise turn the tissue into referred to as sections. After the tissue is
mush. The tissue must also be preserved to cut, we attach the slices to glass
prevent its decomposition by bacteria or microscope slides. We can then stain the
molds. To achieve both of these objectives, tissue by putting the entire slide into
we place the neural tissue in a fixative. various chemical solutions. Finally, we
The most commonly used fixative is cover the stained sections with a small
formalin, an aqueous solution of amount of a transparent liquid known as a
formaldehyde, a gas. Formalin halts mounting medium and place a very thin
autolysis, hardens the very soft and fragile glass coverslip over the sections. The
brain, and kills any microorganisms that mounting medium keeps the coverslip in
might destroy it. Once the brain has been position.
fixed, we must slice it into thin sections
STAINING
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ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
The light microscope is limited in its photographic film, which is exposed by the
ability to resolve extremely small details. electrons. Electron photomicrographs
A beam of electrons is passed through the produced in this way can provide
tissue to be examined. A shadow of the information about structural details on the
tissue is then cast onto a sheet of order of a few tens of nanometers.
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TRACING AFFERENT AXONS histological method that labels cell bodies
that give rise to the terminal buttons that
To find the afferent connections to the form synapses with cells in a particular
region, we employ a retrograde labeling region) identify a single link in a chain of
method. Retrograde means “moving neurons- neurons whose axons enter or
backward”. Retrograde labeling methods leave a particular brain region.
employ chemicals that are taken up by
terminal buttons and carried back through Transneuronal tracing methods identify a
the axons toward the cell bodies. The series of two, three, or more neurons that
method for identifying the afferent inputs form serial synaptic connections with each
to a particular region of the brain is similar other. The most effective transneuronal
to the method used for identifying its tracing method uses a pseudorabies virus-a
efferent. First, we inject a small quantity of weakened form of a pig herpes virus used
a chemical called fluorogold into the for retrograde transneuronal tracing, which
region. The chemical is taken up by labels a series of neurons that are
terminal buttons and is transported back by interconnected synaptically.
means of retrograde axoplasmic transport
to the cell bodies. A few days later we kill Together, anterograde and retrograde
the animal, slice its brain, and examine the labeling methods—including transneuronal
tissue under light of the appropriate methods—enable us to discover circuits of
wavelength.The anterograde and interconnected neurons. Thus, these
retrograde labeling methods (retrograde methods help to provide us with a “wiring
labeling method is a diagram” of the brain.
RECORDING AND STIMULATING
NEURAL ACTIVITY
Recording Neural Activity
Recording the Brain’s Metabolic and
Synaptic Activity
Stimulating Neural Activity
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The presence of Fos, revealed by a special after the animal has recovered from the
staining method, provides another way to surgery, they insert a smaller cannula and
discover active regions of the brain. The inject a weak solution of an excitatory
metabolic activity of various regions of the amino acid into the brain. The advantage
living human brain can be revealed by the of this procedure is that only neurons
2-DG method, but a PET scanner is used whose cell bodies are located nearby will
to detect the active regions. be stimulated; axons passing through
the region will not be affected.
Another noninvasive method of measuring Transcranial magnetic stimulation induces
regional brain activity is provided by electrical activity in the human cerebral
functional MRI, which detects localized cortex, which temporarily disrupts the
changes in oxygen level. The secretions of functioning of neural circuits located there.
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators can
be measured by implanting the tip of a Recording and Stimulating neural activity
micro dialysis probe in a particular region involves studying the brain by recording or
of the brain. A PET scanner can be used to stimulating the activity of particular
perform similar observations of the human regions. Brain functions involve activity of
brain. Researchers can stimulate various circuits of neurons; thus, different
regions of the brain by implanting a perceptions and behavioral responses
macroelectrode and applying mild involve different patterns of activity in the
electrical stimulation. Alternatively, they brain. Researchers have devised methods
can implant a guide cannula in the brain; to record these patterns of activity or to
artificially produce them.
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RECORDING NEURAL ACTIVITY behaviors. For example, recordings can be
made during stimulus presentations,
Axons produce action potentials, and decision making, or motor activities.
terminal buttons elicit postsynaptic Recordings can be made chronically, over
potentials in the membrane of the cells an extended period of time after the animal
with which they form synapses. These recovers from surgery, or acutely, for a
electrical events can be recorded, and relatively short period of time during
changes in the electrical activity of a which the animal is kept anesthetized.
particular region can be used to determine
whether that region plays a role in various
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signals they are receiving. In addition, we rode. These electrodes can consist of
can record the activity of several unsharpened wires inserted into the brain,
individual neurons in a particular region of screws attached to the skull, or even metal
the brain. We implant the electrodes in the disks attached to the human scalp with a
brains of animals through stereotaxic special paste that conducts electricity.
surgery. Then, after recovery from surgery, Occasionally, neurosurgeons implant
the animal can be “plugged in” to the macroelectrodes directly into the human
recording system. Laboratory animals brain. The reason for doing so is to
pay no heed to the electrical sockets on detect the source of abnormal electrical
their skulls and behave quite normally. activity that is giving rise to frequent
Researchers often attach rather complex seizures. Once the source is determined,
devices to the animals’ skulls when they the surgeon can open the skull and
implant microelectrodes so that they can remove the source of the seizures—
record from several different parts of the usually scar tissue caused by brain
brain during the course of their damage that occurred earlier in life.
observations. The electrical signals Most often, the electrical activity of a
detected by microelectrodes are quite human brain is recorded through
small and must be amplified using electrodes attached to the scalp and
amplifiers for converting the weak signals displayed on an ink-writing oscillograph,
recorded at the brain into stronger ones. commonly called a polygraph. A
These signals can be stored in the memory polygraph contains a mechanism that
of a computer for analysis at a later time. moves a very long strip of paper past a
series of pens. Such records are called
Recordings with Macroelectrodes: At electroencephalograms (EEGs), or
times we may need to record the activity of “writings of electricity from the head.”
a region of the brain as a whole, not the They can be used to diagnose epilepsy or
activity of individual neurons located brain tumors or to study the stages of sleep
there. Hence, we use macroelectrodes. and wakefulness, which are associated
Macroelectrodes do not detect the activity with characteristic patterns of electrical
of individual neurons; rather, the records activity. Another use of the EEG is to
that are obtained with these devices monitor the condition of the brain during
represent the postsynaptic potentials of procedures that could potentially damage
many thousands—or millions—of cells in it.
the
area
of
the
elect
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of oxygen in the brain’s blood vessels. be acquired much faster. Thus, they reveal
Functional MRI scans have a higher more detailed information about the
resolution than PET scans do, and they can activity of particular brain regions.
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ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY bones. Because of this, it is sometimes
(EEG) unclear exactly which region of the brain
is emitting a signal.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is used to
show brain activity in certain POSITRON EMISSION
psychological states, such as alertness or TOMOGRAPHY (PET)
drowsiness. It is useful in the diagnosis of
seizures and other medical problems that Positron emission tomography (PET) scans
involve an overabundance or lack of measure levels of the sugar glucose in the
activity in certain parts of the brain. brain in order to illustrate where neural
firing is taking place. This works because
To prepare for an EEG, electrodes are active neurons use glucose as fuel. As part
placed on the face and scalp. After placing of the scan, a tracer substance attached to
each electrode in the right position, the radioactive isotopes is injected into the
electrical potential of each electrode can be blood. When parts of the brain become
measured. According to a person’s state active, blood (which contains the tracer) is
(waking, sleeping, etc.), both the sent to deliver oxygen. This creates visible
frequency and the form of the EEG signal spots, which are then picked up by
differ. Patients who suffer from epilepsy detectors and used to create a video image
show an increase of the amplitude of firing of the brain while performing a particular
visible on the EEG record. The task. However, with PET scans, we can
disadvantage of EEG is that the electric only locate generalized areas of brain
conductivity —and therefore the measured activity and not specific locations. In
electrical potentials—may vary widely addition, PET scans are costly and
from person to person and also over time, invasive, making their use limited.
due to the natural conductivities of other However, they can be used in some forms
tissues such as brain matter, blood, and of medical diagnosis, including for
Alzheimer’s.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE signal generated as the nuclei return to
IMAGING (MRI) their baseline status. Through this process,
an MRI creates an image of the brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and structure. MRI scans are noninvasive, pose
functional magnetic resonance imaging little health risk, and can be used on
(fMRI) scans are the form of neural infants and in utero, providing a consistent
imaging most directly useful to the field of mode of imaging across the development
psychology. It is a technique whereby the spectrum. One disadvantage is that the
interior of the body can be accurately patient has to hold still for long periods of
imaged; involves the interaction between time in a noisy, cramped space while the
radio waves and a strong magnetic field. imaging is performed. The fMRI is a series
MRI passes an extremely strong magnetic of MRIs that measures both the structure
field through the patient’s head. The and the functional activity of the brain
scanners can use this information to through computer adaptation of multiple
prepare pictures of slices of the brain. images. Specifically, the fMRI measures
signal changes in the brain that are due to
An MRI uses strong magnetic fields to changing neural activity. In an fMRI, a
align spinning atomic nuclei (usually patient can perform mental tasks and the
hydrogen protons) within body tissues, area of action can be detected through
then disturbs the axis of rotation of these blood flow from one part of the brain to
nuclei and observes the radio frequency
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another by taking pictures less than a have been used to study a wide range of
second apart and showing where the brain psychological phenomena, including (but
“lights up.” For example, when a person by no means limited to) the neural activity
processes visual information, blood rushes of telling a lie, the differences between
to the back of the brain, which is where the novices and experts when playing a
occipital lobe is located. FMRIs make it musical instrument, and what happens
possible to show when things happen, how inside our heads when we dream.
brain areas change with experience, and
which brain areas work together. They
(For References)
Computerized Tomography (CT) is the use of a device that employs a computer to
analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional
picture of a “slice” through the body.
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he uses up more energy. His weight then people can reset their normal weight if they
returns to its set point. If, on the other add or lose pounds slowly. They also point
hand, his weight falls too far below his out that people usually gain weight when
set point, his appetite increases, or he they have easy access to rich foods.
uses less energy.
THE BRAIN
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KINSEY’S STUDIES
One of the first researchers to give a bore little relation to actual sexual
modern account of human sexuality was practices. Kinsey provided statistics
Alfred Kinsey. In the 1940s, he and his showing that sexual practices varied
colleagues interviewed more than 18,000 widely and that even in the 1940s there
U.S. men and women about their sexual was a high prevalence of masturbation and
behavior and attitudes. In his premarital sex. These statistics shocked
comprehensive reports about human many people of his day.
sexuality, Kinsey denounced the repressive
social attitudes of his time, which he said
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MASTERS AND JOHNSON’S may secrete a small amount of fluid
STUDIES from the penis.
Orgasm phase: Physiological arousal
Other pioneers of sexual research were peaks. Men ejaculate seminal fluid.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson. Both men and women experience
In the 1960s, they studied several hundred muscular contractions in the pelvic
male and female volunteers who agreed to area, along with a sensation of
either masturbate or have intercourse in a pleasure.
laboratory. Masters and Johnson hooked Resolution phase: Physiological
up the volunteers to instruments that responses return to normal levels. Men
measured various physiological indicators then go through a refractory period that
during sexual activity. Using the results of can vary in length, during which they
these studies, they described the sexual are not responsive to stimulation. The
response cycle. refractory period tends to get longer as
men age.
THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
Critics of Masters and Johnson’s
Masters and Johnson divided the human research maintained two arguments:
sexual response cycle into four phases:
Masters and Johnson studied a biased
1. Excitement phase: Physiological sample of people. The sample
arousal increases quickly. Muscle included only people who were
tension, heart rate, blood pressure, and both willing and able to perform
breathing rate increase. In men, the sexual acts in a laboratory setting.
penis gets erect and the testes swell. In Masters and Johnson didn’t pay
women, the clitoris hardens and swells, attention to individual differences.
the vaginal lips open, and the vagina In reality, people’s sexual
lubricates. responses vary according to factors
Plateau phase: Physiological arousal such as age, amount of sexual
continues. In women, the clitoris experience, and cultural
retracts under the clitoral hood. Men
background.
THE ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE EROTIC STIMULI: Both men and
women can become sexually aroused
Sexual drive is related to testosterone level by external and internal erotic stimuli.
in both men and women, but the External erotic stimuli include sexually
relationship is a complex one. Sexual exciting material that is read, heard, or
activity increases testosterone levels, and seen. Internal erotic stimuli include
testosterone levels increase sex drive. thoughts, fantasies, and memories of
Psychological Factors in Sexual past sexual experiences. What is
Motivation:Hormones alone cannot cause considered erotic varies according to
sexual arousal. Psychological factors are the individual, historical period, and
also highly influential. cultural context.
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DESIRES: People have an infinite when deciding whether they should
number of desires that influence the initiate sexual activity or wait to
motivation for sex, including to receive a partner’s advances.
procreate, to express love, to have
physical enjoyment, to cope with A culture’s social and economic structure
difficult situations and emotions, to determines the gender roles that men and
validate one’s desirability, and to do women adopt. These gender roles in turn
what peers do. determine people’s attitude toward sexual
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Having a activity. In some cultures, for instance,
strong influence on sexual behavior, women need marriage to get access to
cultures inform people about sexual status and wealth. In such cultures, a
scripts, or implicit rules that allow a woman is less likely to be interested in sex
person to judge the appropriate sexual for its own sake, since casual sex can
behavior for a given situation. For damage her reputation and reduce her
example, people follow sexual scripts chances of marriage.
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amounts of exercise to compensate for body weight well below average through
their binges. Bulimia is associated with starvation and/or excessive exercise.
many adverse health consequences that Individuals suffering from anorexia
can include kidney failure, heart failure, nervosa often have a distorted body image,
and tooth decay. In addition, these referenced in literature as a type of body
individuals often suffer from anxiety and dysmorphia, meaning that they view
depression, and they are at an increased themselves as overweight even though
risk for substance abuse (Mayo Clinic, they are not. Like bulimia nervosa,
2012b). The lifetime prevalence rate for anorexia nervosa is associated with a
bulimia nervosa is estimated at around 1% number of significant negative health
for women and less than 0.5% for men outcomes: bone loss, heart failure, kidney
(Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012). failure, amenorrhea (cessation of the
menstrual period), reduced function of the
As of the 2013 release of the Diagnostic gonads, and in extreme cases, death.
and Statistical Manual, fifth edition, Binge Furthermore, there is an increased risk for
eating disorder is a disorder recognized by a number of psychological problems,
the American Psychiatric Association which include anxiety disorders, mood
(APA). Unlike with bulimia, eating binges disorders, and substance abuse (Mayo
are not followed by inappropriate Clinic, 2012a). Estimates of the prevalence
behavior, such as purging, but they are of anorexia nervosa vary from study to
followed by distress, including feelings of study but generally range from just under
guilt and embarrassment. The resulting one percent to just over four percent in
psychological distress distinguishes binge women. Generally, prevalence rates are
eating disorder from overeating (American considerably lower for men (Smink et al.,
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). 2012).
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THE AMYGDALA seahorse. It consists of two horns curving
The amygdala is a small almond-shaped back from the amygdala. Psychologists
structure; there is one located in each of and neuroscientists dispute the precise role
the left and right temporal lobes. Known as of the hippocampus, but generally agree
the emotional center of the brain, the that it plays an essential role in the
amygdala is involved in evaluating the formation of new memories about past
emotional valence of situations (e.g., experiences. Some researchers consider
happy, sad, scary). It helps the brain the hippocampus to be responsible for
recognize potential threats and helps general declarative memory (memories
prepare the body for fight-or-flight that can be explicitly verbalized, such as
reactions by increasing heart and breathing memory of facts and episodic memory).
rate. The amygdala is also responsible for Damage to the hippocampus usually
learning on the basis of reward or results in profound difficulties in forming
punishment. new memories (anterograde amnesia), and
Due to its close proximity to the may also affect access to memories formed
hippocampus, the amygdala is involved in prior to the damage (retrograde amnesia).
the modulation of memory consolidation, Although the retrograde effect normally
particularly emotionally-laden memories. extends some years prior to the brain
Emotional arousal following a learning damage, in some cases older memories
event influences the strength of the remain intact; this leads to the idea that
subsequent memory of that event, so that over time the hippocampus becomes less
greater emotional arousal following a important in the storage of memory.
learning event enhances a person’s
retention of that memory. In fact, THE THALAMUS AND
experiments have shown that HYPOTHALAMUS
administering stress hormones to
individuals immediately after they learn Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are
something enhances their retention when associated with changes in emotional
they are tested two weeks later. reactivity. The thalamus, which is a
sensory “way-station” for the rest of the
brain, is primarily important due to its
THE HIPPOCAMPUS connections with other limbic-system
The hippocampus is found deep in the structures. The hypothalamus is a small
temporal lobe, and is shaped like a part of the brain located just below the
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There are six major early landmarks in the skull and measuring it precisely, paying
biopsychological investigation of emotion. particular attention to the position of the
entry and exit holes. From these
measurements, they reconstructed the
THE CASE OF PHINEAS GAGE accident and determined the likely region
(1848): of Gages brain damage. It was apparent
In 1994, Damasio and her colleagues that the damage to Gages brain affected
brought the power of computerized both medial prefrontal lobes, which are
reconstruction to bear on Gages classic involved in planning and emotion.
case. They began by taking an X-ray of the
CASE STUDY: PHINEAS GAGE religious man who was well liked by his
friends and fellow workers. Once
recovered, he appeared to be as able-
In 1848, Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old bodied and intellectually capable as before,
construction foreman for the Rutland and but his personality and emotional life had
Burlington Railroad, was the victim of a totally changed. He became irreverent and
tragic accident. In order to lay new tracks, impulsive. He became so unreliable and
the terrain had to be leveled, and Gage was undependable that he soon lost his job, and
in charge of the blasting. His task involved was never again able to hold a responsible
drilling holes in the rock, pouring some position. Gage became itinerant, roaming
gun powder into each hole, covering it the country for a dozen years until his
with sand, and tamping the material down death in San Francisco.
with a large tamping iron before
detonating it with a fuse. On the fateful Five years later, neurologist John Harlow
day, the gunpowder exploded while Gage was granted permission from Gages family
was tamping it, launching the 3-cm-thick, to exhume the body and tamping iron to
90-cm-long tamping iron through his face, study them. Since then, Gages skull and
skull, and brain and out the other side. the tamping iron have been on display in
Amazingly, Gage survived his accident, the Warren Anatomical Medical Museum
but he survived it a changed man. Before at Harvard University.
the accident, Gage had been a responsible,
intelligent, socially well-adapted person,
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DARWIN’S THEORY OF THE evolution of emotional expression that was
EVOLUTION OF EMOTION: composed of three main ideas:
The first major event in the study of the Expressions of emotion evolve from
biopsychology of emotion was the behaviors that indicate what an
publication in 1872 of Darwin’s book: animal is likely to do next.
The Expression of Emotions in Man and If the signals provided by such
Animals. In it, Darwin argued, largely on behaviors benefit the animal that
the basis of anecdotal evidence that displays them, they will evolve in
particular emotional responses, such as ways that enhance their
human facial expressions, tend to communicative function, and their
accompany the same emotional states in all original function may be lost.
members of a species. Darwin believed Opposite messages are often signaled
that expressions of emotion, like other by opposite movements and
behaviors, are products of evolution; he postures, an idea called the
therefore tried to understand them by principle of antithesis.
comparing them in different species.
From such interspecies comparisons,
Darwin developed a theory of the
JAMES-LANGE AND
CANNON-BARD THEORIES:
The first physiological theory of emotion
was proposed independently by James and
Lange in 1884. According to the James-
Lange theory, emotion-inducing sensory
stimuli are received and interpreted by
the cortex, which triggers changes in the
visceral organs via the autonomic
nervous system and in the skeletal
muscles via the somatic nervous system.
Then, the autonomic and somatic
responses trigger the experience of
emotion in the brain.
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James and Lange argued that the nervous system activity; according to the
autonomic activity and behavior that are Cannon-Bard theory, emotional experience
triggered by the emotional event (e.g., is totally independent of such feedback.
rapid heartbeat and running away) produce Both extreme positions have proved to be
the feeling of emotion, not vice versa. incorrect. On the one hand, it seems that
the autonomic and somatic feedback is
Around 1915, Cannon proposed an
not necessary for the experience of
alternative to the James-Lange theory of
emotion: Human patients whose
emotion, and it was subsequently extended
autonomic and somatic feedback has
and promoted by Bard. According to the
been largely eliminated by a broken
Cannon-Bard theory, emotional stimuli neck are capable of a full range of
have two independent excitatory effects: emotional experiences (e.g., Lowe &
They excite both the feeling of emotion Carroll, 1985).
in the brain and the expression of
emotion in the autonomic and somatic Failure to find unqualified support for
nervous systems. That is, the Cannon- either the James-Lange or the Cannon-
Bard theory, in contrast to the James- Bard theory led to the modern
Lange theory, views emotional experience biopsychological view. According to this
and emotional expression as parallel view, each of the three principal factors in
processes that have no direct causal an emotional response the perception of
relation.According to the James-Lange the emotion-inducing stimulus, the
theory, emotional experience depends autonomic and somatic responses to the
entirely on feedback from autonomic and stimulus and the experience of the emotion
somatic. can influence the other two.
4. SHAM RAGE:
In the late 1920s, Bard (1929) discovered decorticates animals as sham rage. Sham
that decorticate cats whose cortex has rage can be elicited in cats, whose cerebral
been removed respond aggressively to the hemispheres have been removed down to,
slightest provocation i.e., after a light but not including, the hypothalamus; but it
touch, they arch their backs, erect their cannot be elicited if the hypothalamus is
hair, growl, hiss, and expose their teeth. also removed. On the basis of this
The aggressive responses of decorticate observation, Bard concluded that the
animals are abnormal in two respects: they hypothalamus is critical for the
are inappropriately severe, and they are expression of aggressive responses and
not directed at particular targets. Bard that the function of the cortex is to
referred to the exaggerated, poorly inhibit and direct these responses.
directed aggressive responses of
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There is ample evidence that not all crime that would be known only to the
emotions are associated with the same guilty person. Rather than attempting to
pattern of ANS activity. However, there is catch the suspect in a lie, the polygrapher
insufficient evidence to make a strong case simply assesses the suspects reaction to a
for the view that each emotion is list of actual and contrived details of the
characterized by a different pattern of ANS crime. Innocent suspects, because they
activity. have no knowledge of the crime, react to
all such details in the same way; the guilty
react differentially.
POLYGRAPHY:
It is a method of interrogation that
employs autonomic nervous system EMOTIONS AND FACIAL
indexes of emotion to infer the EXPRESSION:
truthfulness of the subject’s responses. Ekman and his colleagues have been
Polygraph tests administered by skilled preeminent in the study of facial
examiners can be useful additions to expression. They began in the 1960s by
normal interrogation procedures, but they analyzing hundreds of films and
are far from infallible. The main problem photographs of people experiencing
in evaluating the effectiveness of various real emotions. From these, they
polygraphy is that it is rarely possible in compiled an atlas of the facial expressions
real-life situations to know for certain that are normally associated with different
whether a suspect is guilty or innocent. emotions (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). For
The usual interrogation method is the example, to produce the facial expression
control-question technique, in which the for surprise, models were instructed to pull
physiological response to the target their brows upward so as to wrinkle their
question (e.g., did you steal that purse?) is forehead, to open their eyes wide so as to
compared with the physiological responses reveal white above the iris, to slacken the
to control questions whose answers are muscles around their mouth, and to drop
known (e.g., Have you ever been in jail their jaw.
before?). Universality of Facial Expression:
The assumption is that lying will be Several studies have found that people of
associated with greater sympathetic different cultures make similar facial
activation. The average success rate in expressions in similar situations and that
various mock-crime studies using the they can correctly identify the emotional
control-question technique is about 80%. significance of facial expressions
Despite being commonly referred to as displayed by people from cultures other
lie detection, polygraphy detects than their own.
emotions, not lies. Consequently, it is less Remarkably, human facial expressions are
likely to successfully identify lies in real similar in many respects to those of our
life than in experiments. In real-life primate relatives. Ekman and Friesen
situations, questions such as did you concluded that the facial expressions of
steal that purse? Are likely to elicit a the following six emotions are primary:
reaction from all suspects, regardless of surprise, anger, sadness, disgust, fear,
their guilt or innocence, making it and happiness. They further concluded
difficult to detect deception. that all other facial expressions of genuine
The guilty-knowledge technique emotion are composed of predictable
circumvents this problem. In order to use mixtures of these six primaries.
this technique, the polygrapher must have
a piece of information concerning the
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VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF
FACIAL EXPRESSION:
Because we can exert voluntary control
over our facial muscles, it is possible to
inhibit true facial expressions and to
substitute false ones. There are many
reasons for choosing to put on a false
facial expression. Some of them are
positive (e.g., putting on a false smile to
reassure a worried friend), and some are
negative (e.g., putting on a false smile to According to Duchenne, the zygomaticus
disguise a lie). In either case, it is difficult major can be controlled voluntarily,
to fool an expert. whereas the orbicularis oculi is normally
There are two ways of distinguishing true contracted only by genuine pleasure. Thus,
expressions from false ones (Ekman, inertia of the orbicularis oculi in smiling
1985). unmasks a false friend a fact you would do
First, micro-expressions (brief facial well to remember. Ekman named the
expressions) of the real emotion often genuine smile the Duchenne smile (see
break through the false one. Such micro- Ekman & Davidson, 1993).
expressions last only about 0.05 second, Facial Expressions: Current
but with practice they can be detected Perspectives
without the aid of slow-motion
photography. Ekman’s work on facial expression began
before video recording became
Second, there are often subtle differences commonplace. Now, video recordings
between genuine facial expressions and provide almost unlimited access to natural
false ones that can be detected by skilled facial expressions made in response to
observers. real-life situations. As a result, it is now
The most widely studied difference clear that Ekman’s six primary facial
between a genuine and a false facial
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expressions of emotion rarely occur in share the same facial expression. The
pure form they are ideals with many subtle research on pride by Tracy and Robins
variations. Also, the existence of other (2004) argues against this view. The
primary emotions has been recognized. For expression of pride is readily identified by
example, Ekman (1992) agrees that there individuals of various cultures, cannot be
is evidence for adding contempt and created from a mixture of other primary
embarrassment to his original six. Have expressions, and involves postural as well
you noticed that only one of the eight as facial components. Pride is expressed
primary emotions, happiness, has a through a small smile, with the head tilted
positive emotional valence? (Emotional back slightly and the hands on the hips,
valence refers to the general positive or raised above the head, or clenched in fists
negative character of an emotion). with the arms crossed on the chest.
This imbalance has led some to
hypothesize that all positive emotions may
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AMYGDALA AND HUMAN the same system. The medial portions of
EMOTION: the prefrontal lobes (including the medial
Amygdala plays an important role in fear portions of the orbitofrontal cortex and
conditioning in rats. Numerous functional cingulate cortex) are the sites of emotion-
brain-imaging studies have found the cognition interaction that have received the
amygdala to be involved in human most attention. Functional brain-imaging
emotions particularly in fear and other studies have found evidence of activity in
negative emotions. Furthermore, the the medial prefrontal lobes when
amygdala appears to be involved in only emotional reactions are being cognitively
some aspects of human fear. It seems to be suppressed or re-evaluated. Most of the
more involved in the perception of fear in studies of medial prefrontal lobe activity
others than in its experience. employ suppression paradigms or
reappraisal paradigms. In studies that
Although recent research has focused on use suppression paradigms, participants
the role of the amygdala in the recognition are directed to inhibit their emotional
of negative facial expressions, patients reactions to unpleasant films or pictures; in
with Urbach-Wiethe disease sometimes studies that use reappraisal paradigms,
have difficulty recognizing the negative participants are instructed to reinterpret a
expressions and other complex visual picture to change their emotional reaction
stimuli. to it. The medial prefrontal lobes are active
when both of these paradigms are used,
MEDIAL PREFRONTAL LOBES AND and they seem to exert their cognitive
HUMAN EMOTION: control of emotion by interacting with the
amygdala. The medial prefrontal lobes are
Emotion and cognition are often studied
large and complex, and they likely perform
independently, but it is now believed that
many functions.
they are better studied as components of
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LATERALIZATION OF EMOTION: Most studies of the cerebral lateralization
There is considerable evidence that of emotion have employed functional
emotional functions are lateralized, that is, brain-imaging methods, and the results
that the left and right cerebral hemispheres have been complex and variable. Overall
are specialized to perform different comparisons made in many studies
emotional functions. This evidence has led between left and right hemispheres
to several theories of the cerebral
revealed no interhemispheric differences
lateralization of emotion; the following are
the two most prominent: in either the amount of emotional
processing or the valence of the emotions
The right-hemisphere model of the
being processed. However, when the
cerebral lateralization of emotion
comparisons were conducted on a
holds that the right hemisphere is
specialized for all aspects of emotional structure-by-structure basis, they revealed
processing: perception, expression, and substantial evidence of lateralization of
experience of emotion. emotional processing. Some kinds of
The valence model proposes that the emotional processing were lateralized to
right hemisphere is specialized for the left hemisphere in certain structures
processing negative emotion and the and to the right in others.
left hemisphere is specialized for Clearly, neither the right-hemisphere
processing positive emotion. model nor the valence model of the
lateralization of emotion is supported by
the evidence. The models are too general.
Another approach to studying the
lateralization of emotions is based on
observing the asymmetry of facial
expressions. In most people, each facial
expression begins on the left side of the
face and, when fully expressed, is more
pronounced there which implies right-
hemisphere dominance for facial
expressions.
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study reveals that the brain mechanisms of emotion differ from person to person.
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NATURE VS NURTURE
Genetic expression can be influenced
by various social factors, as well as
environmental factors, from light and
temperature to exposure to chemicals.
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Our genetic destiny is not necessarily genes nor environment work alone; rather,
written in stone; it can be influenced by the two work in tandem to create the
several factors, such as social factors, as people we ultimately become.
well as environmental influences among
which we live, including anything from Environmental elements like light and
light and temperature to exposure to temperature have been shown to induce
chemicals. The environment in which a certain changes in genetic expression;
person is raised can trigger the expression additionally, exposure to drugs and
of behavior for which a person is chemicals can significantly affect how
genetically predisposed, while the same genes are expressed. People often inherit
person raised in a different environment sensitivity to the effects of various
may exhibit different behavior. environmental risk factors, and different
individuals may be differently affected by
Long-standing debates have taken place exposure to the same environment in
over the idea of which factor is more medically significant ways. For example,
important, genes or environment. Is a sunlight exposure has a much stronger
person destined to have a particular influence on skin cancer risk in fair-
outcome in life because of his or her skinned humans than in individuals with
genetic makeup, or can the environment an inherited tendency for darker skin. The
(and the people in it) work to change what color of a person’s skin is largely genetic,
might be considered “bad” genes? Today, but the influence of the environment will
it is generally agreed upon that neither affect these genes in different ways.
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When you listen to the speech of a person unaware of their deficit. That is, they do
with Wernicke’s aphasia, it appears to be not appear to recognize that their speech is
grammatical. faulty, nor do they recognize that they
The abilities that are disrupted include cannot understand the speech of others.
recognition of spoken words, Damage restricted to Wernicke’s area
comprehension of the meaning of words, causes pure word deafness—loss of the
and the ability to convert thoughts into ability to understand speech but intact
words. Let us consider each of these speech production, reading, and writing.
abilities in turn. The left hemisphere is involved in analysis
However, the person uses few content of rapid changes in sounds, which is
words, and the words that he or she strings consistent with its role in the analysis of
together just do not make sense. In the speech sounds, which are characterized by
extreme, speech deteriorates into a such changes. Wernicke’s aphasia, caused
meaningless jumble, illustrated by the by damage to Wernicke’s area and the
following quotation: posterior language area, consists of poor
speech comprehension, poor repetition,
and production of fluent, meaningless
Examiner: What kind of work did you do speech. Transcortical sensory aphasia,
before you came into the hospital? caused by damage to the posterior speech
Patient: Never, now mista oyge I wanna area, consists of poor speech
tell you this happened when happened comprehension and production, but the
when he rent. His—his kell come down patients can repeat what they hear. Thus,
here and is—he got ren something. It the symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia
happened. In these ropier were with him consist of those of transcortical sensory
for hi—is friend—like was. And it just aphasia plus those of pure word deafness.
happened so I don’t know; he did not bring (WA = TSA + PWD.) Feedback from
around anything. mirror neurons that are activated when
people hear the speech of other people
A remarkable fact about people with
may facilitate speech recognition
Wernicke’s aphasia is that they often seem
.
***
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CONTENTS
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UNIT
ATTENTION, PERCEPTION,
5 LEARNING, MEMORY And
FORGETTING
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This theory proposes that the stimuli not processing. It is indicated that personally
getting access to the selective filter at a relevant stimuli (e.g., one’s name in a
given moment of time are not completely collective dinner) can be noticed even at a
blocked. The filter only attenuates very low level of sound. Such stimuli,
(weakens) their strength. Thus, some even though fairly weak, may also
stimuli manage to escape through the generate response occasionally by
selective filter to reach higher levels of slipping through the selective filter
In her experiments, Treisman unattended message, indicating that they
demonstrated that participants were still were able to process the meaning of both
able to identify the contents of an the attended and unattended messages.
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THE LAW OF PROXIMITY: Elements that are near each other are
likely to be perceived as part of the Same configuration.
THE LAW OF
CLOSURE: edges of a figure or fill
People tend to close the gaps in an incomplete
open so that their figure, the form
identification of (in this there.
case, a circle) is more
complete than what is
actually
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allows us to recognize
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES:
people and other objects
They allow us to recognize familiar from many different angles.
stimuli under varying conditions.
SIZE CONSTANCY: It is the
Without these, we would have to
perception that the size of
literally rediscover what something is
objects remains relatively
each time it appeared under different
constant even though images
conditions. The various types of
on our retina change in size
perceptual constancies are:
with variations in distance.
BRIGHTNESS CONSTANCY:
The relative brightness of
objects remains the same under
different conditions of
illumination, such as full
sunlight and shade. Brightness
constancy occurs because the
Thus, a man who is judged
ratio of light intensity between
to be 6 feet tall when
an object and its surroundings
standing 5 feet away is not
is constant. The actual
perceived to be 3 feet tall at
brightness of the light that
a distance of 10 feet, even
illuminates an object does not
though the size of his image
matter, as long as the same
on the retina is reduced to
light intensity illuminates both
half its original size.
the object and its surroundings.
SHAPE CONSTANCY: It
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ILLUSIONS
Illusions are compelling but incorrect
perceptions. Most visual illusions
can be attributed to
perceptual constancies that ordinarily
help us perceive more accurately
(Frisby, 1980).
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HERING'SOPTICAL ILLUSIONS:
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POGGENDORF'S OPTICAL joins with the lower of the pair, not the
ILLUSIONS: The single line if continued top.
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MÜNSTERBERG ILLUSION
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Some of the perceptual styles proposed Adjustments Perceptual Style see the
by researchers are: world as an objective reality that can
be known if they take the time to
ACTIVITY: People with the Activity
gather complete information about its
Perceptual Style jump into life with
intricacies and complexities. They
both feet. They fully engage with the
pursue the acquisition and application
confidence that the details will sort
of knowledge as the basis for their life
themselves out. Direction, ideas, and
experience. They enjoy sharing their
pursuits emerge as the result of
knowledge with others and gathering
constant action and involvement with
new information from research or
others and their surroundings. They
conversation. They have a strong
engage until some new possibility or
sense of diplomacy and project a calm
interest emerges to capture their
certainty.
attention. They cultivate extensive
networks of friends and associates. FLOW: People with the Flow
ADJUSTMENTS: People with the Perceptual Style are instinctive
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ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
ON PERCEPTION
Has been proposed by Gibson.
According to him, the concept of the
world can be analyzed at different
levels. Gibson is mainly concerned
with the world at the level of
ecology, in which animal and
environment form an integrated
system of mutual constraint. To draw
this distinction, Gibson offers a
structural analysis of the
environment. This amounts to an
explanatory scheme based on
principles of self-organization. This
analysis leads Gibson to formulate
the concepts of the meaningful
environment and the perceiver-
environment coupling he calls
reciprocity.
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LEARNING:
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practice and weakened when practice is actively works to maintain a certain state
discontinued. of balance or equilibrium. In his theory,
Hull used the term drive to refer to the
The more a stimulus-induced response is
state of tension or arousal caused by
repeated the longer it will be retained. The
biological or physiological needs. Thirst,
more often the cat is put in the puzzle box
hunger, and the need for warmth are all
to make the connection between lever and
examples of drives. A drive creates an
gate opening, the longer this behaviour
unpleasant state, a tension that needs to be
will be retained. However, if the cat was
reduced.
only put in the puzzle box once every
other week, the learning it had gained In order to reduce this state of tension,
would quickly recede. That is, the number humans and animals seek out ways to
of tries and the amount of time it took to fulfill these biological needs. We get a
press the level would increase. drink when we are thirsty. We eat when
we are hungry. We turn up the thermostat
LAW OF READINESS
when we are cold. He suggested that
humans and animals will then repeat any
Law of readiness states that in situations
behaviour that reduces thesedrives.
when an individual is ready to act, it is
reinforcing for them to do so and The reduction of the drive acts as a
annoying for them not to do so. On the reinforcement for that behaviour. This
other hand, when a human is not ready to reinforcement increases the likelihood that
act, forcing them to do so is annoying. the same behaviour will occur again in the
future when the same need arises. In order
HULL’S DRIVE REDUCTION to survive in its environment, an organism
THEORY OF MOTIVATION: must behave in ways that meet these
survival needs. In a stimulus-response (S-
In his theory, Hull tried to explain relationship, when the stimulus and
behaviour and learning through the means response are followed by a reduction in
of drive reduction. He proposed that the need, it increases the likelihood of that
learned connections existed directly behaviour occurring again.
between the neural impulses from
activated sensory receptors and certain GUTHRIE’S CONTIGUITY
muscular reactions- the term Hull used THEORY:
was ‘receptor-effector connections.’
Guthrie suggested that contiguity (i.e.
Hull adopted the term ‘reinforcement’ in the sequential occurrence or proximity
his theory for an event which strengthened of stimulus and response, causing their
stimulus- response connections, and thus association in the mind) alone, without
Thorndike’s Law of Effect became the reward, was sufficient for learning.
Law of Primary Reinforcement. For instance, hanging up the hat and
coat must be associated with coming
Hull based his theory on the concept of in the door (contiguous in time and
homeostasis, the idea that the body space).
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT:
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Orthographic- refers to letters or
Primary visualarea charactersprocessing
Superior temporallobe Phonological- phonemes orsyllables
Broca’s area in the frontal lobeand
medial temporal lobe Semantic- meanings
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Educational implications for teaching and learning vary depending on the level of brain development.
Factors influencing brain development are illustrated below.
At birth, the human brain has over a million connections which represent about 60% of the peak
number of synapses that will develop over a lifetime. Brain connections that are not used or needed
disappear.
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KEY HIGHLIGHTS INCLUDE:
2 years old- a child will have as many synapses reasoning and problem solving mature and the
as anadult parietal lobes increase in size. The prefrontal
3 years old- a child will have billions more than cortex which controls judgments and impulses
anadult matures slowly. There are also changes in
5yearsold a child’s brain neurotransmitters especially dopamine that can
has acquired a language leave the brain more sensitive to the effects of
and developed drugs and alcohol. There is a thickening of the
sensorymotorskills and brain cells and massive reorganization of
other competencies. synapses which makes it a key time forlearning.
Teenage years- major structural changes occur
in the brain. The frontal lobes which handle
TypeofBrain
Why it is important
Development
Systems associated with vision, hearing and motor movements develop
Sensorymotor
extensively through experiences during the first 2 years oflife.
development
By age 6 months children can distinguish between most sounds in their
environment. In the first two years children’s auditory systems mature
in terms of range of sounds heard and ability to discriminate among
Auditory
sounds. Problems in auditory development can lead to problems
development
Learninglanguage
as it is dependent on hearing the speech of others.
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Vision Develops in the first year of life especially after 4 months. Proper visual
development requires a visually rich environment where infants can
explore objects and movements.
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Automatic processing on the other hand, refers & Mendez, 2001).According to the concept of
to encoding that occurs without intention and levels of processing, the more deeply we process
requires minimal attention. Information about information, the better we will remember it
the frequency, spatial location, and sequence of (Craik & Lockhart,1972).
events is often encoded automatically (Jimenez
Rehearsal goes beyond mere exposure. When The techniques actors use are examples of
we rehearse information, we are thinking about elaborative rehearsal, which involves
it. This rehearsal can be of varied types: One focusing on the meaning of information or
approach, called maintenance rehearsal, expanding (i.e., elaborating) on it in some way.
involves simple, rote repetition, and some According to Craik and Lockhart (1972),
students rely on it to learn their course material. elaborative rehearsal involves deeper
Maintenance rehearsal keeps information active processing than maintenance rehearsal, and
in working memory, as when someone tells us a experiments show that it is more effective in
phone number and we repeat it to ourselves as transferring information into long-term
we place the call. memory (Benjamin & Bjork, 2000).
DUAL CODING THEORY: that at least one of the codes will be available
later to support recall. Memory experts
Allan Paivio(1969, 2006) has proposed that recommend using imagery to dual-code
information is stored in long-term memory in information. The ancient Greeks developed the
two forms: verbal codes and visual codes. method of loci (loci are Latin for “places”), a
According to his dual coding theory, encoding memory aid that associates information with
information using both verbal and visual codes mental images of physicallocations.
enhances memory because the odds improve
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In neural network (connectionist) models, other nodes. In this manner, certain nodes
each memory is represented by a unique pattern prime other nodes, and concepts and
of interconnected and simultaneously activated information are retrieved. For this reason,
nodes. neural network (connectionist) models are
often called parallel distributed processing
As we look across the entire neural network, (PDP) models (Rumelhart et al., 1986).
various nodes distributed throughout the
network fire in parallel at each instant and
simultaneously spread their activation to
RETRIEVAL refers to processes that access that make up the stories of our lives (Schaefer
stored information form the long term memory. &Philippot, 2005). When people are asked to
A retrieval cue is a stimulus, whether internal record their unique daily experiences in a diary
or external, that activates information stored in and rate the emotional pleasantness and intensity
long-term memory. Distinctive events stand a of each event (e.g., say, on a 7-point scale
greater chance of etching long-term memories ranging from “extremely unpleasant” to
that seem vivid and clear. “extremely pleasant”), it typically is the more
intense events that they recall most vividly when
EMOTION AND AROUSAL: tested days, months, or yearslater.
Researchers have found that emotional arousal
enhances autobiographical memories,
recollections of personally experienced events
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Short-term memory can hold only a limited subsystems can be integrated, manipulated,
amount of information at a time. The limit on and made available for conscious awareness.
short-term storage capacity concerns the The episodic buffer also comes into play
number of meaningful units that can be when you chunk information.
recalled, and the 20 letters have been
The fourth component of working memory,
combined into 6 meaningful units (words). called the central executive, directs the overall
Combining individual items into larger units of action.
meaning is called chunking, which aids recall. When solving arithmetic problems, for
example, the central executive doesn’t store
Working memory is a limited-capacity the numbers or rules of addition. Instead, it
system that temporarily stores and plans and controls the sequence of actions that
processes information (Baddeley, need to be performed, divides and allocates
2007).Has primarily three components: attention to the other subsystems, and
integrates information within the episodic
One component, the phonological loop, buffer. It also may monitor the progress as
briefly stores mental representations of interim steps are completed (DeStefano &
sounds. The phonological loop is active when LeFevre,2004).
you listen to a spoken word or when you
sound out a word to yourself as youread. A LONG-TERM MEMORY: Long-term
second component, the visuospatial memory is our vast library of more durable
sketchpad, briefly stores visual and spatial stored memories. It can store limitless
information, as occurs when you form a information and it becomes easier to add
mental image of someone’s face or of the new information - encoding based on
spatial layout of yourbedroom. A third meaning. Forming and using long-term
component, called the episodic buffer memories is an active, creative, highly
provides a temporary storage space where personalprocess
information from long-term memory and
from the phonological and/or visuospatial
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Fig: Types of Long- Term Memory (Source: semantic memories are called declarative
Queensland Brain Institute) because to demonstrate our knowledge, we
it: We tell other
typically have to declare
people what weknow.
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY:
Procedural (non-declarative) memory is
DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL reflected in skills and actions (Cohen et al.,
MEMORY 2005). One component of procedural memory
consists of skills that are expressed by doing
Declarative memory involves factual knowledge things in particular situations, such as typing
Includes two sub-categories.
or riding a bicycle.
Episodic memory is our store of knowledge Explicit memory involves conscious or
concerning personal experiences: when, intentional memory retrieval, as when
where, and what happened in the episodes of you consciously recognize or recall
our lives. Your recollections of childhood
a favourite movie, and what you something. Recognition requires us to
friends, ate
this morning represent episodicmemories. decide whether a stimulus is familiar,
Semantic memory represents general factual
knowledge about the world and language, Implicit memory occurs when memory
including memory for words and concepts. influences our behavior without conscious
You know that Mount Everest is the world’s awareness.
tallest peak and that e=mc2. Episodic and
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Fig: Various types of memory (Source: Peak Decay theory proposed that with time and
performance center)
disuse the long-term physical memory trace
in the nervous system fades away. Decay
MEASUREMENT OF MEMORY theory soon fell into disfavor because
scientists could not locate physical memory
TIP OF TONGUE: Feeling that memory is
available but notretrievable traces nor measure physical decay.
Unfortunately, decay theory’s prediction— the
RECALL:Tosupplyorreproducememorizedinfor
longer the time interval of disuse between
mationwithaminimumofexternal cues.
learning and recall, the less should be
RECOGNITION: An ability to correctly identify recalled— has been found to be problematic.
previously learnedinformation Some professional actors display perfect
memory for words they had last spoken on
RELEARNING: Learning again something stage 2 years earlier—this despite having
that was previously learned. Used to measure moved on to new acting roles and scripts
memory of prior learning – measured by (Noice&Noice, 2002). Moreover, when
saving score (amount of time saved in
research participants learn a list of words or a
relearning).
set of visual patterns and are retested at two
PRIMING: Facilitating the retrieval of an different times, they sometimes recall material
implicit memory by using cues to activate during the second testing that they could not
hiddenmemories
CONSOLIDATION. : Process by remember during the first. This phenomenon,
which relatively permanent memoriesconsolidatre called reminiscence, seems inconsistent with
damagedfornewmemories)inbraindevelo.Hipspoc the concept that a memory trace decays over
anterogradempusactsas switchingamnesia
time (Greene,1992).
station(inabilityb/w STMto & LTM.
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE
FORGETTING:
According to interference theory, we forget
THEORIES OF FORGETTING:
information because other items in long-term
memory impair our ability to retrieve it
ENCODING FAILURE
Many memory failures result not from forgetting (Postman & Underwood, 1973; Feredoes et
information that we once knew, but from failing al., 2006)
to encode the information into long-term memory
in the first place. Even when we notice – Proactive interference occurs when material
information, we may fail to encode it deeply learned in the past interferes with recall of
because we turn our attention to somethingelse.
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CONTENTS
Concept formation: Rules, Types, and Strategies; Role of concepts in thinking Types of
Intelligence: Spearman; Thurstone; Jensen; Cattell; Gardner; Stenberg; Goleman; Das, Kar & Parrila
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THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
ASSOCIATIONISM GESTALT
Our mental processing is based on our The term “Gestalt,” comes from a German
senses, conceptions and perceptions.
These elements are stored as varied word that roughly means pattern or form. The
associations that help us relate and main tenet of the Gestalt theory is that the
understand new things generally through whole is greater than the sum of its parts;
what we have already experienced, or
learning is more than just invoking mechanical
gained knowledge about, through other
mediums. Aristotle (350 B.C.E) the responses from learners. As with other learning
Greek scientist, who studied in Plato's theories, the Gestalt theory has laws of
academy in Athens, came up with four
organization by which it must function. These
laws of associationism
organizational laws already exist in the make-
Law of Similarity: When we are
up of the human mind and how perceptions are
reminded of, or recall one thing from the
past experiences, similar instances will structured. Gestalt theorists propose that the
also be recalled. experiences and perceptions of learners have a
Law of Contrast: When we are significant impact on the way that they learn.
reminded of, or recall things from the One aspect of Gestalt is phenomenology,
past experiences, instances exactly which is the study of how people organize
opposite to them, will also be recalled.
learning by looking at their lived experiences
Law of Contiguity: When we are and consciousness. Learning happens best
reminded of, or recall things from the
past experiences, we also recall actions when the instruction is related to their real life
or other associations with that object experiences. The human brain has the ability to
that were originally experienced along make a map of the stimuli caused by these life
with that entity.
experiences. This process of mapping is called
Law of Frequency: If a series of events “isomorphism.”
keep occurring frequently, the
probability of recalling similar
associated instances will increase.
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Whenever the brain sees only part of a Just as the computer has an input device,
picture, the brain automatically attempts a processing unit, a storage unit, and an
to create a complete picture. This is the output device, so does the human mind
first organizational law, called the have equivalent structures.
“factor of closure,” and it does not only
apply to images, but it also applies to In a computer, information is entered by
thoughts, feelings and sounds. means of input devices like a keyboard
or scanner. In the human mind, the input
Based upon Gestalt theory, the human device is called the Sensory Register,
brain maps elements of learning that are composed of sensory organs like the
presented close to each other as a whole,
eyes and the ears through which we
instead of separate parts. This
organizational law is called the “factor receive information about our
of proximity,” and is usually seen in surroundings.
learning areas such as reading and
music, where letters and words or As information is received by a
musical notes make no sense when computer, it is processed in the Central
standing alone, but become a whole Processing Unit, which is equivalent to
story or song when mapped together by the Working Memory or Short-Term
the human brain. Memory. In the human mind, this is
INFORMATION PROCESSING where information is temporarily held so
that it may be used, discarded, or
The Information Processing Model is a transferred into long-term memory.
framework used by cognitive
psychologists to explain and describe In a computer, information is stored in a
mental processes. The model likens the hard disk, which is equivalent to the
thinking process to how a computer long-term memory. This is where we
works. keep information that is not currently
being used. Information stored in the
Just like a computer, the human mind Long-Term Memory may be kept for an
takes in information, organizes and indefinite period of time.
stores it to be retrieved at a later time.
When a computer processes information,
it displays the results by means of an
output device like a computer screen or
a printout. In humans, the result of
information processing is exhibited
through behaviour or actions - a facial
expression, a reply to a question, or
body movement.
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REASONING
Reasoning is the process of drawing
conclusions from principles and from
information. In reasoning, we move
from what is already known to infer a
new conclusion or to evaluate a
proposed conclusion. Reasoning is often
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SYLLOGISTIC REASONING:
we never can reach a logically certain
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS conclusion. We only can reach a
In addition to conditional reasoning, the particularly well-founded or probable
other key type of deductive reasoning is conclusion.
syllogistic reasoning, which is based on
the use of syllogisms. Syllogisms are
deductive arguments that involve LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
drawing conclusions from two
premises (Maxwell, 2005; Rips, 1994,
1999). All syllogisms comprise a major JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF
premise, a minor premise, and a RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
conclusion. In the case of the categorical LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
syllogism, the premises state something
about the category memberships of the
terms. Jean Piaget’s theory claims that “Thought
determines Language”.
He says that because a child has
An example of a categorical syllogism would be
some thought, they learn the
as follows:
language. Imitating other’s is a
P1: All cognitive psychologists are pianists.
proof that a child is thinking.
P2: All pianists are athletes.
Thinking is the basic need and
C: Therefore, all cognitive psychologists are necessity to learn a language.
athletes.
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PROBLEM SOLVING
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TYPES OF PROBLEMS
structured problems (Greeno, 1974;
Problems can be categorized according
Simon & Reed, 1976; Thomas, 1974).
to whether they have clear paths to a
These errors are:
solution (Davidson & Sternberg, 1984).
(1) Inadvertently moving backward:
Well-structured problems have clear
They revert to a state that is further from
paths to solutions. These problems also
the end goal, for instance, moving all of
are termed well-defined problems. An
the “orcs” and “hobbits” back to the
example would be, “How do you find
first side of the river.
the area of a parallelogram?”
(2) Making illegal moves: They make an
Ill-structured problems lack clear
illegal move—that is, a move that is not
paths to solutions (Shin et al., 2003).
permitted according to the terms of the
These problems are also termed ill-
problem. For example, a move that
defined problems. An example is shown
resulted in having more than two
in Figure 11.1: “How do you tie together
individuals in the boat would be illegal.
two suspended strings, when neither
string is long enough to allow you to (3) Not realizing the nature of the next
reach the other string while holding legal move: They become “stuck”—
they do not know what to do next, given
either of the strings?” the current stage of the problem. An
example would be realizing that you
must bring one “orc” or “hobbit” back
People seem to make three main kinds across the river to its starting point
of ERRORS when trying to solve well- before you can move any of the
remaining characters.
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A problem space is the universe of all solving a problem, given any constraints
possible actions that can be applied to that apply to the solution of the problem.
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context, or a procedure for problem That is, sometimes the transfer of a mental set
solving. Another term for mental set is can be an aid to problem solving.
entrenchment. When problem solvers
have an entrenched mental set, they
TRANSFER OF ANALOGIES
fixate on a strategy that normally works
well in solving many problems but that
They found that when the domains or the
does not work well in solving this
contexts for the two problems were more
particular problem.
similar, participants were more likely to
see and apply the analogy (see Holyoak,
Another type of mental set involves
1990). Perhaps the most crucial aspect of
fixation on a particular use (function)
these studies is that people have trouble
for an object. Specifically, functional
noticing analogies unless they explicitly
fixedness is the inability to realize that
are told to look for them. Positive
something known to have a particular
transfer from solved examples to
use may also be used for performing
unsolved problems was more likely
other functions (German & Barrett,
among students who specifically tried to
2005; Rakoczy et al., 2009). Functional
understand why particular examples
fixedness prevents us from solving new
were solved as they were, as compared
problems by using old tools in novel
with students who sought only to
ways
understand how particular problems
were solved as they were (Chi et al.,
Another type of mental set is considered
1989). Based on these findings, we
an aspect of social cognition.
generally need to be looking for
Stereotypes are beliefs that members of analogies to find them.The opposite
a social group tend more or less phenomenon is transparency, in which
uniformly to have particular types of people see analogies where they do not
characteristics. We observe a particular exist because of similarity of content. In
instance or set of instances of some making analogies, we need to be sure we
pattern. We then may overgeneralize are focusing on the relationships
from those limited observations. We between the two terms being compared,
may assume that all future instances not just their surface content attributes.
similarly will demonstrate that pattern.
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problem solvers to report aloud what Often, novices use means–ends analysis
they are thinking as they are attempting (see Hunt, 1994). Thus, novices often
to solve various problems (Bilalic, 2008; consider more possible strategies than
Dew et al., 2009). Statements made by experts consider (see Holyoak, 1990).
problem solvers are called verbal
protocols. An interesting effect of
AUTOMATIC EXPERT PROCESSES
verbal protocols is that they can lead to
increased problem-solving ability. Through practice in applying strategies,
experts may automatize various
In another study, problem- solving
operations. They can retrieve and
ability was enhanced when participants
execute these operations easily while
wrote a description of their problem-
working forward (see VanLehn, 1989).
solving strategy as compared with when
They use two important processes: One
they spoke about their strategy (Pugalee, is schematization, which involves
2004). Thus, it seems that, for novice developing rich, highly organized
problem solvers, communicating schemas; the other is automatization,
problem-solving strategies improves which involves consolidating sequences
performance. of steps into unified routines that require
little or no conscious control.
Another difference between expert and
novice problem solvers is the time spent Automaticity can be seen in
on various aspects of problems, and the mathematics, for example, where low-
relationship between problem-solving
level skills, such as counting and adding,
strategies and the solutions reached.
become automatic (Tronsky, 2005).
Experts appear to spend
These skills reduce the working-memory
proportionately more time load and allow for higher-level
determining how to represent a mathematical procedures to be complete.
problem than do novices (Lesgold,
1988; Lesgold et al., 1988), but they
spend much less time than do novices
actually implementing the strategy for
solution.
Experts also involve more procedural
knowledge about strategies relevant to
that domain. Perhaps because of their
better grasp of the strategies required,
experts more accurately predict the
difficulty of solving problems than do
novices. Experts also monitor their
problem-solving strategies more
carefully than do novices (Schoenfeld,
1981).
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DECISION MAKING
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INTELLIGENCE
THEORIES
Galton- father of individual differences -
Binet – father of iq testing -
William stern – IQ formula -
Terman – Stanford binet revision -
Yerkes – group testing -
Spearman – 2 factor theory
Weschler – wis, wisc, wais
Thurstone – group factor theory, primary mental abilities
Cattell – fluid & crystallised intelligence
Guilford – si model
Vernon & carroll – hierarchical approach
Vernon –
levels o Burt
model
o Carroll – 3 stratum model
Gardner – multiple intelligences
Sternberg – triarchic theory
Hebb’s theory
Zajonc’s theory of confluence -
Thomson’s model – sampling theory
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THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. FACULTY THEORY
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THURSTONE MULTIPLE-FACTOR
THEORY(GROUP FACTOR THEORY)
Guilford (1967, 1985, 1988)
This theory states that Intelligent Based on these factors Thurstone
Activities are not an expression of constructed a new test of intelligence
innumerable highly specific factors, as known as ‘‘Test of Primary Mental
Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the Abilities (PMA).’’ proposed a
expression primarily of a general factor three-dimensional structure of
that pervades all mental activities. It is intellect model. According to
the essence of intelligence, as Spearman Guilford every intellectual task
held. Instead, the analysis can be classified according to
it’s
GUILFORD’S MODEL OF
STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
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Firstborns do not have to share their also gels with the finding that
parents' attention, so they benefit from children in larger families have
their parents' complete absorption in the lower IQ scores.
new responsibility. Laterborn children As more children enter the
never experience this advantage. family, the general intellectual
Moreover, additional siblings environment becomes less
automatically limit the amount of mature. This would explain why
attention any of the siblings get-and this firstborns and older children
includes the firstborn. This would from large families have lower
explain the Belmont and Marolla (1973) IQs than firstborns and older
finding that firstborns from smaller children from smaller families.
families have higher IQs than firstborns
Firstborns (and older siblings in
from larger families.
general) often have to answer
Firstborn children are exposed to more
questions and explain things to
adult language. Laterborns are exposed
their younger siblings. It is
to the less mature speech of their
siblings. This may affect their believed that the act of tutoring
performance on the verbal scales of helps the older children to
intelligence tests. Moreover, the cognitively process information.
linguistic environment becomes Further, teaching others may
increasingly less mature as more improve their verbal abilities.
children enter the family. This Except in very rare cases,
youngest siblings do not get the
opportunity to tutor their
brothers and sisters. This is the
reason why only children do not
tend to have higher IQs than
firstborns.
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CREATIVITY
Contents
Definitions of creativity
The four p’s of creativity
o Person o Process
o Product
o Place
Schools of creativity
Stages of creativity
Theories of creativity o
Torrance,
o Getzels & Jackson,
o Guilford,
o Wallach & Kogan
Creativity and intelligence o
Investment theory o
Certification hypothesis
o Threshold theory
Associative theory
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STAGES OF CREATIVITY
idea, or relationship emerges. In other
The history of research on stages of
words, the subject attempts to
creativity began with Graham Wallas
reformulate his/her ideas or to formulate
(1926) who suggested that creative new ones. The subject is more active
thinking follows four successive steps: and more conscious work is needed in
this stage. In the stage of illumination
Stage of preparation: The subject begins the thinker experiences insight into the
to gather information about the problem problem when a new solution, idea, or
to be solved and attempts some relationship emerges. Thus, he/she
solutions. This stage is characterised by attempts to reformulate his/her ideas or
a state of trial -and-error in learning.
to formulate new ones.
Therefore, the subject is advised to learn
as much as possible about the problem Stage of verification: Finally, the subject
area. In preparation the thinker begins tries and checks the solution. In this
recalling personal experiences and stage some modification may also occur
investigating in all different directions to
to ideas reached in the previous stages.
gather information about the problem to
In the stage of verification the thinker
be solved. The object of defining the
tests, tries and checks the solution he/she
focus question of interest is to list all
concepts associated with the focus created. Since this stage is the final one,
question. Since the goal from this the thinker may well make some
procedure is to generate the largest modification to his/her ideas which
possible list, the thinker should not he/she reached in the previous stages. In
worry about redundancy, relative this stage thinker should rework the
importance, or relationships at this point. structure of his/her map to
represent his/her collective
Stage of incubation: In the second stage understanding of the interrelationships
the solution exists but is not clear. The and connections among groupings,
subject must not intentionally work on which may include adding, subtracting,
the problem. Instead it is allowed to sink or changing super-ordinate concepts,
into the unconscious. In this stage the thus, he/she may need to review his/her
solution exists but is not clear. concept map as he/she gains new
Therefore, the thinker must not knowledge or new insights.
intentionally work on the problem.
Instead, he/she should be allowed to sink In some situations, the above stages may
into the unconscious and the thinker is appear in a different order, or combined
advised to relax and reflect on his/her into two or three stages. They also do
focus question which might lead him/her not occur regularly. For example,
to modification of the focus question. sometimes the subject’s knowledge of
the problem area allows him/her to pass
Stage of illumination: In the third stage
over the first stage (preparation) and
the subject suddenly experiences insight
move on to the next stage (incubation) or
into the problem when a new solution,
even to the third stage.
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Originality.
Elaboration.
In longitudinal studies (1958-2000),
Torrance found that students identified
as creatively gifted but not intellectually
gifted (IQ of 130+), out achieved the
intellectually in adulthood. He found that
characteristics of the creative thinking
abilities differ from those of the abilities
involved in intelligence and logical
reasoning. Torrance’s research has
demonstrated that a variety of techniques
for training in creative problem solving
produce significant creative growth
without Manifesto for Children
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special group only contrasting and
GUILFORD’S MODEL OF
extreme minorities were studied in
CREATIVITY
detail, and the majority of the Guilford (1986) considered creative
children whose performance was thinking as involving divergent thinking,
not so fully described were neither which emphasises fluency, flexibility,
exceptionally 'creative' nor originality, and elaboration. Guilford,
exceptionally 'intelligent but scored however, noted that creative thinking is
more or less equally on both sets of not the same as divergent thinking,
tests. because creativity requires sensitivity to
problems as well as redefinition
abilities, which include transformations
of thought, reinterpretations, and
freedom from functional fixedness in
driving unique solutions. In order to
develop Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking (TTCT) and in its further
revisions, Torrance
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extraordinary abilityinvestmenttoinvest
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CONTENTS
Approaches to the study of personality: Psychoanalytical, Neo-Freudian, Social learning, Trait and
Type, Cognitive, Humanistic, Existential, Transpersonal psychology.
Other theories: Rotter's Locus of Control, Seligman's Explanatory styles, Kohlberg’s theory of
Moral development.
Basic motivational concepts: Instincts, Needs, Drives, Arousal, Incentives, Motivational Cycle.
Approaches to the study of motivation: Psychoanalytical, Ethological, S-R Cognitive, Humanistic
Motivational Competence
Self-regulation
Flow
Stress and Coping: Concept, Models, Type A, B, C, D behaviors, Stress management strategies
[Biofeedback, Music therapy, Breathing exercises, Progressive Muscular Relaxation, Guided Imagery,
Mindfulness, Meditation, Yogasana, Stress Inoculation Training].
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PERSONALITY,
Chapter MOTIVATION,
EMOTION, STRESS
7 AND COPING
PERSONALITY
Personality is a concept to be used to Personality is : ...a person’s unique pattern of
traits (Guilford, 1959, p.5) ...the most adequate
recognize stability and consistency of
conceptualization of a person’s behavior in all its
behaviour across different situations,
detail.” (Mcclelland, 1951, p. 69). - 10 –
uniqueness of the person and
individual differences. There are “Personality consists of the distinctive
controversies among psychologists to patterns of behavior including thoughts
define personality. Among the and emotions that characterize each
numerous definitions of personality, the individual’s adaption to the situations of
most commonly accepted definition is his or her life” - Walter Mischel (1976)
given by Allport (1937). The word
personality has been derived from the “Personality is the sum of activities that
can be discovered by actual observations
Latin word ‘Persona.’ At first this word
over a long enough period of time to
was used for the mask worn by the give reliable information.” - Watson
actors (Roman and Greek) in ancient
times, - 8 - to indicate to the audiences “Personality refers to deeply ingrained
whether they played the villain’s or the patterns of behavior, which include the
hero’s role in a drama. Thus the mask way one relates to, perceives and thinks
gave the actor his characteristic features. about the environment and one self.” -
American Psychiatric Association-
1987
DEFINITIONS
“An individual’s pattern of
He defines personality as; “Personality psychological processes arising from
is the dynamic organization within the motives, feelings, thoughts, and other
individual of those psychophysical major psychological function.
system that determine his unique Personality is expressed through its
adjustment to the environment.” influences on the body, in conscious
(Allport-1947) Later on, Allport (1965) mental life, through the individual’s
revised his definition of personality. The social behavior.” - Mayer, 2005
revised definition of personality is
‘personality is a dynamic organization “Personality refers to individuals’
within the individual of those characteristic patterns of thought,
psychophysical systems that determine emotion and behavior together with the
his characteristic behaviour and psychological mechanisms hidden or
thought.” (Allport-1965) not-behind those patterns this definition
means that among their colleagues in
other subfields of psychology, those
psychologists who study personality
have a unique mandate: to explain whole
persons.” - Funder, D. C., 1997
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“The more or less stable and enduring have an impact on the total personality
organization of a person’s character, of an individual.
temperament, Intellect, and physique
that determines his unique adjustment to The thyroid gland secretes a hormone
his environment.” - H. called thyroxin, and the main function of
this hormone is regulation of body
Eysenck metabolism. If the thyroid gland is under
“That which permits a prediction of what a person active, the result is usually mental
will do in a given situation.” - R. B. Cattell dullness, inactivity, depression, fatigue
and poor appetite. Hyper secretion of
these glands leads to extreme over
activity.
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Factors Influencing Personality The The parathyroid gland regulates calcium
factors affecting personality can be metabolism excitability of the nervous
divided into - two classes - biological system is directly dependent on the
and environmental. amount of calcium in the blood. Deficient
working of this gland leads to the
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS development of an irritable, quick
The biological factors affecting the reactive, distracted, nervous and a tense
development of personality are heredity,
person.Similarly other glands like
endocrine glands, physique and
nervous system. pituitary, the adrenal and the gonads
have their tremendous impact on various
Heredity: The principal raw materials of personality traits.
personality - physique, intelligence and
temperament are the result of heredity. Nervous System : Entire behavior is
How they will develop will depend on effectively managed and controlled by
environmental influences. Many aspects the coordination and functioning of the
of human behavior and development nervous system. How we will behave in
ranging from physical characteristics a particular situation depends upon the
such as height, weight, eye and skin judgment of our brain. The sense
color, hair, the complex patterns of impressions, which are received through
sense organs, do not bear any
social and intellectual behavior, are
significance unless they are given a
influenced by a person’s genetic
meaning by the nervous system.
endowment.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Endocrine Glands
The secretions of endocrine glands Family : Among environmental factors,
affect physical growth, emotional the most important is the family
growth and mental growth. environment. The reaction of the family
environment towards an individual, and
the role of parents, are very These will
important in the molding of personality,
parents serve as a model whom the child
imitates, and their influence is
considerable on the child. Parents
influence the development of child’s
personality in a wide variety of ways.
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On the whole friendly and tolerant School : The children spend much of
fathers help their children to have their time in the schools and hence it can
greater emotional stability, self-esteem play a very significant part in the
And self-confidence. Domineering and formation of the personality of the child.
rigid fathers will only foster the
development of submissive and Teacher : A teacher is the most
frightened, dependent children. important person in the school who can
Over protective mothers will influence help in modifying the children’s
their children in the direction of personalities. He or she is the most
dependence and a total disregard for powerful source of stimulation for the
others. Nagging mothers will cause child. If he/she possess desirable
their children to be shy, submissive and personal and - 15 - social modes or
emotionally unstable. reactions he/she will inculcate them
Besides the role of the parents, the among his/her student or the other hand,
atmosphere in the family is greatly effects of prejudicial treatment on the
influencing. A peaceful and loving part of teachers can make the child
atmosphere results in children being lose self-confidence and develop low
orderly, peace-loving and very self-esteem.
affectionate. Without undue strain they
develop nature and pleasant personalities. Peer Group : From their peers children
In a family where there is learn many forms of behavior, some
tension, anxiety, constant quarrels and socially appropriate and others socially
incompatibility among parents, the undesirable. For example, by striving to
child is likely to develop strong feelings be accepted and like by their peers,
of insecurity and inferiority. they gain new insights into the
Birth Order : This is another familial meaning of friendship. Through give
factor that can have an important and take with friends, they learn the
influence on the personality importance of sharing, reciprocity
development. All children has a unique and cooperation. By trying to get peers
position in the family, such as the eldest, to understand their thoughts and
youngest, second or third. This position feelings, they learn to communicate
has a definite influence on personality. more effectively. Within the friend’s
The eldest child is very often group, child also learn sex-role norms. In
overburdened with responsibility, general, boys become rougher,
hence, he or she grows up to be very boisterous, more compulsive, and from
independent, while the youngest being larger groups, while girls tend to form
the baby of the family is petted and more intimate and exclusive groups.
spoilt. The common view of an only Feelings of
child would be that he or she will be
pampered and spoilt.
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Introduction
Mass Media : Mass media includes
films, television, radio, printed It revolutionized the concept of
literature, etc. Mass media has a treatment for psychological disturbances
considerable impact on attitudes, values, by proposing a method of psychological
beliefs and behavior patterns. Baron treatment based on psychological
and Bryne (1986) have shown that concepts such as understanding of the
individuals, especially child, imitate unconscious, instincts, free association,
specific aggressive acts of models. dream interpretation, and so on. The
history of modern psychotherapy in fact
They have proposed that human
begins with the work of Sigmund Freud.
personality formation is a result of
Third, psychoanalysis is both a theory of
modeling and imitating the behavior of personality as well as a system of
significant others. Many abnormal forms psychotherapy. As a theory of
of behavior can be learned by imitating personality, it aims at providing
models from the mass media. explanations of human behavior and
experience by revealing the underlying
Culture : Culture influences mental forces. As a system of
personality because every culture has a psychotherapy its basic goal is to bring
set of ethical and moral values, beliefs to consciousness the unconscious
and norms which considerably shapes impulses causing neurotic conflict and
behavior. Cross-cultural studies have thereby help the person gain greater self-
pointed out the importance of cultural knowledge and self-control.
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Behavior is almost always the product of an The superego is the moral arm of the
interaction between these three systems. personality – it represents the ideal
rather than the real and strives for
The id consists of all aspects that are perfection rather than pleasure. The
physiological in nature and inherited – superego is our conscience and develops
aspects that are present at birth. It is the as a result of the rewards and
reservoir of psychic energy and punishments given by parents. Whatever
functions to reduce tension. Its sole is taught as improper is incorporated
purpose is to obtain pleasure, and into the conscience and what is
operates on the pleasure principle. The approved of is incorporated into the ego
id functions by two processes: the ideal through introjection. This is the
primary process, present in the process by which parental and societal
unconscious, which seeks to alleviate values are internalized by the individual.
tension immediately and the pleasure The superego functions unconsciously to
principle that makes the organism seek a large extent, and with its formation,
immediate satisfaction of instinctual
needs. Self-control takes over from parental control.
The main functions of the superego can be summed
The ego evolves out of the id as the up as:
child develops. The ego operates on the to inhibit sexual or aggressive impulses of
reality principle through the secondary the id, as the expression of these impulses
process that develops at the conscious is
level of thinking. The reality principle condemned by society,
ensures that pleasure is obtained in to persuade the ego
accordance with the demands of reality. to substitute
The ego is said to be the executive of moralistic goals for
the personality as it decides what needs realistic ones, and,
should be satisfied and to what extent. to strive for
The ego also functions to protect the perfection.
self by employing appropriate Défense
the ego, and function as a whole. The
mechanisms. id may be thought of as the
biological component of personality,
the ego as the psychological and the
superego as the social component.
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LIFE INSTINCTS
Hunger, thirst and sex are life instincts
as they serve the purpose of individual
survival. The energy of life instincts is
called libido. Life instinct refers to the
tendency of particles to unite, as in
sexual reproduction.
DEATH INSTINCTS
Freud stated that “the goal of all life is
death”, and defined Thanatos as the
tendency of organisms and their cells to
return to an inanimate state. An example
of the death instinct is the aggressive
drive. Aggressiveness is self-destruction
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TYPE THEORIES
Sheldon set out with the intention of
establishing a relationship between body
SHELDON’S SOMATOTYPE THEORY type and psychological or
The type approach has mainly temperamental types. The human body
evolved out of the medical sciences. consists of three layers, the ectoderm,
It makes the following assumptions. the mesoderm and the endoderm.
a. People can be classified into a
few categories or types According to him an ectomorphic
depending on their behaviour individual tends to be cerebrotonic in
patterns. temperament. Cerebrotonics are
characterized
b. These types or categories are qualitatively by greater nervous and
different from each other. cerebral activities and
c. The behavioural variations among the are given to activities like thinking,
different types are stable, describable and reading, etc, The endomorphic physique
even was associated with a viscerotonic
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disorders”, hence the name of the Instead, they are highly alert and learn
dimension. But it does not mean that well, and so remember everything that
people who score high on the happened. They might even report that
neuroticism scale are necessarily they saw the whole crash “in slow
suffering from neurotic disorders, but it motion!” They are very unlikely to want to
only shows that such persons are drive anytime soon after the crash, and
relatively more susceptible to develop may even stop driving altogether.
neurotic problems as compared to the Neuroticism and extraversion-introversion
normal persons. Another thing Eysenck looked into was
the interaction of the two dimensions and
Extraversion-introversion: His second what that might mean in regard to various
dimension is extraversion-introversion. psychological problems. He found, for
By this he means something very similar example, that people with phobias and
to what Jung meant by the same terms, obsessive-compulsive disorder tended to
and something very similar to our
be quite introverted, whereas people with
common sense understanding of them,
conversion disorders (e.g. hysterical
that is Shy, quiet people “versus” out-
paralysis) or dissociative disorders (e.g.
going, loud people. This dimension, too,
amnesia) tended to be more extraverted.
is found in everyone, but the
physiological explanation is a bit more
complex. According to Eysenck,
extraversion-introversion is a matter of
the balance of “inhibition” and
“excitation” in the brain itself.
Excitation is the brain waking itself up,
getting into an alert, learning state.
Inhibition is the brain calming itself down,
either in the usual sense of relaxing and
going to sleep, or in the sense of
protecting itself in the case of
overwhelming stimulation. Thus someonewho is extraverted
, he hypothesized, hasgood, strong inhibition:
When confronted by traumatic stimulation
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People with a strong sense of self-efficacy have the help them master comparable
following characteristics: activities and succeed.
Social Persuasion: Bandura also
They view challenging problems as tasks to asserted that people could be
be mastered.
persuaded to believe that
They develop deeper interest in the activities in they have the skills and
which they participate. capabilities to succeed.
Consider a time when
They form a stronger sense of commitment to their someone said something
interests and activities. positive and encouraging that
helped you achieve a goal.
They recover quickly from setbacks
and disappointments. On the other Getting verbal
hand, people with a weak sense of self- encouragement from others
efficacy show the following helps people overcome self-
characteristics: doubt and instead focus on
giving their best effort to the
They avoid challenging tasks. task at hand.
They believe that difficult tasks and situations are Psychological Responses: Our
beyond their capabilities. own responses and emotional
reactions to situations also
They focus on personal failings and play an important role in self-
negative outcomes. efficacy. Moods, emotional
They quickly lose confidence in personal states, physical reactions, and
abilities (Bandura, 1994). stress levels can all impact
how a person feels about their
According to Bandura, there are four personal abilities in a
major sources of self-efficacy. particular situation. A person
who becomes extremely
Mastery Experiences: The most nervous before speaking in
effective way of developing a public may develop a weak
strong sense of efficacy is sense of self-efficacy in these
through mastery experiences.
situations.
(Bandura 1994).
Principles of Observational Learning
Performing a task
successfully strengthens our A Study of Aggression.” In this
senseofself-efficacy. experiment Bandura exposed a group
However, failing to of children to a video, featuring
adequately deal with a task or violent and aggressive actions. For the
challenge can undermine and
experiment Bandura made of film of
weaken selfefficacy
one of his students, a young woman,
Social Modeling: Witnessing other essentially beating up a bobo doll.
people successfully Bobo doll is an inflatable, egg-shape
completing a task is another balloon creature with a weight in the
important source of self- bottom that makes it bob back up
efficacy. According to when you knock him down. The
Bandura, when a person sees woman punched the clown, shouting
another person or persons “sockeroo!” She kicked it, sat on it, hit
similar to oneself succeeding with a little hammer, and so on,
by one’s sustained efforts, shouting various aggressive phrases.
makes the person raise the
belief that they too possess
the capabilities that could
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Acceptance Accept themselves, others and objective. They are self starters, responsible
the natural world the way they are. Sees for themselves, own their behavior.
human nature as is, have a lack of crippling
guilt or shame, enjoy themselves without Autonomy: Independent of Culture and
regret or apology, they have no unnecessary Environment SA's rely on inner self for
inhibitions. satisfaction. Stable in the face of hard
knocks, they are self contained, independent
Spontaneity, Simplicity, Naturalness from love and respect.
Spontaneous in their inner life, thoughts and
impulses, they are unhampered by Continued Freshness of Appreciation
convention. Their ethics is autonomous, they Have a fresh rather than stereotyped
are individuals, and are motivated to appreciation of people and things.
continual growth. Appreciation of the basic good in life,
moment to moment living is thrilling,
Problem Centering Focus on problems transcending and spiritual. They live the
outside themselves, other centered. They present moment to the fullest.
have a mission in life requiring much
energy, their mission is their reason for Peak experiences "Feelings of limitless
existence. They are serene, characterized by horizons opening up to the vision, the
a lack of worry, and are devoted to duty. feeling of being simultaneously more
powerful and also more helpless than one
Detachment: The Need for Privacy Alone ever was before, the feeling of ecstasy and
but not lonely, unflappable, retain dignity wonder and awe, the loss of placement in
amid confusion and personal misfortunes, time and space with, finally, the conviction
that something extremely important and
valuable had happened, so that the subject
was to some extent transformed and strengthened
even in his daily life by such experiences.
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Each person has a unique identity that their allowance in any way they choose -
can be known only through - yet they still expect the parent to
relationships with others. provide the money, and will complain
People must continually re-create about unfairness if they don't get it!
themselves because life’s meaning
constantly changes. Ordinary -- the normal adult
Anxiety is part of the human condition ego, conventional and a little
boring, perhaps. They have
learned responsibility, but find it
ROLLO MAY THEORY too demanding, and so seek
refuge in conformity and
Rollo May is the best known American traditional values.
existential psychologist. Much of his
thinking can be understood by reading
Creative -- the authentic adult,
about existentialism in general, and the the existential stage, beyond ego
overlap between his ideas and the ideas and self-actualizing. This is the
of Ludwig Binswanger is great. person who, accepting destiny,
faces anxiety with courage!
Stages of development
These are not stages in the traditional
Innocence -- the pre-egoic, pre- sense. A child may certainly be
self-conscious stage of the infant. innocent, ordinary or creative at times;
The innocent is pre-moral, i.e. is An adult may be rebellious.
neither bad nor good. Like a wild
animal who kills to eat, the Love and Will
innocent is only doing what he or
she must do. But an innocent His basic motivational construct is the
does have a degree of will in the daimonic. The daimonic is the entire
sense of a drive to fulfil their system of motives, different for each
needs! individual. It is composed of a collection
of specific motives called daimons. The
Rebellion -- the childhood and word daimon is from the Greek, and
adolescent stage of developing means little god. But originally, a
one’s ego or self-consciousness daimon could be bad or good. Daimons
by means of contrast with adults, include lower needs, such as food and
from the “no” of the two-year- sex, as well as higher needs, such as
old to the “no way” of the love.
teenager. The rebellious person
wants freedom, but has as yet no For May, one of the most important
full understanding of the daimons is eros. Eros is love (not sex),
responsibility that goes with it. and in Greek mythology was a minor
The teenager may want to spend god pictured as a young man.
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Another important concept for May is will.” This idea is, in fact, an old
will: The ability to organize oneself in one that we find among quite a
order to achieve one’s goals. This makes few theorists
will roughly synonymous with ego and
reality-testing, but with its own store of
energy, as in ego psychology
VICTOR FRANKL THEORY
TYPES:
Understanding Logotherapy
There is the type he refers to as
“neo-Puritan,” who is all will,
but no love. They have amazing Frankl believed that humans are motivated by
self-discipline, and can “make something called a "will to meaning
things happen”... but they have
no wishes to act upon. So they “Everything can be taken from a man
become “anal” and but one thing: the last of the human
perfectionistic, but empty and freedoms—to choose one's attitude in
“dried-up.” The archetypal any given set of circumstances.”
example is Ebenezer Scrooge.
Fundamentals of Logotherapy
The second type he refers to as
“infantile.” They are all wishes "Logos" is the Greek word for meaning,
but no will. Filled with dreams and logotherapy involves helping a
and desires, they don’t have the patient find personal meaning in life.
self-discipline to make anything
of their dreams and desires, and Core Properties
so become dependent and
conformist. They love, but their Frankl believed in three core properties on which
love means little. Perhaps Homer his theory and therapy were based:
Simpson is the clearest example!
Each person has a healthy core.
The last type is the "creative" One's primary focus is to enlighten
type. May recommends, wisely, others to their own internal
that we should cultivate a resources and provide them tools to
balance of these two aspects of use their inner core.
our personalities. He said “Man’s Life offers purpose and meaning but does not
task is to unite love and promise fulfillment or happiness.
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2. Life Has Meaning in All Circumstances Frankl believed that every individual
is unique and irreplaceable.
Frankl believed that life has
meaning in all circumstances, LOGOTHERAPY IN PRACTICE
even the most miserable ones.
This means that even when
Frankl believed that it was possible to
situations seem objectively turn suffering into achievement and
terrible, there is a higher level of accomplishment. He viewed guilt as an
order that involves meaning. opportunity to change oneself for the
better, and life transitions as the chance
3. Humans Have a Will to Meaning to take responsible action.
Logotherapy proposes that Three techniques used in logotherapy
humans have a will to meaning, include dereflection, paradoxical
which means that meaning is our intention, and Socratic dialogue.
primary motivation for living
and acting, and allows us to
Dereflection: Dereflection is aimed at
endure pain and suffering. helping someone focus away from
themselves and toward other people
4. Freedom to Find Meaning so that they can become whole and
spend less time being self-absorbed
Frankl argues that in all about a problem or how to reach a
goal.
circumstances, individuals have
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. 2) Paradoxical intention:
Paradoxical intention is A
technique that has the patient
wish for the thing that is feared
most. This was suggested for use
in the case of anxiety or phobias,
in which humour and ridicule
can be used when fear is
paralyzing. For example, A
person with a fear of looking
foolish might be encouraged to
try to look foolish on purpose.
Paradoxically, the fear would be
removed when the Intention
involved the thing that was
feared most.
. 3) Socratic dialogue: Socratic
dialogue would be used in
logotherapy as a tool to help a
patient through the process of
self-discovery through his or her
own words. In this way, the
therapist would point out patterns
of words and help the client to
see the meaning in them. This
process is believed to help the
client realize an answer that is
waiting to be discovered.
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Concepts
Instincts,
Needs,
Drives,
Arousal,
Incentives,
Motivational Cycle.
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and/or thirsty, the organism seeks to less or more satisfying and attractive.
reduce this drive by eating and/or Thus, one can put in greater amount of
drinking. Drive acts as a strong effort to attain a more attractive
persistent stimulus to push an organism incentive. As a matter of fact, many
towards its goal. It is the state of incentives assume considerable
heightened tension leading to restless significance in the lives of people and
activity and preparatory behavior. they do everything possible to attain
those incentives.
NEED AND MOTIVES
A need is a condition of lack or deficit Instincts
of something required by the organism.
Instinct is an old concept in the field of
In order to maintain homeostasis or
motivation. It is defined as an innate
balance the organism finds it necessary
biological force that predisposes the
to satisfy the needs. The needs are of
organism to act in a certain way . At
different types. The need for food or
one time all behaviours were supposed
water is a physiological need, which
to be results of certain instincts. Some of
arises out of lack or deficit of food or
the instincts identified by early
water in the organism. The needs for
psychologists are fight, repulsion,
excretion and urination are also
curiosity, self abasement, acquisition
physiological needs. They are due to the
etc. It was thought that instincts were
organism’s necessity to eliminate waste
inherited and compelling sources of
matter from the body. The need for
conduct, but can be modified by learning
contact with other persons is a social
and experience. This term is no more
need. The other social needs include
used in relation to human behaviour.
need for prestige, status, affection, self-
Animal behaviour is sometimes
esteem, and so on. A person becomes
explained using this term. In current
more aware of his needs when they are
usage 'instinct' is reserved for innate
not fulfilled. In other words, when you
response tendencies found among
are hungry, you need food, and, when
animals
you are thirsty you need water
Needs for food, water, sex, sleep and Values
Values work as important motivators.
rest, and elimination are primary needs.
Needs for achievement, affiliation, They are considered as desirable and
power are examples of social needs. The cheris-able goals that serve as guiding
term ‘motive’ refers to goal directed principles in people’s lives. Values help
behaviour and energising conditions to make choices. Values prioritize
within the organism that drive needs. It is only because of values that
behaviour. It is generally used to refer to people take purposeful long range
certain conditions which, besides actions. Moral values differentiate
arousing, predispose a person to between good and bad.
respond, or behave in a way appropriate
to that motive. Motives direct the
activity of the individual towards
person’s goals.
Incentives
Incentives refers to the goal objects
which satisfy the needs. Incentives vary
in quality and quantity which make them
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Power: This includes social status and life. They include truth (Satya), non
prestige, control and dominance over stealing (asteya), keeping tolerance (driti),
people and resources intellect (dhi), knowledge (vidya), non-
Achievement: This includes personal anger (akrodh), forgiveness (kshama),
success by demonstrating competence purity (saucha), control of sense organs
according to social standards. (indriya nigraha) and self control (dam).
Self-direction: This includes These values provide basis for
independent thought and action, maintaining and promoting life at the
choosing, creating, and exploring. individual and the social levels. It
Universalism : This includes maintains a the view that holds entire
understanding, appreciation, tolerance universe into account.
and protection for the welfare of all
people.
Benevolence: This includes preservation Arousal's Contribution to Motivation
and enhancement of the welfare of Arousal is the energy source for
people with whom one is in frequent behaviour; it is the primary key in the
personal contact. initiation, strength and persistence of
Tradition : This includes respect, all motivational behaviours (Pfaff, 2006,
commitment and acceptance of the p. 2). You can be aroused without being
customers and ideas that are given motivated, yet you cannot be
importance in the traditional cultures or motivated without being aroused.
religions. Motivational arousal can increase and
Conformity: This includes restraint of decrease with its level of intensity being
action, inclination, and impulses likely guided by how an individual perceives a
to upset or harm others and violate task. If a task is expected to be difficult
social expectations or norms. the need for motivational arousal will
Security: This includes safety, harmony and increase, whereas if the task is expected
stability of society, of relationships and of self. to be easy motivational arousal will
decrease (Miron, Parkinson & Brehm,
In the Indian context the framework of 2007).
Dharma provides a set of values which are
considered central to the sustenance of Motivation cycle
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synonymous with equality, which means motivate in the short term, the effect
treating everyone the same, since this quickly wears off. According to
would be inequitable if they deserve to Herzberg's theory, only challenging jobs
be treated differently. that have the opportunities for
achievement, recognition, responsibility,
Equity theory states, in effect, that people advancement and growth will motivate
will be better motivated if they are treated personnel.
equitably and demotivated if they are
treated inequitably. It explains only one McGregor’s Theory X and Y
aspect of the processes of motivation and Douglas McGregor (1960) produced his
job satisfaction, although it may be analysis of the different views about
significant in terms of morale. people and how they should be motivated.
Theory X is the traditional view that the
There are two forms of equity: average human dislikes work and wishes
distributive equity, which is concerned to avoid responsibility and that, therefore,
with the fairness with which people feel ‘most people must be coerced, controlled,
they are rewarded in accordance with directed, threatened with punishment to
their contribution and in comparison get them to put forward adequate effort
with others; and procedural equity, towards organizational objectives’. In
which is concerned with the perceptions contrast, theory Y emphasizes that people
employees have about the fairness with will exercise self-direction in the service
which company procedures in such of objectives to which they are committed
areas as performance appraisal, and that commitment to objectives is a
promotion and discipline are being function of the rewards associated with
operated. their achievement.
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Belongingness
Relatedness Need for Affiliation Hygiene
and love
Source: Gordon R. Judith et al, Management and Organizational Behavior , Allyn and
Bacon, 1990, p.428.
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Thus Argyris proposes that the existing theory reveals that human behaviour can
bureaucratic - pyramidal organization be explained in terms of the previous
structure (the organizational counterpart positive or negative outcomes of that
to Theory X assumptions about people) behaviour. This is truly a behaviouristic
should give way to humanistic - approach where one can see that
democratic value system (the reinforcement conditions behaviour. The
organizational counterpart to Theory Y repeating behaviours that people have
assumptions about people'2). learned will produce pleasant outcomes.
Those behaviors, which are rewarded,
tend to be repeated and those behaviors,
REINFORCEMENT THEORY which are either not rewarded or
Reinforcement theory applies the punished, tend to disappear. It should be
behaviourist learning theories to applied in conjunction with the
motivation. Also called Organizational principles of social learning. Rewards or
Behaviour Modification Theory or reinforcements must meet an employee's
O.B. Model developed by B.F Skinner is specific needs and must be applied
quite different from the cognitive equitably.
theories of Motivation. Reinforcement
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CONCEPTS
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KINDS OF CURIOSITY
William James (1890) pointed out to two kinds ZUCKERMAN’S SENSATION SEEKING
of curiosity.
novel and highly stimulating
i) He emphasised the biological function
of curiosity as a mechanism of instinct Sensation seeking is a personality trait
driven behaviour that serves in defined by the degree to which an individual
seeks activities and experiences. People
approaching new objects. Approach and who are high in sensation seeking are
attracted to the unknown and as a result
exploration are described as being consistently seek the new, varied, and
characteristic forms of behaviour. unpredictable. Examples of such behaviors
are varied, but sensation seekers may be
attracted to extreme sports, frequent travel,
The second kind of curiosity pointed diverse foods and music, new sexual
partners and experiences, and challenging
out by James is “scientific curiosity” existing viewpoints. Specifically,
and “metaphysical wonder” with which Zuckerman’s basic proposition is that
sensation seeking is based on individual
“the practical instinctive root has differences in the optimal level
probably nothing to do” rather “the of sensation caused by biological nervous-
philosophical brain responds to an system differences. People who are high in
inconsistency or a gap in its sensation seeking are individuals who have
knowledge”. relatively low-level nervous system
activation and therefore seek arousal from
In the psychoanalytical literature Freud their external environment by looking for
views curiosity as a derivative of the sex novel stimuli and engaging in varied
drive. The partial impulse of looking experiences. In contrast, individuals who are
motivates the child’s great interest in all low in sensation seeking have a naturally
things and all events that have to do with higher level of internal activation and thus
sexuality. Whereas the looking impulse do not tend to seek sensation from external
and curiosity are primarily sexual in sources.
origin, the child’s exploratory interest Zuckerman posits that sensation seeking is
and desire for knowledge can be genetically influenced because it is
considered to be a by product of evolutionary adaptive. Across the animal
cognitive development. Due to social kingdom, engaging in a certain degree of
pressure, sexual exploration is later risky behaviors will increase the likelihood
abandoned. of survival and reproductive success (e.g.,
seeking new territories for food and new
Blarer proposed curiosity to be intrinsic to
potential mates).
the individuals perceptions and world
experiences and thus Blarer’s view is the
basis for the intrinsic motivation
viewpoint in curiosity theory.
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Self-Awareness- A third variable of interest Much of the time (perhaps most of the time)
to a motivational analysis of behavior is our attention is focused outward on the
selfawareness. As discussed throughout this environment. This means that attentional
text, the self has a reflexive quality: People focus is variable and that self-awareness is a
are capable of taking themselves as the transient state. Sometimes we are aware of
object of their own attention. But our ourselves; other times we are not.
attention is not always focused inward.
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in principle deal with the situation which result in the ability to be motivated by
intrinsic rewards.
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Fig. 2. Schematic diagram emphasizing the interactions between structures in the limbic
system
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fear shown by faces. The patient, increasing the level of biogenic amines
however, had no difficulty recognizing (DA, NE, epineph serotonin, histamine)
people by their faces and could rapidly but in different ways. MAOIs are a class
learn the identity of new faces Role of of drugs that block MAO, the major
corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) enzyme responsible for the oxidation of
systems in fear and anxiety monoamines. The tricyclic drugs work
by blocking the reuptake (keep it around
In animals, administration of CRH into
longer) of NE and serotonin into the
the cerebral ventricles (so as to
presynaptic terminal resulting in a net
eventually reach receptors on amygdala
increase in neurotransmitter availability.
and LC cells) effectively induces
Consequently, there is an increase in
anxiety responses, including postsynaptic receptor activity. SSRIs
hypervigilance, enhancement of the work by selectively blocking the
freezing posture, and decreased reuptake of serotonin. SSRIs are as
exploration in unfamiliar situations. effective as the tricycylic compounds
Furthermore, in anxiety-provoking but without some of the sedating and
situations that typically elicit these cardiovascular side effects of tricyclic
behavioural responses, administration of antidepressants. As a result, SSRIs (e.g.,
a CRH antagonist produces a reduction Prozac, Zoloft) are now used widely and
in the occurrence of these reactions. In underscore the importance of
rats, infusion of a CRH antagonist into serotonergic systems in regulating
the central nucleus reduces expression of mood.
fear behavior (“freezing” in an
environment where the animal had been It is presently unclear why reduced brain
previously shocked) suggesting that serotonin function predisposes
blockade of CRH receptors in the central individuals to commit suicide. One
nucleus has an antianxiety effect. hypothesis is that low brain 5-HT
SADNESS AND NEGATIVE values produce an increase in impulsive
AFFECT An important clinical behavior. Impulsivity refers to a
observation was made in the 1950's when propensity to act without considering
the antihypertensive agent reserpine was alternative options in a decision-making
prominently used. Clinicians noted that process. Although impulsivity is not
some individuals became markedly synonymous with acting rapidly,
depressed after taking this drug, which impulsive individuals tend to act without
produces a long-lasting depletion of time for reflection. In people with
monoamines (norepinephrine, serotonin personality disorders characterized by
and dopamine). Other work chronic problems with impulsive
demonstrated that drugs that increased behavior, the rate of completed suicide
the level of monoamines were effective can be as high as 25%. The underlying
in the treatment of depression. Together, cause of reduced brain serotonin remains
these observations led to the unknown but could be related to
monoamine hypothesis of depression. heritable factors and/or neurological
According to this hypothesis, depression insults during development.
results from a deficit in brain
norepinephrine or serotonin, or both.
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Physiological arousal + Environment about the effects of the injection were
circumstances = Attributed emotions more likely to feel either happier or
e.g. 1. I am tense and sweating + a gun is angrier than those who had been
being pointed at me = I am afraid. informed. Schachter and Singer
e.g.2. I am tense and sweating + Sheela is developed the two-factor theory of
looking at me and smiling = I am in love. emotion. The two-factor theory suggests
that emotion comes from a combination
In both the examples, the state of arousal is of a state of arousal and a cognition that
the same. What changes is the environment. makes best sense of the situation the
person is in. For example, the two-factor
Two factor theory argues that the cues in theory of emotion argues that when
the environment are what determine the people become aroused they look for
emotions that we believe we are cues as to why they feel the way they
experiencing. Change the environment do. If a person experiences a state of
the emotions will also change. Like the arousal for which they have no
James Lange theory of emotion, immediate explanation, they will
Schachter and Singer felt that physical describe their emotions in terms of the
arousal plays a primary in emotions. cognitions available to them at the time.
However, they suggested that this If a person experiences a state of arousal
arousal was the same for a wide variety for which they have an appropriate
of emotions, so physical arousal alone explanation e.g. ‘I feel this way because
could not be responsible for emotional I have just received an injection of
responses. The two-factor theory of adrenalin’, then they will be unlikely to
emotion focuses on the interaction describe their emotion
between physical arousal and how we
cognitively label that arousal. Criticism of Two-Factor Theory
While Schachter and Singer’s research
spawned a great deal of further research,
SCHACHTER AND their theory has also been subject to
SINGER’S EXPERIMENT criticism. Other researchers have only
In a 1962 experiment, Schachter and partially supported the findings of the
Singer put their theory to the test. A group original study, and have also shown
of 184 male participants were injected contradictory results. Other criticisms of
with epinephrine, a hormone that the two-factor theory:
produces arousal including increased Sometimes emotions are experienced beforewe
heartbeat, trembling and rapid breathing. think about them.
All of the participants were told that they There are actual physiological
were being injected with a new drug to differences between emotions.
test their eyesight. However, one group of
participants was informed of the To sum up this theory, strong emotions
symptoms the injection might cause, are a common part of daily life, but how
while other participants were not. do we tell them apart? How do we know
Participants were then placed in a room
that we are angry rather than frightened,
with another participant who was actually
sad rather than surprised? One potential
a confederate in the experiment. The
answer is provided by a third theory of
confederate either acted in one of two
emotion, that is the two-factor theory of
ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who
emotions by Schacter and Singer.
had not been informed
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the EEG activation pattern is time, magnitude, duration, and offset of
reproducible by electrical stimulation of responses in behavioral, experiential, or
the brain-stem reticular formation physiological domains. Emotion
(BSRF); regulation also involves changes in how
destruction of the rostral end of response components are interrelated as
the BSRF abolishes EEG activation the emotion unfolds, such as when large
and allows restoration of rhythmic increases in physiological responding
discharges in the thalamus/cortex; occur in the absence of overt behavior.
the behavior associated with
destruction of the rostral end of the Focus on five aspects of this definition of
BSRF is the opposite of emotional emotion regulation.
excitement, namely, apathy, First, individuals increase,
somnolence, lethargy, and catalepsy; maintain, and decrease
the combined mechanism of the negative and positive emotions
basal diencephalon and lower BSRF is (Parrott, 1993).
identical with, or overlaps, the EEG Second, neural emotion circuits do
activating mechanism, and this not appear to overlap completely
mechanism causes the objective features (LeDoux, 1994; Panksepp, 1982;
of emotional expressiveness to appear. 1998). This suggests that circuits
involved in regulating these
Lindsley (1951) concludes that it is not emotions also may not overlap
legitimate on the basis of the existing completely, and that there may
experimental evidence to attempt to be important differences in
account for all the varieties of emotional emotion regulatory processes
expression, and further research is across emotions.
advised on the influences of learning, Third, this definition of emotion
habituation, and memory on emotional regulation emphasizes regulation
expression. The activation theory is able in self. Other definitions include
to account for the extremes of emotional attempts to influence others'
behavior but is not able to explain emotions (e.g., Gross &
completely the intermediate and mixed Levenson, 1993; Masters, 1991;
states of emotional expressiveness. Thompson, 1994).
Fourth, prototypic examples of
emotion regulation are conscious,
DEFINING EMOTION such as deciding to
changeanupsetting
REGULATION conversational topic or
squelching laughter at a child's
Emotion regulation refers to the inappropriate antics. One can
processes by which individuals imagine, however, emotion
influence which emotions they have, regulatory activity that occurs
when they have them, and how they without conscious awareness,
experience and express these emotions. such as hiding one's
Emotion regulatory processes may be disappointment at an unattractive
automatic or controlled, conscious or present (Cole, 1986) or turning
unconscious, and may have their effects one's attention away from
at one or more points in the emotion
potentially upsetting material
generative process (which I describe in a
(Boden & Baumeister, 1997).
later section). Because emotions are
multi-componential processes that
unfold over time, emotion regulation
involves changes in "emotion dynamics"
(Thompson, 1990), or the latency, rise
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Increased Cohesion—Members
build strong bonds from learning
how to resolve differences; “if
we can survive this, we must
have a true relationship”
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Negative conflict is dysfunctional and “Unfinished Business”—
hinders the organization’s or the Members are still unclear about
person’s performance or ability to attain the issue or have remaining
goals or objectives. Conflict is
concerns that will get in the way
destructive when it leads to stress and
of being able to move forward.
anxiety, inability to take action, and loss
of esteem or purpose. Conflict is
viewed as negative when it results in: SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL
CONFLICT
Unresolved Anger—Members leave
the interaction believing they LIMITED RESOURCES
have legitimate concerns that Despite clear differences between units
have not been addressed within an organization, one commonality
appropriately or goals that remains. In general, all are vying for the
cannot be achieved; companies same resource pool. This pool is usually
can be slowly poisoned by anger limited, causing the various units within
and hostility. an organization to compete against each
other for finite resources. No matter how
Personality Clashes—Members prosperous an organization might appear
lack understanding of their style from its facilities, salary levels, or
differences and how to work private jets and limousines, few if any
cooperatively and are more tied organizations have infinite resources.
to their own interests than those This usually results in competition
among business units for the restricted
of others.
resources available through the parent
organization. People in organizations
Low Self-esteem or Self-
compete for what they consider to be
confidence—Members have a
their fair share of resources such as
diminished sense of selfworth or
money, time, senior management
identity as a result of the conflict.
attention, technology, supplies,
Often this results from impulsive
equipment, and human talent. This
things said or done in the heat of inevitably results in conflict.
the conflict.
DIFFERENCES IN GOALS/OBJECTIVES
Unclear or Opposing Views on Who
A common source of conflict within
Is or Should Be Responsible for
organizations is differences in personal
What— Members have different
and/or professional goals and objectives. If
expectations of each other and
we are working on a project with someone
their roles; the conflict was
whose objective is different from ours,
unresolved, unproductive, or
tension or conflict is likely to occur. For
ended too soon, leaving
example, perhaps one team member wants
ambiguity in its wake.
to “coast” or do as little work as possible
toward the team’s expected
Problems of Efficiency—
Members decide they are
unwilling or unable to work
together, resulting in
redundancies and poor use of
existing resources.
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77
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The response model of stress incorporates stress as stimulus theory. The stress as
coping within the model itself. The idea of stimulus theory assumes:
adaptation or coping is inherent to the
GAS model at both the alarm and
resistance stages. When confronted with a Change is inherently stressful.
negative stimulus, the alarm response Life events demand the same levels of adjustment
initiates the sympathetic nervous system across the population.
to combat or avoid the stressor (i.e., There is a common threshold of adjustment
increased heart rate, temperature, beyond which illness will result.
adrenaline, and glucose levels). The
resistance response then initiates Rahe and Holmes initially viewed the
physiological systems with a fight or human subject as a passive recipient of
flight reaction to the stressor, returning the stress, one who played no role in
system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or determining the degree, intensity, or
more generally accommodating the valence of the stressor. Later, Rahe
stressor, which can lead to adaptive introducedtheconceptof
diseases such as sleep deprivation, mental interpretation into his research (Rahe
illness, hypertension, or heart disease. Arthur, 1978), suggesting that a
Thus, along with the early change or life event could be
conceptualization of stress as a interpreted as a positive or negative
physiological response, early research on experience based on cognitive and
coping was also born. As early as 1932, emotional factors. However, the stress
Walter Cannon described the notion of as stimulus model still ignored
self-regulation in his work The Wisdom of important variables such as prior
the Body. learning, environment, support
networks, personality, and life
Stress As a Stimulus experience.
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In his book Psychological Stress and the secondary, and reappraisal components
Coping Process (1966), Lazarus presented (see Figure
an elegant integration of previous research 16.5, “The Transactional Theory of
on stress, health, and coping that placed a Stress and Coping”). Primary appraisal
person’s appraisal of a stressor at the involves determining whether the
centre of the stress experience. How an stressor poses a threat. Secondary
individual appraises a stressor determines appraisal involves the individual’s
how he or she copes with or responds to evaluation of the resources or coping
the stressor. Whether or not a stressor is strategies at his or her disposal for
experienced as discomforting is addressing any perceived threats. The
influenced by a variety of personal and process of reappraisal is ongoing and
contextual factors including capacities, involves continually reappraising both
skills and abilities, constraints, resources, the nature of the stressor and the
and norms (Mechanic, 1978). Lazarus and resources available for responding to
Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of the stressor.
interpretation further in their model of
stress appraisal, which includes primary,
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BIOFEEDBACK
STRESS COPING, as described by Biofeedback is a form of self-regulation in
researchers such as Lazarus and Folkman,
which individuals learn to control
implies a more specific process of
physiological responses by providing
cognitive appraisal to determine whether
an individual believes he or she has the them with an information signal, as
resources to respond effectively to the sensory feedback, about biological
challenges of a stressor or change conditions of which they may not be
(Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Lazarus & ordinarily aware. Feedback responses
Folkman, 1987). The appraisal literature include muscle tension, skin surface
explains the response or coping process in temperature, brain wave activity, electrodermal
terms of problem-focused coping or response, blood pressure and heart rate. In combination
emotion-focused with
coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Lazarus &therapeuticFolkman,instruction1984), alsoand referredpractice, theto
as active and passive coping styles (Jex, Bliese,feedbackBuzzell,signals& enablPrimeau,patients2001). Asto
well, approach and avoidance-style measures of become active participants in
coping exist involving assertiveness or
the
withdrawal (Anshel, 1996; Anshel & rehabilitation or health maintenance
Weinberg, 1999; Roth & Cohen, 1986). process.1 Biofeedback involves the
When faced with a challenge, an application of operant conditioning to gain
individual primarily appraises the control of visceral, somatomotor, or
challenge as either threatening or non- central nervous system activities.2
threatening, and secondarily in terms of Biofeedback emerged as a treatment
whether he or she has the resources to method from pioneering learning research
respond to or cope with the challenge during the 1950s of experimental
effectively. If the individual does not psychologists, such as Neal Miller. It
believe he or she has the capacity to became a clinical modality in the late
respond to the challenge or feels a lack of 1960s.
control, he or she is most likely to turn to
an emotion-focused coping response such HOW DOES BIOFEEDBACK WORK?
as wishful thinking (e.g., I wish that I As a Stress Modifier Biofeedback
could change what is happening or how I operates on the notion that we have the
feel), distancing (e.g., I’ll try to forget the innate ability and potential to influence
whole thing), or emphasizing the positive the autonomic functions of our bodies
(e.g., I’ll just look for the silver lining) through the exertion of will and mind.
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). If the person Biofeedback shows the physiological
has the resources to manage the challenge, effects of stress and our ‘behavior’
he or she will usually develop a problem- directly as they occur and in the hands of
focused coping response such as analysis a trained clinician or therapist, can help
(e.g., I try to analyze the problem in order the patient to go through a learning
to understand it better; I’m making a plan process. In this process the patient
of action and following it). It is theorized becomes aware of the effects of stress on
and empirically demonstrated that a the body and learns how to make the
person’s secondary appraisal then required ‘behavioral’ or ‘lifestyle’
determines coping strategies (Lazarus & changes. Biofeedback is often aimed at
Folkman, 1987). Coping strategies vary changing habitual reactions to stress that
from positive thinking to denial (see can cause pain or disease. Most patients
Figure 16.7, “COPE Inventory”) and are who benefit from biofeedback are
measured and tested using a variety of
instruments and scales such as the COPE
inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub,
1989).
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trained to relax and modify their Provide alternative coping mechanisms for
behavior. Relaxation is a key component dealing more successfully with stress
in biofeedback treatment of many While it is critically important for
disorders, particularly those brought on persons with stress-related disorders to
or made worse by stress. In itself, increase or enhance their ability to relax,
relaxation is characterized by a it is just as important that they learn
decreased metabolism, heart rate, blood alternate ways of dealing with the stress
pressure, and rate of breathing as well as in their lives. Music therapy can be
an increase in skin temperature. effective in this role. Wolfe (1978)
Feedback of physical responses such as successfully employed music therapy
skin temperature and muscle tension discussion groups designed to encourage
provides information to help patients group members to talk to one another as
recognize a relaxed state. The feedback well as to stimulate constructive
signal may also act as a kind of reward discussion concerning ways of
for reducing tension. Constitutive nitric improving unpleasant and stressful
oxide as a result of the relaxation situations. Learning to play instruments
approach may crucially contribute to while in music therapy has the added
potentially beneficial outcomes and benefit of providing the client with a
effects in diverse pathologies, exerting a leisure skill that serves as a means of
global healing effect. tension release.
Further, in using the music setting as a
Music therapy can be effective in model for the environment in which
helping the individual to learn to stress-evoking interactions and/or events
recognize feelings and behaviours may occur, problems may be identified
associated with stress and to express and solved within the confines of the
these emotions in positive, appropriate therapy session (Hanser, 1985). Stress-
ways. Stress and stress-related disorders related behaviours and/or patterns can be
can be terribly disruptive to normal observed within the music therapy
functioning and interrelating. The music
context and dealt with or changed within
therapy session can heighten an
this controlled environment. Also,
individual’s awareness of the emotional
beyond simply learning .relaxation
toll stress is taking on his or her fife. If
techniques, Saperston
stress-related feelings and emotions are
not identified and dealt with, they may
simply exacerbate the situation. For the
individual who has so successfully
internalized these feelings, musical
experience, being both personal and
internal, may provide an important
cathartic release (Brown, et al., 1989).
Lienhard (as cited in Peters, 1987), also
discusses the integral part that music
therapy can play as an adjunct to group
therapy in stress treatment programmes.
According to Lienhard, instrumental
improvisation, music listening, their
reactions. Song lyrics, for example, can
be used as a catalyst for discussion,
helping clients to identify areas of stress,
identify and express feelings associated
with this stress, discuss emotions, and
share constructively with the group and
receive valuable feedback.
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(1989), for example, uses the music powerfully relaxing experience, and this is
therapy setting to- help individuals learn why it's so useful in managing stress and
to recognize when they would benefit coping with difficult situations.There are
from performing their relaxation several other ways that you can use imagery
induction, providing another effective to help you relax. For example, you could
means of coping with stress. create mental pictures of stress flowing out
of your body, or of your problems, your
distractions, and your everyday concerns
PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE being folded away and stashed in a
RELAXATION padlocked chest.
Progressive muscle relaxation is an
exercise that relaxes your mind and MINDFULNESS
body by progressively tensing and Mindfulness is a state of intentional,
relaxation muscle groups throughout nonjudgmental focus on the present
your entire body. You will tense each moment. Mindfulness techniques are
muscle group vigorously, but without often incorporated into other practices,
straining, and then suddenly release such as yoga or meditation. It is often
the tension and feel the muscle relax. thought to include the following
You will tense each muscle for about 5 elements:
seconds. If you have any pain or
discomfort at any of the targeted Awareness – Being tuned in to what is
muscle groups feel free to omit that happening in the present moment,
step. Throughout this exercise you including sights, sounds, smells, or
may visualize the muscles tensing and physical sensations you might usually
a wave of relaxation flowing over ignore.
them as you release that tension. It is
important that you keep breathing Focus – Paying attention to the
throughout the exercise. Now let’s present moment, without thinking
begin. about past or future events.
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What Are the Benefits of Mindfulness? Symptoms of certain medical
Mindfulness has been studied for many conditions.
years. According to recent research, it has
several benefits for physical and mental TYPES OF MEDITATION
health. Some of the strongest health Meditation is an umbrella term for the
benefits include: many ways to a relaxed state of being.
There are many types of meditation
Improves mood – Mindfulness and relaxation techniques that have
training may reduce depression and meditation components. All share the
anxiety. One study found that same goal of achieving inner peace.
mindfulness training was as effective Ways to meditate can include:
as antidepressant medications in
preventing a depression relapse. Guided meditation. Sometimes
called guided imagery or
Reduces stress and its consequences visualization, with this method of
– Mindfulness can lead to less intense meditation you form mental
stress responses. This has many health images of places or situations you
benefits, such as lowering your blood find relaxing.
pressure and strengthening your
immune system. You try to use as many senses as
possible, such as smells, sights,
Improves coping with pain –People sounds and textures. You may be
with chronic pain who practice led through this process by a
mindfulness meditation report less guide or teacher.
severe pain and pain-related distress.
They are also more active in spite of Mantra meditation. In this type
their pain. of meditation, you silently repeat a
calming word, thought or phrase to
Improves brain functions – prevent distracting thoughts.
Practicing mindfulness helps build Mindfulness meditation. This
your ability to pay attention and focus. type of meditation is based on
Over time, this training can sharpen being mindful, or having an
memory and improve mental increased awareness and
performance. acceptance of living in the
present moment.
Helps with weight management –
Some mindfulness techniques have
been shown to reduce overeating
and obesity.
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CONTENTS
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UNIT
8 UNIT 8: SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
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helped explain when people do and do not Festinger’s important cognitive dissonance
help others in need, and theory was developed during this time and
LeonardBerkowitz (1974) pioneered the became a model for later research
study of human aggression. Meanwhile, (Festinger, 1957).
other social psychologists, including Irving In the 1970s and 1980s, social psychology
Janis (1972), focused on group behavior, became even more cognitive in orientation
studying why intelligent people sometimes as social psychologists used advances in
made decisions that led to disastrous cognitive psychology, which were
results when they worked together. Still themselves based largely on advances in
other social psychologists, including computer technology, to inform the field
GordonAllport and MuzafirSherif, (Fiske & Taylor, 2008). The focus of these
focused on intergroup relations, with the researchers, including Alice Eagly, Susan
goal of understanding and potentially Fiske, E. Tory Higgins, Richard Nisbett,
reducing the occurrence of stereotyping, Lee Ross, Shelley Taylor, and many
prejudice, and discrimination. Social others, was on social cognition—an
psychologists gave their opinions in the understanding of how our knowledge
1954 Brown v. Board of Education U.S. about our social worlds develops through
Supreme Court case that helped end racial experience and the influence of these
segregation in American public schools, knowledge structures on memory,
and social psychologists still frequently information processing, attitudes, and
serve as expert witnesses on these and judgment. Furthermore, the extent to
other topics (Fiske, Bersoff, Borgida, which humans’ decision making could be
Deaux, & Heilman, 1991). In recent years flawed due to both cognitive and
insights from social psychology have even motivational processes was documented
been used to design anti-violence (Kahneman, Slovic, &Tversky, 1982).
programs in societies that have
In the 21st century, the field of social
experienced genocide (Staub, Pearlman,
psychology has been expanding into still
&Bilali, 2010).
other areas. Examples that we consider in
The latter part of the 20th century saw an this book include an interest in how social
expansion of social psychology into the situations influence our health and
field of attitudes, with a particular happiness, the important roles of
emphasis on cognitive processes. During evolutionary experiences and cultures on
this time, social psychologists developed our behavior, and the field of social
the first formal models of persuasion, with neuroscience—the study of how our social
the goal of understanding how advertisers behavior both influences and is influenced
and other people could present their by the activities of our brain (Lieberman,
messages to make them most effective 2010). Social psychologists continue to
(Eagly&Chaiken, 1993; Hovland, Janis, & seek new ways to measure and understand
Kelley, 1963). These approaches to social behavior, and the field continues to
attitudes focused on the cognitive evolve. We cannot predict where social
processes that people use when evaluating psychology will be directed in the future,
messages and on the relationship between but we have no doubt that it will still be
attitudes and behavior. Leon alive and vibrant.
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disharmony (or dissonance). This is known organisms, including human beings. The
as the principle of cognitive consistency. highly complex behaviors
of individual animals become even more
When there is an inconsistency between
intricate when interactions among groups
attitudes or behaviors (dissonance),
of animals are
something must change to eliminate the
considered. Animal behavior within
dissonance.
groups is known as social behavior.
Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation Sociobiology asks about the evolutionary
involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or advantages contributed by social behavior
behaviors. This produces a feeling of and describes a biological basis for such
mental discomfort leading to an alteration behavior. It is theory that
in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors uses biology and genetics to explain why
to reduce the discomfort and restore people (and animals) behave the way they
balance. do.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES Sociobiology is a relatively new science. In
Psychodynamic approach includes all the the 1970s, Edward O. Wilson, now a
theories in psychology that see human distinguished professor of biology at
functioning based upon the interaction of Harvard University, pioneered the subject.
drives and forces within the person, In his ground-breaking and controversial
particularly unconscious, and between the book, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Dr.
different structures of the personality. Wilson introduced for the first time the idea
Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original that behaviour is likely the product of an
psychodynamic theory, but the interaction between an individual's genetic
psychodynamic approach as a whole makeup and the environment (or culture in
includes all theories that were based on his the case of human beings). Wilson's new
ideas, e.g., Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and ideas rekindled the debate of "Nature vs.
Erikson (1950). Nurture," wherein nature refers to genes and
nurture refers to environment.
Sigmund Freud (writing between the
Socio-biology is often subdivided into
1890s and the 1930s) developed a
three categories: narrow, broad, and pop
collection of theories which have formed
socio-biology. Narrow socio-biology
the basis of the psychodynamic approach
studies the function of specific behaviours,
to psychology.
primarily in non-human animals. Broad
His theories are clinically derived - i.e., socio-biology examines the biological
based on what his patients told him during basis and evolution of general social
therapy. The psychodynamic therapist behavior. Pop socio-biology is concerned
would usually be treating the patient for specifically with the evolution of human
depression or anxiety related disorders. social behaviour.
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knowledge about some specific domain schemas that we might hold about certain
and its attributes allowing us to categorize personality types to one specific case.
and interpret new information related to EVENT SCHEMA
that domain.
Event schemes are often referred to as
Fiske and Linville define social schemes as individuals internal scripts. Thus an event
richly interconnected networks of schema is a cognitive structure concerning
information relevant to various concepts the usual normal expected sequence of
that is to various aspects of our social events that should occur in various types
world of situations. For example at a wedding, an
Information in social schemas belongs to interview, a funeral etc. Such event
3 categories of groups: schemes lead us to expect how the actors
Physical appearance categories in that situation should behave. If there is a
violation of the expectations, we often
Personality traits
experience a host of negative emotions
Characteristic behaviors ranging from surprise or shock to
disillusionment.
TYPES/CATEGORIES OF SCHEMAS SELF SCHEMA
Schemas are classified into the following Self schema is a cognitive framework that
categories each person holds about himself or herself.
Role schemes It is equivalent to what is known as the
self concept. The relationship between the
Person schemes
self concept/self schema on one hand and
Event schemes the actual or real self on the other hand has
Self Schemes been a topic of great interest. McDavid
ROLE SCHEMA and Harrari have diagrammatically
represented this relationship through what
Role schema is a cognitive category or a
they call the cheeseburger self. The real
cognitive structure concerning a particular
self or actual self is represented by the
group and its members especially the
circle i.e. the totality of the self or the
roles and behaviors they are expected to
holistic self. The self concept is
display or engage in. Thus role schemes
represented by the cheese that covers most
can be formed for different occupational
of the burger bun. However, there are parts
groups, religious groups, nationalities,
of the self concept that extend beyond the
gender groups etc. Role schema is very
real self calledareas ofexaggeration.
similar to the concept of stereotype.
These are most often positive traits and
PERSON SCHEMA behaviors that are socially desirable that a
A person schema is a cognitive framework person attributes to himself or herself
concerning a specific individual that though the evidence for these is meager or
includes information about his or her non existent in the real self. They result
physical features, personality traits, and from a mechanism known as perceptual
characteristic behavior. In developing a vigilance. We are specially or
person schema we often use or apply extraattentive to instances of positive
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behaviors and traits even though they Like in the case of attention, schemas also
might be very few. lead to selective perception. We are more
likely to
accurately interpret and perceive
AREAS OF DENIAL
information consistent with our schemas.
They are most often negative i.e. socially
We are more likely to
undesirable behavior that are part of our
distort, misinterpret and misperceive
real self but are denied entry into our self-
information that is inconsistent with our
concept. They result from a mechanism
schemas. If however,
known as perceptual defense to prevent the
we recognize that inconsistent information
ego from damage and devaluation by
incongruent with our schemas has some
ignoring certain information about
truth, we
oneselfespecially anxiety arousing
explain it away as being an exception to
information. That the burger and cheese
the rule. The relationship between
overlap to a large extentsuggests that for
schemas and perception
most humans the self-concept and the real
was studied by Sagar and Schofield 1980
self are congruent with each other. Thisis
who got supportive evidence.
the basis for a well adjusted personality.
MEMORY
Effects of schemas on cognitive processes: Selective memory also results from the
operation of our schemas in that we tend
Schemas tend to act like filters i.e. they to remember
allow some information to penetrate them information that is congruent with our
enabling us schemas. We are more likely to selectively
therefore to perceive and remember forget or
information that is congruent to our reconstruct information incongruent with
schemas. On the other our schemas. Research in this area began
hand, information incongruent with our with the work of Frederick Bartlett. Unlike
schemas tends to be ignored, Ebbinghaus hewas more interested in the
misperceived, distorted repressed and or qualitative changes in memory over time.
reconstructed.
He identified 3 main qualitativechanges in
memory
ATTENTION
Stimuli that fit in with our schemas are Levelingrefers to the fact that
more likely to be noticed and attended to unimportant are
irrelevant details
excluded from the persons
and thus becomethe focus of our attention,
memory of the story. The story
whereas those that do not fit in with our and more concise
schemas tend to remain at theperiphery of becomes
over time.
crisper
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salient, unusual to the story are facial expressions, but recent evidence
exaggerated,
highlighted and begin
concerning this suggestion is mixed, so it
to dominate ones
memory of the story. may not be as basic or as clearly
Assimilation refers to the fact that represented in facial expressions as other
new information in the story is emotions; Reisenzein, Bordgen,
distorted or changed to
make it fit better with ones existing Holtbernd, & Matz, 2006).
schemas, ideas, values, beliefs etc.
Early research seemed to suggest that facial
expressions are universal in both respects
SOCIAL PERCEPTION (e.g., Ekman & Friesen, 1975) and with few
[COMMUNICATION, exceptions, these results have been
ATTRIBUTIONS] confirmed in more recent research
(Effenbin&Ambady, 2002). In fact, it has
Socialperception—the process through
been found that certain facial expressions—
which we seek to know and understand
smiles, frowns, and other signs of sadness)
other people.
occur, and are recognized as representing
Nonverbal communication basic underlying emotions (e.g., happiness,
Basic channels through which such anger, sadness) in many different cultures
communication takes place. Research (e.g., Shaver, Murdaya,
findings indicate that five of these Fraley, 2001). It seems reasonable to
channels exist: facial expressions, eye conclude that some facial expressions
contact, body movements, posture, and provide clear signals of underlying
touching. emotional states, and are recognized as
doing so all over the world. Cultural
differences certainly do exist with respect
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS AS CLUES
to the precise meaning of facial
TO OTHERS’ EMOTIONS
expressions, but unlike spoken languages,
Cicero stated: “The face is the image of the they do not seem to require much in the
soul.” By this he meant that human way of translation.
feelings and emotions are often reflected in
the face and can be read there in specific
expressions. Modern research suggests that GAZES AND STARES: EYE
Cicero was correct: It is possible to learn CONTACT AS A NONVERBAL CUE
much about others’ current moods and Taking note of the importance of cues
feelings from their facial expressions. In provided by others’ eyes, ancient poets
fact, it appears that five different basic often described the eyes as “windows to
emotions are represented clearly, and from the soul.” In one important sense, they
a very early age, on the human face: anger, were correct: We do often learn much
fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust about others’ feelings from their eyes. For
(Izard, 1991; Rozin, Lowery, & Ebert, example, we interpret a high level of
1994). (Surprise, has also been suggested gazing from another as a sign of liking or
as a basic emotion reflected clearly in friendliness (Kleinke, 1986). In contrast, if
others avoid eye contact with us, we may
conclude that they are unfriendly, don’t
like us, or are simply shy. If another
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and men—but only if the touching is especially true for negative facial
performed by a woman. Such feelings of expressions. Even if such expressions are
security, in turn, influence actual behavior: seen on one occasion, they are still easier
individuals touched on the shoulder by a to notice than other stimuli on later
female experimenter actually showed occasions. For example, individuals can
greater risk taking in an investment task spot an angry face in an array of faces
than those not touched, or ones who were more quickly than neutral or smiling faces.
touched only through handshakes. The facial feedback hypothesis (Laird,
Paralinguisticcues—changes in the tone 1984) suggests that there is a close link
or inflection of others’ voices (quite apart between the facial expressions we show
from the meaning of their words). And and our internal feelings, and that this
recent research indicates that even subtle relationship works both ways: yes, the
cues relating to others’ body chemistry can expressions we show reflect our internal
be revealing. For instance, research by feelings or emotions, but in addition, these
Miller and Maner (2010) indicates that expressions also feed back into our brains
changes in women’s internal chemistry and influence our subjective experiences
occurring during the menstrual cycle can of emotion. In short, we don’t only show
be transmitted to others (especially, what we feel inside on our faces—we also
perhaps, men) through subtle olfactory sometimes feel, inside, what we show.
cues—changes in the aromas emitted by McCanne and Anderson (1987) asked
their bodies. The men couldn’t report female participants to imagine positive and
detecting differences in the scents of the negative events (e.g., “You inherit a
shirts worn during ovulation and after it million dollars,” “You lose a really close
was over, but their testosterone levels still friendship”). While imagining these
differed. Overall, these findings indicate events, they were told to either enhance or
that shifts in body chemistry, too, can suppress tension in certain facial muscles.
provide nonverbal cues about other One of these muscles is active when we
people—at least in the case of women and smile or view happy scenes. The other is
their menstrual cycle. active when we frown or view unhappy
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS. WHY IS IT scenes. Measurements of electrical activity
IMPORTANT? of both muscles indicated that after a few
In a sense, this is not surprising because practice trials, most people could carry out
we direct lots of attention to others’ faces this task quite successfully. They could
as we interact with them. In support of this enhance or suppress muscle tension when
basic fact, several different research told to do so, and could do this without
findings combine to suggest that any visible change in their facial
facialexpressions are indeed a uniquely expressions. After imagining each scene,
crucial source of information about others. participants rated their emotional
First, it is almost impossible to ignore such experiences in terms of enjoyment or
information. Even after viewing them distress. If the facial feedback hypothesis
once, they still grip our attention the next is correct, these ratings should be
time they are presented (e.g., Blagrove & affected by participants’ efforts to
Watson, 2010). Moreover, this is enhance or suppress muscle tension. If
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exaggerated regret. This is a good sign that whether they possess specific traits or
the reasons the person has supplied for dispositions likely to remain fairly stable
saying “no” may not be true. over time.
In addition to these nonverbal cues, other Others’ behavior provides us with a rich
signs of deception are sometimes present source on which to draw, so if we observe
in nonverbal aspects of what people it carefully, we should be able to learn a
actually say, or in the words they choose. lot about them. Up to a point, this is true.
When people are lying, the pitch of their The task is complicated, however, by the
voices often rises—especially when they following fact: Often, individuals act in
are highly motivated to lie. Similarly, they certain ways not because doing so reflects
often take longer to begin—to respond to a their own preferences or traits, but rather
question or describe events. And they may because external factors leave them little
show a greater tendency to start sentences, choice. For example, suppose you go to a
stop them, and begin again. In other words, restaurant and the young woman who
certain aspects of people’s linguisticstyle greets you at the “Please Wait to Be
can be revealing of deception. Seated” sign smiles and acts in a friendly
manner. Does this mean that she is a
friendly person who simply “likes
people”? It’s possible, but According to
THEORIES OF ATTRIBUTION: Jones and Davis’s theory (Jones& Davis,
FRAMEWORKS FOR 1965; Jones & McGillis, 1976), we
UNDERSTANDING HOW WE accomplish this task by focusing our
attention on certain types of actions—
MAKE SENSE OF THE SOCIAL
those most likely to prove informative.
WORLD First, we consider only behavior that
seems to have been freely chosen, while
Because attribution is complex, many largely ignoring ones that were somehow
theories have been proposed to explain its forced on the person in question. Second,
operation. we pay careful attention to actions that
show what Jones and Davis term
noncommoneffects—effects that can be
FROM ACTS TO DISPOSITIONS: caused by one specific factor, but not by
USING OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR AS A others. Perhaps she is acting in this way
GUIDE TO THEIR LASTING TRAITS because that is what her job requires; she
has no choice.
The first of these theories—Jones and According to the theory proposed by Jones
Davis’s (1965) theory of correspondent and Davis, we are most likely to conclude
inference—asks how we use information that others’ behavior reflects their stable
about others’ behavior as a basis for traits (i.e., we are likely to reach
inferring their traits. In other words, the correspondent inferences about them),
theory is concerned with how we decide, when that behavior (1) is freely chosen;
on the basis of others’ overt actions, (2) yields distinctive, non-common
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effects; and (3) is low in social behavior stemmed mainly from internal or
desirability. external causes, this is not the entire story.
In addition, we are also concerned with two
other questions: (1) Are the causal factors
KELLEY’S THEORY OF CAUSAL
that influenced their behavior likely to be
ATTRIBUTIONS: HOW WE
stable over time or likely to change?
ANSWER THE QUESTION “WHY?’’
Are these factors controllable—can the
According to Kelley, in our attempts to individual change or influence them if he
answer the why question about others’ or she wishes to do so (Weiner, 1993,
behavior, we focus on three major types of 1995)
information. First, we consider
consensus—the extent to which other
people react to a given stimulus or event ACTION IDENTIFICATION AND
in the same manner as the person we are THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS When
considering. The higher the proportion we see other people perform some action,
of people who react in the same way, the and try to understand it—why they are
higher the consensus. doing it, what they want to accomplish—
we have a wide range of interpretations
Second, we consider consistency—the
open to us. For instance, suppose you saw
extent to which the person in question
someone putting loose change into a jar.
reacts to the stimulus or event in the
You could conclude: “She wants to avoid
same way on other occasions, over time.
losing the change so she puts it into the
And third, we examine distinctiveness— jar.” Alternatively, you could conclude:
the extent to which this person reacts in “She is trying to save so that she can
the same manner to other, different contribute to her own education.” The first
stimuli or events. is a low level interpretation that focuses
According to Kelley’s theory, we are on the actionitself and involves little in
most likely to attribute another’s the way of planning or long-range goals to
behaviorto internal causes under the person involved; the second, in
conditions in which consensus and contrast, attributes such plans,
distinctiveness are low but consistency is intentions, and goals to this person. The
high. In contrast, we are most likely to action is the same (putting changes into a
attribute another’s behavior to jar) but our interpretation of it—and of
externalcauses when consensus, why it occurs—is very different. The level
consistency, and distinctiveness are of interpretation we use is known as
allhigh. Finally, we usually attribute action identification.
another’s behavior to a combinationof
internal and external factors when
THE CORRESPONDENCE BIAS:
consensus is low but consistency and
distinctiveness are high. overestimating the role of dispositional
causesCorrespondencebias—the
tendency to explain others’ actions as
OTHER DIMENSIONS OF CAUSAL stemming from (corresponding to)
ATTRIBUTION While we are often very dispositions even in the presence of clear
interested in knowing whether others’
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situational causes (e.g., gilbert &malone, these into account the mental shortcut
1995). This bias seems to be so general in known as anchoring and adjustment.
scope that many social psychologists refer
to it as the fundamental attribution error. In
THE ACTOR–OBSERVER EFFECT:
short, we tend to perceive others as acting
“YOU FELL; I WAS PUSHED”
as they do because they are “that kind of
person,” rather than because of the many The actor–observer effect (Jones &
external factors that may influence their Nisbett, 1971), the tendency to attribute
behavior. This tendency occurs in a wide our own behavior to situational (external)
range of contexts but appears to be causes but that of others to dispositional
strongest in situations where both (internal) ones. Thus, when we see another
consensus and distinctiveness are low, as person trip and fall, we tend to attribute
predicted by kelley’s theory, and when we this event to his or her clumsiness. If we
are trying to predict others’ behavior in the trip, however, we are more likely to
far-off future rather than the immediate attribute this event to situational causes,
future. such as ice on the sidewalk.
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protect and enhance our self-esteem or the issues, ideas, objects, actions (do you like
related desire to look good to others white water rafting), a specific person
(Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, (such as Barack Obama) or entire social
1986). While both cognitive and groups (Muslims). Some attitudes are
motivational factors may well play a role quite stable and resistant to change,
in this kind of attributional error, research whereas others may be unstable and show
evidence seems to offer more support for considerable variability depending on the
the motivational view (e.g., Brown & situation (Schwarz &Bohner, 2001). We
Rogers, 1991). may hold some attitudes with great
certainty, while our attitudes toward other
objects or issues may be relatively unclear
ATTRIBUTION AND DEPRESSION
or uncertain (Tormala& Rucker, 2007).
Attitudes can influence our thoughts, even
Depression is the most common if they are not always reflected in our
psychological disorder. Although many overt behavior. Moreover, while many of
factors play a role in depression, one that our attitudes are explicit attitudes—
has received increasing attention is what conscious and reportable—other attitudes
might be termed a self-defeating pattern may be implicit attitudes—uncontrollable
of attributions. In contrast to most people, and perhaps not consciously accessible to
who show the self-serving bias described us.
above, depressed individuals tend to adopt ATTITUDES FORMATION
an opposite pattern. They attribute
negative outcomes to lasting, internal CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: It is a
causes such as their own traits or lack of basic principle of psychology that when a
ability, but attribute positive outcomes to stimulus that is capable of evoking a
temporary, external causes such as good response—the unconditioned stimulus—
luck or special favors from others. As a regularly precedes another neutral
result, such people perceive that they have stimulus, the one that occurs first can
little or no control over what happens to become a signal for the second—the
them—they are simply being blown about conditioned stimulus. Advertisers and
by the winds of unpredictable fate. Little other persuasion agents have considerable
wonder that they become depressed and expertise in using this principle to create
tend to give up on life! And once they are positive attitudes toward their products.
depressed, the tendency to engage in this Attitudes can be influenced by
self-defeating pattern is strengthened, and subliminalconditioning—classical
a vicious cycle is often initiated. conditioning that occurs in the absence of
conscious awareness of the stimuli
involved.
ATTITUDE AND ITS CHANGE
WITHIN CULTURAL CONTEXT
Social psychologists use the term attitude
to refer to people’s evaluation of almost
any aspect of the world. People can have
favorable or unfavorable reactions to
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behavior is that altruism does not involve (e.g., prosocial behavior) even to unrelated
the element of self interest (Myers, 1996). individuals.
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their mood so that it was not necessary to the awareness of relief for another’s
help the person receiving the shocks. distress promotes subsequent relief of the
When people feel guilty, they are more helper’s empathic concern as well as a
likely to help. For example, Harris et al. sense of joy.
(1975) found that churchgoers were more SELF-EFFICACY HYPOTHESIS
likely to donate money after confession
This hypothesis reflects a combination of
EMPATHY – ALTRUISM proposals from authors regarding
HYPOTHESIS correlates to helping behaviors. According
Batson (1987, 1991) introduced the to Midlarsky (1968) individuals? level of
empathy-altruism hypothesis, which states competence with a given skill can
refers to “ the claim that feeling empathic influence helping behavior, especially in
emotion for someone in need evokes times of need. Such competence may
altruistic motivation to relieve that need increase the likelihood of helping through
has been called the empathy-altruism increased certainty over what to do, along
hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, with the decreased fear of making a
the greater the empathetic emotion, the mistake and decreased stress over the
greater the altruistic motivation.” (Batson situation (Withey, 1962; Janis 1962,
et. al., 2002). According to the Empathy- Midlarsky, 1968; Staub, 1971).
Altruism Hypothesis, empathic concern
motivates helpers to enhance the welfare
of those in need rather than avoid the GROUP AND SOCIAL
situation instead (Smith, Keating, INFLUENCE [SOCIAL
&Stotland, 1989; Baston, 1987). FACILITATION, SOCIAL
EMPATHIC-JOY HYPOTHESIS LOAFING]
Smith, Keating, and Stotland’s (1989)
hypothesis proposes that empathic concern WHAT IS A GROUP?
is based on a helper’s overarching
Group dynamics expert MarvinShaw
sensitivity to a victim’s emotional state
(1981) argued that all groups have one
and a subsequent heightened sense of
thing in common: Their members interact.
vicarious happiness and relief upon the
Therefore, he defines a group as two or
fulfillment of the recipient’s needs. The
more people who interact and influence
authors propose that empathic witnesses to
one another. Moreover, notes Australian
someone in need may regard empathic joy
National University social psychologist
as being more achievable and rewarding
JohnTurner (1987), groups perceive
than would be a self-focused witness, and
themselves as “us” in contrast to “them.”
thus have greater motivation to help. The
A pair of jogging companions, then, would
three prominent features of the Empathic-
indeed constitute a group. Different groups
Joy Hypothesis are that:
help us meet different human needs—to
helpers experience empathic concern; affiliate (to belong to and connect with
this concern is a function of their others), to achieve, and to gain a social
sensitivity to another’s needs; and identity (Johnson & others, 2006).
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The question “Who conforms?” has There has been considerable study
produced few definitive answers. regarding peer pressure's effects on
Personality scores are poor predictors of children and adolescents, and in popular
specific acts of conformity but better discourse the term is mostly used in the
predictors of average conformity. contexts of those age groups. For children,
Traiteffects are strongest in “weak” the common themes for study regard their
situations where social forces do not abilities for independent decision making;
overwhelm individual differences. for adolescents, peer pressure's
Although conformity and obedience are relationship with sexual intercourse and
universal, different cultures socialize substance abuse have been significantly
people to be more or less socially researched. Peer pressure can affect
responsive. individuals of all ethnicity, genders and
ages, however. Peer pressure has moved
Social roles involve a certain degree of
from strictly face-to-face interaction to
conformity, and conforming to
digital interaction as well. Social media
expectations is an important task when
offers opportunities for adolescents and
stepping into a new social role.
adults alike to instil and/or experience
pressure every day.
PEER PRESSURE
COMPLIANCE
Peer pressure (or social pressure) is the THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
direct influence on people by peers, or the
Some years ago, RobertCialdini, a well-
effect on an individual who gets
known social psychologist, decided that the
encouraged to follow their peers by
best way to find out about compliance
changing
was to study what he termed compliance
their attitudes, values or behaviors to confo
professionals—people whose success
rm to those of the influencing group or
(financial or otherwise) depends on their
individual. This can result in either a
ability to get others to say yes. Who are such
positive or negative effect, or both. Social
people? They include
groups affected include both membership
salespeople, advertisers, political
groups, in which individuals are
lobbyists, fund-raisers, politicians, con
"formally" members (such as political
artists, professional negotiators, and many
parties and trade unions), and cliques, in
others. Cialdini’s technique for learning
which membership is not clearly defined.
from these people was simple: He
However, a person does not need to be a
temporarily concealed his true identity and
member or be seeking membership of a
took jobs in various settings where gaining
group to be affected by peer pressure. Peer
compliance is a way of life.
pressure can decrease one's confidence. It
can affect the lives of the students
drastically. FOLLOWING ARE THE
PRINCIPLES OF COMPLIANCE:
FRIENDSHIP/LIKING: In general,
we are more willing to
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lowball condition, she indicated that technique suggesting that they have very
people who contributed would receive a little interest in the target person— the
coupon for a free smoothie at a local juice one toward whom playing hard to get is
bar. Then, if the participant agreed to make directed. For instance, a person playing
a donation, she told them that she had just hard to get might drop hints to the effect
run out of coupons and couldn’t offer them that a potential partner (the target person)
this incentive. She then asked if they has a lot of competition—many rivals.
would still contribute. When it works, this tactic can fan the
In another condition (the interrupt flames of passion in the people who are on
condition), she made the initial request but the receiving end (e.g., Walster, Walster,
before the participants could answer yes or Piliavin, & Schmidt, 1973).
no, interrupted them and indicated that A related procedure also based on the
there were no more coupons for people “what’s-scarce-is-valuable” principle is
who donated. In other words, this was just one frequently used by department stores.
like the “lowball condition”, except that Ads using this deadline technique state
participants had no opportunity to make an that a special sale will end on a certain
initial commitment to donating to the fund. date, implying that after that, the prices
Finally, in a third (control) condition, will go up. In many cases, the time limit
participants were asked to donate $5.00 is false: the prices won’t go up after the
with no mention of any coupons for a free indicated date and may, in fact,
drink. Results indicated that more continue to drop if the merchandise
people in the lowball condition agreed to remains unsold. Yet many people reading
make a donation than in either of the such ads believe them and hurry down to
other two conditions. the store to avoid missing out on a great
SCARCITY: In general, we value, and opportunity. So when you encounter an
try to secure, outcomes or objects offer suggesting that “the clock is ticking”
that are scarce or decreasing in and may soon run out, be cautious: this
availability. As a result, we are may simply be a technique for boosting
more likely to comply with sales.
requests that focus on scarcity than RECIPROCITY: We are generally more
ones that make no reference to this willing to comply with a request from
issue. someone who has previously provided a
favor or concession to us than to someone
We are often willing to expend more effort who has not. In other words, we feel
or go to greater expense to obtain items or obligated to pay people back in some way
outcomes that are scarce than to obtain for what they have done for us.
ones that are in large supply. This principle
serves as the foundation for several Tactics Based on Reciprocity: The Door-
techniques for gaining compliance. One of in-the Face and the “That’s-Not-All”
the most common of these is playing Approach Reciprocity is a basic rule of
hard to get—a tactic often used in the social life: we usually “do unto others as
area of romance. What it involves is they have done unto.” If they have done a
actions by a person using this favor for us, therefore, we feel that we
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should be willing to do one for them in with a request for some action if this
return. While this is viewed by most action is consistent with what we believe
people as being fair and just, the principle people similar to ourselves are doing (or
of reciprocity also serves as the basis for thinking). We want to be correct, and one
several techniques for gaining compliance. way to do so is to act and think like others.
The door in-the-face AUTHORITY: In general, we are
technique(because the first refusal more willing to comply with
seems to slam the door in the face of the requests from someone who holds
requester), and several studies indicate legitimate authority—or simply
that it can be quite effective. For appears to do so.
example, in one well-known experiment, SOCIAL POWER
Cialdini and his colleagues (1975) stopped
college students on the street and presented Keltner, Gruenfeld, and Andeson (2003)
a huge request: Would the students serve have noted that the restrictions that often
as unpaid counselors for juvenile influence the thought, expression, and
delinquents 2 hours a week for the next 2 behavior of most people don’t seem to
years! As you can guess, no one agreed. apply to the powerful. And in fact, there
When the experimenters then scaled down are several reasons why this might be so.
their request to a much smaller one— Powerful people are less dependent on
would the same students take a group of others for obtaining social resources. As a
delinquents on a 2-hour trip to the zoo— result, they may not pay much attention to
fully 50 percent agreed. In contrast, less threats from others or efforts to constrain
than 17 percent of those in a control group their actions in some way. They may be
agreed to this smaller request when it was less likely to take the perspective of other
presented cold rather than after the larger people and so be less influenced by them.
request. Instead, their thoughts and actions are
more directly shaped by their own internal
A related procedure for gaining states; in other words, there is a closer
compliance is known as the “that’s-not- correspondence between their traits and
all technique”. Here, an initial request is preferences and what they think or do than
followed, before the target person can is true for most people. Overall, then,
say yes or no, by something that situational information might have less
sweetens the deal—a small extra influence on their attitudes, intentions,
incentive from the people using this actions, and creative expressions.
tactic (e.g., a reduction in price, “throwing
in” something additional for the same Research conducted by Galinsky et al.
price). For example, television (2008) indicates that it is. In a series of
commercials for various products related studies, they found that people
frequently offer something extra to induce who possessed power, or were merely
viewers to pick up the phone and place an primed to think about it, were in fact
order—for instance a “free” knife or a less likely to show conformity to the
“free “cookbook. actions or judgments of others than
SOCIALVALIDATION: We are
generally more willing to comply
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people lower in power. In one study, for started wearing the band (Berger & Heath,
instance, participants were asked to think 2008). Likewise, rich Brits dissociated
either about a situation in which they had themselves from a dissimilar group when
power over someone (high power) or a they stopped wearing Burberry caps after
situation in which someone else had power they caught on among soccer hooligans
over them (low power). In a third (Clevstrom&Passariello, 2006). Reactance
condition they did not think about power may contribute to underage drinking. A
one way or the other. Following these survey of 18- to 24-year-olds by the
conditions, they performed a tedious word Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse
construction task—one that most people (1997) revealed that 69 percent of those
do not find interesting or enjoyable. Then, over the legal drinking age (21) had been
they were asked to rate this task. drunk in the last year, as had 77 percent of
Before doing so, however, they learned those under 21. In the United States, a
that 10 other students rated it very high on survey of students on 56 campuses
both dimensions. (In a control, baseline revealed a 25 percent rate of alcohol
condition, they did not receive this abstinence among students of legal
information.) It was predicted that the drinking age (21) but only a 19 percent
people primed to think about times when abstinence rate among students under 21
they had power over others would rate the (Engs& Hanson, 1989).
task less favorably than those who thought
about times when others had power over AGRESSION
them—in other words, their feelings of
There are three key issues with defining
power would affect the extent to which
human aggression. First, it is hard to
they were influenced by the judgments of
interpret research findings and theories
other people. In contrast, those not asked
about aggression without a clear definition.
to think about power would be influenced
Historically, however, many different
by others’ opinions and therefore rate the
definitions have been used. As a result,
task more favorably.
many studies of aggressive behavior are
REACTANCE hard to meaningfully compare. More
Individuals value their sense of freedom recently, definitions of aggression among
and self-efficacy. When blatant social social psychologists have converged around
pressure threatens their sense of freedom, the notion that aggression is any behavior
they often rebel. The theory of enacted with the intention to harm
psychological reactance — that people act another person who is motivated to avoid
to protect their sense of freedom—is that harm (e.g., Anderson and Bushman,
supported by experiments showing that 2002;Bushman and Huesmann, 2010). Such
attempts to restrict a person’s freedom a definition is wide enough to capture the
often produce an anti-conformity full range of aggressive behaviors, and to
“boomerang effect” (Brehm & Brehm, make allowance for activities that can
1981; Nail & others, 2000). In one field ‘hurt’a target person but to which the target
experiment, many nongeeky students of the hurt willingly consents (such as
stopped wearing a “Livestrong” wristband undergoing surgery or engaging in
when nearby geeky academic students sadomasochistic sex).
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The second issue is that many laypersons hitting, biting, kicking, clubbing, stabbing,
and misinformed professionals use the shooting), hurting another with spoken
term aggression interchangeably with words (i.e., verbal aggression such as
related but conceptually distinct yelling, screaming, swearing, name
phenomena such as anger, hostility and calling), or hurting another’s reputation or
competitiveness. There is no question that friendships through what is said to others
in the field of psychology, aggression verbally or digitally (i.e., relational
refers only to a behavior, and not to a aggression).
mindset or an emotional state. Feelings Aggression may also be direct (with the
such as anger, attitudes such as wishing the victim physically present) or indirect
worst for another, and motivations such as (enacted in the absence of the victim; for
the desire to win or control one’s example, smashing someone’s property or
environment may contribute to a person spreading rumors about them).
behaving aggressively but are not
Aggression also differs by function. It may
aggression per se. To study aggression
involve a relatively pure intent to
effectively, such factors need to be clearly
punish/hurt the target person, as in reacting
differentiated from aggression and from
aggressively to provocation (i.e., reactive,
each other. A third definitional issue
affective, hostile, hot, impulsive,
involves the common practice of using the
orretaliatory aggression) or it may
term ‘violence’ interchangeably with the
involve a considered and deliberate plan to
term ‘aggression.’ Treating these as
harm another to gain a desired outcome
synonymous creates miscommunications
(i.e., instrumental, proactive, planned, or
and confusion among researchers, public
cold aggression). Aggression may be an
policy-makers, and the general public.
automatic response driven by hard-wired
Among most social psychologists,
self-protection mechanisms (e.g., fight or
violence is a subtype of aggression. More
flight) or involve a script for aggressive
precisely, ‘violence’ is aggression that is
behavior that is so commonly enacted that
intended to cause harm extreme enough to
the response is no longer thought-through.
require medical attention or to cause death.
Many social psychologists extend this Of course, such distinctions can be
definition to include causing severe problematic. What about a person whose
emotional harm. Thus, all violent behavior rage drives them to carefully plan the
is aggression, but most aggression is not death of another? Such instances do not fit
violence. Note that this definition of any of these traditional categorical or
violence is not synonymous with ‘violent dichotomous distinctions. A viable
crime,’ which is a legal term, not a alternative approach to understanding the
scientific one. function of aggression is to locate
aggressive acts on three dimensions –
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
AGGRESSION the degree to which the goal is to harm
the victim versus benefit the
Different forms of aggression include perpetrator;
physically harming another (i.e., physical the level of hostile or agitated emotion
aggression such as that is present; and
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the degree to which the aggressive act the inclination which will be acted upon is
was thought-through. the one that best reduces frustration. In this
revised formulation, people learn through
THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
experience to respond to frustrations with
Early Social Psychological Theories For
aggressive or nonaggressive responses.
more than 70 years, social psychology has
provided a variety of frameworks from
2. LEARNING THEORIES
which hypotheses about the causes and
consequences of aggression could be
The earliest theory of learning in modern
derived and tested. These theories,
psychology explains behavior in terms of
although distinct, have also tended to
classical conditioning –learning to
overlap as new knowledge has extended an
associate one thing with another.
existing framework of aggressive
Pioneered by Pavlov, this approach
behavior. The earliest influential theory
suggests that once people mentally pair
from social psychology was the
things together, they become ‘conditioned’
frustration-aggression hypothesis.
to expect those things to always occur
together. This theory was later
1. THE FRUSTRATION-
supplemented with theories of operant
AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
conditioning developed by Thorndike and
Skinner, which suggest that people are
During 1939, partially in response to
more likely to repeat a behavior that has
World War II and partially in response to
been rewarded and less likely to repeat a
the spreading influence of psychodynamic
behavior that has been punished. In
theories in the US, Dollard et al. (1939)
aggression research it has been shown that
proposed the first systematic theory of
children can be taught to behave
aggression. Using assumptions from
aggressively through rewarding aggressive
psychoanalytic theory, they focused on the
behavior (positive reinforcement) or
frustration caused
removing a painful consequence after
when a goal is blocked, and suggested that
aggression (negative reinforcement). In
“the occurrence of aggressive behavior
addition, children learn to discriminate
always presupposes the existence of
between situations where aggression has a
frustration,” and that “the existence of
desirable consequence and when it does
frustration always leads to some form of
not, and to generalize this knowledgeto
aggression”(p. 1). Although this theory
new situations. Although such research
enjoyed some empirical support, it quickly
demonstrates that aggression can be
became obvious that
learned through conditioning (e.g., Eron et
frustration does not always lead to
al., 1971), it was clear by the 1960s that
aggression, and that not every act of
such processes could not explain the
aggression can be traced back to
acquisition of all learned aggression.
frustration. Frustration-aggression theory
Bandura proposed that social behaviors,
was revised to incorporate the possibility
including aggression, could be learned
that frustrations can elicit responses other
through observing and imitating others
than aggression (e.g., to escape or to find
(i.e., via observational learning). In his
another way to achieve a goal), and that
classic experiments, children observed a
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to thesecond event will be misattributed as
The emergence of cognitive psychology being relevant to all of thearousal
inspired a plethora of new approaches to experienced, thus producing an
aggression by social psychologists. Early inappropriately strongresponse (e.g.,
in this period, researchers explored the becoming angry to a level far greater than
way people make meaning of mightbe expected for a minor
physiological arousal, a known precursor provocation). Because the cognitivelabel
to aggression. Researchers such as (or attribution) is crucial in determining
Schacter found that when people
Are aroused, they look for cues in the behavior, stronganger related to excitation
environment to help themattribute the transfer may persist long after thearousal
cause of their arousal. For example, itself has dissipated.
Schacter andcolleagues found that if
aroused people were exposed toanother
person who was angry, they tended to MAINSTREAM COGNITIVE
cognitively labeltheir arousal as being THEORIES
angry themselves. Zillmann
(1979)extended this concept with INFORMATION PROCESSING
excitation-transfer theory AND SCRIPT THEORIES
(ETT).Physiological arousal, however
produced, dissipates slowly.ETT posits The confluence of computer availability
that if two arousing events are separated and the growing dominance of cognitive
by a shortamount of time, arousal from the approaches to psychology in the 1980s
first event will add to arousalfrom the heralded a major change of direction in
second. However, the cognitive label given social psychological
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aggression research. For the first time, Cognitive Neoassociation Theory (CNA)
researchers started to conceptualize the reformulated the frustration-aggression
acquisition of social behavior in terms of hypothesis within the framework of
computerlike processes –inputs, outputs, emerging knowledge about neural
and the processing of information. Two connectivity. Assuming that concepts,
key theories of aggression emerged –the emotions, memories, and action tendencies
Social Information Processing (SIP) theory are interconnected within the brain’s
of Dodge (1980) associative neural network,
and Script theory from Huesmann (1982). Berkowitz (1989) posited that aversive
SIP theory emphasized the way people events such as frustrations, provocations,
perceive the behavior of others and make or unpleasant physical environments
attributions about their motives. A key produce negative affect, which is neurally
construct in SIP theory is the hostile linked to various thoughts, feelings, and
attributional bias –a tendency to interpret behavioral tendencies that are themselves
ambiguous events (such as being bumped linked to both fight and flight tendencies.
in a corridor) as Depending on the characteristics of the
being motivated by hostile intent. This bias person and the situation, one response set
has been extensively studied and has been will eventually dominate, with dominant
found to reliably predict aggressive ‘fight’responses linked with anger and
behavior. Script theory emphasizes the being more likely to elicit aggression.
acquisition of scripts for behavior (much Importantly, higher-order processes such
like an actor’s script) through either direct as making attributions about another’s
experience or observational learning. Once motives or thinking through the
encoded in semantic memory, scripts consequences of an aggressive response
define particular situations and provide a may cause a person to moderate an
guide for how to behave in them. In script aggressive impulse in this model.
theory, a person faced with a particular
situation first considers a script relevant to CURRENT THEORIES
that situation, assumes a role in the script,
assesses the appropriateness or likely THE GENERAL AGGRESSION
outcome of enacting the script, MODEL
and if judged appropriate, then behaves
according to the script. If a person The General Aggression Model (GAM;
habitually responds to conflict by using Anderson and Bushman, 2002) is the most
scripts that include behaving aggressively, recent and broadest theory of aggression
these scripts may become more processes to date. It is a biosocial-cognitive
easily brought to mind (i.e., chronically model designed to account for both short-
accessible), become automatic, and and long-term (developmental) effects of an
generalize to other situations, increasing extensive range of variables on aggression.
the likelihood of aggression in a growing GAM canexplain the widest range of
number of spheres of life. aggressive behaviors, including those not
based around aversive events or
COGNITIVE NEOASSOCIATION
THEORY
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VIOLENT MEDIA
The same principle applies to exposure to
violent media. It is one of the most studied
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opposition.
how the message is communicated, unlikely later to consider the
and
the audience. When two sides of an issue are
included, the primacy effect often
In other words, who says what, by what makes the first message more
method, to whom? How do these factors persuasive. If a time gap separates the
affect the likelihood that we will take presentations, the more likely result
second message prevails.
either the central or the peripheral route to will be a recency effect in which the
persuasion?
Another important consideration is
WHAT MAKES PERSUASION how the message is communicated.
EFFECTIVE? Usually, face-to-face appeals work
Researchers have explored four factors: best. Print media can be effective for
complex messages. And the mass
the communicator (who says it), the
media can be effective when the issue
message (what is said), the channel (how it
media reach opinion leaders.
is minor or unfamiliar, and when the
is said), and the audience (to whom it is
said). Finally, it matters who receives the
Credible communicators have the best message. The age of the audience
success in persuading. People who makes a difference; young people’s
speak unhesitatingly, who talk fast, and attitudes are more subject to change.
who look listeners straight in the eye What does the audience think while
seem more credible. So are people who receiving a message? Do they think
argue against their own self-interest. favourable thoughts? Do they counter
An attractive communicator also is argue? Were they forewarned?
effective on matters of taste and
personal values.
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attack comes.
then be available if and when a strong Autocratic leadership style is centered on the
boss. In this leadership the leader holds all
This implies, paradoxically, that one
way to strengthen existing attitudes is authority and responsibility. In this
to challenge them, though the leadership, leaders make decisions on their
be so strong as to
challenge must not own without consulting subordinates. They
overwhelm them. reach decisions, communicate them to
subordinates and expect prompt
implementation. Autocratic work
LEADERSHIP STYLE AND
environment does normally have little or
EFFECTIVENESS.
no flexibility. In this kind of leadership,
THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN guidelines, procedures and policies are all-
GROUP SETTINGS natural additions of an autocratic leader.
LEADERSHIP—the very word conjures Statistically, there are very few situations
up images of heroic figures leading their that can actually support autocratic
followers toward something better: leadership.Some of the leaders that
victory, prosperity, or social justice. support this kind of leadership include:
Leadership involves influence— Albert J Dunlap (Sunbeam Corporation)
influencing others in a group by and Donald Trump (Trump Organization)
establishing a direction for collective effort among others.
and then encouraging the activities needed DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
to move in that direction. Consistent with In this leadership style, subordinates are
that definition, being a leader involves involved in making decisions. Unlike
exerting influence—changing the behavior autocratic, this headship is centered on
and thoughts of other members of the subordinates’ contributions. The
group so that they work together to attain democratic leader holds final
the group’s common goals. We consider responsibility, but he or she is known to
three key aspects of the findings of delegate authority to other people, who
research on this topic in terms of (1) why determine work projects. The most unique
some individuals, but not others, become feature of this leadership is that
leaders; (2) when non-traditional leaders communication is active upward and
are most likely to emerge; and (3) how downward. With respect to statistics,
leaders influence group members’ democratic leadership is one of the most
satisfaction with their performance. preferred leadership, and it entails the
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LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
transformation of followers’ values and
Laissez-faire leadership gives authority to beliefs. Therefore, this distinguishes a
employees. According to azcentral, charismatic leader from a simply populist
departments or subordinates are allowed to leader who may affect attitudes towards
work as they choose with minimal or no specific objects, but who is not prepared as
interference. According to research, this the charismatic leader is, to transform the
kind of leadership has been consistently underlying normative orientation that
found to be the least satisfying and least structures specific attitudes.
effective management style. VISIONARY LEADERSHIP
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
This form of leadership involves leaders
This is a leadership that maintains or who recognize that the methods, steps and
continues the status quo. It is also the processes of leadership are all obtained
leadership that involves an exchange with and through people. Most great and
process, whereby followers get immediate, successful leaders have the aspects of
tangible rewards for carrying out the vision in them. However, those who are
leader’s orders. Transactional leadership highly visionary are the ones considered to
can sound rather basic, with its focus on be exhibiting visionary leadership.
exchange. Being clear, focusing on Outstanding leaders will always transform
expectations, giving feedback are all their visions into realities.
important leadership skills. According to
Boundless.com, transactional leadership
behaviors can include: clarifying what is THEORIES OF INTERGROUP
expected of followers’ performance; RELATIONS [SOCIAL
explaining how to meet such expectations; IDENTITY THEORY,
and allocating rewards that are contingent
RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
on meeting objectives.
COACHING LEADERSHIP THEORY, REALISTIC
CONFLICT THEORY,
Coaching leadership involves teaching and
supervising followers. A coaching leader is BALANCE THEORIES,
highly operational in setting where results/ EQUITY THEORY, SOCIAL
performance require improvement. EXCHANGE THEORY]
Basically, in this kind of leadership,
followers are helped to improve their SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
skills. Coaching leadership does the HenriTajfel's greatest contribution to
following: motivates followers, inspires psychology was social identity theory.
followers and encourages followers.
Social identity is a person’s sense of who
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
they are based on their group
In this leadership, the charismatic leader memberships. Tajfel (1979) proposed that
manifests his or her revolutionary power. the groups (e.g. social class, family,
Charisma does not mean sheer behavioural football team etc.) which people belonged
change. It actually involves a to were an important source of pride and
self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of
social identity: a sense of belonging to the
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social world. In order to increase our self- “in-group” and “out-group”. These take
image, we enhance the status of the group place in a particular order.
to which we belong. For example, England The first is categorization. We categorize
is the best country in the world! We can objects in order to understand them and
also increase our self-image by identify them. In a very similar way we
discriminating and holding prejudice views categorize people (including ourselves) in
against the out group (the group we don’t order to understand the social
belong to). For example, the Americans, environment. We use social categories like
French etc. are a bunch of losers! black, white, Australian, Christian,
Muslim, student, and bus driver because
Therefore, we divided the world into
they are useful.
“them” and “us” based through a process
of social categorization (i.e. we put people If we can assign people to a category then
into social groups). that tells us things about those people, and
as we saw with the bus driver example, we
This is known as in-group (us) and out-
couldn't function in a normal manner
group (them). Social identity theory states
without using these categories; i.e. in the
that the in-group will discriminate against
context of the bus.
the out-group to enhance their self-image.
Similarly, we find out things about
Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping
ourselves by knowing what categories we
(i.e. putting people into groups and
belong to. We define appropriate behavior
categories) is based on a normal cognitive
by reference to the norms of groups we
process: the tendency to group things
belong to, but you can only do this if you
together. In doing so we tend to
can tell who belongs to your group. An
exaggerate:
individual can belong to many different
The differences between groups groups.
The similarities of things in the same
In the second stage, social identification,
group.
we adopt the identity of the group we have
We categorize people in the same way. We categorized ourselves as belonging to. If for
see the group to which we belong (the in- example you have categorized yourself as a
group) as being different from the others student, the chances are you will adopt the
(the out-group), and members of the same identity of a student and begin to act in the
group as being more similar than they are. ways you believe students act (and conform
Social categorization is one explanation to the norms of the group). There will be an
for prejudice attitudes (i.e. “them” and emotional significance to your identification
“us” mentality) which leads to in-groups with a group, and your self-esteem will
and out-groups. become bound up with group membership.
The final stage is social comparison. Once
THE OUTLINE we have categorized ourselves as part of a
Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that group and have identified with that group,
there are three mental processes involved we then tend to compare that group with
in evaluating others as “us” or “them” (i.e. other groups. If our self-esteem is to be
maintained our
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group needs to compare favorably with enough for social comparison and in-group
other groups. bias to occur.
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At first, the boys interacted only with their began to behave more like individuals
own group members because Sherif rather than group members and formed
wanted them to develop a sense of group friendships across group lines.
identity. The boys did develop a group Psychologically, they began as two
identity and called themselves the Eagles distinct groups, but when the perception of
or the Rattlers. In the second phase of the threat was replaced by cooperation and
study, the boys were introduced to the interdependence, the groups re-established
other group and were required to engage in themselves as one large group. Therefore,
a series of competitive activities. Rewards the group distinctions made between
and prizes were handed out to the winning Eagles and Rattlers disappeared and
team. Sherif and his colleagues purposely everyone felt as if they belonged to the
set up these games and rewards so that the same group.
boys would have reason to compete
intensely. During these fierce BALANCE THEORY
competitions, both groups became It was proposed independently by
suspicious of and hostile toward one Newcomb (1961) and by Heider (1958).
another. As tensions increased, the boys This framework suggests that people
demonstrated allegiance to their group by naturally organize their likes and
discouraging one another from establishing dislikes in a symmetrical way (Hummert,
friendships across group lines. No one Crockett, & Kemper, 1990). When two
wanted to be seen as a traitor, so the boys people like each other and discover that
stuck to their own groups. Hostility they are similar in some specific respect,
increased to the point that physical fights this constitutes a state of balance, and
and acts of vandalism broke out. Despite balance is emotionally pleasant. When two
direct interventions by adults, the two people like each other and find out that
groups could not seem to reconcile. they are dissimilar in some specific
respect, the result is imbalance. Imbalance
is emotionally unpleasant, causing the
Unity was restored only when Sherif and individuals to strive to restore balance by
colleagues created situations requiring inducing one of them to change and thus
both groups of boys to depend on each create similarity, by misperceiving the
other to achieve important goals equally dissimilarity, or simply by deciding to
valued by both groups. In other words, dislike one another. Whenever two people
harmony was restored when both groups dislike one another, their relationship
were equally invested in achieving a goal involves non-balance. This is not
that required everyone’s help and especially pleasant or unpleasant because
cooperation. For example, Sherif set up a each individual is indifferent about the
situation in which a truck carrying their other person’s similarities or
food supply broke down and the help of all dissimilarities.
the boys was needed to bring the food to
EQUITY THEORY
camp. After completing a series of such
tasks requiring interaction and everyone’s It focuses on determining whether the
involvement, positive behavior toward the distribution of resources is fair to both
other group members increased. The boys relational partners. Equity is measured by
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likely to be given control of an entire water self-interest might lead to a process called
supply, fishing grounds, or the climate, the tragedy of the commons, which
how might you conduct some research to occurs when “each [person] is locked into
understand what causes greed or a system that compels him to increase his
cooperation in these situations? [harvesting] without limit—in a world that
is limited. Ruin is the destination toward
Defensible space represents a way of which all [persons] rush, each pursuing his
fighting crime through careful arrangement own best interest” (Hardin, 1968, p. 1244).
of the physical aspects of communities, Hardin’s (1968) article in the journal
retail buildings, and residences. The way Science on the ultimate consequences of
in which a building or community is resource dilemmas has been very
designed can encourage or discourage influential. He concluded that commons
burglars, robbers, and vandals. What could dilemmas probably would be fatal to the
those design factors be? How could social entire planet eventually. In terms of one
psychology be a part of this kind of enormous environmental-social problem,
research? climate change, many tendencies to not
take appropriate action have been
Social dilemmas are a group of situations identified. These “dragons of inaction”
in which individuals face important (Gifford, 2011) include over 30 “species”
choices. Sometimes individuals do not in seven “genera” – limited cognition,
realize how important their choices are— certain ideologies, social norms and
or even that they are making choices—but comparison, discredence (mistrust of
that is a separate problem. In social experts), perceived risks (of changing
dilemmas, the rewards to the individual for one’s behavior), sunk costs (e.g.,
noncooperation are greater than the investments in resource extraction), and
rewards for cooperation no matter what limited behavior (e.g., “I recycle, so I have
others do; however, if most individuals done enough”).
involved fail to cooperate, then everyone
receives lower rewards (Dawes, 1980). Grounded theory analysis is a
sophisticated way of learning how people
Public goods problems involve dilemmas think about particular issues by asking
about whether to contribute (e.g., time, them what they are doing, and why, as
effort, money) to a project that would they are considering something such as
benefit everyone when such a contribution making a decision about using a resource.
is voluntary. For example, one may decide It uses the think-aloud procedure, in
to help (or not help) build a neighborhood which individuals explain their decisions
children’s playground. The dilemma is that moment by moment as they make them.
contributing costs something (in this case, This procedure enables the researcher to
one’s money or time), but if not enough track online cognitive processing as it
others contribute, the playground project naturally occurs. As noted earlier, in most
will not be successful. resource dilemma studies, researchers
simply impose a set of conditions on the
In a limited common consisting of some harvesters and then observe their resultant
desirable resource, individuals acting in decisions. This tells us little about exactly
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how the decision makers arrived at their in more of the undesirable behavior than
decisions because it ignores what goes on the norm and also for those who engage in
in the “black boxes” of the people’s minds. less of the undesirable behavior than the
norm. Thus, in shifting their behavior
Getting people to reduce household toward greater conformity with the norm,
energy usage. A third major the former individuals will show
environmental issue is household energy reductions in the undesirable behavior,
use, which is a major contributor to the whereas, contrary to the objectives of the
steady increases in greenhouse gas intervention, the latter individuals will
emissions. In 2008, households accounted show increases in the undesirable behavior
for about 21% of U.S. carbon dioxide (i.e., the boomerang effect).
emissions (U.S. Department of Energy,
2009). Therefore, effective interventions Schultz and colleagues suggested the
aimed at lowering household energy usage possible importance of a second type of
can help to ameliorate the negative impact norm, an injunctive norm, that is, a norm
of households on the environment. The that communicates/defines what is the
Internet has been used as an intervention culturally appropriate and approved
tool to encourage consumers to use less behavior. The researchers hypothesized
energy. It was used by Abrahamse, Steg, that introducing an injunctive normative
Vlek, and Rothengatter (2007) in the message along with a descriptive
Netherlands to encourage households to normative message will prevent the
reduce their use of direct energy (gas, occurrence of a boomerang effect. That is,
electricity, and fuel) and indirect energy individuals whose levels of undesirable
(that which is used to produce, transport, behavior are already relatively low will be
and dispose of consumer goods). A made aware of this fact (by the descriptive
combination of three intervention norm) but will be less tempted to shift
strategies was employed: (a) a list of toward the norm because at the same time
energy-saving measures with potential they will receive a message that approves
savings tailored to each household, (b) a of their current behavior.
goal-setting request to reduce energy
consumption by 5% over five months, and Have you ever had to study, live, or work
customized feedback about changes in in a school, home, or workplace that just
energy use and amount of money saved. did not work well and foster the types of
The 5% goal was achieved. Households behavior the situation called for?
consumed 5.1% less energy, whereas a Certainly, some parts of the built
control group had a slight increase in environment need much improvement.
energy consumption. One well-known example is a large
apartment complex in St. Louis, Missouri,
Schultz and colleagues reasoned that the that was completed in 1954. The Pruitt–
occurrence of unintended boomerang Igoe project was designed with the
effects may account for some of the admirable intention of replacing
disappointing results. They suggested that deteriorating inner-city housing. The
the normative information provided might design for this complex, which contained
act as a “magnet” for people who engage 43 eleven-story buildings to house 12,000
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people, was praised in an architectural is, real people imagined in real spaces
journal for having vandal-resistant (Schneekloth&Shibley, 1993). To “make a
features, individualistic design, and no place,” architects and social designers
wasted space (“Slum Surgery in St. work together to create an “envelope for
Louis,” 1951). The Pruitt–Igoe design behavior,” meaning that they think mainly
saved space in part by having elevators about what people actually do in a
stop only at every third floor, so that most building rather than think of the building
residents would walk up or down one mainly as a sculptural object without much
flight of stairs to their apartments. Pruitt– regard for the people who will be using it.
Igoe cost much less per unit than did
comparable buildings. The design changes Social design is not always needed in the
were considered so admirable that the design process. It is not required, for
architect even applied for a patent on the example, in times, places, and cultures
design. where buildings are constructed by small
But problems appeared soon after Pruitt– communities in which everyone works
Igoe opened. The failure to carefully together in accordance with a time-tested
examine its design in relation to human architectural tradition. These traditions,
social behavior contributed to high rates of called preindustrial vernacular
fear, vandalism, serious crime, and (Rapoport, 1969), evolved an architecture
vacancy. A particular problem was crime that already quite well fits community and
in the stairwells that residents were forced cultural norms, individual interests, local
to use caused by the “innovative” elevator climate, geography, and building
savings plan. The situation was so bad materials. When community members are
that, after only 18 years, the city began to both builders and occupants, the design
demolish the entire complex. In this process does not need separate financiers,
example, insufficient consideration of how architects, boards of directors, and
the physical structure would influence construction firms (for an example of
social behavior led to the ultimate failure vernacular architecture, see Figure 13.4).
of the project. Whether the architect ever
received his patent is unknown. SIX GOALS OF SOCIAL
DESIGN.Social design researchers and
Pruitt–Igoe is the most dramatic example practitioners have six main goals, with
of building design failure, but many other some being broader than others and some
buildings also pose problems for their overlapping with others (Steele, 1973):
users. Take a look at Figure 13.3 for a
different example of architecture that fails Create physical settings that match the
to suit human needs. Hard architecture is needs and activities of their
aimed at preventing vandalism but goes so occupants. This goal is probably
far toward that goal that it is the most important one of all.
uncomfortable and, therefore, rarely used. Satisfy building users. Occupant
satisfaction is important because
However, when architects and social occupants must spend significant
designers do collaborate, they begin to parts of their lives working,
think of architecture as placemaking, that residing, or relaxing in the setting.
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Change behavior. Such changes might might seem to be a fine place to stage a
include increasing office worker concert, but for concert-goers and bands,
productivity, enhancing social ties among the acoustics and general aesthetics will
institutionalized elderly people, reducing often be be quite inappropriate for a great
aggression in a prison, or increasing musical experience.
communication among managers in an
administrative office. As we will see, the The early personality theorist Henry
behavior change goal can be both difficult Murray and his collaborators distinguished
to attain and controversial. between two forms of press, which refers
Enhance the building users’ personal to properties or characteristics of
control (Holahan, 1983). The more environmental features that shape behavior
building users are able to alter the setting (Murray, 1938). Alpha press refers to
to make it suit their needs, the less actual reality that can be assessed through
stressful that setting will be. objective inquiry. Beta press refers to
Facilitate social support (Holahan, 1983). people’s interpretation of external reality.
Designs that encourage cooperation, For example, a person may act toward a
assistance, and support are desirable conversation partner in an objectively
primarily for building occupants who are neutral fashion (alpha press) but be
disadvantaged in one way or another but perceived by the partner as aggressive
also for active and successful individuals. (beta press).
Employ “imageability.” This refers to the
ability of the building to help occupants, Alpha matching, or congruence, refers to
and (especially) visitors and newcomers, to how well the setting fits the person from
find their way around without getting lost an objective point of view. For example,
or confused. there is a good (objective) height for
kitchen counters for persons of different
MATCHING.How well the occupants’ heights. Beta matching, or habitability, is
activities and needs are met by the setting “environmental quality as perceived by
is called matching. An example of poor occupants of buildings or facilities”
matching might be a gymnasium when it is (Preiser& Taylor, 1983, p. 6). Some
used for a concert. It is done, but gyms are kitchen workers might not think that a
not very well suited to that task. Ideally, of certain counter height is good for them,
course, buildings should match their even if experts claim that the existing
occupants’ needs and behaviors perfectly. counter height is correct.
However, whether the degree of match is
high or low sometimes depends in part on SOCIAL SUPPORT. Personal control is
whose viewpoint is considered an individual phenomenon, whereas social
(Michelson, 1976). For some, the gym support is a group phenomenon. Social
support is a process in which a person
receives caring, kind words, and
helpfulness from those around him or her.
Many social problems would be eased if
more and better social support were
available. Common psychological
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problems, such as depression and anxiety, anonymity and safety were most preferred
have been shown to increase when social (Refuerzo&Verderber, 1990). Sometimes
support is absent or inadequate. Social social support is maximized when a person
support may be seen as an antistress simultaneously can be near a helper and
process (Moos, 1981). far from an abuser. The difference in
helpfulness and caring is especially large
What can social design do to facilitate when the contrast is between a residence
social support? On a small scale, furniture that is full of hostility and violence and
can be arranged in a sociopetal fashion one that is dominated by caring and
instead of a sociofugal fashion. Sociopetal understanding.
arrangements are those that encourage
social interaction (e.g., when people sit OUTDOOR SPACES.
facing each other), whereas sociofugal Many of the same social design ideas apply
arrangements discourage social to outdoor public areas such as plazas,
interaction (e.g., when people sit in rows parks, and streets. In one of the most widely
or even facing away from one another; used changes wrought by environmental
Mehrabian & Diamond, 1971). At the psychology principles, the very fabric of
building level, open- space areas may be many cities has been changed by a concept
arranged to facilitate social interaction called density bemusing, which can be
(Holahan, 1972). Of course, if the personal traced to the pioneering work of William
control goal, as well as the social support Whyte (1980). Recognizing the need for
goal, is to be met, the increased social some open space in the city core in 1961, the
interaction must be controllable; occupants City of New York offered developers a deal:
should be able to find social interaction For every square foot of plaza they included
when and if they want it but should not be in a new project, their new building could
faced with unwanted social encounters. exceed normal zoning restrictions by 10
square feet. Developers liked the idea, and
In office buildings, social support may be this deal certainly increased New York
fostered through the provision of high- City’s supply of open space downtown
quality lounge space for employees. The
mere existence of such space does not IMAGEABILITY.
guarantee that valuable social support will Buildings should be imageable (i.e.,
be available, but with inadequate space for clearly understandable or legible) to the
employees to share coffee and people who use them (Hunt, 1985). When
conversation, the likelihood of supportive you walk into a building, you should
social networks declines. immediately be able to find your way
around or, in more technical terms, be
capable of purposeful mobility. In simple
Finally, in some cases, social support may
terms, you should not be confused.
result from a design that provides optimal
privacy (being able to filter one’s Too often, a person enters a building that
interactions). Consider shelters for victims is unfamiliar and is unable to figure out
of domestic violence. A study of where to go next. Unless we realize that
alternative designs for such shelters buildings should be imageable, there is a
showed that designs characterized by
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tendency to blame ourselves (e.g., “I never halls with defensible space features (e.g.,
did have a good sense of direction”). more areas over which residents could feel
Sometimes observation reveals that you some control and exercise more
are not the first to have problems. Perhaps “surveillability”) suffered less crime than
you have seen handmade signs that did halls on the same campus without such
occupants have made to be helpful and/or features (Sommer, 1987). A survey of 16
to save themselves from answering the well-conducted studies in which multiple
same question about where such-and-such design changes were made in accordance
is “for the hundredth time.” Such signs with defensible space theory found
represent a failure to make the building reductions in robberies of 30% to 84%
imageable, either through good signage or (Casteel & Peek-Asa, 2000). In what
through good and legible design of the follows, we consider the notion of
building itself. defensible space in several settings.
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lead to crowding, and crowding is not with one another varies from culture to
always the result of high density. culture. Yet in every culture, there are
Crowding is caused, in part, by social rules that govern the choice of those
overload and informational overload, interactional distances.
which in turn lead to the sense that one has
lost control. Designing against crowding Personal space has been described as
is, in part, designing for personal control. hidden, silent, and invisible, yet everyone
Again, simple design changes can be possesses and uses personal space every
effective. By merely adding a few day. Personal space stretches and shrinks
entrances to a mental health center, clients’ with circumstances. It is interpersonal, so
sense of freedom (and thus control) was it depends on with whom people are
increased. Furthermore, the various interacting. It refers to the distance people
treatment units within the center choose to stay from others, but social
experienced a greater sense of identity interaction, involving angle of orientation
because therapists felt as though they had and eye contact, is also part of personal
their “own” entrances (Gutkowski, Ginath, space. Finally, personal space can be
&Guttman, 1992). invaded, although such invasions are a
Stress is often related to lack of personal matter of degree (Patterson, 1975). In sum,
control over physical and social input. personal space is the geographic
Noise, unwanted social contact, component of interpersonal relations, that
congestion, and a lack of places of refuge is, the distance and angle of orientation
are examples of primary sources of stress (e.g., side by side, face to face) between
(Evans & McCoy, 1998). Good social individuals as they interact (Gifford,
design can anticipate and attempt to 2014).
overcome such sources or at least buffer
the user from them. Beyond these within-culture variations,
personal space is used differently around
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN the world. In one study, for example,
PERSONAL SPACE groups of four male students came to the
laboratory and were told that they would
Environmental psychologists are acutely be observed but were given no other
aware that human behavior varies instructions (Watson & Graves, 1966).
considerably around the world. The ways Half of the groups were composed of
in which people celebrate birth, teach their Arabs, and half were composed of
children, dress, get married, work, and are Americans. The average interpersonal
treated at death are like a colorful tapestry distance chosen by Arabs was about the
of swirling colors. Yet in another way, and length of an extended arm, whereas the
at another level, people are the same average interpersonal distance chosen by
everywhere. They celebrate births, teach Americans was noticeably farther. The
their children, dress, get married, work, Arabs touched one another much more
and recognize death in some kind of often, and their orientation was much more
ceremony. Personal space is like that; the direct. In general, the Arabs were much
distance across which individuals interact more “immediate” (close) with one
another than were the Americans.
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Such findings might lead to overly such training. Consider the implications
simplistic generalizations or stereotypes for diplomats or even ordinary tourists.
about cultural differences, for example,
that some cultures are “close” and others APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
are “distant.” However, two studies PSYCHOLOGY TO DIFFERENT
(Forston& Larson, 1968; Mazur, 1977) LEVELS OF JUSTICE
revealed that students from supposedly
close cultures (Latin America, Spain, and KIRK BLOODSWORTH:
Morocco) chose seating positions that
were farther apart from one another than Is the first American sentenced to
did students from a supposedly distant death row to be exonerated by DNA,
culture (United States). Furthermore, not although his death sentence had
all Latin Americans use the same amount already been commuted to two
of space (Shuter, 1976). Costa Ricans, for consecutive life sentences by the time
his exoneration based upon DNA
example, choose smaller interpersonal
evidence was in the works.
distances on average than Panamanians
Bloodsworth was released as a result
and Colombians. of DNA testing, a new science,
revealed that the evidence left on
Despite some oversimplifications, personal Dawn’s clothing could not have come
space does vary with culture. In one study, from him.
for example, Japanese people used more The question is how could the legal
system have incarcerated an innocent
distance in conversations than did
man? Bloodsworthnot fit the
Americans, who in turn used more than did
description given by eye witness
Venezuelans. But when the same Japanese
accounts of a tall, 6 ft all man with
and Venezuelans spoke English instead of
curly blond hair.
their first languages, their conversational
It seems as if the jurors convicted
distance moved toward that of the solely on the eyewitness testimony
neighbours.
Americans (Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1982). provided by two young boys and other
Language, an important part of culture, can
modify one’s cultural tendencies to use But could their identifications have
been influenced by the procedures the
more or less interpersonal distance.
evidence?
police used to collect this eyewitness
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information. Schemas are general purpose So, whilst you might encode a few details
'packets' of knowledge that correspond to about it, for example, the layout, or the
frequently encountered people, objects or colour of the walls and so on, you would
situations. They allow us to make sense of not need to store any more than this. For
what we encounter in order that we can this reason, schema driven processing
predict what is going to happen and what increases the efficiency or cognitive
we should do in any given situation. economy with which memory operates.
Schemas are a very effective way of However, schema driven processing has
processing information. Besides making an important consequence for the way we
the world more predictable, they remove store information. By forcing new
the need to store similar information more situations to fit into our schemas, we may
than once. For example, if you think about distort them in some way. So the
a kitchen, you will probably find that your information encoded in memory will not
idea of kitchens includes features like a correspond exactly to what we actually
cooker, a fridge, cupboards, work surfaces
and so on. Your schema for 'kitchen' encounter. When we later recall the
includes these features, because you have information, these distortions will have
discovered through your experiences that been incorporated into our recall that
most kitchens have them in some form. hence may not be entirely accurate.
Now, suppose you visit someone's house THE WORK OF FREDERICK
for the first time, and they ask you to get BARTLETT
something from the kitchen. You may not These general ideas were first formulated
know where the kitchen is, but you would by Frederick Bartlett in the 1930s. Bartlett
be able to recognise it when you found it carried out a large number of studies in
because it would contain all or most of the which he showed that the ways in which
things that feature in your 'kitchen participants make sense of something (i.e.
schema'. Additionally, when you got there, the schema they apply to it) affects the
it would not be necessary for you to store way they recall it later. In one study,
information about its contents, because participants were shown unfamiliar line
you would already know most of what was drawings like the one below and instructed
in there due to your having a schema for to memorise them.
that particular type of room.
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Bartlett asked his participants to talk aloud participant. Bartlett hypothesised that his
whilst trying to memorise the figures. He participants would find the story difficult
found that different participants would to understand and memorise and, hence,
make sense of the figures in different that when they recalled it they would
ways. For the figure above, for example, distort it in a number of ways. As he
one participant called the drawing a predicted, the participants' retellings of the
pickaxe, whilst another called it a turf story differed from the original in several
cutter. When the participants were later characteristic ways:
The story became significantly shorter.
asked to draw the figures as they
Much of the detail was lost.
remembered them, Bartlett found that the
Some details were changed e.g. 'seal
labels (or schemas) they had applied hunting' became 'fishing'.
during initial encoding influenced their to become more
The structure altered
'Westernised'.
recall:
These differences in recall show that the The participants attempted to fit the story
schema applied by the participants affected into their western schemas and, as a result,
their recall of the stimulus. Another study distorted it during recall. This showed that
by Bartlett illustrated further the role that they were not recalling the information
schemas can play in the distortion of exactly as it had been presented to them,
information in memory. Participants were but were making a 'best guess' at the story,
asked to memorise a short story called 'the based on their own understanding. Bartlett
war of the ghosts'. The important thing called this the tendency to make 'efforts
about this story is that it comes from a after meaning'. He concluded that we
native American tradition, whilst the always try to recall things in a way that is
participants were British. Native American consistent with out schemas and, hence,
storytelling uses different conventions to that memory is 'the imaginative
European storytelling, and different reconstruction of experience'. The Work of
assumptions are made about the Elizabeth Loftus You may be wondering
knowledge that the listener is likely to what kitchens, pickaxes and folk tales
have. So the schemas needed to understand have to do with eyewitness testimony. The
'the war of the ghosts' would not link between reconstructive memory and
necessarily be possessed by a European witness testimony was made by Elizabeth
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Loftus in the 1970s. Following on from different questions about what they had
Bartlett's work, she reasoned that seen. Loftus and her colleagues found that
witnesses to crimes, rather than recalling the different questions caused the
events exactly as they happened, are participants to recall the events differently.
creating reconstructions of the crime based For example, Loftus &Zanni (1975) found
on their own schematic understanding of that asking the participants if they had seen
the world. However, Loftus Contributed 'the' broken headlight rather than 'a' broken
by Aidan Sammons took this idea one step headlight increased the likelihood that they
further. She suggested that any new would report seeing one, even though there
information about the crime that the was no broken headlight in the film.
witness took in had the potential to distort Similarly, Loftus & Palmer (1974) found
their recall of events. Where might this that participants who were asked how fast
new information come from? There are a the cars were going when they 'smashed
number of possible sources. For example, into' each other gave higher estimates of
witnesses might confer with each other speed than participants who were asked how
about what they saw, thereby fast the cars were going when they 'hit' each
contaminating each other’s' accounts. But other. In a further study, Loftus, Miller &
the most problematic source of new Burns (1978) found that they were able to
information is the leading questions that get some participants to recall having seen a
may be asked by police and lawyers. A sign by the road, even though there had been
leadingquestion is a question that contains no sign shown. This study also showed that
information previously unknown to the most participants were unaware that they
witness. For example, a police officer that had been misled, which helps to reduce the
asks 'how many times did Joe Bloggs hit possibility that results like these are simply
the victim?' is not only requesting the result of demand characteristics. Loftus'
information about an assault but basic position on eyewitness testimony is
incidentally conveying the idea that it was that, frequently, witness’ accounts of what
Joe Bloggs that hit the victim and not Joe they have seen are little better than guesses.
Blow. This information has the potential to This finding was highly influential in the
affect the witness' understanding of the writing of The Devlin Report, which
event so that, when they are later asked concluded that, unless the circumstances
who carried out the assault, the were highly unusual, eyewitness testimony
understanding that it was Joe Bloggs has should not result in a conviction in an
been implanted in their recollection of English court in the absence of other
what happened. This is a fairly trite corroborating evidence. However, not all
example, and it is unlikely that a police researchers agree with Loftus' point of view.
officer or lawyer would ask such a Some research has shown that, if the
blatantly leading question. However, the circumstances are right, witness recall can
information suggested by real leading be extremely accurate. For example, Yuille
questions can be subtle and go unnoticed
by the witness. Loftus carried out a Cutshall (1986) examined the recall of
number of studies in which participants witnesses to a shooting in a town in
were shown films of car crashes.Different Canada. A man had attempted to rob a gun
groups of participants were asked slightly shop. During the course of the robbery the
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to violent crimes to focus their attention on hypothesis. Weapon focus appears most
the weapon used. Weapon focus usually likely to occur when the weapon is
results in poor quality testimony, as the incongruous (for example, a nun holding a
witness is unable to describe much that is gun will be more poorly recalled than a
useful about other aspects of the incident. soldier holding a gun) and when a weapon
This is why bank tellers (whom you might in not appropriate to the situation (e.g. a
expect to be able to describe an armed person holding a gun is poorly recalled if
robber quite well, if they have faced one) they are depicted in a restaurant but
can typically describe the weapon used in reasonable well recalled if they are
great detail, but not the person who was depicted on a firing range). Arousal,
pointing it at them. Studies of Weapon Anxiety and Violence Distraction Some
Focus Loftus et al (1987) showed researchers have questioned whether
participants one of two films. In one, a witnesses' poor recall of violent incidents
customer in a restaurant was holding a is solely due to attentional focus. For
cheque, in the other he was holding a gun. example, Clifford and Scott (1978) found
It was found that participants had a higher that witnesses to violent incidents
recall for the 'cheque' condition. Maass and generally recall less than witnesses to non-
Kohnen (1989) carried out a field violent incidents, regardless of whether a
experiment in which participants were weapon was used or not. They showed
approach by a woman holding either a pen participants one of two films involving the
or a syringe. Participants in the 'pen' same people. In one film there was a
condition were able to supply more physical assault. Participants who viewed
accurate descriptions of the woman. this film were less likely to identify the
Studies like these give support to the people involved than those who had
suggestion that witnesses' attention tends viewed the non-violent film. Clifford and
to be drawn towards a weapon, thereby Hollin (1981) examined the relationship
preventing them from taking in other between the level of violence and recall.
details about the situation. However, this They found that the higher the level of
theory rests on the assumption that the violence depicted, the poorer participants'
weapon represents a threat. What about recall of an assault.
situations in which weapons do not pose a
threat? It might be suggested that in these There are two possible reasons why this
situations weapon focus does not occur. might be:
The research appears to support this
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CONTENTS
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES:
Nature, Principles, Factors in development, Stages of Development.
Successful aging.
PSYCHOTHERAPIES:
Psychoanalysis, Person-centered, Gestalt, Existential, Acceptance Commitment Therapy,
Behavior therapy, REBT, CBT, MBCT, Play therapy, Positive psychotherapy, Transactional
Analysis, Dialectic behavior therapy, Art therapy, Performing Art Therapy, Family therapy.
Teacher effectiveness
GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS:
Needs, organizational set up and techniques
COUNSELLING:
Process, skills, and techniques
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HUMAN
UNIT DEVELOPMENT and
9 INTERVENTIONS
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more applied settings like health care and treat people living with developmental
facilities or clinics help to assess, evaluate disabilities. Developmental psychologists
may also work in assisted living homes for
the elderly, hospitals, mental health clinics
and centres for the homeless.
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GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
Development refers to overall changes in
Growth refers to physiological
theindividual. It involves changes in anorderlyand
changes.
coherent type towards the goal of maturity.
Growth occurs due to the Development occurs due to both maturation and
multiplication of cells. interaction with the environment.
The changes produced by growth are Development brings qualitative changes which are
subjects of measurements. They may difficult to measure directly. They are assessed
be quantified and observable in through keen observation of behavior in different
nature. situations.
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music talent from his parents through appreciation for cultural differences
transmission of genes, but he may and the understanding that cultural
not excel in music field if he does practices are best understood from
not get the proper environment and the standpoint of that particular
support to develop his innate ability. culture. The socialization processes
of the child take place according to
HOME ENVIRONMENT: Home the culture, customs and traditions of
environment exerts tremendous the society. For example, greeting
influence on child’s understanding of someone is a familiar experience but
the external world. It builds self- behavioral experiences are different
concept and prepares him to face the
in different cultures. In Indian
external world. The child begins to
culture, people greet others by saying
acquire knowledge through namaskar, folding hands or lying
interaction with parents and down near the feet but in Western
otherfamilymembers.Duringhisearly culture, people greet by handshake or
yearsofdevelopment,thebehaviorsoft kissing or saying hello etc.
hechildare modulated by the home
environment. The environment of the
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
family can be supportive or stressful
(SES): Socioeconomic Status plays a
for the child. If it is supportive,
pivotal role in human development.
warm and harmonious environment,
The index of socioeconomic status is
the child develops normally. In
determined by parental education,
unsupportive and stressful home
occupation and income. The children
environment, broken families or
of low socioeconomic status may
uncaring parents in the family,
develop as mal- nourished, suffer
children may develop as mal-
from lack of knowledge in many
adjusted persons.
aspects and the normal development
may get hampered. The parenting in
CULTURAL FACTORS: Culture high socioeconomic status families
is the totality of our shared would be different from low socio-
language, knowledge, material economic status families. Children
objects, and behavior. Culture fro of the high socioeconomic
teaches us how to live in a society groups of the society get better
and allows us to advance because social opportunities, are nurtured
each new generation can benefit with better nutrition, good medical
from the solutions found and passed treatment and are exposed to more
down from previous generations. intellectual stimulation than low
Culture is learned from parents, socioeconomic group.
schools, houses of worship, media, NORMATIVE INFLUENCES:
friends and others throughout a Normative influences occur in a
lifetime. The kinds of traditions and
similar way for majority of people in
values that evolve in a particular
a particular group. These influences
culture serve to help members
may be biological or environmental.
function and value their own society.
For example, biological events like
We tend to believe that our own
sexual maturity or deterioration in old
culture’s practices and expectations
age. Environmental events, like
are the right ones. This belief that
entering the school at about 6 yrs. of
our own culture is superior is called
age, parenthood etc. have the same
ethnocentrism and is a normal by-
influences on
product of growing up in a culture. It
individuals.Mostofthepeopleofthesa
becomes a roadblock, however,
meage,atsameplaceandtimeandgener
when it inhibits understanding of
ationhave common biological and
cultural practices from other
environmental influences such as
societies. Cultural relativity is an
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important role in bringing about that developmental path? Are you at the whim
feature. Those on the side of nurture of your genetic inheritance or the
would argue that one's environment is environment that surrounds you? Some
most significant in shaping the way we are. theorists see humans as playing a much
This debate continues in all aspects of more active role in their own development.
human development, and most scholars Piaget, for instance believed that children
agree that there is a constant interplay actively explore their world and construct
between the two forces. It is difficult to new ways of thinking to explain the things
isolate the root of any single behavior as a they experience. In contrast, many
result solely of nature or nurture. behaviorists view humans as being more
passive in the developmental process.
CONTINUITY VERSUS
DISCONTINUITY: Is human
development best characterized as a slow, STABILITY VERSUS CHANGE: How
gradual process, or is it best viewed as one similar are you to how you were as a
of more abrupt change? The answer to that child? Were you always as out-going or
question often depends on which reserved as you are now? Some theorists
developmental theorist you ask and what argue that the personality traits of adults
topic is being studied. The theories of are rooted in the behavioral and emotional
Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are tendencies of the infant and young child.
called stage theories. Stage theories or Others disagree, and believe that these
discontinuous development assume that initial tendencies are modified by social
developmental change often occurs in and cultural forces over
distinct stages that are qualitatively
different from each other, and in a set,
universal sequence. At each stage of
development, children and adults have
different qualities and characteristics.
Thus, stage theorists assume development
is more discontinuous. Others, such as the
behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information
processing theorists, assume development
is a more slow and gradual process known
as continuous development. For instance,
they would see the adult as not possessing
new skills, but more advanced skills that
were already present in some form in the
child. Brain development and
environmental experiences contribute to
the acquisition of more developed skills.
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• Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the tabula rasa view
2 major strengths:
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Does not provide evidence about
development at the level at which it
LIMITATIONS actually occurs: the individual
(Kraemer et al., 2000).
Comparisons are limited to age-group
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methods and techniques they use and the source of pleasure at the particular
ways they use them (Barker and Weller, stage. Theyare:
2003; Sanders and Munford, 2005). The
ORAL STAGE (BIRTH TO 18
methodology chosen needs to match the
MONTHS):Itbeginsatbirthand
research questions of the project, respect
extend till12to18months.
limitations of time and resources, be
Inthisstagethemouthistheprimaryorga
sensitive and ethical, and consider the
nofgivingpleasure.Theexperienceofth
particular characteristics and needs of the
e child and mother relationship has
participants, as well as the cultural and
an impact on unconscious mind of
physical setting where it takes place (e.g.
the child. This stage relates to the
Christensen and Prout, 2002; Punch, 2002a
activities like feeding, crying,
teething, biting and thumb sucking,
etc.
THEORIES OF HUMAN ANAL STAGE (18 MONTHS TO
DEVELOPMENT 3 YEARS):The child gets sensual
gratification from withholding
andexpellingfecesduringthisstage.An
usisthechiefsourceofpleasure. The
child’s real experiences during this
stage have an impact upon the
FREUDIAN MODEL OF unconscious and behaviors. Pleasure
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES derived from body parts are the
centre of the world during this stage.
Sigmund Freud (1953, 1964a, 1964b) PHALLIC STAGE (3 TO 6
proposed that people are born with YEARS): During this period the
biological drives that must be child derives pleasure from genital
redirected so as to live in society. The region. Many of the normal sexual
personality of the child is formed in behaviour of human personality
childhood, as children deal with develop in this period. The child’s
unconscious conflicts between these sexual longing is intensified at this
inborn urges and the requirements of time. This is the stage in which
civilized life. These conflicts occur in conflicts related to reproductive
an unvarying sequence of five issues areresolved.
maturational based stages of
psychosexual development, in different LATENCY STAGE (6 TO
stages of development, sexual pleasure PUBERTY):This stage is a stage of
shifts from one body zone to another, learning skills rather than a
i.e. from the mouth to the anus and then psychosexual stage. There is no
to the genitals. sexual development takes place
during this period.
According to Sigmund Freud there are Thisisthetimeofrelativecalmbetween
five stages of development. Freud moreturbulentstages.Previousexperie
believed that nces, fears and conditioning have
personalityisformedinfirstthreestagesw shaped many of the child’s feelings
hichincludesfirstfewyearsoflife,aschildr andattitudes.
endeal
withconflictsbetweentheirbiological,sex
uallyrelatedurgesandthepressuresofthes
ociety. At each stage there a change in
the main source of gratification. Each
stage is characterized
byatypicalpleasuregainingbehavioraswe
llasaconflictduetothesocialpressures.Th
ese stages are named according to the
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preschool
Initiative v Purpose and Ruthlessness
Phallic / family / exploration and
Guilt discovery, adventure and play Direction / Inhibition
schoolchild / school,
Industry v teachers, friends, Competence Narrow Virtuosity
Latency
Inferiority neighborhood / achievement and Method / Inertia
and accomplishment
adolescent / peers, groups,
Identity v Puberty
influences / resolving identity Fidelity and Fanaticism
Role and
and direction, becoming a Devotion / Repudiation
Confusion Genitality grown-up
mid-adult / children,
Generativity Care and Overextension
- community / 'giving back',
v Stagnation helping, contributing Production / Rejectivity
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that must be successfully overcome in also motivates behaviors and actions. Each
order for a child to develop into a healthy, stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned
well-adjusted adult. with becoming competent in an area of
According to Erikson, a person passes life. If the stage is handled well, the person
through eight developmental stages that will feel a sense of mastery, which he
build on each other. At each stage we face sometimes referred to as ego strength or
a crisis. By resolving the crisis, we ego quality. 2 If the stage is managed
develop psychological strengths or poorly, the person will emerge with a
character traits that help us become sense of inadequacy. In each stage,
confident and healthy people. One of the Erikson believed people experience a
main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial conflict that serves as a turning point in
stage theory is the development of ego development. In Erikson’s view, these
identity. 1 Ego identity is the conscious conflicts are centered on either developing
sense of self that we develop through a psychological quality or failing to
social interaction. According to Erikson, develop that quality. During these times,
our ego identity is constantly changing due the potential for personal growth is high,
to new experience and information we but so is the potential for failure.
acquire in our daily interactions with
others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson
also believed that a sense of competence
and doubt by working to establish
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST independence. This is the “me do it” stage.
For example, we might observe a budding
sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
From birth to 12 months of age, infants wants to choose her clothes and dress herself.
must learn that adults can be trusted. This Although her outfits might not be appropriate
for the situation, her input in such basic
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
needs for survival. Infants are dependent independence. If denied the opportunity to act
on her environment, she may begin to doubt
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who her abilities, which could lead to low self-
are responsive and sensitive to their esteem and feelings of shame.
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world 3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive
caregivers who do not meet their baby’s Once children reach the preschool stage
needs can engender feelings of anxiety, (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the initiating activities and asserting control
world as unpredictable. If infants are over their world through social
treated cruelly or their needs are not met interactions and play. According to
appropriately, they will likely grow up Erikson, preschool children must resolve
with a sense of mistrust for people in the the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning
world. to plan and achieve goals while interacting
with others, preschool children can master
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition
and responsibility, occurs when parents
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to allow a child to explore within limits and
explore their world, they learn that they then support the child’s choice. These
can control their actions and act on their children will develop self-confidence and
environment to get results. They begin to feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
show clear preferences for certain
elements of the environment, such as food,
toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is
to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame
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on their lives with few regrets. However, following his or her crying is more likely
people who are not successful at this stage to employ crying behavior in the future.
may feel as if their life has been wasted. Or, an individual who has experienced
They focus on what “would have,” “should ridicule following his or her initiation of a
have,” and “could have” been. They face social contact may soon employ
the end of their lives with feelings of withdrawal and isolation as a
bitterness, depression, and despair. developmental coping style. A second
behavioral approach to the explanation of
the influence of environment on
BEHAVIORISM THEORY development is that initially presented by
Albert Bandura (1997, 2008) as social
learning theory. Bandura’s model
Whereas,Erikson introduced
expanded the classic behavioral theory to
heimportanceofsocialcontexttodevelopmen
include cognitive
t,theBehavioralTheory, at least in its
elements.Bandura’sworkemphasizedtheim
classical form, placed nearly sole emphasis
portanceofobservationallearning(also
on the impact of environment, experience,
called imitation or modeling). For
and learning about the unfolding
example, consider the situation of a child
development of the human condition. This
who was raised in an environment where
orientation can best be illustrated by a
there was much domestic arguing and
quote offered by John B. Watson (1878–
physical violence and the employment of
1985), deemed the father of American
alcohol as a stress- reducing strategy.
Behaviorism.Watson’semphasisontheroleo
Raised in this setting and observing these
fenvironmentintheshapingofhumandevelop
social exchanges and coping styles, the
mentis concretized in his statement “Give
child, according to social learning theory,
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed,
would be very likely to model the
and my own specified
observed behavior and engage in similar
worldtobringthemupinandIwillguaranteetot
domestic violence and alcohol
akeanyoneatrandomandtrainhimtobecomea
usebehaviors.
ny type of specialist I might select... doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief... According to Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, and
and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, Pastorelli (2001), social learning is connected to
regardless of his talents, penchants, perceptions and interpretations of the individual’s
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of experience. Self-efficacy, the belief that personal
his ancestors” (Watson, 1998, p.82). That
achievement depends on one’s actions, teaches
is quite a guarantee and clearly highlights
the valuing and people to have high aspirations and to strive for
focusesthisbehavioristplacedontheroleofen notable accomplishments when they see others
vironment,experience,andlearninginthecre solve problems successfully. This premise is
ationof the humancondition. contrary to Behavioral Theory, which holds that
Two main themes or forms of behavioral theory behavior depends on associations between one
have been presented in explaining how the stimulus and
environment has such a formational impact. One anotherandalsoassumesthatallbehaviorsrea
proffered by B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) suggested ctfromachainoflearnedresponses.Incontrast ,social
that behavior was formed, or shaped, as a result of learning maintains that behaviors come from
the consequences experienced. His operant people acting on the stimulation of theenvironment.
conditioning model argued that behavior followed
by a rewarding stimulus would be more likely to
recurandendurethanthatfollowedbyapunish COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ingconsequence(Cohen,1987;Skinner,1974 ).Thus, THEORY (JEAN PIAGET)
an infant who experiences the comfort of being
picked up and cradled Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist was
particularly concerned with the way
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thinking develops in children from birth world, which we use both to understand
till they become young adults. To and to respond to situations. The
understand the nature of this development, assumption is that we store these mental
Piaget carefully observed the behavior of representations and apply them when
his own three kids. He used to present needed.
problems to them, observe responses
Piaget believed that newborn babies have
slightly after the situations and again
a small number of innate schemas - even
observe their responses. Piaget called this
before they have had many opportunities
method of exploring development clinical
to experience the world. These neonatal
interview. Piaget believed that humans
schemas are the cognitive structures
also adapt to their physical and social
underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes
environments in which they live.
are genetically programmed into us.For
THERE ARE THREE BASIC example, babies have a sucking reflex,
COMPONENTS TO PIAGET'S which is triggered by something touching
COGNITIVE THEORY: the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple,
a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger.
1. Schemas- (building blocks of Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby
knowledge). has a 'sucking schema.'
2. Adaptation processes that enable the Similarly, the grasping reflex which is
transition from one stage to another
elicited when something touches the palm
(equilibrium, assimilation, and of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in
accommodation). which a baby will turn its head towards
Stages of Cognitive Development- something which touches its cheek, are
innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be
sensorimotor, the combination of two schemas, grasping
preoperational, and shaking.
concrete operational,
formal operational.
ASSIMILATION AND
ACCOMMODATION
SCHEMAS
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth,
Schemas are the basic building blocks of 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a
such cognitive models, and enable us to process of adaptation (adjustment) to the
form a mental representation of the world. world. This happens through:
Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as:"a ASSIMILATION: Which is using an
cohesive, repeatable action sequence existing schema to deal with a new
possessing component actions that are object or situation.Example: A 2-year-
tightly interconnected and governed by a old child sees a man who is bald on top
core meaning." of his head and has long frizzy hair on
the sides. To his father’s horror, the
When Piaget talked about the development toddler shouts “Clown, clown”
of a person's mental processes, he was (Siegler et al., 2003).
referring to increases in the number and
complexity of the schemata that a person ACCOMMODATION: This happens
had learned.When a child's existing when the existing schema (knowledge)
schemas are capable of explaining what it does not work, and needs to be
can perceive around it, it is said to be in a changed to deal with a new object or
state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of situation. Example: In the “clown”
cognitive (i.e., mental) balance. incident, the boy’s father explained to
his son that the man was not a clown
Piaget emphasized the importance of and that even though his hair was like
schemas in cognitive development and a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny
described how they were developed or costume and wasn’t doing silly things
acquired. A schema can be defined as a set
of linked mental representations of the
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The lasting
Intuitive ThoughtSub-stage,
from 4 to 7
years is marked by greater dependence
on intuitivethinking rather than
just perception (Thomas, 1979). At this
stage, children ask many questions as
they attempt to understand the world
around them using immature
reasoning. Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism
involved showing children a three-
Let’s examine some of Piaget’s assertions dimensional model of a mountain and asking
about children’s cognitive abilities at this them to describe what a doll that is
age.
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looking at the mountain from a different However, even younger children when
angle might see. Children tend to choose a speaking to others tend to use different
picture that represents their own, rather sentence structures and vocabulary when
than the doll’s view. By age 7 children are addressing a younger child or an older
less self-centered. adult. This indicates some awareness of
the views of others.
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words, Vygotsky believed that social
learning comes before cognitive
The main assertion of the Vygotsky theory
development, and that children construct
is that the cognitive development of
knowledge actively.
children is advanced through social
interaction with other people, particularly
those who are more skilled. In other VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF ZONE
OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
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higher skill level the More Knowledgeable child by a More Knowledgeable Other
Other (MKO). They could be teachers, that enables the child to perform a task
parents, tutors and even peers. until such time that the child can perform
this task independently.
VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF
SCAFFOLDING According to Vygotsky’s theory,
scaffolding entails changing the quality
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is and quantity of support provided to a child
closely related to the concept of the Zone in the course of a teaching session. The
of Proximal Development. Scaffolding MKO adjusts the level of guidance in
refers to the temporary support given to a order to fit the student’s current level of
performance.
Freund (1990) conducted a study in which Vygotsky believed that language develops
children had to decide which items of from social interactions, for
furniture should be placed in particular communication purposes. Vygotsky
areas of a dolls house. Some children were viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a
allowed to play with their mother in a means for communicating with the outside
similar situation before they attempted it world. According to Vygotsky (1962)
alone (zone of proximal development) language plays two critical roles in
while others were allowed to work on this cognitive development:
by themselves (Piaget's discovery It is the main means by which adults
learning). Freund found that those who had transmit information to children.
previously worked with their mother
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Language itself becomes a very powerful for the purpose of self-regulation (rather
tool of intellectual adaptation. than communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)
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The teacher's role in the process is reduced together to form sentences, groups of
over time. Also, Vygotsky is relevant to words that make meaningful statements.
instructional concepts such as Pragmatics is the study of language as
"scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in used in particular situations, which may
which a teacher or more advanced peer affect its meaning. Consider the
helps to structure or arrange a task so that statement, “What a wonderful day!” and
a novice can work on it successfully. its various meanings if the sun is shining,
Vygotsky's theories also feed into the if the rain is pouring down, and if the
current interest in collaborative learning, speaker has just received a traffic ticket.
suggesting that group members should
have different levels of ability so more
advanced peers can help less advanced ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. B. F.
members operate within their ZPD. Skinner believed that language acquisition,
an important development in childhood,
occurs because of reinforcement, that is,
LANGUAGE
because children’s parents or other
caregivers reward them when their initially
Language is a system of communication random sounds most resemble speech.
using gestures, sounds, or written symbols Linguist Noam Chomsky contested
that have significance for those who use Skinner's approach and proposed the well‐
the language and follow its rules. In known, but controversial, theory that
speech, phonemes are the smallest units of children have an innate neural mechanism
sound in a language, and although they called a language acquisition device
individually have no meaning, they acquire (LAD) (not yet discovered), which allows
it when combined. For example, the them to master language.
phonemes k and r alone convey no
meaning (other than that they are letters),
but together they sound like car, which is a
meaningful sound in the English language.
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here)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5
KOHLBERG’S MORAL czp9S4u26M
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Kohlberg believed and was able to
Lawrence Kohlberg was, for many years, a demonstrate through studies...that people
professor at Harvard University. He progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e., in
became famous for his work there their bases for ethical behavior) through a
beginning in the early 1970s. He started as series of stages. He believed that there
a developmental psychologist and then were six identifiable stages which could be
moved to the field of moral education. He more generally classified into three levels.
was particularly well-known for his theory
of moral development which he The first level of moral thinking is that
popularized through research studies generally found at the elementary school
conducted at Harvard's Center for Moral level. In the first stage of this level, people
Education. behave according to socially acceptable
norms because they are told to do so by
His theory of moral development was some authority figure (e.g., parent or
dependent on the thinking of the Swiss teacher). This obedience is compelled by
psychologist Jean Piaget and the American the threat or application of punishment.
philosopher John Dewey. He was also The second stage of this level is
inspired by James Mark Baldwin. These characterized by a view that right behavior
men had emphasized that human beings means acting in one's own best interests.
develop philosophically and
psychologically in a progressive fashion. The second level of moral thinking is that
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to generally found in society, hence the name
tell people stories involving moral "conventional." The first stage of this level
dilemmas. In each case, he presented a (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude
choice to be considered, for example, which seeks to do what will gain the
between the rights of some authority and approval of others. The second stage is
the needs of some deserving individual one oriented to abiding by the law and
who is being unfairly treated. responding to the obligations of duty.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s The third level of moral thinking is one
(1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the
who lived somewhere in Europe: (Link majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5)
is an understanding of social mutuality and
a genuine interest in the welfare of others.
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The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect Kohlberg, it was important to present them
for universal principle and the demands of with moral dilemmas for discussion which
individual conscience. While Kohlberg would help them to see the reasonableness
always believed in the existence of Stage 6 of a "higher stage" morality and encourage
and had some nominees for it, he could their development in that direction. The
never get enough subjects to define it, last comment refers to Kohlberg's moral
much less observe their longitudinal discussion approach. He saw this as one of
movement to it. the ways in which moral development can
be promoted through formal education.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could Note that Kohlberg believed, as did Piaget,
only progress through these stages one that most moral development occurs
stage at a time. That is, they could not through social interaction. The discussion
"jump" stages. They could not, for approach is based on the insight that
example, move from an orientation of individuals develop as a result of cognitive
selfishness to the law and order stage conflicts at their current stage.
without passing through the good boy/girl
stage. They could only come to a Kohlberg's classification can be outlined
comprehension of a moral rationale one in the following manner:
stage above their own. Thus, according to
CRITICISM:
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Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias. achievement of separation from the mother
In contrast with Kohlberg’s justice or on the progress of individuation. Since
perspective, Gilligan argues for a care masculinity is defined through separation
perspective, which is a moral perspective while femininity is defined through
that views people in terms of their attachment, male gender identity is
connectedness with others and emphasizes threatened by intimacy while female
interpersonal communication, relationships gender identity is threatened by separation.
with others and concern for others. Thus, males tend to have difficulty with
According to Gilligan, Kohlberg greatly relationships, while females tend to have
underplayed the care perspective, perhaps problems with individuation.
because he was a male, because most of Even though Gilligan’s critique is an
his research was with males rather than important one, questions have been raised
females, and because he used male about Gilligan’s gender conclusions
responses as a model for his theory. (Walker and Frimer, 2009). For example, a
In Gilligan’s conception of morality, meta-analysis casts doubt on Gilligan’s
which is different from psychologists like claim of substantial gender differences in
Freud,Piaget or Kohlberg, the moral moral judgements (Jaffee and Hyde,
problem arises from conflicting 2000). Also, a research review concluded
responsibilities rather than from competing that girls’ moral orientations are
rights and requires for its resolution a “somewhat more likely to focus on care
mode of thinking that is contextual and for others than on abstract principles of
narrative rather than formal and abstract. justice, but they can use both moral
This conception concerned with the orientations when needed (as can boys...)”
activity of care centers moral development (Blakemore, Brenbaum and Liben, 2009).
around the understanding of responsibility
and relationships, just as the conception of
Some other criticisms of Kohlberg’s
morality as fairness ties moral
theory include:
development to the understanding of rights
and rules. The morality of rights differs Moral thought and moral behavior:
from the morality of responsibility in its Kohlberg’s theory has been
emphasis on separation rather than criticized for placing too much
connection and in its consideration of the emphasis on moral thought and not
individual rather than the relationship as enough emphasis on moral
primary. behavior (Walker, 2004).
This dissimilar construction of the moral
problem by women has been cited as the Culture and Moral Reasoning:
critical reason for their failure to develop Kohlberg emphasized that his
within the constraints of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning are
universal, but some critics claim
system. his theory is culturally biased
(Gibbs, 2010; Miller, 2007).
The differences in morality in men and
women may as well be understood by Families
and Moral Development:
differences in their formation of gender Kohlberg argued that family
identity as pointed out by Gilligan (1979) processes are essentially
in her paper ‘Woman’s Place in Man’s unimportant in children’s moral
Life Cycle.’ development. However, most
experts on children’s moral
For boys and men, separation and development conclude that parent’s
individuation are critically tied to gender moral values and actions influence
identity since separation from the mother children’s development of moral
is essential for the development of
masculinity. On the other hand, for girls
and women, issues of femininity or
feminine identity do not depend on the
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Examples: the connection between the quickly during the Prenatal Period, which
child’s teacher and his parents, between is the time between conception and birth.
his church and his neighborhood, etc. Fetal development occurs in
THE EXO-SYSTEM – this layer defines cephalocaudal order, beginning with the
the larger social system in which the child head and ending with the lower body and
does not function directly. The structures extremities. This sequence of development
in this layer impact the child’s results in the head of a typical fetus being
development by interacting with some disproportionately larger than the rest of
structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). its body.This period is generally divided
Parent workplace schedules or community- into three stages: the germinal stage, the
based family resources are examples. The embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.
child may not be directly involved at this
level, but he does feel the positive or
negative force involved with the STAGE 1: THE GERMINAL STAGE
interaction with his own system. The two-week period after conception is
called the Germinal Stage. Conception
occurs when a sperm cell combines with
THE MACROSYSTEM– this layer may an egg cell to form a Zygote. About thirty-
be considered the outermost layer in the six hours after conception, the zygote
child’s environment. While not being a begins to divide quickly. The resulting ball
specific framework, this layer is comprised of cells moves along the mother’s
of cultural values, customs, and laws fallopian tube to the uterus.
(Berk, 2000). The effects of larger
principles defined by the macrosystem
have a cascading influence throughout the Around seven days after conception, the
interactions of all other layers. For ball of cells starts to become embedded in
example, if it is the belief of the culture the wall of the uterus. This process is
that parents should be solely responsible called Implantation and takes about a
for raising their children, that culture is week to complete. If implantation fails, as
less likely to provide resources to help is quite common, the pregnancy
parents. This, in turn, affects the structures terminates. One key feature of the
in which the parent’s function. The germinal stage is the formation of a tissue
parents’ ability or inability to carry out that called the Placenta. The placenta has two
responsibility toward their child within the important functions:
context of the child’s microsystem is Passing oxygen and nutrients
likewise affected. from the mother’s blood into
the embryo or fetus
THE CHRONOSYSTEM– this system Removing waste materials
encompasses the dimension of time as it from the embryo or fetus
relates to a child’s environments. Elements STAGE 2: THE EMBRYONIC
within this system can be either external, STAGE
such as the timing of a parent’s death, or The Embryonic Stage lasts from the
internal, such as the physiological changes end of the germinal stage to two
that occur with the aging of a child. As months after conception. The
children get older, they may react developing ball of cells is now called
differently to environmental changes and an Embryo. In this stage, all the
may be more able to determine more how major organs form, and the embryo
that change will influence them. becomes very fragile. The biggest
dangers are teratogens, which are
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES agents such as viruses, drugs, or
radiation that can cause deformities
PRENATAL in an embryo or fetus. At the end of
DEVELOPMENT:Development happens the embryonic period, the embryo is
only about an inch long.
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Motor skills, or behavioral abilities, body) and proximodistal (extremities and
develop in conjunction with physical lower body) patterns, so that motor skills
growth. In other words, infants must learn become refined first from the center and
to engage in motor activities within the upper body and later from the extremities
context of their changing bodies. At about and lower body. For example, swallowing
1 month, infants may lift their chins while is refined before walking, and arm
lying flat on their stomachs. Within movements are refined before hand
another month, infants may raise their movements.
chests from the same position. By the
fourth month, infants may grasp rattles, as TEMPERAMENT:Some babies have
well as sit with support. By the fifth fussy personalities, while others have
month, infants may roll over, and by the chirpy or quiet natures. These differences
eighth month, infants may be able to sit result from Temperament, the kind of
without assistance. At about 10 months, personality features babies are born with,
toddlers may stand while holding onto an individual differences in behavioural
object for support. At about 14 months, styles, emotions, and characteristic ways
toddlers may stand alone and perhaps even of responding.Temperament has an
walk. Of course, these ages for each emotional basis; but while emotions such
motor‐skill milestone are averages; the as fear, excitement, and boredom come
rates of physical and motor developments and go, temperament is relatively
differ among children depending on a consistent and enduring.
variety of factors, including heredity, the Temperament—sometimes defined as a
amount of activity the child participates in, person’s characteristic, biologically based
and the amount of attention the child way of approaching and reacting to people
receives. and situations—has been described as the
how of behaviour: not what people do, but
Motordevelopment how they go about doing it (Thomas &
follows cephalocaudal (center and upper Chess, 1977).
Temperament appears to be largely inborn
and probably hereditary. But not fully
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formed at birth. It can change during the Easy children tend to be happy and
early months in response to parental adapt easily to change. They have
attitudes and treatment. regular sleeping and eating patterns
and don’t upset easily.
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, two Slow-To-Warm-Up children tend
researchers who study temperament, to be less cheerful and less
described three basic types of adaptable than easy children. They
temperament: easy, slow to warm up, and are cautious about new
difficult. In their research, 40 percent of experiences. Their sleeping and
the children were easy, 15 percent were eating patterns are less regular than
slow to warm up, and 10 percent were those of easy children.
difficult. The remaining 35 percent of the Difficult children tend to be glum and
children displayed a mixture of these irritable, and they dislike change.
temperaments: Their eating and sleeping patterns
are irregular.
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were fed
from bottles “nursed” by the warm,
connected to the cuddly cloth ones
wire “mothers
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When the parent Disorganized - This pattern
returns they disoriented reflects the
actively seek attachment greatest
contact, and their insecurity.
crying is reduced At reunion, these
immediately. infants show
confused,
Avoidant These infants
attachment seem Contradictory
unresponsive to behaviors.
the parent when They might look
she is present. way while being
held by the
When she leaves,
they usually are parent or
not distressed, approach her
and they react to with flat,
the stranger in depressed
much the same emotion.
way as to the Most
parent. Communicate
their
During reunion
they avoid or are disorientation
slow to greet the with a dazed
parent, and when expression on the
picked up, they face.
often fail to A few cries out
cling. after having
calmed down or
Resistant Before
attachment separation, these display odd,
infants often frozen postures.
seek closeness to
the parent and CAREGIVING STYLES AND
fail to explore. ATTACHMENT:
When she
returns, they
Dozens of studies report that sensitive
display angry,
caregiving- responding promptly,
resistive
consistently and appropriately to infants
behavior,
and holding them tenderly and carefully-
sometimes
is moderately related to attachment
hitting and
security in diverse cultures.
pushing.
Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be
In addition,
many continue to unavailable or rejecting (Posada and
cry and cling Kaloustian, 2010). They often don’t
after being respond to their babies’ signals and have
picked up and little physical contact with them. When
cannot be they do interact with their babies, they
comforted easily. may behave in an angry or irritable way.
Resistant infants often experience
inconsistent care. Their mothers are
unresponsive to infant signals. Yet when
the baby begins to explore, these mothers
interfere, shifting the infant’s attention
back to themselves. In general, the
caregivers tend not to be very affectionate
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with their babies and show little synchrony about 46 inches and weigh about 46
when interacting with them. pounds. Of course, these figures are
Caregivers of disorganized babies often averages and differ from child to child,
neglect or physically abuse them (Bernard depending on socioeconomic status,
and others, 2012; Bohlin and others, 2012; nourishment, health, and heredity factors.
Groh and others, 2012).
b. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Across several studies, a special form of
communication called interactional
Brain and nervous system developments
synchrony separated the experiences of during early childhood also continue to be
secure and insecure babies. It is best dramatic. The better developed the brain
described as a sensitively tuned and nervous systems are, the more
“emotional dance” in which the caregiver complex behavioral and cognitive abilities
responds to infant signals in a well-timed, children are capable of.
rhythmic, appropriate fashion.
The brain is comprised of two halves,
THE CHILDHOOD STAGE: the right and left cerebral
hemispheres. Lateralization refers to the
localization of assorted functions,
Ages 2 through 6 are the early childhood competencies, and skills in either or both
years, or preschool years. This stage hemispheres. Specifically, language,
includes two sub-stages: one is early writing, logic, and mathematical skills
childhood and another is late childhood. seem to be located in the left hemisphere,
This period covers the period between the while creativity, fantasy, artistic, and
age of 3 to 11 years. Sometimes the girls at musical skills seem to be located in the
13 years right hemisphere. Although the
andboysat14yearsofageareconsideredasado hemispheres may have separate functions,
lescentsandtillthenthechildisconsidered these brain masses almost always
beinginthechildhoodstage.Duringthisperio coordinate their functions and work
dsignificantphysicalandpsychologicalchan together.
ges take place.
The two cerebral hemispheres develop at
different rates, with the left hemisphere
a. PHYSICAL CHANGES
developing more fully in early childhood
(ages 2 to 6), and the right hemisphere
Children begin to lose their baby fat, or
developing more fully in middle childhood
chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon
(ages 7 to 11). The left hemisphere
acquire the leaner, more athletic look
predominates earlier and longer, which
associated with childhood. The child's
may explain why children acquire
trunk and limbs grow longer, and the
language so early and quickly.
abdominal muscles form, tightening the
appearance of the stomach. Even at this
early stage of life, boys tend to have more Another aspect of brain development is
muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers' handedness, or preference for using one
physical proportions also continue to hand over the other. Handedness appears
change, with their heads still being to be strongly established by middle
disproportionately large, but less so than in childhood. About 90 percent of the general
toddlerhood. population is right‐handed, while the rest
of the population is left‐handed
and/or ambidextrous. A person is
Three‐year‐old preschoolers may grow
ambidextrous if he or she shows no
to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about
preference for one hand over the other.
32 pounds. For the next 3 years, healthy
Typically, right‐handedness is associated
preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3
with left‐cerebral dominance and left‐
inches and gain from 4 to 6 pounds per
handedness with right‐cerebral dominance.
year. By age 6, children reach a height of
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The nervous system undergoes changes in Form a mental image of the behavior.
Imitate the behavior.
early childhood, too. The majority of a
Practice the behavior.
child's neurons, or cells that make up
Be motivated to repeat the behavior.
nerves, form prenatally. However, the glial
cells, (nervous system support cells
In other words, children must be ready,
surrounding neurons) that nourish,
have adequate opportunities, and be
insulate, and remove waste from the
interested in developing motor skills to
neurons without actually transmitting
become competent at those skills.
information themselves, develop most
rapidly during infancy, toddlerhood, and
early childhood. The myelin sheaths that d. FAMILIAL RELATIONSHIPS
surround, insulate, and increase the
efficiency of neurons (by speeding up the DIANA BAUMRIND'S (1966, 67)
action potential along the axon) also form PROTOTYPICAL DESCRIPTIONS
rapidly during the first few years of life. OF 3 PARENTING STYLES
The postnatal developments of glial cells
and myelin sheaths help to explain why The permissive parent attempts to behave
older children may perform behaviors that in a nonpunitive, acceptant and affirmative
younger children are not capable of. manner towards the child's impulses,
desires, and actions. She [the parent]
consults with him [the child] about policy
c. MOTOR SKILLS
decisions and gives explanations for
family rules. She makes few demands for
Motor skills are physical abilities or
household responsibility and orderly
capacities. Gross motor skills, which
behavior. She presents herself to the child
include running, jumping, hopping,
as a resource for him to use as he wishes,
turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and
not as an ideal for him to emulate, nor as
dancing, involve the use of large bodily
an active agent responsible for shaping or
movements. Fine motor skills, which
altering his ongoing or future behavior.
include drawing, writing, and tying
She allows the child to regulate his own
shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily
activities as much as possible, avoids the
movements. Both gross and fine motor exercise of control, and does not
skills develop and are refined during early encourage him to obey externally defined
childhood; however, fine motor skills standards. She attempts to use reason and
develop more slowly in preschoolers. If manipulation, but not overt power to
you compare the running abilities of a 2‐ accomplish her ends (p. 889).
year‐old and a 6‐year‐old, for example,
you may notice the limited running skills
The authoritarian parent attempts to
of the 2‐year‐old. But the differences
shape, control, and evaluate the behavior
are even more striking when comparing a
and attitudes of the child in accordance
2‐ year‐old and 6‐year‐old who are tying
with a set standard of conduct, usually an
shoelaces. The 2‐year‐old has difficulty
absolute standard, theologically motivated
grasping the concept before ever
and formulated by a higher authority. She
attempting or completing the task.
[the parent] values obedience as a virtue
and favors punitive, forceful measures to
Albert Bandura's theory of observational curb self-will at points where the child's
learning is applicable to preschoolers' actions or beliefs conflict with what she
learning gross and fine motor skills. thinks is right conduct. She believes in
Bandura states that once children are keeping the child in his place, , in
biologically capable of learning certain restricting his autonomy, and in assigning
behaviors, children must do the following household responsibilities in order to
in order to develop new skills: inculcate respect for work. She regards the
Observe the behavior in others.
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PEERS- PLAY:
The significance of peers is made evident inculcates initiative taking and adherence
very early on. Play is a voluntary, to social rules.
intrinsically motivated, usually non-literal Piaget (1951) and Parten (1932) divided
activity which helps children develop new playing behaviour on the basis of content
skills, mastery over their own body, and social dimension:
cognitive skills, physical health and
PIAGET (1951) PARTEN (1932)
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PHYSICAL CHANGES
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and the penis and testes in boys. abstract and hypothetical ways, young
Menarche, or the first menstrual period, adolescents often get caught up in a mental
marks the onset of puberty in girls. The world far removed from reality. This may
average age of menarche for American entail the belief that things just can’t or
girls is about twelve and a half. The won’t happen to them and that they are
beginning of Nocturnal Emissions, so- omnipotent and indestructible.
called wet dreams, marks the onset of
puberty in boys. American boys typically ERIKSON AND IDENTITY
5th stage: Identity vs. Role confusion
begin to produce sperm by fourteen years
of age. Girls reach full sexual maturation
around age sixteen, and boys reach sexual Developing a coherent sense of self and
role one has to take up
Modifying & synthesizing earlier
maturity at around eighteen.
identificationsintoanew
PSYCHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
IDENTITY greater than the sum of its parts
(Kroger, 1993)
Organizing abilities, needs, interests,
David Elkind [1967, 1976, 1978]:
desires be expressed in a
that can
IMMATURE ASPECTS OF social context.
of
ADOLESCENT THOUGHT: Danger
confusion
this stage is: identity or role
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about topics like religion or politics. Are or degrees to which a person has achieved
you religious? Are you involved in a set identity. As we go through them,
politics? Marcia tried to identify different think about your own identity.
people's occupations and ideologies in
IDENTITY STATUS
order to identify their current identities.
Based on his interviews, Marcia proposed
that there are four major identity statuses,
COMMITMENT
PRESENT ABSENT
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shaping their members interpersonal interacting and this leads to the formation
relations. of unisex cliques (especially comprising of
ADOLESCENT GROUPS V/S CHILD high-status members of the former
GROUPS: The number of cross-sex cliques). These unisex cliques are closely
relations increase in adolescent groups. associated with other such cliques, making
These adolescent groups include a broader a cohesive crowd. As adolescence
array of members and have more defined progresses, these crowds disintegrate and
rules. Dexter Dunphy’s (1963) supports become loosely associated groups of
the notion that while late childhood sees couples.
the development of same-sex cliques,
during early adulthood these cliques start
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they irritate the perpetrators) are more Group size: From age 5 onwards, boys
likely to get bullied (Hanish and Guerra, tend to having larger groups of
playmates as compared to girls.
2004). A 2004 Netherlands study found Interactions in same-sex groups- Boys
that victims of bullying are prone to are more likely to participate in
having from headaches, sleeping problems, organized group games and rough and
abdominal pain, lethargy and depression tumble play. They engage in
(Fekkes et. al., 2004). Perpetrators where competition, conflict, ego display, risk
more likely to have low grades and smoke taking, dominance seeking, and group
and drink alcohol. Children who’ve been goal oriented behaviours. Girls are
more likelyto engage in “collaborative
both bullies and victims display the highest discourse”.
level of conduct, school and relationship
problems and bullies enjoyed the highest
ADULTHOOD STAGE
standing among classmates (Juvonen,
Graham and Schuster, 2003). An adult is someone who is
responsible, mature, self-supporting
and well-integrated into
society.Also,peopledonotdevelopthesea
The following methods can be adopted to
ttributesandcharacteristicsatthesametim
curb bullying:
eand with same skills. This adult stage
Get older peers Policy level has three sub-stages of development.
to monitor and changes in First stage is early adulthood, second
intervene institutions stage is middle adulthood, and third
Widespread
Provide peer stage is lateadulthood.
advertising of
support groups In early childhood period adults are at
anti-bullying the peak of physical health, strength
for those
messages at a and energy. Sensory and motor systems
who’re bullied are at their highest functioning. Adults
community level
Using social
Involving
gain weight and their
skills training heightincreases.Theydevelopintimaterel
parents to ationships,theymarryandbegintheirfami
help bullies in lies.At this period of life adults take
inculcate
early stages to many important decisions of life like
positive choice of career, type of friends,
modify residence, etc. independently and
behaviour
behaviour accept responsibility and consequences
Reinforce for their own decisions. Every adult
Take help form positive tries for recognition, job security and to
mental health behaviour and excel in hisjob.
professionals model positive
behaviour Middle adulthood period is explained
in terms of a gradual decline in one’s
physical abilities, physical health,
GENDER AND PEER RELATIONS
stamina etc., but the decline is gradual
Gender influences the children’s group in nature. Both men and women feel
composition, size, and interactions, It has tired easily. In this period people
been seen that gender typed behaviors experience stress due to the double
increase in children if their playmates are responsibility of caring for the aged
of the same sex. parents and the growing children.
Group Composition: Even from the tender Women usually experience hormonal
age of 3 years, preference for
changes which results in the loss of
same-sex playmates is evident and
ability to reproduce, a process called
increasingly prominent. This menopause. Many psychological and
preference continues to increase from
age 4-10.
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People commonly believe that with old remember and use learned information.
age intellectual decline occurs. Fluid intelligence includes reasoning,
Intellectual decline is associated with memory and information, processing
respect to certain functions such as; capabilities, whereas
speed, perceptual integration ability, crystallizedintelligenceistheacquiredkn
memory and inductive reasoning. owledgeoftheperson.Duringoldagepeop
People show variability in intellectual leforget that may lead to dementia or
functioning in late adulthood period. Alzheimer’s disease which is possible
Researchers classified intelligence into due to Fluid intelligence, because it
two types. They are: (1) Fluid relates to neurological functioning. On
intelligenceand(2)Crystallizedintelligen the other hand, crystallized intelligence
ce.Fluidintelligencedeclinesasageincrea helps in storing information. Therefore,
ses.Fluid intelligence involves ability to in old age people should keep their
perceive relations, form concepts and minds active by mental exercises such
reason abstractly. Crystallized as problem-solving analysis and other
intelligence involves the ability to operationsetc.
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Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th indicates a move away from what is
edition (DSM-5 for short), states that normal, or the mean (i.e. what would
though “no definition can capture all be considered average and in this case
aspects of all disorders in the range in relation to behavior), and so is
contained in the DSM-5” certain aspects behavior that occurs infrequently (sort
are required. These include: of an outlier in our data). Our culture,
or the totality of socially transmitted
o DYSFUNCTION– includes behaviors, customs, values,
“clinically significant disturbance in an technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and
individual’s cognition, emotion other products that are particular to a
regulation, or behavior that reflects a group, determines what is normal and
dysfunction in the psychological, so a person is said to be deviant when
biological, or developmental processes he or she fails to follow the stated and
underlying mental functioning”. unstated rules of society, called social
Abnormal behavior, therefore, has the norms. What is considered “normal”
capacity to make our well-being by society can change over time due to
difficult to obtain and can be assessed shifts in accepted values and
by looking at an individual’s current expectations. For instance,
performance and comparing it to what homosexuality was considered taboo
is expected in general or how the in the U.S. just a few decades ago but
person has performed in the past. As today, it is generally accepted.
such, a good employee who suddenly
The APA (2000) defines a psychological
demonstrates poor performance may be
disorder as “a clinically significant
experiencing an environmental demand behavioral or psychological syndrome or
leading to stress and ineffective coping pattern that occurs in an individual and
mechanisms. Once the demand that is associated with present distress
resolves itself the person’s (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e.,
performance should return to normal impairment in one or more important
according to this principle. areas of functioning) or with a
significantly increased risk of suffering
o DISTRESS– When the person death, pain, disability, or an important
loss of freedom”
experiences a disabling condition “in
social, occupational, or other important
ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE
activities”. Distress can take the form ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR ARE:
of psychological or physical pain, or
both concurrently. Alone though, 1. VIOLATION OF SOCIAL
distress is not sufficient enough to NORMS
describe behavior as abnormal. Why is
that? The loss of a loved one would What is considered socially acceptable
cause even the most “normally” changes overtime (e.g. homosexuality)
functioning individual pain. An athlete and differs between cultures. Also, a
who experiences a career ending injury lot of great leaders violate social
would display distress as well. norms (Martin Luther King)
Suffering is part of life and cannot be
avoided. And some people who display 2. STATISTICAL DEVIATION
abnormal behavior are generally Many behaviors are normally
distributed (bell shaped curve).
positive while doing so.
Not all statistically infrequent qualities
considered bad e.g. Superior
DEVIANCE– Closer examination of intelligence
the word abnormal shows that it
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3. MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
CRITICISM-
4. PERSONAL DISTRESS
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The newest version of the DSM, the DSM-5, was AXIS III – GENERAL MEDICAL
published in May of 2013. This latest revision CONDITIONS
was met with considerable discussion and some
controversy. Axis III was used for coding medical
conditions that influence or worsen Axis 1
DSM-IV-TR MULTIAXIAL and Axis II disorders. Some examples
SYSTEM include HIV/AIDS and brain injuries.
The DSM-IV was originally published in AXIS IV – PSYCHOSOCIAL
1994 and listed more than 250 mental AND ENVIRONMENTAL
disorders. Anupdated version, called the PROBLEMS
DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000. This
version utilized amultiaxial or Any social or environmental problems that may impact
multidimensional approach for diagnosing Axis I or Axis II disorders were accounted for in this
mental disorders. axis. These include such things as unemployment,
relocation, divorce, or the death of a loved one.
The multiaxial approach was intended to
help clinicians and psychiatrists make AXIS V – GLOBAL
comprehensive evaluations of a client's ASSESSMENT OF
level of functioning because mental FUNCTIONING
illnesses often impact many different life
areas. Axis V is where the clinician gives their
impression of the client's overall level of
It described disorders using five DSM functioning. Based on this assessment,
"axes" or dimensions to ensure that all clinicians could better understand how the
factors—psychological, biological, and other four axes interacted and the effect on
environmental—were considered when the individual's life.
making a mental health diagnosis.
CHANGES IN THE DSM-5
AXIS I – CLINICAL SYNDROMES
Axis I consisted of mental health and The DSM-5 contains a number of significant
substance use disorders that cause changes from the earlier DSM-IV. The most
significant impairment. Disorders were immediately obvious change is the shift from
grouped into different categories such as using Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.
mood disorders, anxiety disorders, or eating
disorders. Perhaps most notably, the DSM-5
eliminated the multiaxial system. Instead the
AXIS II – PERSONALITY DSM-5 lists categories of disorders along
DISORDERS AND MENTAL with a number of different related disorders.
RETARDATION Example categories in the DSM-5 include
anxiety disorders, bipolar and
Axis II was reserved for mental retardation related disorders, depressive disorders,
and personality disorders, such feeding and eating
as antisocial personality
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character if it is necessary to subdivide
further.
All of the diagnostic codes start with the
letter F and, like the other chapters, it has
10 major divisions, each of which can be
divided into 10 subdivisions, and so on.
For example, F20 schizophrenia can be
followed by a further number for the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DSM AND
category within the group (e.g. F20.1, ICD
disorganized schizophrenia), and a fourth
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obvious external cause, to an extent that
MAJOR CATEGORIES OF itaffects routine functioning of the
DISORDERS IN DSM-IV-TR person.Stress is the part of daily routine in
a person’s life but the reactions to stress
Anxiety disorders vary fromindividual to individual.
Somatoform disorders Anxiety is one of the various reactions to
stress. Whether or not one will develop
Dissociative disorders anxiety, and to what extent, will depend on
Mood disorders the nature of stress faced, family history,
Schizophrenia and fatigue or over work, and the person’s
coping strategies.
Personality disorders
Sexual disorders
Substance-related disorders MAJOR SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
INCLUDE:
Delirium, dementia, amnesia, and other
Sleeplessness, Headaches, Twitching and
cognitive disorders.
trembling,Dry mouth,Memory
problems,Nightmares, Irritability, Fatigue,
ANXIETY DISORDERS Sweating, Muscle tension, Insomnia
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SOCIAL PHOBIAS
Are insecure in
socialsituations.
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MOOD DISORDERS
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Inappropriate emotions.
Bizarre Motor Behavior
Communication Difficulties
Unusual Motions - May
Echolalia - Repeating the grimace or gesture in
last word or phrase spoken peculiar ways.
by another. Catalepsy - Holding a
Neologisms - Made up particular posture for a long
words. time.
Word Salad - Words Waxy Flexibility - Posture
haphazardly thrown can be molded.
together. Cataplexy - Loss of muscle
Verbal Exhibitionism - A tone.
grandiose manner of
speech.
TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
Disorganized or Marked by inappropriate emotion: inappropriate giggling, laughter,
Hebephrenic Type silliness, incoherentspeech, infantile behavior, and strange and at
times obscene behavior.
The patient experiences delusions and hallucinations of his own
Paranoid
greatness.
Schizophrenia
Behavior is unpredictable, and erratic.
Sense of judgment is lost.
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models of self and others guide Lidz et al. (1958) suggested that
development abnormalities in the relationships
between the parents of mentally ill
LEARNED BEHAVIOUR patients were primarily responsible for
Behavioral models suggest that all their developing psychological
behaviours, abnormal included, is a problems.They coined the terms skew
product of learning, that is mainly and schism to describe such
learning by association. For example, relationships. Skew describes a
according to the classical conditioning marriage where one partner is dominant
model of learning (e.g. Pavlov, 1928), and the other submissive, while schism
if a person experiences chest pain describes the relationship in which
which results in parents are emotionally distant from
anxietywhileshoppinginadepartmentalst one another.
ore,hemaydevelopafearofdepartmentals
tores
andbegintoavoidthembecauseheassociat SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
esthemwithanxiety.Thereisnothinginher
ently One, called social causation, suggest
frighteningaboutdepartmentalstores,but that lower economic class people are
thispersonfearsthembecauseoftheassoci more prone to
ation that he has formed with his earlier mentaldisorderbecausetheyaremorelikel
anxiety about having a possible ytoexperiencesocialstress (e.g.
heartattack unemployment, separation), to suffer
from psychic frailty, infectious
DISTORTED THINKINGCognitive diseases, neurological impairments, and
models of abnormal behaviour focus on to lack good medical treatment, coping
the way people think ability and social support. Through an
aboutthemselves,othersandtheworld(e.g accumulation of these problems, and
.Becketal.,1979).Distortedcognitivepro the stresses that result, low social status
cesses–such as selectively attending to becomes a cause of mental
some information and ignoring other illness.Theotherexplanationemphasizes
information, exaggerating negative socialselectionordrift.Thissuggeststhat
feelings, expecting the worst, or mentally ill people from higher social
making inaccurate attributions about classes often drift downward into the
eventshavebeenshowntoplayanimportan lower-class areas, (due to job loss,
troleinvarioustypesofpsychologicaldiso unemployment) helping to increase the
rders. rate of mental illness in such
neighborhoods. This explanation
FAMILY THEORIES suggests that being lower economic
Fromm-Reichmann (1948) coined the class is a result of mental illness among
term schizophrenogenic mother, to formerly higher status individuals. Both
describe a parent who was cold, explanations may be true to some
domineering and manipulative, and extent.
who had a marked tendency to induce GENDER
conflict in others around her.
The female role is relatively restrictive
Bateson et al. (1956) argued that and oppressive, likely to confine the
schizophrenia develops as a result of woman to her inner self, such that she
repeated exposure to a process called tends to keep her frustration and anger
the double-bind. This term means to herself rather than aggressively pour
communications that are inherently it out on others. Hence women are
contradictory or conflicting, and which more likely to fall victim to depression
put the child in a ‘no win’ situation andanxiety.Men,ontheotherhand,havea
moreliberatedrole,andtheyareencourage
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CHLORPROMAZINE (THORAZINE)
–this refers to the older type of Selective serotonin reuptake
medications that first appeared in the mid- inhibitors (SSRIs): They act by
1950s that work by blocking the action of increasing the amount of
dopamine. These medications were likely serotonin in the brain. The SSRIs
to cause side effects called ‘extrapyramidal include drugs such as Fluoxetine
symptoms’ or EPS, such as: Rigidity (Prozac) and Sertraline (Zoloft).
(muscle stiffness) and ‘Tardive dyskinesia’
Atypical/Serotonin-norepinephrine
– movement of the mouth, tongue and reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): These
sometimes other parts of the body over target serotonin and
which the person has no control. norepinephrine.
ND Serotonin,noradrenalin,and
ATYPICAL / 2 GENERATION
ANTIPSYCHOTICS (E.G. dopamine reuptake inhibitor (or
TM
CLOZAPINE (CLOZARIL) AND SNDRI). Drugs like Wellbutrin
RISPERIDONE (RISPERDAL).This TM
andEffexor blockthe
works on both dopamine and serotonin and reabsorption of the three
also have fewer side effects. Clozapine is neurotransmitters – serotonin,
considered a very effective but it can cause dopamine and norepinephrine.
‘agranulocytosis’, a loss of the white blood
cells and hence blood cell need to OLDER/CLASSICAL
bemonitored every week. Common side- ANTIDEPRESSANTS
effects of atypical antipsychotic include
diabetes and weight gain. Tricyclic antidepressants:
Tricyclics are among the older
antidepressants. They work by
INJECTIONS – DEPOT inhibiting the brain’s reuptake
MEDICATION:Depot medication is of dopamine, serotonin and
given by injection, which releases the drug norepinephrine. Because the
slowly over some weeks. Some people tricyclics have such a broad
prefer injections as they find remembering mechanism of action, they tend
to take tablets difficult. to cause more side effects than
the other classes of
antidepressants.
ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS:These
drugs are used for treating depression, Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
anxiety, eating disorders and certain (MAOIs): MAOIs are not
personality disorders such as borderline. typically chosen as a first-line
There are several types of antidepressants depression treatment because
available to treat depression, such as: of their side effects.
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Free association involves you talking Some believe that due to the nature of
about whatever comes into your mind therapy, psychoanalytic work is better
without censoring or editing the flow of suited to more general concerns such as
memories or ideas. Your therapist will anxiety, relationship difficulties, sexual
encourage you to speak freely to help you issues or low self-esteem. Phobias, social
return to an earlier emotional state, so they shyness and difficulties sleeping are
can better understand any recurrent further examples of areas that may be
patterns of conflict you may be effectively managed with the help of
experiencing. psychoanalytic therapy.
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1950s. One variation is Edward Thorndike was one of the first to
cognitive-behavioral therapy, refer to the idea of modifying behavior.
which focuses on both thoughts Other early pioneers of behavior therapy
and behaviors. included
psychologists Joseph Wolpe
and Hans Eysenck. Behaviorist B.F.
In behavioral therapy, the goal is to Skinner's work had a major influence on
reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate the development of behavior therapy and
unwanted or maladaptive ones. Behavioral his work introduced many of the concepts
therapy is rooted in the principles of and techniques that are still in use today.
behaviorism, a school of thought focused
on the idea that we learn from our Later on, psychologists such as Aaron
environment. The techniques used in this Beck and Albert Ellis began adding a
type of treatment are based on the theories cognitive element to behavioral strategies
of classical conditioning and operant to form a treatment approach known as
conditioning. cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).
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applied behavior analysis. There are For example, an individual with a fear of the
several different techniques and strategies dark might start by looking at an image of a
used in this approach to therapy. dark room, before moving on to thinking
about being in a dark room, and then
actually confronting his fear by sitting in a
FLOODING dark room. By pairing the old fear-
producing stimulus with the newly learned
This process involves exposing people to relaxation behavior, the phobic response can
fear-invoking objects or situations be reduced or even eliminated.
intensely and rapidly. It is often used to AVERSION THERAPY
treat phobias. During the process, the
individual is prevented from escaping or This process involves pairing an
avoiding the situation. undesirable behavior with an aversive
stimulus in the hope that the unwanted
For example, flooding might be used to behavior will eventually be reduced. For
help a person who is suffering from an example, someone suffering from
intense fear of dogs. At first, the client alcoholism might take disulfiram, a drug
might be exposed to a small, friendly dog which causes severe symptoms (such as
for an extended period of time during headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting)
which they cannot leave. After repeated when combined with alcohol.
exposures to the dog during which nothing
bad happens, the fear response begins to BEHAVIOR THERAPY BASED ON
fade. OPERANT CONDITIONING
First, the therapist teaches the client Kids earn tokens for engaging in preferred
relaxation techniques. behaviors and may lose tokens for
Next, the individual creates a ranked displaying undesirable behaviors. These
list of fear-invoking situations. tokens can then be traded for rewards such
Starting with the least fear-inducing as candy, toys, or extra time playing with a
item and working their way up to favorite toy.
the most fear-inducing item, the
CONTINGENCY
client confronts these fears under MANAGEMENT
the guidance of the therapist while
maintaining a relaxed state.
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understanding that they will be utilized in
their future.
CBT breaks problems down into smaller
pieces to give detailed attention to each In cognitive behavior therapy,
part. The techniques aid patients psychological problems are believed to
in disrupting negative, automatic develop through the use of cognitive
thoughts, and replacing them with more distortions. Aaron Beck’s work suggests
helpful ones. The overall goal is to teach that by correcting these distortions, a more
the skill of breaking down negative accurate experience of events is created.
thought patterns and changing them into a Through this work, a patient is better able
more helpful approach to handling daily to develop skills to properly process
life. exposure to life events.
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Ellis believed that it was not the activating scenario is explored with actionable steps
event (A) that causes the negative beliefs attached, so that control over behavior is
and consequences (C), but rather how the realized.
patient interprets or misinterprets the
meaning of the event (B) that helps cause A recent, popular technique being utilized
the consequences (C). in CBT is called Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy. It differs from
Helping a patient reinterpret their irrational traditional CBT in that it is not trying to
belief system helps to forge new ways for teach people to better control their
them to interpret their beliefs resulting in thoughts around their activating events;
alternative behaviors. A person can utilize instead this approach is teaching people to
this technique, even in the absence of a “just notice,” accept and embrace the
therapist. feelings around the activating events. This
approach utilizes techniques from CBT as
Journaling for the awareness of cognitive well, but ACT focuses on freeing the
distortions is a powerful way to better patient from the grip of the event itself.
understand personal cognition. A person
keeps track of their automatic thoughts Mindfulness techniques like deep
and an analysis of the presence of various breathing and Progressive Muscle
distortions is detected. Relaxation (PMR) play a big role in CBT.
These techniques allow the person to be
Once better understood, a person can present in the moment and calmly soothe
utilize different methods to reevaluate the unfocused mind. With the relaxation
these automatic thoughts with evidence. comes the stronger ability to tune in and
Well trained practitioners in CBT can aid alter automatic negative thoughts.
someone who has difficulty in unraveling
these distortions.
Cognitive restructuring is a
Rescripting is a technique used to help CBT technique that helps people examine
patients suffering from nightmares. When their unhelpful thinking. It helps them to
the emotion that is brought to the surface redevelop ways to react in situations that
from the nightmare is exposed, a therapist have in the past proven problematic.
can help the patient to redefine the Keeping a daily record of the automatic
emotion desired and to develop a new negative thoughts creates a way to find the
image to elicit that emotion. patterns in these thoughts. With an
identified pattern, alternative reactions and
Exposure therapy is used in OCD and adaptive thoughts can be forged.
anxiety phobias. Exposing yourself to the
trigger reduces the response to the trigger. Treating thoughts as guesses is a
Many therapists recommend mild exposure technique that helps to gather evidence to
3 times daily. While this may be combat automatic negative thoughts.
uncomfortable during the first exposures, When a person takes their thoughts to
the increase in exposure reduces phobic “court” proof of truth must be found for
reactions. the thought to be held as accurate. If any
proof against the thought is found, it must
The Worst Case/ Best Case/Most Likely be tossed and replaced with a more
Case Scenario technique is used to help accurate thought.
people overcome fear or anxiety. Allowing
the brain to ruminate to the point of A cognitive pie chart is a fun way for kids to
ridiculousness allows the person to “play utilize CBT. The first step is identifying the
out” the fear to an unrealistic end. Then automatic negative thoughts. For example,
the person is brought to the best case and “I’m dumb because I failed a test.” Step two
again allowed to let their thoughts “play is devising a list of alternative explanations
out” to the ridiculous. Then, a most likely to those ANTs.
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RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR You may accept that this just wasn’t meant
THERAPY to be, or that you just weren’t the right fit
for the job. However, you may also be
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy heavily impacted by the decision and
(REBT) is a short-term form of develop an irrational belief about why you
psychotherapy that helps you identify self- didn’t get the job.
defeating thoughts and feelings, challenge
the rationality of those feelings, and You might think, “I didn’t get this job
replace them with healthier, more because they can see that I’m a loser. I’m
productive beliefs. REBT focuses mostly not good at anything and I never will be.”
on the present time to help you understand
how unhealthy thoughts and beliefs create Or, you might think, “The only reason I
emotional distress which, in turn, leads to didn’t get this job is because the hiring
unhealthy actions and behaviors that manager had it out for me. It’s like the
interfere with your current life goals. Once universe has it out for me!”
identified and understood, negative
thoughts and actions can be changed and Both of these are thoughts that can help you
replaced with more positive and explain why you didn’t get the job, but
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they are irrational and can lead to negative consequences may be that you lose your
emotions and behavior down the road. self-confidence or frequently feel sad
(emotional) and stop applying to any jobs
Using this scenario as an example, this is (behavioral).
how the ABCDE model can explain the
development (and the solution) of such D – DISPUTES OR ARGUMENTS
problems:
At some point, you may realize that you
A – ACTIVATING EVENT / have an irrational belief that is causing you
ADVERSITY problems. You notice your loss of self-
confidence and negative thoughts about
An activating event or adversity is yourself and begin to argue against your
something that triggers you to form an irrational belief. If you’re working with a
irrational belief, such as being turned therapist, the therapist may help guide you
down for the position. It is the first step in in developing arguments against the belief
developing an irrational thought because and help you come up with evidence to the
the irrational thought is formed to help contrary, such as “I have an amazing
you deal with the event. spouse. My spouse wouldn’t be with a
‘loser’ so I must not be a loser.”
B – IRRATIONAL BELIEF
E – NEW EFFECT
The “B” stands for the irrational belief that
is formed in response to the activating When you have successfully countered the
event. This is a belief that you use to cope irrational belief, you will notice new
with the event, such as “I’m a loser, I’m (hopefully more positive!) consequences
useless, and I wouldn’t be able to do the or effects. In our scenario, these effects
job anyway.” While this is, of course, an might be increased confidence, applying to
incredibly hurtful thought, it can still be more jobs, and feeling good about your
more comforting than having no idea why abilities. These effects are the positive
you didn’t get the job. Irrational beliefs are outcomes of holding more rational
surprisingly easy to develop. thoughts, like “I just wasn’t a good fit for
that job, but I’ll find another” or “Maybe
C – EMOTIONAL AND the hiring manager really didn’t like me,
BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES but that’s her loss” (McLeod, 2015).
The third component is the consequences The ABCDE model can be extremely
of this irrational belief. Irrational beliefs helpful in tracing the development of
always have consequences, sometimes irrational thought and providing a high-
emotional, sometimes behavior, and level outline of how to challenge and
sometimes both. In this case, the replace it.
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ourselves and others only leads to
disappointment, recrimination, regret, and
THE BASIC STEPS OF REBT anxiety.
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assisting the client to take the next step in This enables the individual to grow in
their personal growth and development. his or her environment through
reacting to the environment and
KEY CONCEPTS changing.
Here and now: This is the individual
Several key concepts underlie Gestalt
living in and being conscious at the
Therapy, many of which are similar to that
present moment rather than worrying
of person-centred and existential therapy.
about the past or the future.
However, what does differentiate Gestalt
Responsibility: This refers to the
Therapy from these therapies are some of
individual taking responsibility for his
the ideas added by Perls and associates as
or her own life rather than blaming
well as distinctive therapeutic techniques
others.
that will be covered further down
(Seligman, 2006). The following are the
key concepts of Gestalt Therapy: Energy and blocks to energy: Gestalt
Therapists often focus on where
Wholeness and Integration: Wholeness energy is in the body, how it is used,
refers to the whole person or the and how it may be causing a blockage
individual’s mind and body as a unit (Corey, 2005). Blocked energy is a
rather than as separate parts (Seligman, form of resistance, for example,
2006). Integration refers to how these tension in a part of the body, not
parts fit together and how the breathing deeply, or avoiding eye
individual integrates into the contact. Gestalt Therapy is about
environment. Often people who come finding and releasing the blockages
to therapy do not have these parts that may be inhibiting awareness.
fitting together in their environment,
Gestalt Therapy is about facilitating Growth Disorders: Growth disorders
clients to integrate themselves as refer to emotional problems that are
whole persons and help restore balance caused by people who lack awareness
in their environment. and do not interact with their
environment completely. In doing so,
Awareness: Awareness is one of the people are unable to cope with the
most important elements in Gestalt changes in their lives successfully and,
Therapy as it is seen as a “hallmark of instead deal with the problems in a
the healthy person and a goal of defensive manner (Seligman, 2006).
treatment” (Seligman, 2006). When
individuals are “aware”, they are able Unfinished business: Unfinished
to self-regulate in their environment. business refers to people who do not
finish things in their lives and is often
THERE ARE TWO MAIN CAUSES related to people with a “growth
LACKING AWARENESS: disorder” (Seligman, 2006). People
with unfinished business often resent
1. Preoccupation with one’s past, the past and because of this are unable
fantasies, flaws and strengths that the to focus on the here and now. One of
individual becomes unaware of the the major goals of Gestalt Therapy is
whole picture. to help people work through their
2. Low self-esteem. unfinished business and bring about
closure.
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EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
THEORIES OF THE EXISTENTIAL
Existential therapy is a unique form of APPROACH
psychotherapy that looks to explore
difficulties from a philosophical A key element of existential counselling is
perspective. Focusing on the human that it does not place emphasis on past
condition as a whole, existential therapy events like some other therapy types. The
highlights our capacities and encourages approach does take the past into
us to take responsibility for our successes. consideration and together, the therapist
and individual can understand the
Emotional and psychological difficulties implications of past events.
are viewed as inner conflict caused by an Instead of putting blame on events from
individual's confrontation with the givens the past, however, existential counselling
of existence. Rather than delve into the uses them as insight, becoming a tool to
past, the existential approach looks at the promote freedom and assertiveness.
here and now, exploring the human Coming to the realization that you are not
condition as a whole and what it means for defined by your history and that you are
an individual. not destined to have a certain future is
often a breakthrough that offers liberation.
On this page, we will look at the
background of existential therapy, Practitioners of existential therapy say that
including the philosophers who influenced its role is to help facilitate an individual's
it, the associated theories and how it could own encounter with themselves and to
benefit you. work alongside them as they explore
values, assumptions and ideals. An
existential therapist will avoid any form of
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY:
BACKGROUND judgement and instead help the individual
speak from their own perspective.
The roots of existential psychotherapy lie
in philosophy from the 1800s, and more The therapist should enter sessions with an
importantly with philosophers whose work open mind and be ready to question their
dealt with human existence. The own biases and assumptions. The goal of
philosophers most commonly associated the therapist is to understand the
with existential therapy are Søren individual's assumptions with a clarity that
Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. the individual themselves may not be able
While the two influential thinkers were in to muster.
conflict regarding the ideologies of their
time, they were committed to the A belief that lies at the heart of existential
exploration of reality and how it was counselling is that even though humans
experienced. are essentially alone in the world, they
long to be connected with others. This
Kierkegaard theorized that human belief can help to explain why certain
discontent could only be overcome via concerns appear and may help the
internal wisdom, while Nietzsche individual understand why they feel the
introduced the idea of free will and way they do sometimes.
personal responsibility. By the 1900s,
philosophers like Sartre and Heidegger had Another interesting theory is that inner
begun exploring the role interpretation and conflict stems from an individual's
investigation had in the healing confrontation with the givens of existence.
process.Over the next few decades, other These givens were noted by influential
contemporaries began to acknowledge the psychotherapist Irvin D. Yalom, and
importance of 'experiencing' in terms of include:
achieving psychological well-being.
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PLAY THERAPY
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ego state is the Blind part (concept Natural Child (FC or NC).
from Johari Window) or the
unconscious part which is
While in Critical Parent people manifest
uncovered by asking from others or
coming in contact with others themselves as disappointed, aggrieved,
(religion, society, parents, etc.). feeling ‘always’ right, patronizing,
moralistic, judgmental, authoritarian,
Adult ego state is those feelings,
controlling, critical, putting down others.
attitudes, behaviors which are
As Nurturing Parent, people act loving,
direct response to current here-and-
reassuring, caring, concerned,
now reality.
encouraging, supportive, understanding,
Child ego state is the archaic feelings,
etc.
emotions, attitudes, and behaviors,
which are remnants of the person’s From adult we are open-minded,
past, significantly from childhood interested, confident, reality-based,
and childhood decisions. It is the process data, organize information,
hidden part (concept from Johari estimate probabilities, make logical
Window) that we do not show to statements, and provide non-
the world. judgmental feedback.
Rebellious Child is defiant and/or
The goal of TA is to help clients
strengthen their Adult Ego State and complaining, disobeys,
enhance their communications with other throws temper tantrums,
people. feels bored and distracts.
Adapted Child acts
THE FUNCTIONAL MODEL OF EGO
STATES compliant, passive, loyal,
withdrawn, pleases others,
Functionally ego states manifest as Critical
feels hurt, sulks and
Parent (CP), Nurturing Parent (NP), Adult
(A), Adapted Child (AC) and Free or ‘always’ feels one down.
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(Sometimes RC and AC are seen as one one which responds. It can be from
and the same form that manifests rebellion any ego state to any other ego state.
and insecurity).
When we are in our Free Child (Natural
Child), we are curious, energetic, fun-
loving, spontaneous, excited and
enthusiastic, and we express our anger,
sadness and fear freelywithout any
inhibition.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:
THE METHOD
Definition of Transaction:A transaction
is defined as a transactional stimulus plus a
transactional response. It is the basic unit
of social discourse or communication. The
stimulus and response could be either
verbal or non-verbal or both CROSSED TRANSACTIONS: When
the transactional vectors are not parallel,
or in which the ego state addressed is not
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONS: the one which responds, it is called a
crossed transaction. Here the response
COMPLEMENTARY comes from an unexpected ego state.
TRANSACTIONS:In a complementary
transaction the transactional vectors are
parallel and the ego state addressed is the
ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS:They
happens when a person appears to be
sending one message overtly (social level)
but secretly sending the other
(psychological level).
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The I’m OK—You’re not OK is the TA therapists believe that past life events
position of people who project their (things that happened maybe in childhood)
problems onto others and blame hold the key to understanding what our
them, put them down, and criticize present difficulties are. This is known in TA
them. The games that reinforce this therapy as the presenting past.
position involve a self-styled
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONAL
superior or one-up (the
ANALYSIS
“I’m OK”) who projects anger,
disgust, and scorn onto a Since the death of Eric Berne in 1970,
designated inferior, or scapegoat Transactional Analysis has developed
(the “You’re not OK”). This along differing theoretical paths,
sometimes referred to as 'Schools'.
position is that of the person who
needs an underdog to maintain his
The Classical School - sometimes
or her sense of “OKness.”
referred to as transactional
analysis proper, includes ego
The I’m not OK—You’re OK is state analysis, life scripts and game
known as the depressive or one- analysis, is the original concept
down position and is characterized based on the work of Eric
by feeling powerless in comparison Berne, Claude Steiner and several
with others. Typically, such people close associates.
serve others’ needs instead of their
own and generally feel victimized. The Re-decision School - developed
Games supporting this position by Bob and Mary Goulding who
include “Kick me” and “Martyr”— integrated TA with Gestalt to make
games that support the power of a powerful, vibrant means of
personal change.
others and deny one’s own.
The Cathexis School - developed
The I’m not OK—You’re not initially by Jacquie Schiff who
OK is known as the position of worked with clients who had been
hopelessness, futility and diagnosed with severe mental
frustration. Operating from this health problems. Her approach
place, people have lost interest in was very controversial and was
life and may see life as totally based on the theory of radical
without promise. This self- reparenting.
destructive stance is characteristic
of people who are unable to cope in Modern Schools of TA are referred to as
the real world, and it may lead to 'second wave' and have significantly
extreme withdrawal, a return to influenced TA practice in recent years.
Practitioners combine these new ideas
infantile behavior, or violent
with the Classical School to produce a
behavior resulting in injury or
contemporary, research-based approach to
death of themselves or others. client work.
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Motivation itself has a vast scope to cater In contrast, extrinsic motivation describes
for, and several motivational theories are activities students engage in while
relevant to the learning domain. The anticipating rewards, be it in the form of
following theories contribute to the good grades or recognition, or out of
essential outcomes of the learning process compulsion and fear of punishment
without being dependent on any other (Tohidi, & Jabbari, 2021).
theories in the education domain:
Motivation can be cultivated extrinsically
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the initial stage, particularly when it
theory comes to activities that are not inherently
self-determination theory (SDT) interesting, as long as the ultimate goal is
the ARCS model to transform it into intrinsic motivation as
social cognitive theory the learning process unfolds. The rationale
expectancy theory for this has to do with a short shelf life and
a potential dependence on rewards.
Self-determination theory (SDT) and the
ARCS model are widely utilized in the Although extrinsic motivation can initially
motivation domain for learning discipline. spark a high level of will power and
The implementation level of theories such engagement, it does not encourage
as social cognitive theory and expectancy perseverance and is challenging to sustain
theory is still in initial stages but can over time due to hedonic adaptation.
significantly contribute to understanding Finally, external rewards or compliments
motivation in learning as well as other undermine the possibility that students will
aspects of life where motivation is crucial. engage in the educational activities for
their own sake or to master skills or
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC knowledge.
MOTIVATION THEORY
Nevertheless, both types of motivation
have their place in the process of learning.
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material that is relevant to their
experiences and needs.
The ARCS model stresses capturing
students’ attention as critical to gaining It recognizes how confidence is related to
and sustaining their engagement in the students’ anticipation of success and
learning and shows how this can be how positive feelings about the learning
accomplished through the use of attractive process lead to greater satisfaction from
and stimulating medium or learning the acquisition of knowledge (Keller,
2008).
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social influence from daily communication motivate employees, strives to show the
to the use of the internet and explains the relationship between the expectations of
relationships between behavior, social and success and anticipation of rewards and the
physical environment, and personal amount of effort expended on a task and
factors. how it relates to the overall performance
(HemaMalini, & Washington, 2014).Simply
SCT illustrates how people gain and put, it explains motivation as a choice based
maintain several behavioral patterns and on the expectation of the results of selected
provides basic intervention strategies like behavior.
interactive learning, which allows students
to gain confidence through practice The expectancy theory explains
(Bandura, 1997). motivation in terms of reasons we engage
in specific behaviors where we expect that
5. EXPECTANCY THEORY effort will lead to better performance,
which in turn will lead to valued rewards.
Expectancy theory, originally developed to
explain how the work environment can
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Micro-Teaching:Micro-
Teachingprovidesteacherswithapractice
settingorinstructioninwhich the normal
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complexities of class room are reduced and cited often and rated highly by
and in which the teacher gets feedback other teachers. This includes a
on performance. growing repository of open
education resources – online open
ProgrammedInstruction:Themethodi source instructional materials that
saindividualizedinstructioninwhichstud can be modified and customized by
entsareactive and proceed at his own endusers.
pace and provided with immediate
knowledge of result. The programmed Collaborate with and learn from
learning is a strategy in which various one another across geographic
kinds of intellectual, emotional and boundaries: The web
motor experiences are provided to shouldenableteacherstofindexcellen
learner in a controlled situation through tlessonplanscreatedbyothers,viewvi
a variety of devices like book, teaching deosoftop- notch delivery, and tap
machines, teacher, radio, television, the wisdom of other teachers in
etc. meeting their toughest challenges
via online discussion boards and
blogs, and via direct
Team Teaching: It is an instructional communication with otherteachers.
situation where two or more teachers
possessing Use online and software-based
complementaryteachingskillscooperativ tools to assess students regularly,
elyplanand implement theinstructionfor diagnose learning challenges, and
a singlegroup of students using flexible select the best responses to the
scheduling and grouping techniques to barrier’s studentsface.
meet the particularinstruction. Benefit from the trove of data
that should be generated if more
Interaction Analysis: It is a technique instruction happens online. The
for analyzing and observing the more students receive instruction
classroom behavior. It provides the and do their work online, the more
structure, component and flow of possible
behavior of classroom activities. It is a itshouldbetocapturedatafromtheirex
feedback device. periencesaboutthemosteffectiveway
stoconveycontent,motivate
T-
students, and address
GroupTraining:Itisalsoafeedbackdevi
students’challenges.
ce.Itisleaderlessgroupoftraineesnumberi
ngeight to twelve, discuss their own
problems of teaching without any ROLE OF A STATE FOR
agenda and suggest some solutions on IMPROVING TEACHER
basis of theirexperiences. EFFECTIVENESS
States are in a strong position to play
SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE several roles in this process:
TEACHER’S EFFECTIVENESS:
More easily access high-quality
curricula aligned to the common, Committing to reaching
college and career- ready, increasing portions of students
with top-quintile instructors and
internationally-benchmarked instruction through various reach
standards: Teachers should extension methods (both in-person
increasingly be easily able to go and remotely with technology);
online and find a myriad of
resources linked to the specific Acceleratingprogressbycreatingde
standards they are teaching, with mandforoutstandingremoteinstructi
high-quality resources “rising to the
onwhereitcanhelp most (e.g., by
requiring or encouraging districts to
top” because they are downloaded
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offer it if they cannot fill teaching We have briefly described here the
slots with effective instructors, and unstructured and structured guidance and
by requiring that remotely offered counselling programme.
instruction meet a top-tier learning
progressstandard); NEED FOR GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING PROGRAMME
Reducing state-level policy GuidanceandCounsellingprogrammeai
barriers to the use of these mstofulfillthefollowingneedsofstudents
mechanisms (e.g., rigid seat-time inschool system.
requirements, upper-grade class
size maximums, teacher Educational Guidance Need: In
certification requirements that educational guidance the emphasis
would block high-quality out-of- is on providing assistance to
state instructors from teaching students to perform satisfactorily in
remotely); and, their academic work. Other needs
include selection of appropriate
course of study, overcome learning
Directing the benefits to students
by difficulties, foster creativity, and
who need them the most
providing funding or other levels of motivation and
improve
inducements for hard-to-staff soon.
schools in particular to make use of
the emerging opportunities. Vocational Guidance Need:
Otherwise, the benefits of new Students also need guidance in
selection of a vocation and
technologies should tend to flow
more naturally to advantaged preparation for the same. Vocational
guidance enables students to acquire
schools and students first. information about career
opportunities, career growth and
educational/ trainingfacilities.
GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS:
NEEDS, ORGANIZATIONAL Personal,SocialandEmotionalGui
danceNeed:Guidanceconcernedwit
SET UP AND TECHNIQUES hpersonalneed of individuals enable
them to adjust themselves to their
InIndiavariouseducationcommissionsha environment so that they become
verecommendedimportanceoftheseservi productive and efficient human
cesinthe education system and thus two being. The main purpose of social
distinct points of view emerged. guidance is to make individual’s
effective and responsible citizen by
According to the first view point
enabling them to contribute to the
guidance and counselling services
society, assume leadership, conform
should be a integral part of the to social norms, develop healthy
educational process and positive attitude towards
andtheeducationalfunctionaries(namely different sections of the society, etc.
subjectteachers)shouldrendertheseservi Guidance also helps individuals in
cesduring attaining emotional maturity. In
teachingintheclassroom.Thesecondview
assist individuals in maintaining
addition, guidance services also
pointemphasizesaseparateguidanceprog
rammeorganized by fully health, both
professionally trained guidance mentalandphysicalandspendingleisu
personnel. On the basis of these two retimemoremeaningfullybydevelopi
viewpoints guidance and counselling nggoodhobbies.
programmes can be categorized as
unstructured orstructured.
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INDIVIDUAL INVENTORY
SERVICE:Individual analysis is
the activity of the school guidance
programmewhichfollowssystematic
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assessmentprocedurestoidentifythec PLACEMENT
haracteristicsand potentials of every SERVICE:Placement, as understood
student. Standardized test results, in the guidance field, usually
school records and observation indicates assistance offered to
reports such as anecdotal records, individuals in taking the next step,
rating scales, self-reporting whether toward further training, a
techniques, (questionnaires and job situation or a different course of
autobiography) are used for study. At present job placement in
collecting data about students’ selected areas is
family background, abilities, done by the employment
aptitudes, interests, achievements exchanges, however, many private
and other psychological variables. placement agencies are also
A counsellor/ guidance worker working to help people in their
takes help of teacher, peers and proper placement. A counsellor/
parents to prepare a cumulative career teacher can
record (CRC) of students. provideinformation to students
about such agencies.
CAREERS INFORMATION
FOLLOW-
SERVICE:Careers information
UPSERVICE:Throughthisservice,
includes information about all types
arecordofschoolleavers(drop-
of occupations and industries,
outsandpass-outs) is kept. Before
educational and training facilities,
leaving the school, the students are
apprenticeship facilities, told about follow-up and its
scholarships and stipends, local and
purpose and through
national employment trends and
questionnaires, interviews, letters
opportunities and occupational
and telephone calls, data is
structure of the country. For
collected. Professional institutions
providing such information to
use email for getting information
students, group guidance activities
from the pass outs.
such as field trips, career
conference-cum-exhibition, career
REFERRAL SERVICE: Students
talks, etc. are organized. A Career with special needs and with specific
Information Corner may be set up problems (emotional, behavioural
to display career information or educational) may require special
materials such as booklets, referral to special institutions or
monographs, pamphlets and posters professionals for proper care and
and charts, newspaper cuttings on treatment. The counsellor or career
occupational and teacher keeps addresses of such
educationalopportunities. institutions/ agencies/ professionals
COUNSELLING who can be approached at the time
of any need.
SERVICE:Counselling is generally
a one-to-one helping relationship
RESEARCH AND EVALUATION
which focuses upon the individuals’ IN GUIDANCE AND
growth and adjustment, and COUNSELLING:Research is
problem solving and decision- necessary for the advancement of the
making needs. The aim of profession of counselling, especially
counselling is self-understanding, to judge the effectiveness of various
self-acceptance and self-realization. techniques and methods being used
Counselling requires a high level of with particular groups. Evaluation is
professional training and skill a means of
assessing
therefore; it should be done by theprogrammeeffectivenessandtoint
trained counsellors who have the
necessaryqualifications.
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rriculumandshouldbecomplementin ,others,homeandfamily; developing a sense of
gotherschool activities
It should be balanced,
fields/areas of guidance e.g.
encompassing the four fundamental community; making
decisions and setting goals;
personal, educational, social, understanding safety
andvocational/career
andsurvival);
It should determine the services to LearningtoLearn(Makingd
be
offered such as orientation,
ecisions,settinggoals,andta
information, counselling, etc.
It as per the
should involve staff members kingaction;understanding
requirement of theprogramme interaction between home,
It should create and demonstrate an
family,schooland
atmosphere of teamwork
It must beflexible
community;and
Should take into account age,
location/environment, cultural understandingfactors
background, sex, economic status which affect school
of the targetgroup achievement); and
benefit all students rather than just
Should Learning to Work
afew (Learning the relationship
Should be printed and displayed for
between personal qualities
and work; exploring
careers; learning how to
use leisure time; learning
the relationship between
educationandwork;learning
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LISTENING
STAGEFIVE:EVALUATION,T a.Attending - orienting
ERMINATIONORREFERRAL
oneself physically to the
Terminatingthecounselingprocess patient (pt) toindicate one
willhave to be conducted with is aware of the patient,
sensitivity with the client knowing and, in fact, that the
that it will have to end. Note that client has your full,
each of undivided attention and
theseStagescontinueseventhoughth that you care. Methods
ecounselorandtheclientmovetothen include eye contact;
extstep.Forexample, after built a nods; not moving around,
relationship, the counselor moves being distracted, eye
to Stage Two which involves contact, encouraging
assessing the problem encountered verbalizations; mirroring
by the client. In the meantime, the bodyposturesand
counselor continues to strengthen language; leaning
the relationship that has been built. forward, etc. Researchers
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OPEN QUESTIONS
UNCONDITIONAL
POSITIVEREGARD A questioning process to assist the
client in clarifying or exploring
An expression of caring and thoughts or feelings. Counselor id
nurturance as well as acceptance. not requesting specific information
and not purposively limiting the
Includes conveying warmth natureof the response to only a yes
Also conveying acceptance by or no, or very briefanswer.
responding to the patient's
messages(verbaland a. Goal is to facilitate exploration –
nonverbal) with not needed if the client is already
nonjudgmental or noncritical doingthis.
verbal &nonverbalreactions. b. Have an intention or therapeutic
Respect- purpose for every question
abilitytocommunicatetothecou youask.
nselor'ssincerebeliefthateveryp c. Avoid asking too many
ersonpossesses questions, or assuming an
theinherentstrengthandcapacit interrogatoryrole.
ytomakeitinlife,andthateachpe
rsonhastherighttochoose his d. Best approach is to follow a
own alternatives and make his response to an open-ended
owndecisions. question with a paraphrase
or reflection which
CONCRETENESS encourages the client to
share more and avoids
Keeping communications specific -- repetitive patterns of
focused on facts and feelings of question/answer/question/an
relevant concerns, while avoiding swer,etc.
tangents, generalizations, abstract
discussions, or talking about 8. COUNSELOR’S SELF-
counselor rather than the client. DISCLOSURE
The counselor shares personal
feelings, experiences, or reactions
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9. INTERPRETATION
a. Keep interpretations
short, concrete (see
concreteness), and
deliver them tentatively
and with empathy.
b. Use interpretations
sparingly and do not
assume a patient's
rejection of your insight
means they are resistant
or that you areright.
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CONTENTS
HEALTH: Health promoting and health compromising behaviors, Life style and Chronic
diseases [Diabetes, Hypertension, Coronary Heart Disease], Psychoneuroimmunology
[Cancer, HIV/AIDS]
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UNIT
EMERGING
10
AREAS
It is important to understand that not all alleviated through the joint action
Social issues are distinguished from immigration. There are also issues that
economic issues. Some issues have both don't fall into either category, such as
social and economic aspects, such as wars.
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ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY however, not only a basic social science
Psychology plays a major role in that studies the nature and determinants of
theories and concepts for understanding kinds of societal problems and issues.
unrest. The role of Social psychology is, behavior and provides tools to change
behavior in preferred directions.
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SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Human-beings are born as male or female
Communities babies, BUT they become masculine or
The perception of being a male or a “Widely held beliefs about females ’and
female. male’s abilities, personality traits, and
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN social behavior” (Weiten, 2001).
“GENDER” AND “SEX”?
WHAT IS ANDOCENTRICITY?
Gender refers to the psychological aspect
Most gender research, especially the initial
whereas sex refers to the physiological/
one, had been androcentric i.e., looking at
physical aspect of the same phenomenon.
issues from the male perspective. For
“Gender” refers to culturally constructed
example: for many years the researchers
categorization of “maleness” and
studying occupations concentrated upon
“femaleness” or masculinity and
men’s formal work and ignored female’s
femininity. The biologically based
domestic work and childcare. The other
distinctions between males and females are
extreme may be gynocentricity (female
referred to as “Sex” of the person.
centered) i.e., evaluating things from
WHO MAKES US BEHAVE AS
women’s point of view alone.
MALES OR FEMALES?
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Before going deep into the concept of denied the right to franchise, to go for
social role and how it is shaped, let’s education, and profession. Woman was
ponder over some questions… treated as a second-rate citizen with
Whybody about
are women more conscious limited or no ability, little or lower grade
weight than men?
men wear makeup as women
Why don’t intelligence and non-trustable skill. These
do?
Can men become good “mothers”? were the major concerns that led to the
Why are women not hired as guards?
beginning of the Feminist Movement to
Why no men sew clothes at home but
most professional tailors are men? establish equality between men and
Whycook men but very few men
most chefs are
at home? woman.
Why are women considered talkative
whereas on average men talk FORMS OF FEMINISM
more?
The answers to these questions pertain Liberal Feminism: (1960s- 1970s)
role allocation and
to societal Liberal feminism had roots in classic
shaping. should have
liberal thought; women
the same rights as men.
FEMINISM
Radical Feminism:They believed that
Feminism is a collection of political the cultural notion of gender needs to
be eliminated. In their view,men are
movements, social movements and the oppressors and women are the ones
who are being oppressed. A similar
ideologies that defend the political, the
Racial or social classes.
Pattern of oppression was also seen in
economic, the personal and the social
Socialist Feminism: Rather than
rights of women.Feminist movements aim seeking liberation at individual level,
at achieving and establishing equality men should be together in
and women
this pursuit.
between women and men. Cultural Feminism:They insist
thatsocial change is a must and that
The modern feminist movement emerged
societies need to accept and appreciate
traditionally feminine values.
from the west. Men and Women both
FEMINIST:
contributed to the cause of improving
A person who believes in the social,
women’s status in the society, in the
political and economic equality of the
political, economic, and social spheres.
sexes. They act, speak, write and advocate
All societies were patriarchal, male
on behalf of women's issues and rights and
dominated, where women were generally
identify injustice to females in the social
oppressed and home bound. Women were
status quo.
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Feminism is the belief that women are early 20th centuries, which dealt
superior mainly with suffrage, working
Feminism is hating men (misandry) conditions and educational rights
Feminism is male oppression for women and girls.
THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT:
First-wave feminism
A movement or way of thinking that involved a period of
feminist activity during the
proposes, advocates, supports, and 19th and early 20th
struggles for social equality of the two centuries, especially in
Europe and in the United
sexes. The difference between men and
States.
Key concerns:
women should be looked into from a
“gender” perspective rather than a “sexist” (the
women's suffrage
right to vote)
perspective. The difference between the
the right to education
sexes is learned and attained, not ascribed
or inherent. Society is the seed bed of our
better working
conditions
gender roles, gender Identity, and gender
and property
marriage
laws
stratification leading to social status and
reproductive rights
ranking of the genders. Feminist
movement had its roots in struggle for The second wave (1960s-1980s)
dealt with the inequality of laws, as
enlightenment, women’s rights, and legal well as cultural inequalities and the
and political rights. role of women in society. By this
time, women in most countries had
The feminists advocate: been granted the right to franchise
and to contest election for public
The significance of change.
office. These feminists were active
Reintegration of humanity: all human
after 1960.They were working for
traits are found in all humans
equality, both economic and social.
(French, 1985).
They fought for the right to
Equal rights and elimination of gender
contraception, birth control and
stratification.
sexual liberation. Sexual liberation
Curbing and bringing an end to all
became a much-debated issue and
forms of violence against women.
was criticized by many feminists.
Promoting sexual autonomy.
THE THREE WAVES OF FEMINISM: Second-wave feminism is a
period of feminist activity
The history of the feminist movements and thought that first began
is divided into three "waves". in the early 1960s in USA
and spread all over the
western world
The first wave refers to the movement and beyond.
Key concerns:
of the 19th through
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social
consciousness
raising
about identities, as
sexism and race, gender,
patriarchy sexuality,
and class,
raising contributes
consciousness about
to the
gender-based
violence, domestic specific type
abuseand marital of systemic
rape oppression
and
inequalitiesin the
workplace discriminatio
n
legalizing abortion
and birth control experienced
by an
sexual liberation of
women individual)
The
The third wave of feminism (1990s- diversity of
2000s) is seen as both a "women" is
continuation of the second wave recognized
and a response to the perceived and
failures. emphasis is
The third wave of feminism placed on
(1990s-2000s) arose identity,
partially as a response to gender, race,
the perceived failures of nation,
second-wave feminism.
social order
As the earlier feminists
and sexual
failed to see and deal with
variations within women. preference
Thus, the third wave Changes on
feminists try to see how stereotypes,
different groups of women media
may be having different portrayals
needs, and circumstances, and language
and requiring different used to
solutions. Womanism, define
Queer theory, and Post- women.
Modern Feminism are a Sexual
part of this wave. identities
Key concerns:
Intersectiona SOME IMPORTANT HISTORICAL
lity (the
FACTS AND EVENTS:
theory that
the overlap Christine de Pizan: Generally
of various
considered the first feminist writer.
Wrote in the medieval period.
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economic life of the nation. Rural women who bitterly attacked women. For
remaining backward and orthodox, due to instance, the position of the nineteenth
tradition, illiteracy, ignorance, social evils century high –caste women need to be
and many other factors. Hence, women understood within the context of the
emancipation in rural India is still need patriarchal social system. The caste
some improvement and it is an essential hierarchy and gender hierarchy are the
notion for social progress of the nation. organizing principles of the Brahmanical
Let’s take a peek at some of the important social order and are closely
movements in India. interconnected. The Brahmanical
patriarchy in early India reveals that the
structure of social relations which shaped
SOCIAL REFORM
gender was by achieving the compliance
MOVEMENT:Social reform movement
of women. There was the case of
in India was a part of struggle that were
PanditaRamabai, whose father was an
made by different social reformers. During
unconventional social reformer who began
this time, on one side, India was suffering
with social transformation in his own
from stagnating traditional culture and
house by educating his wife Lakshmi Bai
society, while on the other hand, India
even at the cost of being exiled by his own
possessed a still traditional society in the
community for this. Lakshmibai taught her
creative excitement of modernizing and of
daughter as is recorded in, Pandita’s book
emerging as a new nation. The nineteenth
(1886) The high caste Hindu women. The
century initiated this process of
book argues on women oppression and the
transformation in the religious, social,
treatment given to Hindu women
economic, political and cultural spheres.
throughout their life. She argues about the
The impact of the British empire
evil in child marriage and the taboo
influenced administration, legislation,
associated with widowhood. She also talks
trade, network of communication,
about the money and commercial nature of
industrialization and urbanization in India,
arrange marriages. She raised the issue of
affecting not only society as a whole but
inhuman expectation from the young girl.
also the traditional pattern of life. British
Marriage was like a central theme as for a
scholars, educators and missionaries also
woman. According to her, marriage is like
impacted the cultural filed. The reformers
hypocrisy of old times, women were not
consciously reacted to the new situation
allowed to say a single word in the
and advocated deliberate changes in social,
decision making or in choice for her
religious and customs. This social and
husband, and Women were not considered
religious reform movement arose among
as capable of thinking about their future or
all communities of the Indian people.
any chance to give her opinion. Also, in
Reformers, worked for abolition of castes
early nineteenth century women were not
and untouchability, purdah system, sati,
encouraged to get an education. Some
child marriage, women education and
people believed that if women were well
social inequalities.
educated it would ruin their marriage
Raja Rammohan Roy, abolished Sati in prospects and to be harmful to their mind.
1929. His campaign against sati aroused Women’s career was very limited so
the opposition of the orthodox Hindus people didn’t think they needed the
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education in which men did. A lot of the situation made women absolutely
focus was to teach women how to run a dependent on father in their childhood,
household. The live of Indian women then on husband in marital life and then on
th
began to change significantly in late 19 the sons during their old age. As per the
century when the colonial government customs, her life gets devoted in religious
critical of the treatment of both Hindu and practices wishing for the long and safe life
Muslims women, allies among Indian of the male members of her family.
reformers these men agreed that women Rassundaridevi, the author of the
should be educated and play some role in autobiographical, “Amar Jiban” she
public life. poignantly describes her in domitable
struggle for reaching the gateways of
education. She records her childhood
Pundit Ishwarchandravidyasagar
marriage, the daily task of household she
consolidated the way for the remarriage
explained the unspoken agony of a young
for socially forsaken widows through
girl. She has desire to read, she stole pages
the widow’s remarriage act no XV of
from a book and kept them in kitchen at a
1856. He empathetically lamented the deep
hidden place. She teaches herself
distress of Indian womanhood. The air of
domestically as she writes, “Is this my
reformation held high the urgency for
destiny that I am a woman”? Just because
castling the enlightenment of education on
of I am a woman does it necessarily mean
women. The British government eager to
that trying to educate myself is a big crime
prove their liberal, ethical and pro-
in a patriarchal society. Both
modernity attitude resorted to the women
PanditaRamabai and Rassundaridevi raised
question. This is the fundamental feminist
the issue related to women education and
question concerned with the rights and
child marriage. The Calcutta school society
progress of women. British denounced the
was built in 1816 to improve the status of
exciting insignificance of Indian
female education .The church missionary
womanhood and tried to initiate some
society tasted greater success in south India.
feminist welfare activities to show their
The importance of female education in India
social-cultural advancement. They took
cannot be over rated. Women education
help of the indigenous modern minds like
started spreading its wings. The outcome
Raja RammohanRoy,Vidyasagar and other
was the evolution of nineteenth century
prominent Indians. As mention above the
generation of the “new woman” .The later
early Vedic society, allowed girls to
half of this century started seeing the raise of
acquire knowledge, but in the later society,
Indian womanhood to freedom and
the orthodox Brahmins introduced blind
assertion.
superstition, rituals and rigid customs
Kamini Roy, PanditaRamabai,
which forbade girls from learning. We
Rassundari Devi were the celebrated
recognize a severe disappointment of the
examples of the “new woman” of this
western educational entrepreneurs with the
time.
oppression of social norms. In Bengal the
overriding tension was that ‘knowledge of
letter’ would teach female to oppress the The period between the 1930s- and 1947-
meaningless coercion. The terrible marks Indian women’s entry in to the
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nationalist struggle for freedom. The The following section elaborates the
nationalist cause was gathering strength equality rights as per articles of the Indian
and women were called upon to serve the constitutions:
nation with their abilities of caring and Article 14-It guarantees equality before the
nurturing. Women have her own unique law and equal protection under the law. It
contribution to make for the purpose of allows the states to make classifications on
enriching life so that it may fulfill its own reasonable ground. The article embodies a
divine mission to perfection. So in the guarantee against arbitrariness.
struggle for freedom they are destined to
Article 15- I t prohibits discrimination on
play their legitimate part and bear their
the ground of religion, race, caste, sex and
share of the responsibility in breaking the
place of birth. As per 15(3), which allows
chain that weight heavily on people.
states to make special provisions for
Mahatma Gandhi had also discussed the
women.
importance of women in social revolution,
in reconstruction and in national struggle. Article16- It guarantees equality of
opportunity and prohibits discriminations
Women have worked and participated in
in matters of employment.
different way in the movements and
contributed their efforts individually.
Participation in the Nationalist JUDICIAL APPROACHES TO SEX
movement DISCRIMINATION
Resurgence in women’s political The sex discrimination case law remains
activity overly determined by a formal model of
Women’s empowerment equality. There are three major approaches
Role in Freedom struggle in relevance of gender differences
protectionist, sameness and corrective. As
PritilataWaddedar, the most celebrated
per protectionist approach women are
female martyr of the freedom movement
constituted as weak and subordinate and
asked an important question related to
are thus in need of protection. In this
dominant gender ideology of nationalism:
approach the courts understanding of
“I wonder why there should be any women’s differences is asserted as
distinction between males and females in a justification for differential treatment. This
fight cause of the country’s freedom. If our approach tends to essentialist the
brothers can join a fight for the cause of difference i.e. to take the existence of the
the motherland then why can’t the sisters’? differences as natural.
The pages of history are replete with high
As per sameness approach women are
admiration for the historic exploits of
constructed as same as men and treated
distinguished ladies. Then why should we,
similarly in law.
the modern Indian women, be deprived of
joining this noble fight to redeem our As per corrective approach women are
country from foreign domination?” seen to require special treatment as a result
of past discrimination. Within this
JUDICIAL APPROACHES TO approach gender differences are seen as
EQUALITY RIGHTS IN INDIA relevant and requiring recognition in law.
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The Hindu adoption and maintenance Biological differences between males and
Act of 1956 females are found in three ways:
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called master glands) stimulate or inhibit that disorders in sex chromosomes lead to
secretion of hormones from other glands. problems in gender role development,
Sex and reproduction hormones are called, intelligence, growth and hormone
Steroid hormones. Reproductive organs production.
ovaries (in females) and testes (in males)
are called gonads.
FEMALE SEX CHROMOSOME
ABNORMALITIES:
SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION AND • TURNER’S SYNDROME:This
ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES: syndrome occurs when individual
Sexual dimorphism is existence of two inherit only one X chromosome and
sexes (male & female) in a species, their sex chromosomal structure is XO.
including differences in genetics, gonads, Such cases are females in sex with
hormones, internal genitalia and external abnormal growth patterns. They are
genitalia. The process of sexual short in stature, averaging 4 foot 7
differentiation starts when conception inches as adults, and often have
takes place. Chromosomes are threadlike distinctive webbed necks (i.e., extra
structures that are structural carriers of folds of skin), small jaws, and high
heredity, play very important role in sex arched palates. They generally lack
differentiation. In human beings there are prominent female reproduction ability.
23 pairs of chromosomes. At the time of They haveexceptionally small, widely
conception half number of chromosomes is spaced breasts, broad shield-shaped
received from mother side and half from chests, and turned-out elbows. Their
father side. 23rd pair of chromosomes is ovaries do not develop normally and
called sex chromosome in females it is XX they do not ovulate. They also have a
and in males it is XY. Genes contain higher than average incidence of
genetic information carried on thyroid disease. In some individuals,
chromosomes. Researchers claim that XY there is slight mental retardation.
chromosomal makeup may not be as stable Turner’s syndrome is rare. Current
as XX and therefore play a role in higher estimates of its frequency range from 1
mortality rates for men. XX chromosomal in 3,000 female infants to 1 in 5,000.
makeup and the hormone estrogen seem to
make women less vulnerable to physical If diagnosed in early childhood,
problems so women live longer lives. regular injections of human growth
hormones can increase their stature by
a few inches. Beginning around the
SEX CHROMOSOMAL
normal age of puberty, estrogen
ABNORMALITIES: Sudden structural
replacement therapy can result in some
changes in the genes are called mutations.
breast development and menstruation.
These mutations lead to negative
These treatments allow Turner’s
consequences in individual’s development.
syndrome women to appear relatively
Sometimes deleted or duplicated number
normal.
of chromosomes also causes abnormalities
in an individual. Researchers have found
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THEORIES OF GENDER:
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The theory proposes the interaction of unconquerable; this leads to a conflict. The
directing gender role behavior. The used for resolving the conflict. This gender
perceives and tackles a phenomenon. parent affects the normal process of gender
Information about gender is organized into development. Stevenson & Black (1988):
sets of beliefs about the sexes i.e. gender boys with absent fathers around the
schema Gender schema (plural schemata oedipal stage show less sex-typed
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them are generally living well. Case Theories about poverty often fall into two
poverty might be produced by sudden loss are a result of a unique “culture of
of employment, inability to work, or injury poverty” based on deviant values.
or illness. While it might at first glance The first view presumes that people are
seem like an individual condition, it is highly rational, hold coherent and well-
actually a social one, because it is unlikely informed beliefs, and pursue their goals
to occur in societies that provide economic effectively with no need for help. The
safety nets to their populations. Asset second view attributes to the poor a variety
poverty is more common and widespread of shortcomings that make them
that income poverty and other forms. It misguided, uninformed, impulsive, and in
exists when a person or household does need of paternalistic guidance in order to
not have enough wealth assets (in the form make reasonable choices. While there is
of property, investments, or money saved) no doubt that people—the poor included—
to survive for three months if necessary. In are at times methodical and calculating,
fact, many people living in the U.S. today and at other times fallible or misguided, a
live in asset poverty. They may not be third, alternate theory takes a different tack
impoverished so long as they are and is informed by recent behavioral
employed, but could be thrown research. According to this view, scarcity
immediately into poverty if their pay were experienced as a result of economic
to stop. instability and poverty reduces already
limited cognitive resources, resulting in
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF POVERTY
detrimental behaviors and ineffective
(Taken from the 2010–2011 IRP New
decision-making. Current policies
Perspectives in Social Policy Seminar
designed to improve outcomes for poor
given by SendhilMullainathan, Professor
of Economics at Harvard University on people may be effective when successfully
September 21, 2010.) implemented, but program administrators
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may find it difficult to get people in the one time. One must choose what to focus
door, and then to carry through with the on, although this choice is not always
program. Similarly, early childhood conscious. Numerous laboratory
programs that rely on parental experiments have demonstrated that
participation and complementary parental people have limited attention and that they
behaviors may not succeed if poor parents have the capacity to allocate this attention.
do not follow through. A variety of costly In a case when subjects must choose
behaviors by the poor such as debt between two things to pay attention to,
traps, failure to take available and unattended things are generally not
necessary medications, or obesity, may remembered at all. In the real world, this
further inhibit economic mobility. These means that parents may not be able to
behaviors, as suggested by the author, are attend fully to their jobs if they are also
a result of increased psychological stress worrying about problems at home, while
caused by poverty, and that it may be inattention at home could result in early
possible to design antipoverty programs symptoms of a child’s illness going
that make it easier for poor people to unnoticed, or medication for a chronic
succeed if this reduced functioning is condition not being taken. Mullainathan
considered. and his colleagues did a field study in
three countries that demonstrated that
PSYCHOLOGY OF SCARCITY simply directing someone’s attention to
Mullainathan argues that cognitive something they have stated they wanted to
resources, such as attention and self- do, but might otherwise forget, can have
control, are limited. Using both laboratory significant results. In this case, people
and field research, he demonstrates that voluntarily agreed to participate in a
scarcity further reduces those already savings program. Those who received a
limited resources, hampering the ability of single text message reminder if they failed
poor people to follow through on tasks or to meet their savings goal in a given
to make effective decisions. month had a 6 percent higher savings rate
than those who did not receive a reminder.
ATTENTION Similar kinds of studies on medication-
Attention is a scarce resource; people can taking by HIV patients have found very
only focus on a limited number of things at high compliance rates achieved with
simple reminders such as a pill bottle that
lights up and beeps if it is not opened each
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day. In both cases, people have the the researchers confirmed their theory that
intention to do something, but on their own workers may face self-control problems
may fail to allocate some of their limited that limit their productivity, and that
attention to achieving that goal. Simply making a binding commitment to work
focusing people’s attention on the stated harder can actually produce that result. In
goal may be sufficient to get them to a data-entry firm, where workers are
achieve it. compensated on a piece-rate basis,
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are both important and limited, the next itemsis foregone. In other words, having
issue is to demonstrate how having very fewer resources makesdecision-making
little of them taxes these resources. This much more complex. Complex
section begins with a conceptual argument, problemsdraw on limited cognitive
which is followed by experimental resources, which in turn meansthat there
evidence. are fewer resources available for self-
control.Evidence on the effects of
scarcityMullainathan and his colleagues
THE PACKING PROBLEM: A
have experimental evidencethat people
SUITCASE METAPHOR
with less money are much more likely to
The conceptual argument derives from the
knowhow much things cost than those
“knapsack problem” in complexity and
with more money, evenfor items things
computational theory. Imagine packing for
that poorer people were less likely to
a trip, using either a small or large
spendmoney on. In a study conducted in
suitcase. If you have a large suitcase, it is
Boston, people at a trainstation were asked
an easy task to pack everything important
what the initial fare was when you firstget
with room to spare. You may even choose
into a taxi. People with a low
not to completely fill the suitcase. With a
socioeconomic status(SES) were
small suitcase, however, the task becomes
considerably more likely to correctly
much more complex. If not, all important
identifythis amount than people with a
items will fit, you must consider trade-offs,
high SES, even though theywere much
such as what to take out if one more item
less likely to actually take a taxi. People
is added. The suitcase can represent any
withless money were paying better
resource, such as money. In that case,
attention to the price, becauseprices matter
someone with ample resources can easily
more to them. Similar studies have been
purchase all needed items with money left
donewith people leaving a supermarket,
over. They may consider the wisdom and
who are asked the priceof specific items
value of a particular small purchase, but
and the total amount they spent.
are not likely to explicitly consider what
Again,people with a low SES are much
another item must be given up in itsplace.
more likely to be able to answer these
In contrast, someone with limited funds
questions correctly than people with a high
must spenda lot of time and mental energy
SES.
thinking about what to purchase, as each
item chosen means some other item or
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Mullainathan and his colleagues were also while those with above-median
able to show thatpoorer people have a incomeshowed little change.A final piece
clear and absolute understanding of of evidence that scarcity is depleting
thevalue of a dollar, while more wealthy comesfrom a real-world example, harvest
people may infer thevalue of a dollar based of sugar cane in India.Sugar cane is a crop
on the context. People were askedto that is harvested once a year, but
imagine that a friend went to buy an theharvests are staggered over some
appliance pricedat $100, $500, or $1,000. months, so the same calendar month could
The friend was informed that astore 45 be a pre-harvest month for some farmers
minutes away offered the same item on and a post-harvest month for others. Since
sale for $50less. Subjects were asked if sugar canefarmers receive all of their
they would advise their friendto travel to annual income at once, they willbe poor
the other store to save $50. The response immediately before the harvest, and rich
to thisquestion varied greatly depending on after. Thiscreates panel data that allowed
the income level ofthe respondents. In a the researchers to comparepre- and post-
high-income area, subjects were muchless harvest spending while controlling for
likely to advise traveling to save $50 as the montheffects such as festival spending and
initial priceof the item rose. In contrast, in seasonality. Farmerswere not very good at
low-income area, subjectswere much smoothing spending across the year;while
more likely to advise travel, and the initial expenditures on food were similar in pre-
priceof the item made little difference to and post-harvest months, post-harvest
their recommendation.An experiment spending on other items wasdramatically
conducted in a New Jersey mall showed higher. Study outcomes included the
thatasking poor people to think about Strooptest, a psychological test of
money depleted their cognitive resources. attention, as well as allostaticload, a
Participants were asked to consider physiological measure of stress.
eitheran easy or hard financial problem or
an easy or hard non-financial mathematics
Mullainathan andhis colleagues found that
problem. While they were consideringthe
farmers scored significantly betteron the
problem, they were asked to complete a
Stroop test in the month after harvest than
test of cognitivecontrol that required
they didin the month before harvest. They
concentration. For those with below-
also found that farmershad significantly
median income, there was a significant
lower stress levels after the harvest.
drop in the cognitivecontrol test score,
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borrowing; those in the poor group tended In his seminar, Mullainathan concluded
to borrowseconds a lot in the early rounds, that these resultshave important public
thus leaving themselveslittle time for later policy implications, particularly related to
rounds. take-up and retention in programs
designed to helpthe poor. As currently
designed, many of these programsactually
This experiment illustrates two important
create cognitive burdens, thus adding
points. First, attention was required;
unnecessarychallenges for those they are
participants needed to choose howmuch
intended to assist.One example of this can
time to focus on the current problem, as
be seen in programs designed toincrease
compared tofuture problems. Those in the
college attendance for low-income teens,
“poor” group tended to focuson the current
whichtends to be much lower than for their
problem to the exclusion of future
higher-income peers.Prevailing wisdom
problems,and to their ultimate detriment.
would say that reducing the cost
In this situation, credit turnsout to be a bad
wouldincrease attendance, but simply
thing; it may help with the current
making Pell Grants available did not
problem,but hurt with future problems, and
significantly increase low-income
thus overall. Second, thisexperiment was
attendance.Another explanation is that the
done with Princeton undergraduate
student aid application wastoo
students,so one can assume that outside
complicated, and required more attention
factors such as financial literacy,
than peoplehad. Having an administrator
upbringing, and early childhood
complete the form, rather thanjust
development have noeffect in this
providing information about it, resulted in
particular case. Nor could they have any
significantlyhigher college enrollment.
effectin the sugar cane experiment, since
the same people werebeing compared at
two different times. This supports Simplification works becauseinstability
Mullainathan’s contention that detrimental makes dealing with complexity
decision-making bythe poor is attributable particularly challenging; forms are tough
to the condition of having very little,not to for all of us, but toughest whenattention is
shortcomings that are unchangeable most depleted. Forward-looking actions
characteristics ofpoor people. requireattention and self-control.
Instability taxes both of these, andthus
makes economic mobility harder.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS
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POLICY RESPONSES
over the next four months in order
Mullainathan identified two broad
toreceive a training certificate. This
categories of policy responses—creating
approach would presentsome challenges,
stability, and creating mobility
since new curricula would be required,
programsthat are resistant to the effects of
butthe effort could pay off in creating a
instability. An example ofthe first type of
program that was mucheasier for
policy response would be
participants to follow through on.Poverty
supplementingUnemployment Insurance
and economic instability reduce cognitive
with wage or hours worked insurance to
resourcessuch as attention and self-control.
help maintain a consistent salary for
These conditions make itmuch harder for
people facinga cutback yet retaining their
the poor to behave in a way that will
job. Another approach wouldbe a crisis-
improve their economic fortunes, and
triggered social safety net card that people
much easier for them to make decisions
couldhave in-hand in the event of a sudden
that impede their mobility. Public
drop in income. Newlyavailable financial
policiesshould be designed to offset this
products such as a debit card that includesa
scarcity phenomenon.
saving mechanism could also help in this
area.As currently constructed, many
mobility programs rely onstability as a (For References – Just go through once,
condition of success. How could these don’t dwell into detail. Know the word
programs be structured differently in order Easterlin Paradox)
to remove this condition? An illustration of THE EFFECT OF POVERTY ON
this is training classes. Most of theseare AFFECT AND STRESS:
designed so that each class builds on the CORRELATIONS BETWEEN
last, makingthem particularly prone to POVERTY, AFFECT, AND STRESS
instability. If you miss one class,it is much
harder to get yourself to the next class, and For several decades, the prevalent view
thisonly gets more difficult the more you onthe relationship between income and
miss. An “instabilityproof” alternative psychologicalwell-being was what became
would be to have rotating training knownas the Easterlin Paradox,
classopportunities, where one could, for according towhich income, self-reported
example, attend threeof the next 10 classes happiness, and lifesatisfaction are
correlated within but not acrosscountries
and are uncorrelated above incomelevels
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ofthese terms, in 1980 the World Health hearing, speech, locomotor and
Impairment – refers to the loss literate and only 34 per cent areemployed.
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nerves, digestive system and heart), standards. For example, 44,000 people lost
pellagra (central nervous system and their limbs in industrial accidents during
gastro-intestinal disorders, skin the period of Vietnam War in which
inflammation) and anaemia, Vitamin D 17,000 American soldiers became
deficiency – rickets (soft and deformed disabled.4 Wars and Disability- War has
bones), Iodine deficiency – slow growth, been the single largest factor responsible
learning difficulties, intellectual for causing permanent disablement not
disabilities and goitre, Iron deficiency – only to combatants in the battlefield but
anaemia, which impedes learning and also to civilians who are forced to bear the
activity, and is a significant cause of hazards of lethal, chemical and nuclear
maternal mortality, Calcium deficiency – weapons. Based on figures from a study
osteoporosis (fragile bones). carried out in 206 communities, including
Afghanistan and Cambodia, landmine
triggered disability rate among survivors is
At the present rate, by the year 2010 there
about 0.9%. About 6% of households in
could still be some 680 million chronically
Afghanistan are affected by landmine
undernourished people whose disabilities
accidents alone. Surveys of four countries
are likely to have roots in micro-nutrient
in 1995 found that between 12% & 60%
deficiencies.
landmine victims and to sell assets to meet
their medical bills.
OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS-
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increasing the number of road accidents in including disabled are: Article 15(1): It
India. If current trends continue, road enjoins on the Government not to
accidents may become the leading cause of discriminate against any citizen of India
death and disability in the country. An (Including disabled) on the ground of
expert in the field, Dr Leslie G Norman, religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
estimates that for every road accident Article 15(2): It states that no citizen
death there are 30-40 light injuries and 10- (including the disabled) shall be subjected
15 serious injuries, which may lead to to any disability, liability, restriction or
disability. It is estimated that by 2020, condition on any of the above grounds in
road traffic accidents will be ranked as the the matter of their access to shops, public
third leading cause of disability in the restaurants, hotels and places of public
Asian and Pacific region. Quadriplegia, entertainment or in the use of wells, tanks,
paraplegia, brain damage and behavioral bathing places (ghats), roads and places of
disorders are some common disabilities public resort maintained wholly or partly
among survivors of traffic accidents. out of government funds or dedicated to
the use of the general public. Article 17:
No person including the disabled
CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
irrespective of his belonging can be treated
IN INDIA
as an untouchable. It would be an offence
The Constitution of India applies
punishable in accordance with law. Article
uniformly to very legal citizen of India,
Every person including the disabled
whether they are healthy or disabled in any
has his life and liberty guaranteed. Article
way (physically or mentally) and
There can be no traffic in human
guarantees a right of justice, liberty of
beings (including the disabled), and
thought, expression, belief, faith and
beggar and other forms of forced labour is
worship and equality of status and of
prohibited and the same is made
opportunity and for the promotion of
punishable in accordance with law. Article
fraternity. To safeguard the interests of the
29(2): The right to education is available
disadvantaged sections of the Society, the
to all citizens including the disabled. No
Constitution of India guarantees that no
citizen shall be denied admission into any
person will be denied ‘equality’ before the
educational institution maintained by the
law (Article 14 of the Indian Constitution).
State or receiving aid out of State funds.
Relevant Articles in Indian Constitution
Article 32: Every disabled person can
providing constitutional guarantees to all
move the Supreme Court of India to
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enforce his fundamental rights and the educational facilities,as well as other
rights to move the Supreme Court.7 rights and entitlement). The specific
objectives of the Act are: Prevention and
EarlyDetection of Disabilities, Education –
ACTS FOR DISABILITY
all Governmenteducational institutions
The legislative framework for the
reserves more than 3% seatsfor disabled.
protection of the rights of disabled people
Employment – with 3% reservationsthe
is covered by given acts: The
disability vacancies not filled upto be
Rehabilitation Council of India Act 1992:
carriedforward for next three years and
Act sets out to regulate the training
after that thevacancy will be filled by a
ofprofessionals in rehabilitation and sets
non-disabled person.Schemes for ensuring
out aframework for a Central
employment of person withdisabilities are:
Rehabilitation Register. Inorder to give
Training and welfare, Relaxation ofupper
statutory powers to the Council forcarrying
age limit, Regulation the employment,
out its duties effectively the
Healthand safety measures. Affirmative
RehabilitationCouncil of India Act was
Action –Preferential allotment of land for
passed by the Parliamentwhich came into
certain purpose –overnment or local
force with effect from 1993.
authorities for: House; Settingup business;
Theamendment in the Act in 2000 gave the
Setting up special recreation
additionalresponsibility of promoting
centers;Establishment of special school;
research to the Council.The major
Establishment ofresearch centers;
functions of the council include
Establishment of factories byentrepreneurs
therecognition of qualifications granted by
with disability.
Universitiesin India for Rehabilitation
Professionals and also therecognition of
qualification by Institutions outside India. CRITICISM OF PERSON WITH
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of rights Act in its true sense. But thereare based services duringthe period of crises
some serious flaws in the Act that have to in the family of persons withdisability; To
beset right to ensure equitable distribution deal with problems of persons
of benefitsto all. The Act defines a withdisability who do not have family
disabled person as onewho is “suffering support.10 NationalPolicy for Persons
from 40% or more disability”. with Disabilities Act 2005:The National
such a tool isunavailable. The PWD Act Disabilities are valuablehuman resource
unfortunately, turns outto be an instrument for the country and seeks to createan
body for the Welfare ofPersons with legal framework, extensive infrastructure
and Multiple Disabilities. The persons underthis Act and includes the
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and other costsassociated with work, many multifaceted and complex. Although the
of which are not subsidized foregoing the benefitsof medication in the treatment of
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great extent onthe nature of the condition. more accepting ofindividuals with mental
Some psychiatricdisabilities so severely illness, family members maycontinue to be
impair individual’s ability tocarry on the resistant to recognizing the problemand
activities of daily living that pursuing the appropriate treatment. If,
constantsupervision or hospitalization is howeverindividuals manifest bizarre,
necessary. In otherinstances, individuals abusive, or sociallyoffensive behavior,
are able to carry on theseactivities, but in family members or others withina social
an altered manner. At times thetreatment group may avoid the individual altogether,
itself requires lifestyle changes. leaving him or her socially isolated.
Individualsmay need to rearrange their Otherpsychiatric disabilities may lead to
schedules so that theycan attend therapy social withdrawal.Families of individuals
sessions. Some medications usedin the with psychiatric disability mayexperience
treatment of psychiatric disability may a variety of stresses engendered by
requirespecial lifestyle considerations. For thecondition. In some instances, the
example, the use of MAO inhibitors in the demand of caregiving may require family
treatment of depressionrequires careful members to curtail theirsocial activities or
monitoring of diet. Othermedications have alter their relationship with friendsand
side effects, such as drowsinessand acquaintances. The time commitments of
sedation that also affects daily functioning. caregiving may lead to neglect of other
Inaddition, subjective manifestations of family member’sneeds, further disrupting
lowered self-esteem and self-confidence the family as a unit. Socialbarriers are
may make it moredifficult for individuals frequently erected against individualswith
to form intimate relationship. mental disorders and against their
families.Social stigma may be the result of
fear of individual’sbehaviour, ignorance
(III) SOCIAL ISSUES OF
PSYCHIATRIC DISABILITY- about psychiatric disability, orfeelings of
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factors associated with a change of highlights some of the reasons why people
location? The first question points toward migrate. Significant migration to Britain
psychology. The second question relates to of influx and efflux to and from Britain, as
community intervention. We will focus Eastern European Jews came at the latter
here only on the motivational and part of the nineteenth century to escape
reviews on the consequences of migration, both before and after World War II. In the
Psychological studies of the determinants areas, recruited people from the West
and consequences of migration would Indies to fill low paying jobs which were
seem to be a natural focus for the less attractive to the local population.
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economic reasons, the peak of which origin. This kind of circular travel
occurred about the same time as the West characterizes traditional nomadism,
Indian migration. Asian people expelled by episodic wage work in mining (Africa) or
Idi Amin's government came from Uganda agriculture (United States), pilgrimages
in the late 1970s. The 1980s saw a change (Mecca, Hindu sacred places) and tourism.
in the immigration laws limiting the
Although there exists no systematic history
numbers of people allowed to relocate to
of migration, this phenomenon invariably
Britain. Today, people from around the
occurs in response to high regional or
globe choose to migrate to the UK as well
international imbalances of populations and
as other developed countries, both legally
resources on the one hand; on the other, to
and illegally, for better educational and
new perceptions of opportunity, changes in
employment opportunities, to escape
transportation, and politico-
persecution, to relocate after catastrophic
military events. One important
events, including terrorism, disasters and
concomitant of migration has been
war, and/or to join relatives who migrated
epidemic disease, such as the influenza
at an earlier time.
pandemic of 1919-21 and the great
Most migrations are voluntary; however, African cholera epidemic of 1974.
forced resettlement is as ancient as the
Notable migrations include those resulting
Babylonian captivity of the Jews and as
from Alexander's conquests and Greek
recent as the vast population transfers
city building from Egypt to Central Asia.
following the separation of India and
From about 100 B.C. to 600 A.D., Eurasia
Pakistan. In the United States, the policies
from the Pacific to the Atlantic witnessed
of Andrew Jackson led to the expulsion of
very large population movements, such as
the "civilized tribes" from the Southwest to
the migration of the Huns from eastern
Oklahoma, the Trail of Tears still
Mongolia to Europe and India. But these
anguishing the Choctaw, Cherokee and
earlier migrations have been far
other Indians. Perhaps the greatest forced
overshadowed by the upwellings of
migration has been the African diaspora
Europeans and Chinese since about 1850.
resulting from 1,000 years of Arab and 350
The former populated the Americas,
years of European slaving. All migrations,
Australia and New Zealand, and Siberia;
even slaving, lead to permanent transfers
the latter, Manchuria and Southeast Asia.
of populations and produce groups which
Today, the great migratory movement,
return to areas of
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to migrate, and thus be in contact with the Culture is not new to the study of
'majority' population involuntarily, to migration. It is interesting to see how
escape persecution. Additionally, rural- culture manifests itself in the migration
urban migration has been associated with process for three groups of actors: the
economic and educational reasons for migrants, those remaining in the sending
relocation, whereas migration across areas, and people already living in the
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recipient locations. Actors behave these costs are that migrants might have to
differently, within a group there are leave family andfriends (combined with
economically important shared beliefs the non-existence of a social network at
(customs, values, attitudes, etc.), which we the new destination; Munshi2003), have to
commonly refer to as culture. Culture and cope with different cultural traits and
identity play a central role in our habits or with higher prices or even
understanding of migration as an economic unavailabilityof origin-specific local goods
phenomenon and also in sorting the in the new destination. A complementary
determinants of identity and the interpretation ofnon-monetary psychic
determinants of culture (prices and migration costs are that they represent
incomes, broadly defined). labour market frictions, preventingthe
efficient allocation of labour. Labor
‘Culture matters’ has become a general market search imply that individuals
wisdom in the economics literature. accept wage offers only when they
Indeed, recent literatureshows that norms arecompensated for migration cost. That
and values, such as trust, which is an gross migration is larger between
important component of culture,determine culturally more similar counties implies
economic activity and eventually growth. that searching for a new job is not random,
Specifically, cultural biases hinder but directed toward more similar
economic exchange across location. Since regions.This leads to inefficient search
culture onlychanges slowly over time, it is behavior in terms of wage income as
also a main source of the legacy of history individuals missbetter paid job
emphasized byeconomic historians. opportunities elsewhere. The individual,
however, is compensated by a
Conceptually, the decision to migrate, and higherfamiliarity with the destination
where exactly to go, is determined by region, but one can wonder whether
comparingthe costs and benefits of moving society as a whole doesnot suffer from
to the costs and benefits of alternatives such labor market frictions.
(Todaro 1969; Harrisand Todaro 1970).
Benefits and costs can be monetary or non- PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF
monetary; also including thenon-monetary MIGRATION
psychic migration costs of moving from a Migration has contributed to the richness
familiar to an unfamiliar in diversity of cultures, ethnicities and
surrounding(Sjaastad 1962). Examples for
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(including traumatic images) intruding into Ethnicity typically incorporates both race
daily life, yearns to complete obligations and culture. Race is based on biologic
to the dead, and feels stricken by anxieties, constructs, such as sharing certain physical
morbid thoughts, and anger that mar the attributes; it may or not be also a social
ability to get on with daily life". and political construct. For example,
people from the West Indies, Africa and
CULTURAL IDENTITY
parts of North and South America may
It is important to define basic sociologic share the same race but have different
terms of identity to understand cultural beliefs, value systems, social norms and
identity. Culture is learned and passed idioms of distress.
through generations and includes the
beliefs and value system of a society.
CULTURAL CONGRUITY
Culture has been described as features that
are shared and bind people together into a Migrating people come from diverse
community. Identity is the totality of one's cultural backgrounds, with already formed
others. Bhugra notes that racial, cultural both during and after the migration
and ethnic identities form part of one's process, and cultural bereavement is a
identity, and identity will change with potential inherent consequence in people
social level along with migration and interact, as people who have migrated
acculturation. Social identity can be come into contact not only with people of
thought of as the culturally defined the majority culture but also with
ascribed to social roles, such as the role of cultures. Resultant feelings of a sense of
employee, etc. Ethnicity is a source of alienation and distress may occur. Bhugra
social identity. Ethnic groups are and Jones proposed that various personal
composed of people who may or may not and relational factors during the migration
share the same race but do share common process impact the mental wellbeing of
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groups or classes from main stream Varna system. They are animist with
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Social stigma occurs in every society. This Stigmatization has profound and wide-
universality suggests that stigmatization ranging negative effects on those who bear
may serve some functional value for (or who are thought to bear) stigmatizing
individuals, groups, or societies. At the marks. Stigmatization has been linked to
individual level, putting someone else lower social status, poverty, impaired
down may make one feel better about cognitive and social functioning, poorer
oneself as an individual. At the group physical health, and poorer mental health.
level, devaluing other groups may help These negative effects can occur through
people feel better about their own groups several pathways.
by comparison. At the societal level,
DIRECT EFFECTS
negatively stereotyping and devaluing
people who are low in social status may Stigma has direct negative effects on bearers
make their lower status seem fair and by increasing their likelihood of
also serve a fourth function. Evolutionary established that the stigmatized are
evolved among humans to avoid the rejection, such as slurs, slights, derision,
dangers that accompany living with other avoidance, and violence. People who are
people. Specifically, they posit that stigmatized also receive poorer treatment in
humans have developed cognitive the workplace, educational settings,
adaptations that cause them to exclude healthcare system, housing market, and
(stigmatize) people who possess (or who criminal justice system. Stigma even has
are believed to possess) attributes that (a) negative effects on family relationships. For
signal they might carry parasites or other example, parents are less likely to pay for
infectious diseases (such as a having a the college education of their daughters who
physical deformity or AIDS), (b) signal are heavy than of daughters who are thin.
that they are a poor partner for social Discrimination can be interpersonal (e.g.,
exchange (such as a having a criminal when a woman is rejected by a man because
record), or (c) signal they are a member of of her weight) or institutional (e.g., when a
an outgroup that can be exploited for one’s woman is denied a job as a flight attendant
own group’s gain. because of institutionalized height and
weight requirements).
CONSEQUENCES OF STIGMA
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Stigma also can have direct, negative eyes of others, know the dominant cultural
effects on the stigmatized through the stereotypes associated with their stigma,
operation of expectancy confirmation and recognize that they could be victims of
processes. When people hold negative discrimination. These beliefs are collective
beliefs about a person because of the representations, in that they are typically
person’s stigma (e.g., believe that someone shared by others who bear the same
who has been hospitalized for mental stigma. These collective representations
illness is dangerous), their beliefs influence how bearers of stigma approach
(incorrect or correct) can lead them to and interpret situations in which they are
behave in certain ways toward the at risk of being devalued, negatively
stigmatized that are consistent with their stereotyped, or targets of discrimination.
beliefs (e.g., avoid the stigmatized, watch For some, their stigma may become a lens
them suspiciously, refuse to hire them). through which they interpret their social
These behaviors can cause the stigmatized world. They may become vigilant for signs
to respond in ways that confirm the initial of devaluation and anticipate rejection in
evaluation or stereotype (e.g., they get their social interactions.
angry, hostile). This can happen without
the stigmatized person even being aware Collective representations can have
that the other person (perceiver) holds negative effects on the stigmatized by
negative stereotypes, and even when the increasing their concerns that they will be
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such as when an obese person goes on a their self-esteem from domains in which
diet or a stutterer enrolls in speech therapy. they are negatively stereotyped or fear being
This strategy, of course, is not available to a target of discrimination and investing
bearers whose stigma cannot be themselves more in domains in which they
eliminated. Bearers may also cope by are less at risk. When they encounter
trying to avoid stigmatization, such as negative treatment, another coping strategy
when a person with a concealable stigma they may use is to (often correctly) shift the
“passes” as a member of more valued blame from stable aspects of themselves (“I
group, or an overweight person avoids am stupid,” “I am unlikable”) to the
going to the gym or the beach. This coping prejudice of others. This strategy may
strategy may severely constrain the protect their self-esteem from negative
everyday lives of the stigmatized. The outcomes, especially when prejudice is
stigmatized may also cope by attempting blatant. Bearers of stigma may also cope by
to overcome stigma by compensating, or identifying or bonding with others who
striving even harder in domains where they share their stigma. Similarly, stigmatized
are negatively stereotyped or devalued. For others can provide social support, a sense of
example, one study showed that belonging, and protect against feelings of
overweight women who believed that an rejection and isolation. Furthermore,
interaction partner could see them (and bonding with others who are similarly
hence believed their weight might stigmatized may also enable bearers to enact
negatively affect the interaction) social changes that benefit their stigmatized
compensated by behaving even more group, as demonstrated by the success of the
sociably compared with overweight civil rights movement and the gay pride
women who thought their interaction movement. In sum, through various coping
partner could not see them. Although this strategies, bearers of stigma may
strategy can be effective, it can also be demonstrate resilience even in the face of
exhausting, especially in the face of social devaluation.
enormous obstacles.
CHILD ABUSE AND
Other coping strategies focus on managing DOMESTIC VIOLENCE.
the negative emotions or threats to self-
esteem that stigmatization may cause. For
(Referred from APA and an articleChild
example, the stigmatized may cope with
threats to their identity by disengaging Sexual Abuse in India: Current Issues
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a result, consent from the victim is a non- the form of unwanted sexual contact,
concept. Such gratification an involve physical abuse, and psychological
explicit sexual acts, or may involve maltreatment.
invasive and inappropriate actions not Sexual Assault is a class of sexual
directly involving contact (Miller et al. conduct prohibited by the law that
2007). includes forcible sex offenses such as rape
Child sexual exploitation can involve the and sodomy of a perpetrator toward or
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of CSA in India with the exception of a recent study, Deb and Walsh (2012)
few recent studies. However, there appears found, for example, that of 160 boys and
to be a gross under-reporting of crimes 160 girls who were randomly selected
against children in India (as in the United from Grades 8 and 9 in school in the state
States and of Tripura an average of 18 % of the
other countries), including various types of children had experienced sexual abuse in
child sexual abuse. Thus, there is also a the home environment. Girls reported
general consensus that the problem of higher incidences of sexual abuse than
child abuse is much more prevalent than boys, whereas boys were more likely to
what is commonly have experienced physical and
understood or acknowledged (Chawla psychological abuse in the home. Overall
2004; Deb and Mukherjee 2009). social adjustment scores for girls were
significantly lower than those for boys.
Researchers in India estimate that between
18 % and 50 % of their country’s According to Iravani’s(2011) examination of
population may have experienced some studies ofCSA in India based on lengthy
type of sexual abuse in their life time interviews with adults, approximately 30
(Chatterjee et al. 2006; Chawla of men and 40 % of women
rememberhaving been sexually molested
2004;Deb2006,2009;DebandMukherjee20 during childhood, with “molestation”
09; Deb and Walsh 2012). These statistics defined as actual genital contact and not
may not account for the number of just exposure. This researcher noted that
children (1 in 5) who are sexually solicited about half of these incidenceswere directly
while incestuous with family members (although
using the internet, and the high number of withthe knowledge or complicity of other
victims who never disclose their sexual caretakers in at least80 % of the cases) and
abuse from in and outside the family. the other half occurred with perpetrators
outside the immediate or extended family.
Children who fail to disclose may be Other studiesexamined in this article
between 30 % and 87 % support these high incidences of CSA.
(Deb2005,2009;DebandMukherjee2009,20
11). There is additional empirical evidence Iravani (2011) concluded that:
which supports the assertion that
incidences of CSA in India are high. In a
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“These experiences of seduction are not lower status in the family and society, are
just pieced together from fragmentary particularly vulnerable to CAN, including
memories, but are remembered indetail, sexually abusive acts (Chawla 2004; Deb
are usually for an extended period of time and Mukherjee 2009). Further, girls in
and havebeen confirmed by follow-up India, especially in rural areas, are
reliability studies in 83 % ofthe cases, so discriminated against in terms of
they are unlikely to have been fantasies. education, nutrition, and medical care, are
Theseductions occurred at much earlier more likely to experience infanticide, and
ages than had beenpreviously assumed, are often treated as more of a burden to the
with 81 % occurring before pubertyand an family (Deb 2006;India Country Report on
astonishing 42 % under age 7 (p. 151).” Violence against Children 2005). In
addition, boy children are typically valued
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND FAMILY and preferred in Indian families, and boy
FACTORS children often reap the better fruits of what
parents have to offer. All of these factors
Involved in Child SexualAbuse in India. put girl children especially at greater risk
The most significant challenges to for child sexual abuse and exploitation.
addressing all types of childabuse and Another socio-cultural factor in child
neglect (CAN) in India include sexual abuse is family secrecy. In India the
overpopulation that involves poor service business of the family stays in the family,
delivery for children and families, poverty, especially with regard to any actions that
illiteracy, abandonment of children, are considered inappropriate or taboo
underreporting of CAN, and cultural (Choudhury 2006). This is because in
beliefs and practices pertaining to parental India there are cultural elements of blame
rights and styles. These include parents and shame (including in family systems),
believing that children are their personal and families will go to great lengths to
property, and that the rights and choices of protect the reputation of the family in the
children solely belong to the parents (Deb community (Baradha
2009; Deb and Mukherjee 2009). Deb 2006;Choudhury2006). It is also not
(2005) and Deb and Mukherjee (2009) also unusual for children to be blamed for their
note that parents and/or close relatives are own abuse because the rights and
the most common perpetrators of CAN, statements of adults tend to trump those of
which includes child sexual abuse (Virani children (Baradha 2006; Priyabadini
2000). Girl children, who occupy a
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2007). Moreover, since the child’s identity “..... with an increasing incidence of child
is rooted in the family’s identity and abuse, India needs both legislation and
standing in the community, anything that large scale interventions to address this
would embarrassment the family or tarnish problem”(2008, p. 98). Widespread public
their good name is kept private –in some education about child sexual abuse and
cases even from other immediate or exploitation is also sorely needed,
extended family members (Patnaik 2007; especially in Indian schools and families
Priyabadini 2007). This practice of secrecy (Deb and Mukherjee 2009; Priyabadini
only serves to protect the sexual 2007). The protection of children against
perpetrator and allows the cycle of abuse all forms of child abuse and exploitation
to continue (Baradha 2006; Patnaik 2007). needs to be a chief priority at the local,
In addition, the parents or caregiver’s state and national level, and current laws
refusal to believe the child victim about need to be enforced when children and
the sexual abuse or cover it up further adolescents become victims of a
exacerbates the child’s distress (i.e., perpetrator’s acts, including perpetrators
betrayal trauma) and prevents her or him being prosecuted to the full extent of the
from getting therapeutic help when needed law.
(Priyabadini 2007).
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Neglect is a failure to meet the child’s Lack of knowledge about normal child
basic needs, e.g., not providing enough developmentandunrealistic
food, shelter or basic supervision, expectations, frustration and/or
necessary medical or mental health inappropriate methods of discipline.
treatment, adequate education or
FAMILY RISK FACTORS
emotional comfort.
Physical abuse refers to the injury of a
Children living with single parents are
child on purpose, e.g., striking,
more likely to live in poverty with
kicking, beating, biting or any action
fewer social supports, which may
that leads to physical injury.
contribute to stress and increase risks
Sexual abuse is the use, persuasion or
of maltreatment.
forcing of a child to engage in sexual
Children in violent homes may witness
acts or imitation of such acts.
intimate partner violence, may be
victims of physical abuse themselves
Abuse and neglect of children occurs in
and may be neglected by parents or
families from all walks of life, of all
caregivers who are focused on their
incomes, religions and ethnicities. There is
partners or unresponsive to their
no single cause of child maltreatment;
children due to their own fears.
rather, it occurs as a result of many forces
Stressful life events, parenting stress
working together to impact the family.
and emotional distress (e.g., losing a
PARENT OR CAREGIVER RISK job, physical illness, marital problems
FACTORS or the death of a family member) may
worsen hostility, anxiety or depression
Low self-esteem, poor impulse control, among family members and increase
depression, anxiety or antisocial
the level of family conflict and
behavior.
maltreatment.
Experiencing or witnessing violence as
Maltreating parents or caregivers are
a child, which teaches violent behavior
less supportive, affectionate, playful
or justifies it as proper behavior.
and responsive with their children and
Substance abuse, which interferes with
are more likely to use harsh discipline
mental functioning, judgment, self-
and verbal aggression than positive
control, ability to be protective of
parenting strategies (e.g., using time
one’s child and making the child’s
needs a priority.
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outs, reasoning, and recognizing and physically abused child may develop
encouraging the child's successes). aggressive behaviors that lead to
recurring maltreatment.
CHILD RISK FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS
Infants and young children, because
they are small and need constant care, The vast majority of parents or caregivers
are more likely to experience certain who live in these types of environments
forms of maltreatment such as being are not abusive. However, these stresses
shaken by parents or caregivers can increase the risk of abuse for some:
frustrated or overwhelmed by
Poverty and unemployment can
persistent crying. Teenagers, on the
increase the likelihood of
other hand, are at greater risk for
sexual abuse. maltreatment, especially in
combination with family stress,
Children with physical, cognitive and
depression, substance abuse and social
emotional disabilities or chronic
isolation.
illnesses may be at greater risk of
Parents with less material and
maltreatment. Parents or caregivers of
emotional support and who do not
children with disabilities are more
have positive parenting role models
likely to experience high levels of
feel less pressure to conform to
stress, depression and anger. Children
conventional standards of parenting
with disabilities may not understand
behaviors.
that abusive behaviors are
Children living in dangerous
inappropriate and are unable to defend
neighborhoods are at higher risk than
themselves.
children from safer neighborhoods for
Aggression, attention deficits, difficult
severe neglect, physical abuse and
temperaments and behavior problems
sexual abuse. It is possible that
in children have been associated with
violence may seem an acceptable
increased risk for maltreatment,
response or behavior to individuals
especially when parents have poor
who witness it more frequently.
coping skills, are unable to empathize
with the child or have difficulty
Child abuse and neglect can result in
controlling emotions. Maltreatment
physical and psychological developmental
often exacerbates the problem. A
delays. A neglectful mother may not feed
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her baby properly, which can slow brain Children’s optimism, high self-esteem,
development, or an emotionally abusive intelligence, creativity, humor and
father may damage his child’s ability to independence, which enhance their
form trusting relationships. Abused or coping skills in the face of adversity.
neglected children can see the world as an The acceptance of peers and positive
unstable, frightening and dangerous place, influences such as teachers, mentors
which can undermine their sense of self- and role models
worth and their ability to cope with and The family’s access to social supports,
adapt to their environments as they grow neighborhood stability and access to
up. If unaddressed, maltreatment may safe schools and adequate health care
contribute to later problems, such The child's experience of love,
alcoholism/substance abuse, depression, acceptance, positive guidance and
domestic violence, multiple sexual protection from a caring adult, which
partners and exposure to sexually encourages trust that their parents or
transmitted diseases, suicidal thoughts and caregivers will provide what they need
attempts. to thrive
Parent's or caregiver’s respectful
The impact of abuse can vary depending
communication and listening,
on:
consistent rules and expectations, and
safe opportunities that promote
Age and developmental status of the
independence
child when the abuse or neglect
Parents or caregivers who can cope
occurred,
with the stresses of everyday life and
Type of abuse (physical abuse, neglect,
have the inner strength to bounce back
sexual abuse, etc.),
when things are not going well.
Frequency, duration and severity of
Parents or caregivers with a social
abuse,
network of emotionally supportive
Relationship between the victim and
friends, family and neighbors
his or her abuser.
Families who can meet their own basic
WHAT FACTORS PROTECT A needs for food, clothing, housing and
CHILD FROM RISK OF ABUSE OR transportation and know how to access
NEGLECT? essential services such as childcare,
health care and mental health services
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There are two major goals in working with and failure to move towards recovery
child victims of sexual abuse (Anderson (Briere and Scott 2006). Therefore, when
and Hiersteiner2008; Briere and Scott implementing any therapy with sexually
2006). First is to help the victim express abused children, therapists must determine
and work through her/his emotions whether the child is ready for trauma
regarding the abuse, including about and treatment or initially needs to be stabilized
toward the perpetrator, in the here and and made to feel safe following the abuse
now. This is a long-term process for many (and establish a safe place they can learn to
victims of CSA. The second goal is to help go to in their thoughts and feelings). It is
the child or adolescent movefrom a sense important to remember that children often
Resilient Self –characteristics that include: having a desire to protect the secret of CSA
insight, play and humor, morality, self- caring person (Crenshaw and Hardy 2007).
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children must feel secure, supported, and process theirexperience (Foster 2011).
believed about the abuse. Therapy begins Children may initially fear recallingtheir
with stablishing a therapeutic relationship trauma, believing that the remembering
between the child and counselor. will lead to anunbearable reliving of the
Developing a relationship with children events. It is important to help thechild
who have experienced extreme trauma, distinguish between a memory (past events
including sexual abuse, has been described that are goneand not operating in the
as “a harrowing feat” (Crenshaw and present) and the here-and-now and tomake
Hardy 2007) and the counselor’s role as sure that the child understands this
one of an “empathetic witness of injustice” difference.Whenfears are expressed, it is
(Kaminer2006, p. 488). Due to the nature helpful for the counselor to explainthe
of CSA, trust is rationale of the trauma narrative and what
acentralissue.Manyabusedchildrentendtore the counselorwill do if symptoms arise. It
spondtootherswith either blind trust (that is also important to assure thechild that
does not distinguish between safeand they will work at his/her own pace. At this
unsafe people) or an inability to trust stage, it isvital for the counselor to be an
anyone in anycircumstance. Other victims empathetic, nonjudgmentallistener as the
of CSA fear that the counselor willbetray child becomes ready to tell his or her
their trust and they will be harmed again. story(Kaminer2006). When children share
An importantcomponent to the healing trauma in the form ofthe narrative, they
process is for children to learn how totrust are actively involved in the process
others again, a process which begins in the ofmoving towards closure.
counselingrelationship and continues over Closure is defined as the survivor
time (Kaminer2006). Failure toestablish a becoming free fromhabitually thinking
safe, trusting relationship often leads to about the trauma in such a way that
thefailure ofany method or technique causesdistress (Klempner2000). During
employed since the efficacy ofcounseling this process, children seekto understand
is directly related to the therapeutic their trauma andits impact, which may
relationship(Gil 2006). involveaddressing why the trauma
During the trauma narrative process (the happened to them and understand that in
child telling orsharing her/his abuse story), no way isanything their fault. It also
the counselor works closely withthe child involves exploration of the waysin which
to help them recall, write about, and the experience has changed their view of
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self, others,and the world. Children (when and alone. Adults may also fear
they are developmentallycapable) can thatopenlytalking about the abuse will re-
explore and discover personal meanings traumatize the child, and therefore they
withinthe traumatic experience. The act of avoid the topic altogether (Ogawa 2004).
making meaning out Childrenare aware of whether or not the
ofone’strauma(e.g.,“that which does not abuse can be talked aboutopenly with their
kill me makes mestronger”) often helps parents, and theytoo may avoid the topic
children attain some level of outof fear that it will make their parents
closure(Briere and Lanktree2008). sad or angry. However,bringing the trauma
Integrating the traumatic experience into out in the open and helping the
one’s life is the last portion of trauma childexpress her/his thoughts and deep
recovery. Forchildren, the ability to adapt inner feelings helps “demystify”the
and move forward often lies intheir experience of CSA for them and
courage to face their pain and process the emotionallywork through the trauma.
emotionalimpact of the abuse on them, Children also need to know what toexpect
while at the same time learningnew ways in sessions, what their role is and the role
of coping with life. It is important to of thecounselor. Parents and caregivers
remember thatchildren needample time to should also be informed ofthe potential
successfully complete treatment. increases in symptoms and decline in
for children who have experiencedsexual respond to their child during these
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safety and shelter for women and children against girls and women by treating them
escaping violence, and located the roots of as crimes. Domestic violence against
domestic violence in gender inequality in women in India is especially significant in
social relationships. terms of prevalence and consequences.
With more than half a billion-female According to the Domestic Violence Act
population, India has the second largest of India, domestic violence includes
population of females in the world. This physical violence, emotional abuse and
safety, security and nurturance for society, Health Survey of India for the period
multitude ways. It goes without saying that domestic violence among 83,703 women
at first the girl child has to be given a in the age range of 15 to 49 years. Results
chance to be born and subsequently, not revealed that 34% of the women had
only accepted, but cherished. This requires experienced domestic violence and that
an attitudinal shift in the way the girl child domestic violence was higher among
is perceived and treated in the patriarchal women who had low educational and
Indian society. Several social ills that economic status. Physical violence was
plague Indian society target the girl child more prevalent than sexual and emotional
and women. These include female feticide, abuse with one third of the victimized
neglect of the girl child, sexual abuse of women reporting cuts, bruises, burns,
the girl child, trafficking of girls and dislocations, deep wounds, broken teeth
women, dowry harassment and domestic and bones. However, 75% of them did not
violence. Such violence against girls and seek help to end the violence and the data
women impairs their physical and also suggested that neither education nor
psychological trauma in order to ensure health among women and it has also been
The government of India has passed women seeking safety in shelter homes. In
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though both male-to-female and female-to- and peace since the beginning of modern
male partner violence exist; and the rates psychology. Though philosophizing about
of female-to-male partner violence equal peace has ancient roots, the discipline of
50% of IPV are bidirectional, and the rest scientific psychology with the 1910 essay
divided between male-to-female only and by William James, “The Moral Equivalent
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personal honor; consequently, to end war, Gordon Allport, Edna Heidbreder, Ernest
societies must find alternative “moral Hilgard, Otto Klineberg, RensisLikert, and
equivalents” for the expression of these Edward Tolman) circulated a
profoundly important human values. “Psychologists’ Manifesto: Human Nature
and the Peace: A Statement by
Peace can be defined as a positive societal
Psychologists” (reprinted in Jacobs, 1989,
state in which violence, whether direct or
and in Murphy, 1945), which was signed
structural, is not a likely occurrence, and in
by almost 4,000 psychologists (M. B.
which all humans, animals, and ecology
Smith, 1999). The Manifesto argued that
are treated with fairness, dignity, and
“war can be avoided: War is built, not
respect. Peace psychology is the study of
born” and urged lawmakers to work
mental processes and behavior that lead to
toward peace with attention to “the root
violence, prevent violence, and facilitate
desires of the common people of all lands”
nonviolence as well as promoting fairness,
respect, and dignity for all, for the purpose Direct violence comes from individuals
of making violence a less likely occurrence who hurt others in acute and discrete
and helping to heal its psychological incidents. In a war, there will be a
effects. multitude of such incidents. Structural
violence is inflicted on people through the
The Division of Peace Psychology
structures of society and involves chronic
(Division 48), which was established in forms of harm such as poverty,
1991, shares with the American
environmental damage, misallocated
Psychological Association (APA) a
resources, or dangerous working
commitment to promoting human well-
conditions.
being. The goals of peace psychology are
to “increase and apply psychological Structural violence is embedded in the
knowledge in the pursuit of peace . . . values, social norms, laws, social
[including] both the absence of destructive structures, and procedures within a society
conflict and the creation of positive social or community which systematically
conditions which minimize destructiveness disadvantage certain individuals and
and promote human well-being” groups so that they are poorer, sicker, less
educated, and more harmed than those
By the close of World War II, 13 well- who are not disadvantaged.
known American psychologists (including
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‘Positive’ peace denotes the simultaneous people relate those perspectives to each
presence of many desirable states of mind other within some coherent framework.
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of the American war in Vietnam for Rights Movement of the 1960s, the
several years is one of the most cited struggle of Blacks to gain social and legal
examples. equality with whites. Similarly, many gay
people join the same-sex marriage
Realistic Group Conflict Theory: It
movement in order to acquire the same
posited that hostility is likely to occur legal recognition of their marriages
when groups are in competition for scarce enjoyed by straight people.
resources (Campbell, 1965; Sherif&Sherif,
1953). Realistic group conflict is likely to In some cases, relative deprivation has
increase as resources grow scarcer and been cited as a factor driving incidents of
environmental problems become more social disorder like rioting, looting,
pressing (Winter, 2000; Winter & Koger, terrorism, and civil wars. In this nature,
2004). Depletion of natural resources such social movements and their associated
as clean water, arable land, and precious disorderly acts can often be attributed to
minerals, combined with population the grievances of people who feel they
growth and displacement, will increase are being denied resources to which they
dramatically in the next decades. During are entitled.
such conflicts, attributional biases can
Development of the concept of relative
cascade into scapegoating, antagonistic
deprivation is often attributed to American
ideologies, and blaming.
sociologist Robert K. Merton, whose study
RELATIVE DEPRIVATION of American soldiers during World War II
THEORY: revealed that soldiers in the Military
Police were far less satisfied with their
As defined by social theorists and political opportunities for promotion than regular
scientists, Relative Deprivation Theory GIs.
suggests that people who feel they are
being deprived of almost anything - ABSOLUTE DEPRIVATION
considered essential in their society— THEORY:
whether money, rights, political voice or
Relative and absolute deprivation are
status—will organize or join social
measures of poverty in a given country.
movements dedicated to obtaining the
Absolute deprivation describes a
things of which they feel deprived. For
condition at which household income falls
example, relative deprivation has been
below a level needed to maintain the basic
cited as one of the causes of the U.S. Civil
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necessities of life like food and shelter. (Deutsch, 1973, 1985). Competitive
Relative deprivation describes a level of relations are fraught with impaired
poverty at which household income drops communication, suspicion, criticism,
to a certain percentage below the country’s disagreement, power plays, coercion, and
median income. For example, a country’s the belief that solutions benefit one party
level of relative poverty could be set at 50 but not all parties. However, competitive
percent of its median income. While features of a relationship can be
absolute poverty can threaten one’s very transformed by emphasizing cooperation,
survival, relative poverty is more likely to which is characterized by effective
limit one’s ability to participate fully in communication, friendliness, helpfulness,
their society. coordination of effort, shared values and
beliefs, willingness to enhance the other’s
In 2015, the World Bank Group set the
power, and the viewpoint that conflict is a
worldwide absolute poverty level at $1.90
mutual problem to be solved.
a day per person based on purchasing
power parities (PPP) rates. Various conflict resolution techniques
used to reduce tension and conflict include
CONFLICT RESOLUTION AT
negotiation, mediation, arbitration,
MACRO LEVEL:
diplomacy, interactive problem solving,
cooperation on superordinate goals, and
Conflict management broadly to refer to
unilateral initiatives.
efforts that prevent violent episodes by
containing differences in views (conflict
Approaches to conflict resolution tend to
management) or by reaching an agreement
fall within two broad categories:
(conflict resolution).
1. INTEREST BASED
One of the earliest and most important
insights about conflict resolution is that it The interest-based approach was pioneered
often requires finding “integrative by Fisher and Ury (1981) in their best-
solutions,” that is, outcomes that satisfy selling and highly influential book on
the needs of all parties (Follett, 1924). negotiation strategies, Getting to Yes.
However, conflicts often arise out of
This technique has helped negotiators by
negative interdependence between parties
encouraging intergroup empathy and
that have mixed motives with both
mutual understanding, separating thinking
competitive and cooperative dimensions
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about players’ personalities from the workshops not only induce change in the
problem, avoiding criticism of the parties individuals participating but serve as a
by each other while critically analyzing the catalyst for change in wider political
issue, inventing options that yield mutual communities. IPS has been applied in
gains, and using objective criteria to judge many conflicts, including those in
whether proposed agreements satisfy Northern Ireland (Hall, 1999), Cyprus
everyone’s interests. This “principled (Fisher, 2001b), Israel/Palestine (Kelman,
negotiation” tends to yield creative 1995; Rouhana&Kelman, 1994),
options, positional flexibility, mutually Argentina (Mitchell, 2000), Sri Lanka
satisfying (win– win) solutions, and (Hicks & Weisberg, 2001), and the Horn
improved relationships through mutual of Africa (Beyna, Lund, Stacks, Tuthill,
learning and problem solving. &Vondal, 2001).
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errors repeatedly carried out by mass country and further economic decline
media. Eventually, Viggo concluded with (ibid).Apart from the negative roles of
reference to Muammar Qaddafi’s media, several cases have also linked
captureand subsequent killing on October media to the promotion of peace and
20, 2011, “.... the power of media in reconciliation. For example, in Northern
conflict cannot be assumed.... speed and Uganda where the Lord Resistance Army
technology with which images of the event (LRA) has camped for decades, media has
recorded on cell phones were transmitted been used to create the common good for
around the world via social media the people to promote peace. Struges
platforms, and widely disseminated even (2007) found that Mega FM has promoted
before Qaddafi’s death was confirmed....” peace in Northern Uganda with positive
effects since 2002.
During the 2010 general elections in Côte
d’Ivoire, the media landscape was rife with The station has encouraged LRA members
partisan polemic and misinformation from to come out of the bush, joined radio
opposing sides and incitements to phone-in talk shows and hold discussions
violence, while members of the media with government and civil society
themselves were frequent targets of representatives, a good step in peace
violence and intimidation (Media building. Likewise, Open Broadcast
Foundation for West Africa, 2011). During Network (OBN), a media network
the post-election crisis that followed after established in Bosnia two decades ago, is
the announcement of the presidential one of the most ambitious and earliest
results, the print media and public intentional media attempts to reduce
television were used by both presidential violent conflict. To this day, it remains the
candidates Laurent Gbagbo and only television network established to
AllassaneOuattara as a tool for propaganda promote peace and reconciliation. This
and a means for mobilizing their electorate followed the initial assessments of the
against their opponents (Electoral Reform Bosnian conflict that propaganda, through
International Services, 2011).The media ethnic television stations, was instrumental
occupied a central role in the post-election in spreading messages of hate that incited
crisis and the descent into civil war that and fuelled the conflict (Sadkovich, 1998).
saw the displacement of more than 1 Search for Common Ground (SFCG), a
million people, the effective termination of US based NGO dealing with conflict
many government services in parts of the resolution, launched Studio Ijambo in
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1995 at the height of ethnic and political well-being reflects dimensions of affect
violence in Burundi and neighbouring judgments of life satisfaction.
Rwanda. The studio was established with Psychological well-beingis simultaneously
the intention of promoting reconciliation, the absence of the crippling elements of
understanding and foster nonviolent the human experience–depression, anxiety,
conflict resolution (SFCG, 2004). Since its anger, fear–and the presence of enabling
inception, Studio Ijambo has had a ones–positive emotions, meaning, healthy
significant positive impact in mitigating relationships, environmental mastery,
conflict through high-quality radio engagement, self-actualization.
programs that promoted reconciliation, Psychological well-beingis above and
dialogue, and collaboration, in addition to beyond the absence of psychological ill-
its credible, unbiased programming which being and it considers a broader spectrum
included news, special features, round- of constructs than what is traditionally
table discussions, telephone call-ins, conceived of as happiness (Seligman
music, and highly popular soap-opera andCsikszentmihalyi,2000;
series (Slachmuijlder&Nkurunziza, 1972). Seligman,2011).
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suffering from mental disorders can hardly SWB to be a function of the independent
experience psychological wellbeing. dimensions of general positive and
However, absence of those disorders does negative affectivity.
not guaranty psychological flourishing.
Since society traditionally supports mental
illness within its healthcare system, it
TYPES OF WELLBEING (HEDONIC
belongs in the health domain and it will
AND EUDEMONIC)
not be a focus of this chapter. Only some
of the interventions described below can (Referred from an article by Henarath)
both alleviate mental illness and improve According to the scientific literature, there
positive psychological functioning. Most are two relatively distinct perspectives for
empirical inquiries into happiness. The
of the recommendations in this chapter are first perspective is hedonism that reflects
aimed at amplifying psychological health maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain
which was articulated thousands of years
assets. Subjective well-being (SWB)- good ago by the Geek philosopher, Arsttuppus
mental states, including all of the various (Watson, 1895).
evaluations, positive and negative, that His concept of hedonism has been further
people make of their lives and the affective elaborated by many others. Accordingly,
Epicurus (342 – 270 BCE) introduced
reactions of people to their experiences, is ethical hedonism which holds our primary
part of psychological well-being. It is often moral obligation to maximize experience
of pleasure (Brunschwin and Nussbaum,
conceptualized as a set of two interrelated 1993). Later, David Hume (1711 – 1776)
elements: and Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) used
the philosophy of hedonism to develop a
foundation of utilitarianism (Peterson et
al., 2005) the doctrine, based on the fact
Life evaluation–a reflective that utility promotes happiness. Bentham
assessment on a person’s life or defined happiness, based on psychological
some specific aspect of it. experience as the cumulative value of
Affect –a person’s feelings or pleasure and pain and he further argued
emotional states, typically that moral quality of human action should
measured with reference to a be judged by its consequence on human
particular point in time. happiness (Veenhoven, 2010). Hedonism
is being promoted even now, under the
The notion of subjective wellbeing (SWB) name of hedonic psychology (Kahneman
is the currently dominant conception of et al., 1999). Preconceived understanding
among hedonic psychologists is that,
happiness in psychological literature. happiness or well-being comprises of
There are several empirically informed subjective happiness and all good or bad
judgments of life, based on pleasure versus
models which aim to determine the
displeasure (Ryan and Deci, 2001).
structure of SWB. Bradburn (1969) found Further, they stated that hedonic viewpoint
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In the past decade, positive psychology has vengeance, or narcissistic traits are more
advance the science behind what is ills, individuals who experience gratitude,
strongest and best in people. Most forgiveness, humility, love, and kindness
prominent in these efforts is the field of are more likely to report being happier and
their varying combinations and severity, strengths describe various shades and
cognition, affect, volition, and behavior. diminish others; rather they elevate those
They are the basic psychological who witness the strength expression,
ingredients that enable us to act in ways producing admiration not jealousy. Some
that character strengths carry prescriptive while others may have what appearsto be
relegated them to philosophy and made the Societal institutions, through rituals,
troubled aspects of human life the focus of attempt to cultivate character strengths.
Peterson and Martin Seligman (2004) strengths (e.g., kindness, teamwork, zest)
spearheaded the first systematic effort to from talents and abilities. Athletic
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prowess, photographic memory, perfect overuse and underuse, and their expression
pitch, fine dexterity, physical agility, and would exist in degrees. Character strength
such constitute talents and abilities. use varies by context so there is no perfect
Character strengths have moral flavor mean other than to reflect what Aristotle
whereas talents and abilities do not. Also, (2000) expressed as the golden mean of
talents, by and large are not buildable. the expression of the right combination of
Clearly, self-regulation and optimism can strengths to the right degree in the right
improve one's swimming performance but situation. From this angle, depression
run like Usain Bolt, one needs certain humor/playfulness, and zest;
be built on even frail foundations, and with characterized as the overuse of the
mentoring can take root to make life worth thinking as well as of perseverance as
living. Also, one can squander a talent, but reflected in thought rumination. Likewise,
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states such as flow. Mihaly openness, and acceptance with what one
and enjoyable state that is worth doing for strengths and others may help facilitate
its own sake. During flow, time passes, greater mindfulness (Niemiec, Rashid,
and attention is razor sharp on the present &Spinella, in press), and in turn, the
moment activity. The individual becomes practice of mindfulness has been shown to
one with the activity, thus both conscious nurture a variety of character strengths
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way that is new and unique for that client Additional lines of research (Sheldon &
(Linley et al., 2010; Madden et al., 2011; Houser-Marko, 2001; Linley et al., 2010)
Mitchell et al., 2009; Mongrain&Anselmo, have provided empirical evidence that
2009; Rust, Diessner, & Reade, 2009; employing signature strengths enhances
Peterson & Peterson, 2008; Seligman et people's well-being by facilitating a
al., 2005). This intervention has been motivational sequence of goal selection
found to boost happiness and decrease (e.g., you select a goal that is meaningful
depression for up to six months. But, the for you), goal pursuit (in pursuing the goal
benefits of using character strengths is you use your best internal resources), and
mounting beyond increases to happiness goalattainment (you successfully complete
and decreases to depression. a project which you find enjoyable,
Character strengths use has been linked to engaging, and meaningful). The whole
esteem, goal achievement, positive affect, 2000). This spiral is not only therapeutic
vitality, and lower perceived stress but also helps individuals to flourish.
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RESILIENCE demonstration of manifested behavior on
variety of difficulties and challenges any particular tasks at a specific life stage”
during the course of their lives, ranging Resilience is that ineffable quality that
from daily hassles to major life events. A allows some people to be knocked down
significant chunk of Indian youth is by life and come back stronger than ever.
contributing tremendously to the global Rather than letting failure overcome them
pool of education, business and and drain their resolve, they find a way to
information technology. At the same time, rise from the ashes. Psychologists have
frt8l9they have counterparts who cannot identified some of the factors that make
deal with competitiveness and the stress to someone resilient, among them a positive
perform. The young adults, therefore are attitude, optimism, the ability to regulate
able to bounce back from setbacks and emotions, and the ability to see failure as a
deal with daily hassles and stressors form of helpful feedback. Even after
through the process called Resilience. misfortune, resilient people are blessed
The term resilience stems from Latin word with such an outlook that they are able to
'resiliens’ to refer to the pliant or elastic change course and soldier on.
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Outcome
Risk Factors Outcomes
Compensatory
Factors
Protective
Factors
RISK-PROTECTIVE MODEL OF
RESILIENCE (GARMEZY ET AL.
1984; RUTTER, 1985)
As per this model, by means of an
interaction between the protective and risk
factors, the probability of negative
outcomes is reduced. The model examines
whether protective factors modify the
effects of risks in an interactive fashion.
Although they may have direct effects on CHALLENGE MODEL OF
the outcomes, protective factors mainly act RESILIENCE (RUTTER, 1987)
as moderators. Brook et al (1990) This model is based on the idea that
proposed that effects may be associated exposure to moderate level of risks, helps
with a ‘risk- protective mechanism’ or a in preparing individuals to overcome
‘protective- protective mechanism’. A risk subsequent exposures. It is vital that the
protective variable functions to lessen the initial exposure is challenging enough to
negative effect of a risk factor, whereas help develop the coping mechanisms to
protective- protective variables enhance overcome its effects. This suggests that
the positive effects of promotive factors exposure to low levels and high levels of a
found to decrease negative outcomes. risk factor are associated with negative
Thus, resilience here can be said to outcomes, but moderate levels of the risk
moderate the negative influences of risk are related to less negative (or positive
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outcomes). The underlying idea is that The authors postulated that a resilience
individuals exposed to moderate levels of cycle may be used by people facing
risks develop skills to overcome it, adversity. The researchers suggest that
whereas very high levels of risk may even the most resilient individuals
overwhelm their capacity to adapt. experience a ‘Rollercoaster Effect’ as they
Moderate levels of risk may therefore be work through a traumatic experience. A
beneficial as long as the risk exposure is four-cycle phase to resilience was defined
challenging enough to elicit a coping by the researchers, and includes: a
response, enabling the individual to learn deteriorating phase, an adapting phase, a
from the process of overcoming the risk. recovery phase, and a growing phase.
An example of this is provided in the form Resilience capacity, for the most part,
of resolution of interpersonal conflicts in a largely determines where in the cycle the
friendly way, which later can help in individual finds himself. Thus, if a person
solving a more heated social disagreement, is unable to adapt to his challenging
which might lead to a violent response if experience, he will most likely sink into a
not resolved appropriately. dysfunctional level and will be unable to
cope or survive the adversity. However,
some individuals may adapt but not fully
recover, thus reaching survival level. Some
may reach the recovery phase and return to
the status quo. However, a small minority
of individuals, those who are ‘thrivers’, are
likely to reach the growing phase and
achieve a strengthened resilience level.
This growing phase is referred to as
Outcome 1 Outcome 2 Outcome 3
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provide a context for how it can further be adaptation within the context of significant
challenging life events in a way that members of the group were largely
protective and coping skills than prior to process and thus this aspect was included
the disruption that results from the event” in the operational definition. Some of the
(p.34). Similarly, Higgins (1994) described studies that support this view are
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We are all born with an innate capacity for protective factors in an individual’s life.
Garmezy’s (1991) triadic model of A large body of research also showed the
resilience provided a widely accepted positive effects of resilience on overall
ecological framework for understanding well-being and competence. These aspects
the resilience process. The triadic model were also considered important by the
described the dynamic interactions among group members and thus were included in
risk and protective factors on three levels
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the operation definition. Some of the and a sense of purpose and future.
research include: Children and adolescents actually acquire
Resilience shows a positive correlation much of their belief about their own
with psychological well-being (Picardi et competence from their families and home
al., 2012; Sagone& De Caroli, 2013). environments. A strong sense of
Souri and Hasanirad (2011) found that competence is most likely to develop in a
resilience is also a positive and significant home environment that offers some
predictor for psychological well-being and challenges, encourages, sets high but
this relationship is mediated by optimism. realistic aspirations, contains positive role
Furthermore, positive emotions predicted models, provides and supports mastery
increase in both resilience and experiences, and teaches how to deal with
psychological well-being (Cohn, difficulties. The ability to apply problem-
Fredrickson, Brown, Mikels& Conway, solving skills to interpersonal problems or
2009). Due to these empirical findings and conflicts, to show empathy for the feelings
surrounding health care and the way health are hallmarks of positive development.
care is funded, promoting mental health Adolescents with good intimacy skills—
through cultivating resilience has become that is, those who are able to be
and prevention in counselling, mental are also more likely to be resilient. (Hair et
al., 2002).
health services, school environments and
community programs (AIESG, 2010;
Ager, 2013). Promoting mental health by
enhancing resilience fits current financial
cut backs because it locates resources
within the individual and the community
rather than in government programs and
initiatives (Ager, 2013). Therefore, the
demand for interventions that promote
resilience and well-being is growing.
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POST-TRAUMATIC GROWTH
After the attack, Wilson had flashbacks
As Kay Wilson struggled to make her way and deep survivor's guilt. But like many
through a Jerusalem forest after being people who have survived trauma, she has
terrorist, she distracted herself from her appreciation for life, a newfound sense of
agony by playing the song "Somewhere personal strength and a new focus on
Wilson, then 46, had been working as a psychologists Richard Tedeschi, PhD, and
tour guide when, on Dec. 18, 2010, she Lawrence Calhoun, PhD, in the mid-
and a friend were ambushed by terrorists. 1990s, and holds that people who endure
Wilson witnessed her friend's murder and psychological struggle following adversity
was herself viciously stabbed with a can often see positive growth afterward.
She eventually recovered from her severe might have and a better understanding of
physical wounds and is healing from her how to live life," says Tedeschi.
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Appreciation of life.
"Resiliency is the personal attribute or
Relationships with others.
ability to bounce back," says Taku. PTG,
New possibilities in life.
on the other hand, refers to what can
Personal strength.
happen when someone who has difficulty
Spiritual change.
bouncing back experiences a traumatic
event that challenges his or her core
The scale is being revised to add new
beliefs, endures psychological struggle
items that will expand the "spiritual
(even a mental illness such as post-
change" domain, says Tedeschi. This is
traumatic stress disorder), and then
being done "to incorporate more
ultimately finds a sense of personal
existential themes that should resonate
growth. It's a process that "takes a lot of
with those who are more secular" as well
time, energy and struggle," Taku says.
as reflect cross-cultural differences in
perceptions of spirituality.
Someone who is already resilient when
trauma occurs won't experience PTG
A PREDISPOSITION FOR
because a resilient person isn't rocked to
GROWTH?
the core by an event and doesn't have to
seek a new belief system, explains How many people experience PTG?
Tedeschi. Less resilient people, on the Tedeschi prefers not to put a hard number
other hand, may go through distress and on it.
confusion as they try to understand why
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"It all depends on the trauma, the Women also tend to report more growth
circumstances, the timing of the than men, says Tedeschi, but the
measurement … [and] on how you define difference is relatively small.
growth using the PTGI, looking at total
Age also can be a factor, with children
score, means, factors or individual items,"
under 8 less likely to have the cognitive
he says. However, he estimates that about
capacity to experience PTG, while those in
one-half to two-thirds of people show
late adolescence and early adulthood—
PTG.
who may already be trying to determine
Some PTG researchers have tried to their world view—are more open to the
corroborate self-reported growth by type of change that such growth reflects,
questioning friends and family members says Tedeschi.
about whether growth "sticks."
There also may be genetic underpinnings
"We are getting more studies that show for PTG, but researchers are just beginning
that PTG is generally stable over time, to tease this out. In a 2014 study in the
with a few people showing increases and a Journal of Affective Disorders, for
few showing decreases," Tedeschi says. "It example, Harvard social and psychiatric
is now up to us to learn what is going on epidemiologist Erin Dunn, ScD, and a
with those who change over time, but the team of researchers examined data
evidence is for stability in general, and previously collected from over 200
also corroboration by others." Hurricane Katrina survivors and found that
variants in the gene RGS2 significantly
There appear to be two traits that make
interacted with levels of exposure to the
some more likely to experience PTG, says
hurricane to predict PTG. RGS2 is linked
Tedeschi: openness to experience and
to fear-related disorders, such as post-
extraversion. That's because people who
traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder
are more open are more likely to
and anxiety.
reconsider their belief systems, says
Tedeschi, and extroverts are more likely to Dunn calls the results "very interesting"
be more active in response to trauma and but notes that "we have to be somewhat
seek out connections with others. cautious in interpreting it because we were
unable to find a similar sample to replicate
that finding."
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of health-compromising behaviors to be
HEALTH COMPROMISING
targeted for intervention, the next step in
BEHAVIORS AMONG
building effective prevention programs is to
ADOLESCENTS
understand the factors associated with these
behaviors among adolescents at different
The major causes of adolescent mortality stages of development. Numerous studies on
are not diseases, but are primarily related health-compromising behaviors among
to preventable social, environmental and adolescents indicate that these D. Neumark-
behavioral factors (Irwin and Millstein, Sztainer et al. behaviors tend to
1986; Millstein, 1989). The three primary co-occur, leading to a health-
causes of mortality during adolescence are compromising life-style (Donovan and
injuries, homicide and suicide; together Jessor,1985; Donovan et al., 1988, 1991;
they are responsible for 75% of all Osgood, 1991; Neumark-Sztainer et al.,
adolescent deaths (Millstein et al, 1993). 1996). Research on Problem Behavior
Major sources of morbidity include injury Theory suggests that alcohol and
and disability associated with the use of marijuana use, delinquent behaviors, and
motor or recreational vehicles, pregnancy sexual intercourse may constitute a
complications, sexually transmitted 'syndrome' of problem behavior in
diseases and consequences of substance adolescence. However, strengths of
abuse (Millstein et al.,1993). Among associations between health-com-
adolescent females, eating disorders are promising behaviors differ, suggesting that
another significant source of morbidity, there may be greater shared etiologic
and the use of unhealthy weight loss factors for certain sets of behaviors than
methods may have numerous for others (Osgood, 1991; Elliot, 1993).
psychological and physical health Studies on covariations of health-
consequences (Nylander, 1971; Pugliese et compromising behaviors provide
al.,1983; French and Jeffery, 1994; information for hypothesis generation
Neumark-Sztainer,1995). To improve about common underlying factors leading
adolescent health, it is essential to reduce to the clustering of behaviors.
the frequency, delay the onset and aim
The identification of etiologic factors
towards the prevention of behaviors
common to an array of health-
associated with morbidity and mortality
compromising behaviors may foster the
among youth. Following the identification
design of more effective and cost-efficient
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LIFE STYLE AND CHRONIC transition is change in our lifestyle toward
DISEASES [DIABETES, the unhealthy continuum, e.g., tobacco
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50% of the deaths in the US each year are serious mental illness like depression and
due to unhealthy lifestyle. In India also, psychosis. Physical, emotional, social and
the situation of lifestyle diseases is quite sexual change makes adolescents
alarming. The disease profile is changing overloaded with stress, which can result in
rapidly. The World Health Organization anxiety, withdrawal, aggression, poor
(WHO) has identified India as one of the coping skills and actual physical illness.
nations that is going to have most of the Adolescents constitute about 22.8% of the
lifestyle disorders in the near future. population of India.
Nowadays, not only are lifestyle disorders
It is well documented that behaviors
becoming more common but they are also
developed during this period influence
affecting the younger population. Hence,
health in adulthood. Several health-
the population at risk shifts from 40+ to
compromising behaviors (e.g., smoking,
maybe 30+ or even younger. Already
alcohol) as well as health-enhancing
considered the diabetes capital of the
behaviors (e.g., physical exercise,
world, India now appears headed toward
nutrition) are adopted in adolescence, and
gaining another dubious distinction of
they often persist into adulthood. The
becoming the lifestyle-related disease
WHO estimates that 70% of premature
capital as well. A study conducted jointly
deaths among adults are due to behavior
by the All India Institute of Medical
(smoking, illicit drug use, reckless driving)
Sciences and the Max Hospital shows that
initiated during adolescence. Therefore,
the incidence of hypertension, obesity and
helping adolescents establish healthy
heart disease is increasing at an alarming
lifestyles and avoid developing health risk
rate, especially in the young, urban
behaviors is crucial and should be started
population.
before these behaviors are firmly
In most of these lifestyle diseases, the established. The demands on young people
onset is insidious and is usually after the are new and unprecedented; their parents
age of 30 years. By the time interventions could not have predicted many of the
are planned and implemented, the damage pressures they face. How we help
to health has already occurred. adolescents meet these demands and equip
them with the kind of education, skills and
Adolescents are a unique population with outlook they will need in a changing
specific health concerns and needs. environment will depend on how well we
Adolescence is the peak age of onset for
understand their world.
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Hypertension and type 2 diabetes are The prevalence of obesity and type 2
compared with those who do not have low energy expenditure and high caloric
diabetes developing than are normotensive the number of cases of T2D will rise from
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MACROVASCULAR DISEASE of a previous myocardial
infarction.Moreover, patients with T2D
CLINICAL FEATURES
have poorer outcomes after an acute
coronary syndrome and higher rates of
Macrovascular (or cardiovascular) disease
reinfarction and heart failure.
of larger conduit arteries is a complex
inflammatory process leading to
Elevation of CVD risk begins at the stage
myocardial infarction, stroke, and
of prediabetes in association with insulin
peripheral artery disease. The primary
resistance and impaired glucose tolerance.
pathologic process associated with
As well as being the diagnostic hallmark
macrovascular disease is atherosclerosis,
of T2D, hyperglycemia is the principal
which in diabetes is accelerated with
determinant of microvascular complications
extensive distribution of vascular lesions.
of T2D and plays an important role in the
T2D confers an approximate 2-fold
pathogenesis of CVD. However, in
elevation in CVD risk, equivalent to that
established T2D, it is a relatively weak
modifiable risk factor compared with
hypertension, dyslipidemia,
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metabolic traits are linked to immune- diabetes as well as insulin sensitivity and
related loci. Studies integrating obesity.
metabochip approaches with GWAS have
A recent large proof of concept trial of
shown that classic immunometabolic genes
anti-inflammatory therapy in patients after
including JNK signalling pathways (such
myocardial infarction (A Randomized,
as MAP3K1), nuclear factor kappa B
Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Event-
(NF-κB) regulators (MACROD1),
driven Trial of Quarterly Subcutaneous
inflammasome activators (NRF3), and
Canakinumab in the Prevention of
interferon-γ receptor genes associate with
Recurrent Cardiovascular Events Among
T2D.This also corresponds to results of
Stable Post-Myocardial Infarction Patients
recent large T2D GWAS that identified
With Elevated hsCRP [CANTOS];
genes related to macrophage function and
canakinumab targeting IL-1β) showed a
antigen presentation (MAEA, ST6GAL1),
clear reduction in the rate of
and T-cell signalling (CMIP or
cardiovascular events, albeit with an
PTPRJ).While trying to interpret these
associated increase in the rate of severe
important studies, it should be appreciated
infections. These results were particularly
that GWAS approaches have limitations,
evident in high-risk patients, although
because only a small component of
effects on metabolic profile remain
heritability of complex traits is directly
unclear. However, evidence that IL-1β
explainable by single-gene variability.
targeting may have significant metabolic
CLINICAL EVIDENCE benefits has been well established, as
evidenced by improved profile insulin
Increasing clinical evidence indicates an sensitivity in response to IL1-β blockade.
immune component in T2D and its The potential beneficial effects of anti-
cardiovascular complications. Immune- inflammatory and immune-modulating
targeted therapies currently available for agents in T2D and its complications may
the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and relate to direct vasoprotective effects.
autoimmune disorders, including anti-TNF These studies have led to the rapid
therapies, may prevent insulin resistance as development of the concept of
well as cardiovascular risk.A recent meta-
immunometabolism, clearly linking
analysis of studies with anti-TNF agents
metabolic changes in the tissues to the
supports an overall protective effect of
regulation of inflammation as well as
anti-TNF therapies on lifetime risk of
metabolic status of immune cells to their
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activation.The latter can be characterized involve inhibition of NF-κB and that they
by a switch between oxidative also prevent diabetes and improve insulin
phosphorylation and anaerobic glycolysis, resistance in experimental models and
which is observed in macrophages and T humans.Drugs such as glicazide and
cells.This also emphasizes the importance troglitazone, as well as N-acetylcysteine,
of the interplay between vascular oxidative decrease inflammatory markers in patients
stress and the development of with diabetic nephropathy and diabetic
inflammation in adipose tissue and the retinopathy.
vasculature.
Epigenetics is another mechanism that
ANTI-INFLAMMATORY may influence inflammation and
PROPERTIES OF ANTIDIABETIC immunometabolism in diabetes.Histone
THERAPIES deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors cause NF-
κB inhibition through acetylation of the
Classic approaches improving metabolic
p65 subunit. Givinostat (formerly
health, such as weight reduction and the
ITF2357), an orally active HDAC
use of metformin, statin drugs,
inhibitor, has been shown to prevent the
pioglitazone, and insulin have been shown
development of diabetes. Similarly,
to have anti-inflammatory effects.
activation of sirtuin1, which is involved in
Metformin reduces C-reactive protein
inflammation, metabolism, and aging, has
levels by 13%. More recently, a novel anti-
been shown to have anti-inflammatory
inflammatory mechanism of metformin
properties in diabetes.
affecting M1/M2 polarization of
macrophages has been shown to reduce DIABETES, VASOPROTECTION,
obesity-associated low-grade AND POTENTIAL NEW THERAPIES
inflammation, possibly because of
Data from landmark clinical trials in T2D
adenosine monophosphate-activated
including UKPDS, ADVANCE, and
protein kinase (AMPK) activation. These
Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in
effects were modulated by AMPK and the
Diabetes (ACCORD) demonstrate that
AMPK analogue 5-aminoimidazole-4-
treating comorbidities including
carboxamide ribonucleotide, effects that
hypertension and hypercholesterolemia is
appear stronger than those of metformin.
a more effective strategy for reducing
Recent studies have shown that salicylates
have anti-inflammatory effects that cardiovascular complications than
targeting blood glucose levels with
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blood clots. The cause of heart attacks and and is inflamed. It may not severely
strokes are usually the presence of a narrow the artery, but it can develop a
combination of risk factors, such as crack on the surface, exposing the contents
of the plaque to the blood. Blood cells try
tobacco use, unhealthy diet and obesity,
to seal the gap in the surface with a blood
physical inactivity and harmful use of
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clot. The blood clot partially or completely coronary angiogram or coronary computed
blocks the artery. tomography angiogram (CCTA)
echocardiogram (heart ultrasound)
A heart attack occurs when a blood clot
blood tests
completely blocks the flow of blood and
myocardial perfusion study.
seriously reduces blood flow to the heart
muscle. TREATMENT
If you have had a heart attack, you have There’s no cure for coronary heart disease.
coronary heart disease. But there are treatments and lifestyle
changes that can help you avoid a heart
There are risk factors that increase your
attack.
chance of getting coronary heart disease.
Know your risks
LIFESTYLE CHANGES
You may need to make some changes to
Coronary heart disease is sometimes
stop your heart disease getting worse.
referred to as CHD.
Read more about looking after yourself.
SYMPTOMS
PROCEDURES AND DEVICES
Many people don’t know they have heart
If your coronary heart disease is causing
disease until they have chest pain (angina
serious heart problems your doctor may
or a heart attack).
want you to have a procedure done, like
angioplasty and stent implantation, or
If you are worried about your risk of heart
coronary artery bypass graft surgery
disease, see your doctor or health
(CABG).
practitioner to discuss your risks.
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There are also a number of underlying most often on one side of the body. Other
determinants of CVDs or "the causes of symptoms include sudden onset of:
the causes". These reflect the major
numbness of the face, arm, or leg,
forces driving social, economic and
especially on one side of the body;
cultural change – globalization,
confusion, difficulty speaking
urbanization and population ageing. Other
or understanding speech;
determinants of CVDs include poverty,
difficulty seeing with one or both eyes;
stress and hereditary factors.
difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of
COMMON SYMPTOMS OF balance or coordination;
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES severe headache with no known cause;
and
Symptoms of heart attacks and strokes
fainting or unconsciousness.
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of CDmarkers. The T-helper (Th) cells and regulate the development of nervous
the T-suppressor (Ts) cellsare the main system. Likeother body responses, the
two categories of T lymphocytes which act response of immune system can also
to increaseand decrease the immune beconditioned. The neurons have receptors
response, therefore they work for interleukins and theimmune cell
incoordination with each other to maintain respond to the neurotransmitters through
homeostasis. They alsoplay an important thesereceptors. Under the stressful
role in cancer immunity and various situation whether physical orpsychological
autoimmunediseases. The B-lymphocytes the CNS release stress biochemicals such
act by synthesis of antibodies – as cortisolthrough HPA activation;
aspecialized form of protein molecules activates ANS to prepare the body forfight
active against the particleslike bacteria, and flight response. However, such
viruses, etc. which are pathogenic and/or activation paradoxicallylowers the
foreign tothe organism. The recognition of immune functions and makes the organism
self and non-self molecules isagain susceptibleto infections and other
determined by a complex system of pathologic processes as the requirement
molecules in which theMajor atsuch times is a “strong defense”. The
Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is the evidence to this conclusionhas come from
most important.Both cell-mediated and various animal and human studies. In the
humoral-mediated immunity also workin depressiveand anxiety disorders the
coordinated way through secretion of indices of immune functioning havebeen
cytokines and inter-leukinsfrom consistently seen to be lower than the
lymphocytes which guide their normal. Under socialisolation and
interaction.Although the immune system is ambiguous situations, the immune
perfectly specialized systemof the body response isconsistently seen inadequate in
involved in defense against foreign and various studies. The CNS-ImmuneSystem
pathogenicparticles, it also interacts interaction is quite intricate one.Despite
bilaterally with the other body plethoraof studies the exact mechanism of
systemsincluding the CNS. This this interaction is still beyonda reasonable
interaction attracted the researchers allover level of understanding. Clearly more
so much that it acquired a separate studies arerequired to elucidate this
meaning and status complex mechanism.
aspsychoneuroimmunology. The immune
molecules particularly theMHC also
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LET’S UNDERSTAND THIS IN with each other, but they only recently
SIMPLER TERMS WITH A PINCH started to understand how they do it and
OF DETAIL. what it means for our health.
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these messengers include hormones and Here’s a look at some of the recent
neurotransmitters. Your immune system, research and discussions around PNI in
on the other hand, uses proteins called the medical community:
cytokines to communicate with your CNS.
A 2016 reviewof existing studies
found that stressful experiences during
childhood can increase the release of
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS
cytokines by your immune system.
This is associated with an increased
There’s plenty of existing research about
risk of mental illness in adulthood.
the effects of stress on the immune
Researchers believe that this early
system. Many of these studies focus on the
release of cytokines may cause
release of cytokines in response to both
changes in the brain that increase a
physical and psychological stress.
person’s risk of developing a mental
A cytokine is a small protein that’s illness later in life.
released by cells, especially those in your A 2015 article noted that rats produced
immune system. There are many types of different types of cytokines depending
cytokines, but the ones that are generally on the type of stress they experienced.
stimulated by stress are called pro- For example, an injury produced one
inflammatory cytokines. type of pro-inflammatory cytokine.
Meanwhile, exposure to a social
Under normal circumstances, your body
stressor, such as separation from a
releases pro-inflammatory cytokines in
close family member, released a
response to an infection or injury to help
different type of pro-inflammatory
destroy germs or repair tissue. When
cytokine.
you’re physically or emotionally stressed,
Another 2016 reviewfound that both
your body also releases certain hormones,
sleep disturbances and sleeping too
including epinephrine (adrenaline). These
much seemed to trigger the release
hormones can bind to specific receptors
of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
that signal for the production of pro-
A 2011 review exploring the link
inflammatory cytokines.
between stress and the immune system
found that stress may play a role in
conditions that affect the immune
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will further fuel a intensedebate on the suchtechnology ... The phenomenon would
advantages and simultaneously carrying affect about one third of all population.The
dangers involves by the development of avoidance of the new technologies by some
techniques (andtechnologies!), but also on people, has led to the hypothesis of
how its rules. At the psycho-dynamic "technophobia" or"computerophobia"
level, technophilia(attraction to (these terms are used interchangeably).
technology)generates its psychological When factors as anxiety and attitude, or
opposite, namely, technophobia (rejection morespecifically, the computer anxiety
of technology). Technophilia and the attitude toward computer are
andtechnophobia are the two extremes of beginning to combine, the first condition is
the relationship between technology and a requirement for the second, heving as
the human being, but especially,between result the appearance of irrational fears
technology and society. and anxieties expressed by
avoidingbehavior, paradoxical, sometimes
absurd. Basically, the technophobia
TECHNOPHILIA AND beginning to take shape.Mental resistance
TECHNOPHOBIA – TERMINOLOGY to new technology, manifested in the form
of avoidance of computers was well
The person attracted to technology, the presentedin the literature, by the term
"technophile", takes the most or all "technophobe" or "computerophobe", used
technologies in a positive to describe people who refuse to
manner,enthusiastically adopting new usecomputers when they has this
forms of technology and view this as a opportunity or are required to do.
way to improve his living conditions Although we can’t speak about a phobia in
andcombat social problems (Amichai- theclassic sense of the term (as in
Hambrurger, 2009).However, it was found agoraphobia, for example), but there are
that, with the continued proliferation of many similarities at etiology and
modern technologies in almost every "treatment", that justify the term of
aspectof our existence, the number of "technophobia".
people who manifest fear of them is Technophobia not mean fears about giving
increasing. Fear can go from up, change the job or concerns about
avoidingtechnology to organic symptoms radiation emitted from thescreen, but
such sweating and palpitations, even if rather an emotional response and negative
they only think about using attitudes relative to technology, that the
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at home and they may have been exposed thefun. But times have changed. Today’s
only to the basic online awareness via their settlers flock online in the millions. A
parents. Although Internet use provides single wordaptly summarizes these settlers
numerous valuable benefits but misusing it – ‘diverse’. These Internet users come
can cause serious risks. Due to the lack of from manycultures and walks of life. They
awareness and knowledge about digital arrive with a mix of expectations using a
etiquettes, it can lead to undesired negative variety oftechnologies, which they access
impacts on children. Therefore, it is in different ways.The new settlers include
important to expose and make them children and adults, healthy and infirm,
understand about unethical online eager and reluctant.English-speakers
activities (Freestone & Mitchell, 2010) dominate but other languages and cultures
such as plagiarism, software piracy and are gaining prominence. Thenumber of
privacy violation, (Jung, 2009) not to women matches the number of men. Even,
mention the existing online threats low-income families and thosewith limited
(Lazarinis, 2010) such as viruses. education are beginning to appear (Pew,
2003). This diversity can have itscharm,
WHY IS ETIQUETTE ONLINE
but also can lead to unpredictable
IMPORTANT?
encounters,misunderstandings,and
frustratedexpectations. One person’s
As Internet settlers form cyber-
clever joke is another person’s offensive
communities, the importance of etiquette
insult.Connecting with others tops the ‘to
grows. Lack ofetiquette is weakening
do’ lists for new settlers. Internet
sociability and even destroying online
shopping, gaming,and searching for
communities. Etiquetteonline is not just
information, particularly health information,
nice to have, it is necessary.Like the
are also near the top. Thenew settlers are a
pioneers of the wild west, early Internet
social bunch compared with the early
adopters were a rough and tumble gang.An
pioneers, who focused onprogramming and
occasional sarcastic comment, expletive,
information-oriented tasks.Different types of
or confrontational challenge was part of
technology require different forms of
etiquette (Marx, 1994). Textingvia a mobile
phone is different from instant messaging
and worlds apart from theasynchronous
experience of email. A short abrupt
comment that is acceptable
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punctuation; including my email address in Rice, 2002). This knowledge has given
the CC. or TO. with a list ofother email riseto new interfaces that support identity
addresses; not editing emails; including no and social interaction online (e.g., Preece,
hello or thank you; and poor useof 2000).Two well-known approaches that
formatting styles.These responses suggest specifically address etiquette solutions are
different reasons for the underlying setting rules(often called netiquette) and
behavior: unintentionallyannoying moderating discussions. These can be
behavior that is due either to poorly effective but oftenprove inadequate. New
developed skills (e.g., not mixing caps approaches are called for that combine
andlower case, not editing emails, poor human judgment withtechnical efficiency.
grammar) or failing to appreciate what The following discussions reviews current
others careabout (e.g., wasting time by practice and suggestssome other
sending dumb jokes); potentially malicious approaches.
behavior (e.g.,sending spam); and absence
HUMAN-ORIENTED
of courtesy (e.g., including hello and thank
you).Surprisingly, aggressive comments –
PROCESSES
known as ‘flames’ - are not mentioned.
Flames are NETIQUETTE
Many researchers have reported “Don’t b a txt msg abuser” offer the
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effective, but they are often read and launching in, andso avoid causing offense,
for setting standards in the early days of a this wise strategy when joiningnew
groups, when to let go, and how to bring in other models forcommunity. Some, like
non-participants isnot as obvious as it the saloons of Wild West, are rough and
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As technology has evolved, bullying has purchasing a cell phone for their child for
proliferated. With the advent of the protective reasons, the opposite may be
Internet, chat rooms soon followed. Online true as many youths admit to utilizing their
forums provided a communal breeding phones as an instrument for cyberbullying.
ground for youth to assault one another Further progress on the Internet brought
(Subrahman-yam & Greenfield, 2008). about more and more websites and with
Chat rooms were supplemented by AOL this came the advent of social media. The
Instant Messenger (AIM), an online site MySpace is often considered the
communication program that allowed teens pioneer of social media. MySpace allows
to spend hours talking to one another in individual users to create their own unique
private, one-on-one conversations or in profiles and interact in cyberspace with
public chat rooms. The program further friends and foes alike.
allowed youth to create group-specific chat
rooms. This exclusive forum allowed for Online publication of personal information
youth to get together with select groups of is dangerous because it allows many
friends and talk about the latest gossip. people to see a side of a person more often
Online innovations have continued due to kept private in a face-to-face interaction.
telecommunication advances. The advent This vulnerability puts many teens in a
of cell phones in the late 1960s and early position as either the victim or active
1970s changed the way people offender partaking in cyberbullying
communicated (Shiels, 2003). However, actions. Another aspect of social media
these portable communication devices did that can be misleading and hazardous is
not become widespread, or make it into a the ability to create alias profiles. The
majority of youth’s hands, until the ability for teens to mask their identities
appearance of the second generation of provides them with an opportunity to say
digital network phones in the 1990s. After anything to another individual without the
that, they spread like wildfire. According worry of any repercussions. Social media
to a study conducted by the Pew Research sites, such as Facebook and Google+, are
Center, 75% of 12-17-year-olds own cell prone to abuses like
phones, which increased from 45% in cyberbullying.Anonymous blogging is
2004 and one-in-three teens sends 3,000 another technological advancement that
text messages per month (Lenhart, 2010). has fostered cyberbullying activity and
Though many parents believe that they are fueled ethical debate. On sites, such as
College ACB and Juicy Campus, which
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Bullying Prevention Program, enacted by within their school as well as about their
Norway’s Ministry of Education, develops thoughts on the issue in general. Based on
methods of dealing with bullying on a the interview results, the following six
variety of levels including school-level components were identified as essential
components, individual-level components, elements to a preventative cyberbullying
classroom-level components, and program: “the importance of a reporting
community-level components. This all- procedure; curriculum integration; student-
encompassing structure creates a cohesive centered productions through mediums
plan in which each level reinforces the such as Broadcast Journal-ism; a focus on
next. Since its creation, the Olweus prevention rather than solely on
Bullying Prevention Program has been punishment; the importance of punishment
adopted in schools across the world. as a part of an effective policy; and
According to a series of evaluations keeping up with changes in technology”
involving 40,000 students from 42 schools (Wiseman, 2011).
over a two-and-a-half-year period, the
program proved to be successful. The CYBER PORNOGRAPHY:
studies verified the program’s success by CONSUMPTION, IMPLICATIONS
reporting “reductions by 20 to 70 percent
in student reports of being bullied and It is important to note that, Indian law
bullying others,” “reductions in student nowhere defines the term 'Pornography'.
reports of antisocial behavior, such as Even the term is not statutorily defined in
vandalism, fighting, theft, and truancy” the UnitedStatesofAmerica .It is also felt
and “clear improvements in the class-room that as there is no uniform standard of
social climate” (Olweus, 2005, pp. 389- moral culture and ethics there cannot be
402). A mixed-methods research design any fixed/uniform definition of this term
carried out in Nevada, in which 118 .Pornography is often described as hard to
middle school principals were surveyed define but easy to recognise.
about cyberbullying, identified
components of a successful preventative The Internet is a vast matrix of computers
program. Of those surveyed, 66 responded that are interconnected with each other and
and 10 agreed to participate in a one-on- which facilitates the individual to
one interview. From these ten, three were communicate and to collect information in
selected and questioned intensively about very short time ,and at cheaper cost .It s
cyberbullying and preventative strategies impact and influence on our daily lives is
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calorculturalcritiques.Once
politicalpornographyevolved(ordevolved)t BeforetheInternet,onewishingtopurchaseor
othisphase,itceasedbeing viewpornographicmaterialhadtogotoaplace
politicalandbegantobeprofitmaking.Thepol whichprovidessuchmaterial.Thisallowedth
iticalhistoryofpornographyhasshapedthepo egovernmenttoregulatechildren'saccesstop
st- ornography.Italsoprovidedthegovernment
moderndefinitionthatweunderstandtoday.T withanenforceablemethodofensuringthatill
hischangeiswhatleadstothedevelopmentoft egalpornographicmaterialwasnotsold.Byre
hetypeofpornographythatwearemostfamilia viewingthematerialsoldintheestablishments
rwithtoday.Tounderstandtoday'spornograp sellingpornography,andbyrequiringpublish
hy,itisnecessaryto ersofthepornographicmaterialstoprovidepr
understandandincorporatethepoliticalhistor oofoftheageofthesubjectsinthephotographs,
ythatpornographyhasandtheinfluencethatits illegal
historycontributedtoourunderstandingofpor pornographicmaterialssuchaschildpornogra
nographyinthispost- phyandbestialitycouldbemonitored.Now,w
modernperiod.Itwasnotuntiltheearly1800's iththedevelopmentoftheInternet,theregulati
whenpornographybecameassociatedwithth onofpornographicmaterialhasbecomemuch
ehumanistandmaterialmovementsthatitwas moredifficult.Childrencanaccesspornograp
consideredobsceneandregulatedbytheState. hicmaterialsfromtheirhomesorevenfrompu
Bothofthesemovementswerelinkedtothespr bliclibraries,andillegalmaterialscaneasilybe
eadofdemocracyandcorrespondingrejection disseminated.Anyonewithascannerandamo
ofthemonarchyandthehierarchyoftheCathol demcanpostobscenephotographs
icChurchinEurope.Theemphasisthatbothhu (whichareavailabletomillionsofpeople).Ind
manismandmaterialismbeplacedontheindiv eed,eachdayadditionalsitesdedicatedtoporn
idualwasthreateningthepoliticalorderofthep ographyarecreated.TheInternetwasoriginall
eriod.Thisresultedinthecreationofpornogra ydesignedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentof
phyasacategoryofpublications,allowingthe Defenseasameansofprovidingdecentralized
Statetoregulateandcontrolthepublicationof computercontrols.Thetheorywasthatifparto
pornographicworks.Sincethattime,variousd fthecountryweredestroyedbyanuclearattack
evelopmentsintechnologyhavechangedthe ,thecomputersystemscontainingwarplannin
waypornography gwouldstillbefunctional.Soontheopportunit
isdisseminated.However,itwasnotuntilthea iesoftheInternetbecamecleartotheprivatese
dvancementinInternettechnologythataccess ctor.Universitiesandbusinessescreatedconn
topornographywasvirtuallyunlimited. ectionstowhathasbeentermed"theinformati
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the face of social demands and new use have not been compellingly verified as
prior studies have demonstrated that co-
situations. Parents, being “the most
use can also be viewed by children as
influential people in the development and parental endorsement to the media content
rather than deliberate monitoring efforts,
socialization of children” also take primary
especially in television viewing contexts.
responsibility for guiding their children’s
While the above three strategies have been
media behavior. Proper mediation of
identified in research on television viewing
children’s media use by parents is known
(Clark, 2011), a number of studies
to result in positive outcomes such as
examining parental mediation of children’s
decreased exposure to privacy risks,
use of the internet and video games have
decreased exposure to child-inappropriate
applied the three forms of parental
media content, and heightened
mediation. However, the advent of the
understanding of media content.
digital age has resulted in a generation of
children that are experts at multitasking with
Three general approaches to the mediation
of children’s media use have been digital technology, and the complexity of
identified. Active mediation refers to new digital technology, characterized by its
parents explaining and discussing media
with their child. Restrictive mediation focus on multiple activities, multi-media,
happens when parents set rules regarding active content production, and social
the amount of time and the kind of content
with which their child is allowed to interactions, have posed new challenges to
engage. Lastly, co-use refers to shared parents guiding their children through all of
usage of media between parents and
children without parental instruction or these activities. Addressing the changes in
discussion. Research suggests that the media environment, some studies have
different forms of the parental mediation
result in different outcomes. One of the identified additional types of parental
consistent findings in regard to the mediation strategies. For instance,
outcomes of different forms of parental
mediation is that active mediation is more Livingstone and Helsper (2008) identified a
effective than the other two forms of strategy known as monitoring, which refers
mediation primarily because active
mediation based on parent-child to parents’ checking of children’s email
conversation and discussion is more likely messages or the sites that children have
to cultivate critical thinking skills in
children and to lead children to be more visited. This can be conducted overtly or
responsive to parents’ initiatives. Research covertly after the child’s internet use. A
also suggests that too much restriction can
cause unintended consequences such as a similar concept called supervision was
boomerang effect or a forbidden fruit identified by Nikken and Jansz (2014),
syndrome, especially when it is imposed
on older children who pursue more which refers to parents’ keeping an
autonomy from parents. The effects of co-
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PowerWithin One Stop Solution for Psychology
Unit 10 is Complete
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PSYCHOLOGY
NTA
UGC
NET/JRF/SET PAPER - II
About the NET
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UCG NET applicable from June, 2019 Examinations.
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