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PAPER 2
PSYCHOLOGY
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The key reason to compile this book is to provide a detailed knowledge about the NET/JRF/SET
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NET/JRF/SET exam conducted by the National Testing Agency in India.
The book is a storehouse of extensive and detailed content covering the full
latest syllabus of NET/JRF/SET prescribed by the NTA in 2019.
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As per the Latest syllabus of NET/JRF/SET exam changed
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CONTENTS
NET/JRF/SET Preparation: An Insight into the Exam

Unit 1 Emergence of Psychology 13- 93
Academic Psychology in India 13-23
Psychological Thought 24- 41
Eastern Psychology 41-81
Signs and Spirituality 81-93
Unit 2 Research Methodology and Statistics 96- 201
Research Methodology 96- 109
Paradigms of Research 119-131
Statistics 142-159
Experimental designs 173- 201
Unit 3 Psychological Testing 203- 285
Type of test 209-212
Test construction and Test Standardization 212- 248
Areas of Testing 248- 257
Attitude Scales 257-285
Unit 4 Biological Basis of Behavior 286- 375
Physiological Psychology 288
Sensory Systems 290-293
Neurons and Brain 295- 375
Unit 5 Attention, Perception, Learning, Memory and Forgetting 378- 422
Attention 378-381
Perception 381- 388
Illusion 388- 404
Learning process 404 - 414
Memory 414 - 422
Unit 6 Thinking, Intelligence, and Creativity 424 - 478
Language and Thought 432
Problem Solving and Decision Making 437 - 445
Intelligence 453- 466
Creativity 467- 478
Unit 7 Personality, Motivation, Emotion, Stress and Coping 479 - 564
Theories of Personality 484 - 518
Motivation and Emotion 520 - 551
Conflicts 552 - 559
Coping and Stress 560 - 565
Unit 8 Social Psychology 569 - 634
Unit 9 Human Development and Interventions 636 - 757
Developmental Psychology, Psychopathology, Psychotherapies,

Councelling and Guidance
Unit 10 Emerging Areas 760-917
Issues of Gender, Disability and Migration, Peace Psychology,

Wellbeing, Health, Psychology and Digital World
NET JRF Preparation: An Insight into the Examination

By: Amit Panwar
What is NET JRF Examination? Who conducts it?
On behalf of University Grants Commission Till June 2018, the CBSE conducted the NET
(UGC), the National Eligibility Test (NET) is in 84 subjects at 91 selected Cities of
conducted for determining the eligibility of spread across the country. Since Dec 2018
Indian nationals for the Eligibility for onwards, the UGC- NET is being conducted
Assistant Professor only or Junior Research by the NTA (National Testing Agency).
Fellowship & Assistant Professor Both, in
Indian Universities and Colleges.
When and How is it conducted?
The award of JRF and or Eligibility for
Assistant Professor depends on the UGC-NET is conducted Online twice a year,
aggregate performance of the candidate in usually in June and December. The exam is
Paper-I (General Aptitude) and Paper-II for 3 hours in Online Mode for combined
(Psychology) of UGC-NET. (Paper I and Paper II) without a break.
Paper 1 Paper 2
Number of Questions 50 100
Negative Marking 0 0
Syllabus General Aptitude (10 units) Psychology (10 units)
Previous Year Questions Available Available

https://ugcnet.nta.nic.in/
Official Website
Syllabus of the Exam

The NET-JRF exam has two Papers: Paper I and Paper II (the subject/specialization
of your Master’s degree.
Units Paper 1: General Aptitude Paper 2: Psychology

Unit 1 Teaching Aptitude Emergence of Psychology
Unit 2 Research Aptitude Research Methodology & Statistics
Unit 3 Comprehension Psychological Testing
Unit 4 Communication Biological Basis of Behavior
Attention, Perception, Learning, Memory and
Unit 5 Mathematical Reasoning & Aptitude
Forgetting
Unit 6 Logical Reasoning Thinking, Intelligence & Creativity
Personality, Motivation, Emotion, Stress and
Unit 7 Data Interpretation
Coping
Information & Communication

Unit 8 Social Psychology
Technology
Unit 9 People, Development & Environment Human Development & Interventions
Unit 10 Higher Education System Emerging Areas
What does it mean to Qualify NET Exam? What does it mean to have JRF?
The candidates qualifying only for Assistant Anyone who qualifies JRF, means they have also
Professor (i.e. those who qualified NET qualified NET exam. JRF stands for Junior
Exam only) are not to be considered for the Research Fellowship, which is a scholarship
award of JRF. Candidates who qualify the amount given to those who qualify JRF exam as
test for eligibility for Assistant Professor are well as enroll themselves in a Higher Education
governed by the rules and regulations for Program (such as MPhil or PhD).
recruitment of Assistant Professor of the
concerned universities/colleges/state For the process to cash into this amount, you
governments, as the case may be. can contact your concerned Universities after
enrolling PhD or MPhil Program. (Kindly
It means that if you have qualified NET then confirm with your concerned hospital or
you are eligible for becoming the Assistant institute for JRF as some MPhil Programs
Professor but this does not mean that they will might now support JRF scholarship or only
become Assistant Professor. The procedure, has their own Scholarship amounts.)
and other eligibility requirements posted by
Universities would be different for different Other than Scholarship JRF also offer
universities. Anywhere that you fulfill the many benefits. Some of them includes:
basic requirements (majorly depends on the
Direct Admission into MPhil and
API or the Academic Performance Index)
PhD Programs.
posted by a Colleges/University then you are
Stipend of Rs. 31,000/- + HRA for
eligible to appear for the Interview Process.
initial 2 years and Rs. 35,000/- +
This is why NET is the National Eligibility for
HRA for next 3 years
the Assistant Professor or Lecturer in India.
Candidates with JRF are preferred
*As per the guidelines by UGC, in 2021 and forth, over NET candidates in Research
NET Qualified + PhD degree is compulsory to Projects by government agencies
become the Assistant Professor in India. like UGC, NCERT, DRDO, IITs, etc.
and also by private universities.
Difference between NET and JRF
NET JRF
Qualified for Assistant
Qualified the
Only Qualified for Assistant Professorship Professorship + JRF Scholarship
Exams means
Amount
NET has no Scholarship amounts.
Rs. 31,000/- + HRA per month (for
If enrolled into PhD, then Government First two 2 years)
Stipend Universities offer Rs. 8000/- to 10,000/- per
month Scholarship under non-NET Rs. 35,000/- + HRA per month (for
category (I.e. a Scholar who is not next 3 years)
receiving any aid from anywhere else).
Direct Admission into

-Direct Admission into almost in
almost every PhD and
India every PhD Program
MPhil Program in India
-Eligibility for some research
Eligibility for some
Projects by NCERT, UGC, DRDO,
Other Benefits research Projects by
etc.
NCERT, UGC, DRDO, etc.
-Additional benefit of Rs. 2,000/- to Preferred in Research
3,000/- per month over non-NET
Projects over only NET
qualifiers in Research Projects.
qualified candidates
Scope and Opportunities in Psychology after Syllabus of NET exam is given by NTA. Most of
NET-JRF? the SET exams follow the older syllabus of NET
exam. The syllabus is similar or almost the
Becoming an Assistant Professor using same for NET exam with some topics added or
NET qualification. subtracted by the State or the Institute.
Taking Direct Admission into PhD and MPhil
Programs using NET or JRF qualification. NET Candidate can apply anywhere in India for
Stipend during MPhil and PhD for JRF Assistant Professorship but a SET candidate
qualified candidates. (NET has no stipend but can only apply for the colleges/universities
other benefits or a non-NET fellowship for under that State jurisdiction.
PhD and MPhil that can be availed via your As of now 15 states conduct their SET exams and
concerned University/Institute.
other States only follow the NET exam scores for
Eligible for Research Projects by many their selection criteria. These states are:
Government Agencies like UGC, NCERT,
and DRDO, and private agencies using Andhra Pradesh State Eligibility Test (APSET)
NET and JRF qualifications. Assam State Level Eligibility Test (Assam SLET)
Chhattisgarh State Eligibility Test (CG SET)
Gujarat State Eligibility Test (GSET)
What is SET and CSIR-NET exam? How are Himachal Pradesh State Eligibility Test (HP SET)
they different from NET-JRF Exam? Jammu & Kashmir State Eligibility Test (JK SET)
SET EXAM vs NET-JRF Exam Kerala State Eligibility Test (Kerala SET)
Karnataka State Eligibility Test (KSET)
SET or the State Eligibility Exam, in a nutshell, is Madhya Pradesh State Eligibility Test (MP SET)
the NET exam conducted by the State under their Maharashtra State Eligibility Test (MH SET)
jurisdictions. The SET exam is also conducted for Tamil Nadu State Eligibility Test (TNSET)
determining the eligibility of Indian nationals for Telangana State Eligibility Test (TSSET)
the Eligibility for Assistant Professor only in Uttarakhand State Eligibility Test (USET)
State Universities and Colleges in India. West Bengal State Eligibility Test (WB SET)
In simpler terms, many a times, institutes or Rajasthan State Eligibility Test (RSET)
States in India prefer to conduct their own exams
and not rely on NET Exam scores for Assistant CSIR UGC NET-JRF Exam or CSIR NET or
Professorship, these exams are called SET CSIR UGC NET
exams. NET Exam is conducted only in English
and Hindi languages whereas SET exams are It is similar to NTA UGC NET-JRF exam in
conducted in English and other languages every aspect other than the fact that it is for
recognized by Indian States/ Government. the Science and Technology field.
NET Exam is conducted twice a year whereas “It takes determination to see a dream come
SET exam is conducted only once a year. to pass. The question is not will you start,
but will you finish.” – Joel Osteen
“ounce of good nervous tone is an examination
Preparing for the Exam: is worth many pounds of … study”.
Key to successfully crack an exam at times does By “good nervous tone”, James was addressing the
not just depend on the how smart you are, or how nervousness, or anxiety that an exam might provoke.
much you studied but whether or not you are Anxiety is natural and it is also natural to expect feeling
‘good at taking tests’ or not. One of the most less relaxed just before or during an exam. This same
important keys here is to be improve at taking the anxiety can also be caused during the preparation also or
tests. How can we improve there? Well, there is maybe while attempting Mock Tests, or maybe while trying
no one way to do it but let’s experiment together
to the understand the Exam itself.
on this using the following key points:
Let me just come forth and tell you that Anxiety is
Start by first answering to yourself, “Who Am natural because it is helpful. The “good nervous tone”,
I”? alert our senses, gives sharpened perception, and
Focus on your Learning Style, how is it that you provide readiness for action in an alarming situation.
study? Do you make a timetable? Or Do you make one
but unable to follow one? Do you make Notes or prefer Therefore, it can be helpful to know what good
studying from Visual or Presentational aids? Anxiety can do and how it is beneficial for you.
Additionally, learn to combat Anxiety effectively so
Your way of studying now, will help you to know that instead of hindering your preparation, it helps
what needs to be done to Ace at the exam. No exam you to stay focused, stay creative, stay on track and
is difficult, and never have I seen an easy one. You in perfect sync to the duration of the Preparation.
are unique, and so you need to study uniquely too.
Make a Plan
Know Your Exam Sounds cliché, I know. But here, I am not asking
This means knowing the Syllabus thoroughly. If you you make an ideal time table and make your
want to study in a relatively focused way then study plan accordingly. All I am asking you is to
connect with the exam first. You have to learn to tackle the fear of initiating. Many a times we
befriend the exam and not compete with it. simply procrastinate by thinking that we will
begin tomorrow and that tomorrow never comes.
Then, learn the basic details about the exam:
marking schemes, number of questions, I usually recommend my students to simply your
duration of the exams, etc. syllabus by separating Units/Topics that needs more
Once you’ve been through the basics, then move focus, and more study from Units that you are well
towards bringing together the Previous Year
Questions. If possible, you can find the Previous Year
Mock Tests and attempt the, first to know where you
stand. Since, you are looking forward for the NET
exam, that means either you had Psychology in your
Bachelors and Masters or you had a different
background in Bachelors but are doing Masters in
Psychology. In both these cases, move forward with
these Previous Year Mocks, they will help you when
you will begin studying the Notes or your Study
Material. These will help you to keep an eye for those
concepts that you have now seen in the Previous Year
papers. Also, this will help you to know which Units
and what kind of topics were focused on in which year. versed with or have covered earlier to comes
This knowledge is a bliss when attempting the exam naturally to you.
for the first time.
Anxiety and two sides of the Coin. This is a sample of my strategy that I
William James (1842-1910), an American Psychologist
provide with our Study Materials.
once advised his Harvard students that an
10 | P a g e www.powerwithineducation.com
Units that are your strength, start with their Mock have done. You have to crack the exam. Focus on
Test first and then go to the theory. For Units that yourself and Take your own Time. Remember, there
are challenging, begin with theory, then Take one is no secret ingredient. (KungFu Panda, is the move
Mock Test, then analyses, go back to the theory I recommend to help you better understand this line)
and re-attempt Mock Tests and post that attempt
more and more Mock Tests of that Unit. Study not like any student but like a Psychology
student
It is important to know that never try to score perfect in The NET-JRF Paper 2: Psychology syllabus that
your Mocks. Mock Tests are a strategy tool that will you would be preparing for will have most of the
help you to develop a certain state of mind for Test applied concepts that you also apply while
Taking, as well as help you to stay on track, and map preparing specially the ones you will learn in Unit
you Progress. Grow by taking one step at a time. 5 of the syllabus. Unit 8 Social Psychology is too
interesting. So, be a Psychology student
Take your time preparing for an exam that will also help you to
You are unique. You have your own pace, you own
revise, and learn so many beautiful concepts. So,
growth rate. Never ask too much around as to how
trust Psychology and the exam shall be cracked.
other’s preparation is going on or how much others
For more Information and Preparation Tips, visit www.powerwithineducation.com

Follow us on:
@powerwithinpsychology
@powerwihineduc
CONTENT
PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT IN SOME MAJOR EASTERN SYSTEMS: Bhagavad

Gita, Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga. Academic psychology in India: Pre-independence
era; post-independence era; 1970s: The move to addressing social issues; 1980s:
Indigenization; 1990s: Paradigmatic concerns, disciplinary identity crisis; 2000s: Emergence
of Indian psychology in academia. Issues: The colonial encounter; Post colonialism and
psychology; Lack of distinct disciplinary identity.
WESTERN: Greek heritage, medieval period and modern period. Structuralism,

Functionalism, Psychoanalytical, Gestalt, Behaviorism, Humanistic-Existential,
Transpersonal, Cognitive revolution, Multiculturalism. Four founding paths of academic
psychology - Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey. Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict
adherence to experimental-analytical paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic influences on
modern psychology.
ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF KNOWLEDGE PARADIGMS: Ontology, epistemology,

and methodology. Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism, Post-Positivism, Critical
perspective, Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, and Co-operative Enquiry.
Paradigmatic Controversies. Significant Indian paradigms on psychological knowledge:
Yoga, Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism, and Integral Yoga. Science and spirituality (avidya
and vidya). The primacy of self-knowledge in Indian psychology.
Chapter
Unit 1: Emergence of Psychology
1
1. ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA
1990S (20TH CENTURY) laboratory, for demonstrative purpose,

PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA: on the request of Sir Asutosh Mukherjee.
A. PRE-INDEPENDENCE The honour of having the second
Experimental Psychology Laboratory in
Asia (after Japan) may be attributed to the
Following the accession of India to the Department of Psychology, Calcutta
English empire after 1857 an education University.
system modeled on the lines of Oxford and
Eleven years later this laboratory was
Cambridge was introduced in India.
upgraded as the first psychology
Formal education in Psychology began in
th department, the Department of
the early part of the 20 century. Experimental Psychology.Narendra
Owing its origin in the philosophical Nath Sengupta, who chaired this
discourse of the 18 century thinkers, it was department, had his education at Harvard
Wilhelm Wundt of the University of University with Hugo Munsterberg, a
Leipzig, who first realized the importance student of William Wundt. Laboratory
of studying mental states under certain research at Calcutta in the areas of depth
special experimental conditions. The perception, psychophysics, and
th
closing years of the 19 century thus attention inspired early work at other
witnessed the appearance of a new branch centers. Recognizing the scientific nature
of science, which came to be known as of research, psychology was included as
“Experimental Psychology”. Impressed a separate section in the Indian Science
by its promise and progress Sir Asutosh Congress in 1923.Due to this in India
Mukherjee, the well-known jurist and Psychology acquired the status of being a
renowned educationist, who was then the science along with biological sciences,
planning head of the University of Calcutta faster than the status it has got in the west.
decided to include “Experimental The Indian Psychological Association was
Psychology” in the Post Graduate Course founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of
of studies of Calcutta University (Kolkata). Psychology, the first psychology journal in
Eminent philosopher Dr. Brojendra Nath India, appeared the very next year.
Seal, King George V Professor of Mental
Currently the department has attained the
and Moral Philosophy of the same
status of being the alma mater of
University drafted the syllabus in 1905
Psychology in India.
and established the first
Before these experimental traditions could 1946 Psychology was started in university
consolidate, Sengupta left Calcutta. He of Patna under two separate wings
was succeeded by Girindra Shekhar Experimental Psychology and Department
Bose. Being a medical doctor and a of Applied Psychology.
psychiatrist who was in close contact with In 1956, The University Grants
Sigmund Freud, Bose showed much Commission was set-up; its responsibility
enthusiasm to promote psychoanalysis. In was to provide funds to various
1922 he founded the Indian universities to start Psychology
Psychoanalytic Society, which two years Departments. Due to this there were 32
later was affiliated with the departments in Psychology by 1960(this
International Psychoanalytic Society. has however increased now). Certain
Bose received his Ph.D. from Calcutta on centers also provided advanced studies in
the 'concept of repression', the first Ph.D. Psychology. Soon another changing trend
from any Indian University in psychology. was that psychology was being offered in
He established the Lumbini Park Mental colleges offering Engineering, Agriculture
Hospital in Calcutta in 1940, and in 1947 and in management colleges. A lot of
brought out a journal 'Samiksha'. The other centers such as NCERT, NIPCCD
Department started an Applied Psychology etc. started applied research in different
Wing in 1938, when Jung, Meyers, and fields of Psychology.
Spearman were invited to the Silver
Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Training for Clinical Psychologists was
Congress. provided in three major centres such as All
India Institute of Mental Health in
(In 1924 down south, Mr. Bangalore (now NIMHANS), Hospital for
M.V.Goplswamy was heading the Mental Disease, Ranchi and Mental
department in Mysore and he was trained Hospital in Calcutta. Around this time
in ‘Psychological Assessments’.) Clinical Psychologists also organized an
all India Association of their own, and its
B. POST-INDEPENDENCE first convention was held in October 1969,
at the All India Institute of Mental Health
Bangalore. The first time Education
The first generation of psychologists after Psychology was introduced at the MA
independence was people from the level as a paper was in 1961 in the
background of Philosophy. Separate University of Calcutta.
Psychology Departments were largely
The National Institute of Mental Health
started between 1940-1960.
and Neurosciences, Bangalore is an
Following the independence of India in institution of international repute for
1947, there were many efforts from the research in clinical psychology and
part of government to integrate social training clinical psychologists. The Central
science into science and technology Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi is another
research as part of the nation building highly reputed institution carrying out
programme. India’s first Prime Minister research in clinical psychology.
Jawaharlal Nehru was a great promoter of
History of Clinical Psychology in
psychology, encouraging students to go
NIMHANS; the department was started in
abroad to obtain their degrees under
the year 1954 as the department of
eminent psychology professors. He also
Psychology and Human Relations. It is
invited and encouraged psychologists to
one of the oldest and largest departments
research on certain issues in India. in NIMHANS. It is involved in clinical
Other departments of Psychology were services, human resource Development
soon established in Mysore and Patna. In and research activities. The first training
programme was started in 1955 as period evidenced this concern in the

Diploma in Medical Psychology and the rioting behavior of the masses. Realizing
first PhD was started in 1967. Most the urgent need of research in this area, the
students were/are trained in Behavior Ministry of Education procured the
Therapy, Rehabilitation, De-addiction, services of Gardner Murphy through
Adult and Child Psychiatry. UNESCO in 1950 to develop a research
The Indian Association of Clinical programme to investigate the causes of
Psychologists (IACP) was started in 1968. communal violence. Many Indian
psychologists collaborated on this project
The Indian Council of Social Science which culminated in the book edited by
Research (ICCSR) established in 1968 Murphy in 1953 entitled 'In the Minds of
monitored the status of research in Men'. They continued working in this area
Psychology in India. in later years also.
According to the Association of Indian Another area which emerged during this
Universities, 51 of the 101 recognized period but was not sustained in the later
universities were offering psychology by decades, is counseling and guidance. The
the end of 1975. By 1995 the number of guidance bureau at Patna inspired the
universities had risen to 219 and those establishment of similar bureaus in other
offering psychology at various levels had states. U.P Psychological Bureau was
risen to 70 (Prasadarao & Sudhir, 2001). among the first ones, established in 1947.
The period after the mid-1990s has seen an This Bureau under the leadership of Sohan
even sharper growth in the popularity of Lal, and thereafter of C.M. Bhatia and
psychology. Psychology has been S.N. Mehrotra adapted many intelligence
introduced in the curriculum of senior and aptitude tests in Hindi, and provided
secondary schools. counseling services to the public. The
Bihar Psychological Bureau under the
C. 1970S: THE MOVE TO guidance of Mohsin worked on similar
ADDRESSING SOCIAL ISSUES lines. In Bombay, Parsi Panchayat
Vocational Guidance Bureau provided
services to students, as well as to referred
Initiatives towards socially relevant cases. The Bureau also brought out the
research India's Independence from the Journal of Vocational and Educational
colonial rule in 1947 did bring changes in Guidance. This journal played an
the content and concerns of psychological important role in furthering the guidance
research. The National Government movement in this country. However, the
recognized the importance of social social and political conditions were just
science teaching and research in attaining not ripe for the expansion of this
the objectives of national reconstruction movement and not enough of a research
and social development. There was much base was built up to sustain this
hope and expectation about the role that movement.
the social sciences could play in this
endeavor. Psychologists began to realize A new development after Independence
was the growth of psychology outside
that they have a responsibility to engage
the university system. The Ahmedabad
in socially relevant research. As an
example, psychologists responded to the Textile Industries Research Association
human tragedy of the partition of India. As (ATIRA) was established in 1950, where
an aftermath thousand were killed in Kamla Chowdhury conducted large-scale
Hindu-Muslim riots, followed by a surveys to study motivational problems in
massive influx of refugees from across the the textile industries. Erikson and
border. Many psychological studies of that McClelland were frequent visitors to this
Institute. In the clinical field, advanced research from industrial to organizational

training programmes were introduced at behavior, the interest grew in studying all
the All India Institute of Mental Health spheres of organized work activities.
(now known as the National Institute of Communal and caste conflicts being
Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences) in perennial problems in India, social
1955, followed by the Hospital for Mental prejudice, intergroup relations and
Diseases in Ranchi (1962). Indian armed socialization of the Indian child
forces also showed interest in using emerged as major research interest.
psychological tests in personnel selection. Rath and Sircar (1960), and Anant (1970)
For this, the Psychological Research studied caste stereotypes. Paranjpe's
Wing of the Defense Science (1970) book, “Caste Prejudice and the
Organization was set up in 1949. The Individual‟ was based on a survey of
aim of this Wing was not only to help in college students' prejudice against low
the election of army personnel but also to caste members. The studies of attitude
do research on the whole range of defense towards the Chinese (A. K. P. Sinha &
related problems, such as motivation and Upadhyaya, 1960) are oft-quoted studies
morale of the armed forces, leadership, of change in attitude as a result of
mental health, stress, rehabilitation of historical events (border dispute with
disabled war veterans and development of China which led to war). A. K. Singh
psychological tests. Later on this Wing (1981) examined development of religious
was elevated as the Defense Institute of identity and prejudice in children, and
Psychological Research, employing a large more recently, Deridder and Tripathi
number of psychologists. (1992) studied social consequences of
An applied field that began to grow after norm violation by different ethnic groups.
Independence was industrial psychology. The work in the field of socialization and
Rapid industrialization in the 1950s and child rearing practices in India has also
1960s created a need for better been substantial. Kakar (1978) examined
understanding of the labor-management socialization and child rearing in light of
relationship and organizational efficiency. the elaborate system of rituals and
Psychological research projects on job practices prevalent
attitude, work incentive, absenteeism, and
job satisfaction were quite popular till the
1970s. Ganguli's (1961) book, “Industrial D. 1990S: PARADIGMATIC
Productivity and Motivation”, is an CONCERNS, DISCIPLINARY
example of the concerns of that period. IDENTITY CRISIS
With the launching of many self-
employment schemes by the Central Durganand Sinha, who may be considered
Government in the 1960s, the research as one of the architects of modern Indian
focus shifted to developing training psychology has observed in his prolific
programmes for inculcating writings that early attempts at formulation of
entrepreneurship. McClelland's theory of Indian Psychology were rejected by
achievement motivation (1961) provided psychologists in India who were trained in
the basis for launching a unique the empirical tradition, because of such
experiment to impart training for notions like rebirth, transmigration of souls,
achievement at the Small Industries and supernatural powers. It was considered
Extension Training Institute, Hyderabad. as “glib talk”, “revivalism” and “uncritical
The findings of this innovative training worship of the past” and the term Indian 9
were not conclusive, and eventually Indian Psychology acquired a “pejorative
psychologists lost interest in such connotation”. So what is “spiritual
experimentation. 18 With the shift in psychology‟ for western
academicians become “revivalism‟ for majority of chairmen in psychology

Indian academicians! Reasons for such departments had a philosophy
resistance and rejection of psychology background. In normal course this could
grounded in traditional ideas is have given a strong philosophical
primarily due to the negative attitude knowledge base to psychology, making it
that we have inherited from our colonial richer in terms of indigenous concepts and
past on the one hand and the influence theories. But this did not happen. In their
of the scientific worldview on the other enthusiasm to establish a new identity as
(Dalal, 2002; Paranjpe, 2002). It may be scientists, these faculty members with a
argued that a vast majority of Indian background in philosophy completely
psychologists have shied away from Indian dissociated themselves from their parent
psychological perspectives because of this discipline. They were more fascinated by
attitude and the religio-philosophical the idea of value-free and culturally-
context in which those perspectives are neutral experimental work. The areas they
embedded. But, paradoxically a majority showed interest in were memory,
of them share the same socio-cultural psychophysics, perception, learning,
context with the rest of the Indian pattern recognition, etc., which could be
population and are guided by the same studied without bringing in the cultural
religio-philosophical perspectives, which context. These faculty members from
have shaped the attitudes, emotions, philosophy had little training in research
motivations, morals, values, etc., of the methodology. Their major quest, therefore,
Indian masses in their day-to-day living! was to acquire methodological
As Kiran Kumar (2008) observed, this sophistication and mastery over statistical
situation has created some kind of a techniques. In the process they became
split in the personality – psychologist as ardent adherents of Western research
a professional vs. psychologist as a methods.
person – and it has contributed for lack of
creativity and originality in what one does,
and draining of personal resources and E. CRISIS OF IDENTITY
energy resulting in „burn out‟ among
many. A psychologist in his/her role as a In the 70s and 80s a number of review
scientist conducts the professional papers were published to take stock of the
activities with one set of assumptions and contributions made by Indian
beliefs and as a person lives and acts with psychologists, and of the emerging trends.
another set of assumptions and beliefs Interestingly, these appraisals of research
among fellow humans. publications brought home this realization
The fact that psychologists in India lived that psychology in India is mostly a poor
in two worlds did not change much after imitation of western research and does not
Independence, but rather became more lead to understanding Indian social reality.
pronounced. In most universities, A crisis was perceptible in the discipline in
psychology departments were established the mid-70s, as many felt that Indian
by splitting the departments of philosophy. psychology was going nowhere. The
As a result, a large number of philosophy following passages present a brief account
faculty moved to the newly formed of this crisis of direction and progress.
psychology departments; many who opted By the mid-1970s the enthusiasm with
for psychology were those who saw better which the Western-educated Indian
career opportunities in the new psychologists were conducting research
departments. This movement from was waning. Indian scholars were getting
philosophy to psychology was so restive, as Western psychology was failing
pervasive that by the end of the 1960s a to throw light on Indian social issues.
Sixty years of Western psychology in India However, this crisis of the discipline’s
had not yielded any significant discoveries. identity was of concern for only a handful of
Nandy (1974) argued, "Indian psychologists. J.B.P. Sinha (1993) made a
psychology has become not merely distinction between the bulk and the front of
imitative and subservient but also dull psychological research. Not much has
and replicative" (p. 5). K.G. Agrawal changed in the mass produced bulk of the
(1973) called psychology in India as that research which 21 is still replicative and
of “adoptology‟. There was growing imitative. However, as a response to a long
disillusionment about the applicability of debate and changing global scenario, the
Western theories and their mindless testing front-runners have started taking indigenous
in India. The failure to resolve inner psychology more seriously.
conflicts of cherishing Indian cultural
values at the personal level and
maintaining high standards of objectivity F. 1980S: INDIGENIZATION
at the professional level was reflected in
Methodologically sophisticated but A journey toward indigenous psychology
socially irrelevant research. As a result, the core of indigenization is the belief that
Indian psychologists were increasingly all knowledge, including that of
marginalized in the society. A strong need psychology, is rooted in the prevalent
was felt to return to the cultural roots. D. world-view of a community and is
Sinha (1977) urged that the scientific conditioned by historical and sociocultural
understanding of Indian social reality factors. D. Sinha (1994) discussed in detail
should benefit from its vast treasure of the indigenization of psychology in India.
traditional psychological knowledge He refers to two facets of indigenization.
accumulated over centuries. He called for The first is purely the product of culture,
the development of an indigenous the concepts and categories which are
psychology with its own paradigms to 20 culture-bound. The second is the product
understands developmental problems of of the interaction of cultural 22 variables
the region. In short, psychology in India with concepts, theories and methods
was seeking its own identity. introduced from outside. J. B. P. Sinha
Indian psychologists were showing more (2002) has referred to these two as
interest in studying problems relevant to endogenous and exogenous indigenization.
the country using Indian concepts and He further expanded the domain by
theories. Neki (1973), for example, referring to two variants of each kind of
suggested a teacher-pupil model in clinical indigenization.
counseling to break cultural and social Taking lead from the above discussion, it
barriers. J.B.P. Sinha (1980) proposed a is argued in this paper that indigenous
new leadership style - nurturant task- research has moved along two different
master, which is more likely to succeed in streams. One considers indigenization as a
Indian work organizations. Kakar (1982, gradual process. A majority of
1991) studied the role of traditional psychologists in India are trained in
healers in maintaining mental health in Western models, and for them it is not
traditional societies. Ramchandra Rao feasible to make any sudden shift towards
(1983) and Palsane, Bhavasari, indigenously developed theories and
Goswami, and Evans (1986) developed a methods. It is but natural for them to
concept of stress based on ancient continue using concepts and tests
scriptures. Pande and Naidu (1992) borrowed from the West, albeit with
developed a measure to study the increasing sensitivity to the cultural
concept of detachment and its mental context. The same trend is observable in
health consequences.
many other developing countries also conduct, but also to explore the methods
(Marriott, 1992) and means of transforming the person
The Canadian psychologist, John Adair, in pursuit of perfection in being,
saw indigenization as a gradual process, certainty in knowing and happiness in
and in collaboration with his Indian feeling. Indian psychology focuses on the
colleagues, developed a scale to measure inner-self which is accessible through
the degree of indigenization. Adair subjective methods of self-verification.
(1989) operationalized indigenization in The beginning of Indian psychology can
terms of - (1) cultural sensitivity of be traced in the writings of many eminent
research in designing a study and thinkers, like Vivekanand and Sri
discussing its findings, (2) citation from Aurobindo in the early part of the last
one’s own culture, (3) problem orientation, Century. The monumental work of
development of culture-based concepts, Jadunath Sinha (1934/1958; 1961) on
theories and methods, (5) culturally Indian psychology can be considered as a
anchored tests, and (6) cross-cultural landmark in formally establishing it as an
comparisons. independent discipline. The books of
Ramachandra Rao (Development of
Viewing retrospectively, this line of psychological thought in India, 1962)
thinking led to the development of three Ragunath Safaya (Indian Psychology,
streams of research: problem-oriented 1975) gave it further impetus in the early
research, cross-cultural psychology and years.
Indian psychology.
The scientific community is better
However, as noted by D. Sinha (1997), the prepared now than in the past to accept a
cross-cultural work only led to testing of psychology rooted in native wisdom and
Western theories on Indian samples. Very philosophical traditions. Psychologists in
rarely studies originated from the needs of India are increasingly aware of the wide
the Indian society or tested Indian concepts gap between their academic pursuits and
in other cultures. Indiscriminate search for the real-life problems of people. The
cultural differences and similarities made replicative nature of research endeavours,
such ventures superficial, without
antiquated and obsolete teaching
providing much understanding of the
programmes, and lack of applied
culture or the contemporary problems of
orientation have devoid the discipline of
Indian society. To a large extent cross-
any professional momentum. Indian
cultural psychology remained a psychologists want to break free from the
methodological enterprise and culture theoretical and methodological constraints
remained a peripheral concern (Misra & of the discipline to grapple with the real
Gergen, 1993). In recent years, cross- issues of development and to act as social
cultural psychology itself is going catalysts in the change process. Indian
through a crisis and the classical psychologists are also aware that if they
conception of culture, that was the basis fail to take up the challenge, they are
of most research in this area, is being likely to be completely marginalized.
seriously questioned (Miller, 1998).
Four factors have contributed to this
Indian psychology has developed around change of attitudes and perceptions of
the existential quest to overcome human Indian psychology.
suffering and in the process to raise the
person to higher levels of awareness and a. One is the failure of Western
achievement. Thus, Indian psychology psychology to deal with their own
endeavors not only to provide an societal problems. It has
understanding of the nature of a person, increasingly been realized that
the causes and consequences of his/her positivistic psychology only
provides a fragmented and growth rather than as religious

superficial understanding of human traditions. Interest in the study of
feelings and behavior. The growing altered state phenomena since
problems of social and family 1960s and the founding of
violence, mental health, moral transpersonal psychology as a sub-
decay, etc., have brought out the discipline, encouraged
gross limitations of mainstream psychologists involved in them to
western psychology. examine the indigenous
Two, is the growing popularity of perspectives available in many
Yoga and other spiritual systems of religious traditions of the east. It
India in the West. In the past few was recognized clearly that modern
decades more and more persons psychology has nothing to offer
with spiritual training and regarding the 27
experiences from India have been spiritual/transcendental dimension of
visiting other countries and have human nature either to understand
acquired a large following. They others or for personal growth (Tart,
have been responsible for 1975). Unfortunately, most
disseminating the Indian spiritual academic psychologists in India
tradition. Among them, Maharishi have not appreciated this fact, and
Mahesh Yogi and Swami Rama are consider Indian psychology as part
some prominent gurus who have of the revivalist movement.
been able to draw the attention of Four, with India emerging as a
academic psychologists. Sri major economic power in the
Aurobindo’s Integral Yoga and world, there is a renewed interest
Integral Psychology attracted in Indian values, philosophies and
worldwide attention. Mahesh practices, as well as in the strength
Yogi’s Transcendental Meditation and resilience of Indian society.
went through rigorous The very Indian culture and
experimental testing at Harvard and philosophy which was debunked
many other universities. Swami for India’s poverty and
Rama offered himself to extensive backwardness by many western
medical testing at the Menninger Indologists (Max Muller, for
Foundation Laboratory, New York, example) is now seen behind
where he demonstrated many yogic India’s success stories. Indian
feats. These Indian masters were research is now taken more
able to demonstrate convincingly seriously by western psychologists,
the power of mind over body and and as a consequence (ironically),
have contributed significantly by Indian psychologists
towards evoking interest in the themselves. The newly emerging
Indian psychological perspectives. psychology is rooted in traditional
Indian thought and practices. As
Three, is the secular nature of stated in the Pondicherry
Indian psychology. It is a gradual Manifesto (2002), “Rich in
acknowledgement that Indian content, sophisticated in its
psychology of consciousness has methods and valuable in its applied
much to offer in terms of self- aspects, Indian psychology is
pregnant with possibilities for the
birth of new
models in psychology that would have population, political manipulations and

relevance not only for India but also to lack of funds have gradually become non-
psychology in general.” performers. There is no premium placed
on excellence in teaching and research.
Adair, Pandey, Begam, Puhan, and
G. 2000S: EMERGENCE OF INDIAN Vora (1995) conducted a study on 64
PSYCHOLOGY IN ACADEMIA Indian psychologists through a mailed
questionnaire. The survey revealed three
Though psychology has traversed a long major impediments to research
distance in India, lack of direction has cast productivity: (a) lack of supportive
doubts about the application of psychology intellectual climate, (b) poor professional
in the context of a rapidly changing socio- support, and (c) inadequate research
economic scenario. Psychology in India funding.
has remained dissociated from its own vast It, however, throws no light on 'why is
storehouse of knowledge inherent in the psychology in India lagging behind other
Indian philosophical texts. These sisterly disciplines, such as sociology,
scriptures and texts provide immense anthropology and economics?' It brings
possibilities of developing psychological forth the second line of argument that
theories of self and human development. there are some inherent limitations in
psychology was imported lock-stock- psychology as a scientific discipline. Its
barrel from the West and was first excessive conformity to empiricist-
implanted in 1916 in Calcutta University. positivist methodologies and confining to
The Western model of research and micro-level problems have restricted the
teaching provided the basis on which scope of its psycho-social inquiry.
Indian research grew for a long period. For The third set of arguments focus on the
Indian psychologists trained in the western personal and professional background of
traditions, it has been a long journey to Indian psychologists. Psychologists in the
turn towards their own heritage and take first half of this Century were a product of
Indian concepts and theories germane to the colonial domination of the Indian
understanding Indian social reality. society, greatly influenced by Western
This chapter aims to examine the status of scholarly traditions. The first-generation
psychology in India as a scientific psychologists after India's Independence
discipline, identifying the factors were predominantly converts from the
responsible for its retarded growth. It philosophy background. This combined
also discusses the parallel movement now with their elitist-urban background; fewer
underway to rediscover the knowledge job openings and self-serving research
rooted in scriptures and folk practices, and orientation gave Indian psychologists an
explores its relevance in the present times. identity distinct from those who belonged
Three sets of arguments are put forward to other sister disciplines.
to explain the retarded growth of academic We need a psychology which is a positive
psychology in India. One, which is more discipline conducive to self-growth and
charitable, is the lack of a supportive social harmony. Indian psychology has
intellectual climate. In a country where a come a long way in the hundred years of
vast population lives in a condition of its existence. Today, there are large
subhuman poverty, and decisions about number of teaching and research
social developmental programmes are institutions offering wide range of courses
politically motivated, any scholarly pursuit in psychology. It is not known how many
is considered peripheral. The academic colleges and universities offer psychology
institutions plagued by a rising student courses and how many psychologists are
professionally active. There are no data sophisticated mind-control techniques in

which official agencies, like the University this pursuit. In contemporary literature this
Grants Commission, Indian Council of broad field of inquiry is referred to as
Social Science Research, or Department of “Indian Psychology”.
Science and Technology can furnish. One Some of these common features which
estimate (A. K. Jain, 2005) suggests that give Indian Psychology a distinct identity
there are more than 15000 psychologists in are briefly discussed here.
India. In any case, India has the largest
number of psychologists outside the Indian psychology can be deemed as
Western block, and is considered a universal. It primarily deals with the
'publication giant' among all developing inner state of a person, taking
countries (Gilgin & Gilgin, 1987). This consciousness as the primary subject
rapid expansion of the discipline has matter of study. Consciousness as a state
aroused many hopes and expectations of being is not an object but is conceived
about its possible contribution to the as undifferentiated subjectivity without
success of nation-building projects. The any content. It can be studied only
problems of poverty, illiteracy, urban indirectly through its various
decay and disease control cannot be manifestations. Buddhism refers to a
handled on the basis of sound economic stream of consciousness as the basis of the
planning only, but also require changes in subjective feeling of continuity and
the attitudes and beliefs of people, and identity which affects our all perceptions,
their motivations for collective action. thoughts, actions and emotions.
In recent years there have been several Human consciousness is considered
good publications which enable a critical hierarchical, the highest state being of pure
evaluation of the development of consciousness, bliss and truth. Distortions
psychology in India. Some of these in consciousness are due to active
writings (Dalal, 1990, 1996, 2002; Misra interference of mind and body which
Gergen, 1993; D. Sinha, 1986, 1996; limits our awareness, obscures our
J.B.P. Sinha, 1993) have critically 4 knowledge and feelings and cause
evaluated the progress of psychology. The suffering. The goal of life is to attain this
five surveys of research in psychology
state of pure consciousness where the
(Mitra, 1972; Pareek, 1980, 1981; J.
knowledge is direct, immediate and
Pandey, 1988, 2001, 2004) cover
important research contributions since the intuitive, and not mediated by sensory
beginning of the last century. inputs. Yoga and meditation are the tools
to attain this transcendental state of pure
In the ancient Indian scriptures no rigid
consciousness.
distinction among religion, philosophy,
and psychology was maintained. The Indian psychology is spiritual in its
overriding consideration was to help orientation. Spiritual does not mean
individuals in their pursuit of self- otherworldly, nor does it mean being
realization and liberation from the religious or dogmatic. Spirituality hereby
miseries of life. In this world-view, the implies taking into consideration the
source of all suffering was presumed to whole range of human progression,
be within the person, and thus the without making a distinction between
emphasis was on exploring the 'world natural and supernatural.
within', to alleviate the suffering. The
goal was to seek enduring harmony of
spirit, mind and body for everlasting
happiness. The yoga system evolved very
It connotes the faith in the existence of higher d. Indian psychology is based on

powers and the possibility of relating to them veridical methods. It should be clear
to seek the higher order truth of life. that as a human science of
Spirituality has opened up the possibilities of consciousness its methods ought to be
developing broader theories of human different from the methods of physical
existence to understand paranormal powers, sciences.
creativity and intuitive thinking, which many
people exhibit.
H. ISSUES: THE COLONIAL extent replaced the intellectual

ENCOUNTER; POST COLONIALISM traditions and indigenous systems that
AND PSYCHOLOGY; LACK OF had existed for thousands of years –
DISTINCT DISCIPLINARY IDENTITY systems that contained elaborate
theories about human nature, actions,
personality and their relationships with
Before independence, psychological
the world.
research in India was greatly influenced
For instance, mentally ill patients in
by the British universities. Most of the
India were historically treated using
Indian psychologists during this time
various approaches such as herbal or
were trained abroad and they followed the
ayurvedic medicines, yoga and music
western theories of psychology. This (PrasadaraoSudhir, 2001). But with the
psychology, transplanted to India as part advent of scientific (Western) psychology
of the total imperialist domination by the all these traditional and effective
West, came as a ready-made intellectual treatments were replaced with ‘scientific’
package in the first decade of the century techniques.
(Nandy, 1974). In doing so it almost
entirely challenged and to a greater
.
Expansion of psychology departments research had a telling effect on the research
within the university system continued in output of the 15 universities. As a result,
the 1970s. However, it became increasingly research in psychology started growing
difficult to conduct research in the outside the university system. Psychologists
university departments. In a bureaucratic having research inclinations preferred to
university set up, there was little join various research institutes. A.N.S.
organizational support for pursuing research Institute of Social Studies, Patna, Centre for
projects. Again, due to mass entry of the Study of Developing Societies, New
students in the higher education and chronic Delhi, and National Institute of Community
campus unrest for political reasons, the Development, Hyderabad are examples of
academic environment was on the decline. some prominent institutes which became
Heavy teaching, and no incentive for centres of research in psychology.
RAPID BUT UNPLANNED the general expansion of higher education

EXPANSION: In the fifties and sixties the and at times without any particular
growth of psychology in Indian universities academic considerations.
was phenomenal. In 1956 the University
Grants Commission (UGC) was constituted
and it provided funds to various universities
to start psychology departments. As a
result, the number of psychology
departments increased to 32 by the end of
1960s. This rapid expansion of psychology,
though impressive, was quite unplanned. In
the absence of any definite educational
policy of the government, these
departments were often created as a part of
No serious thinking preceded in last one “Moksha Sanyasa Yoga” (Nirvana

establishing these departments in terms of and Renunciation).
their need-based specialization. Bhagavad Gita dates back to about 4000-
Nevertheless, in the course of their growth 5000 B.C. as part of mythology dictated
many departments developed a distinct by Sage Veda Vyasa and written by Lord
identity (R. E. Pandey, 1969). For Ganesha. What is more important and
example, departments became known for relevant is NOT WHAT IT IS BUT
their research in the areas of rural and WHAT TRANSPIRED in those 18
social psychology (Allahabad), test chapters of Bhagavad Gita; the process
construction (Mysore), and content of the dialogue; its usefulness
industrial psychology (Osmania), as a model of counseling and possible
measurement and guidance (Patna), or contemporary application value to current
verbal learning (Poona). Most departments day psychological therapies.
developed around one dominant scholar,
usually the person heading the department.
His interest and training were decisive PSYCHOLOGY & BHAGAVAD GITA
factors in the specialization of that Maharishi (1982) explains that the
department. Psychology during those days Bhagavad-Gita displays the practical
(this is more or less true even today) application of the knowledge and
developed around personalities, and when experience of bringing the individual into
those scholars departed, many centres contact with the field of cosmic
collapsed, or showed shifts in intelligence. The Bhagavad-Gita describes
specialization. what could be understood as a "Vedic
psychological session" of approximately
two hours, which is sufficient for Lord
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL Krishna to raise Arjun, who has sought his
THOUGHT IN SOME guidance, from a state of suffering to the
MAJOR EASTERN state of enlightenment. Lord Krishna is
SYSTEMS called "Lord" because he is understood in
the Vedic tradition to most fully embody
the totality of consciousness.
A. BHAGAVAD GITA The Bhagavad-Gita addresses the cause
and elimination of suffering, the levels of
ABOUT BHAGAVAD GITA the mind, the mechanics of experiencing
Bhagavad Gita is part of the great epic transcendental consciousness, and the
Mahabharata, a widely popular development of higher states of
mythological story in Hindu philosophy; consciousness, or enlightenment, in which
part of Bhishma Parva, Gita is almost in its life is lived at the highest level of bliss,
entirety the dialogue between two effectiveness, and universality.
individuals, Lord Krishna (considered as For a student of psychology Bhagavad
incarnation of Bhagawan Vishnu, Gita offers a valuable case study for
Narayana) and Arjuna (The Pandava lessons in psychotherapy – resolution of
prince, Nara) in the battle field (war conflict and successful resumption of
between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, action from a state of acute anxiety and
the cousins, for control of the kingdom of guilt laden depression that precipitated
Hasthinapura) of Kurukshetra. It has 18 inaction. The therapy process involved in
yogas (chapters), with about 701 slokas Bhagavad Gita in which Lord Krishna
(short poems), the first one being “Arjuna helped the grief-stricken Arjuna through
Vishada Yoga” (Sorrow of Arjuna) and the dialogue and discussion.
Counseling/psychotherapy is essential and The one concept in Bhagavad Gita that

an integral component of psychiatric received exceptional respect and applause
interventions in the management of a from several great scholars is the
patient with psychological distress. The emphasis on KARMA (ACTION).
psychotherapeutic models available are Intelligent action (Gnana Karma)
developed and imported from the western without performance anxiety and without
literature. The applicability and usefulness the greed for the fruits of the work
of these models in the Indian context was (Nishkama Karma) and never to have the
discussed with some skepticism keeping in choice of nonperformance of duty
mind the varying cultural, religious, (Akarma) emerges as a key point in the
spiritual, societal attitudes (broadly teaching of Bhagavad Gita.
described as eastern/oriental culture) by
psychiatrists in the past. The Guru-Chela WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE AND
concept, as a model in psychotherapy, RELEVANCE OF BHAGAVAD GITA
popularized by Dr. Neki gets widely IN OUR PRESENT LIFE?
debated in the Indian context. Eminent
Indian psychiatrists and psychologists Upon deeper analysis, we can break the
discussed and proposed Bhagavad Gita as scene (Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the
a source and model to develop Chariot in the middle of the battleground)
psychotherapeutic concepts suitable to into 6 main components with certain
Indian context. psychological implications as explained in
The very first word in Bhagavad Gita is the highly acclaimed Kathopanishad,
“Dharma” and the last word is which are as follows:
“Mama”. “Mama Dharma” – My
duties, responsibilities, rights, ethics, THE CHARIOT– The chariot represents
morals, attitude, action, activities and so our physical body (Tanu).
on. Some commentators recommend Gita
as an elaborate detailing of MAMA KRISHNA AS THE CHARIOTEER–
DHARMA. Lord Krishna represents our higher
cognitive abilities, especially in the face of
The first chapter, Arjuna Vishada Yoga, adversity i.e. the intellect (Buddhi).
narrates the expression of Arjuna's
sorrow, anxiety, fear and guilt leading to a ARJUNA– Arjuna represents the self.
state of inaction after seeing his kith and
kin (Gurus, cousins, uncles, nephews, HORSES– The horses represent our
friends…) lined up in the enemy camp in senses and limbs (Indriyagalu) by virtue of
the battle field-Fighting this war, to win which we perceive and move ahead in our
the kingdom, means killing all these lives. These have no restraint and without
people whom Arjuna respected and loved; a rein/lagaam can wander off in any
a sin of commission from any angle. direction.
Overwhelmed by the acute state of sadness
and guilt, Arjuna drops his weapons THE REIN of the horses- The reins in
(Gandiva) and turns to Lord Krishna, his the hands of Lord Krishna controlling the
charioteer, for help and guidance. horses represents our mind (Manaus).
Sishyasthe Aham Sadhi Mam THE BATTLEGROUND– the

Tvam Prapannam battleground represents our life (Jeevana).
 Our life is a continuing and continual
(I am your disciple; Guide me, And process of daily battles fought-won and
Help Me) lost!
In our daily lives, our senses and limbs yoga, adoration and seeking of the
(Indriyagalu) are exposed to a variety of supreme Self as the Divine Being, and
objects and experiences and impact our here the insistence is on devotion; but the
mind (Manaus) in various ways. So how is knowledge is not subordinated, only
it that our mind functions well enough to raised, vitalized and fulfilled, and still the
always make the best decision for us? sacrifice of works continues; the double
path becomes the triune way of
In the modern society battle field is the knowledge, works and devotion. The Gita
symbol of challenges of our life. We all is not a book of practical ethics, but of the
have mountains of desires, dreams, duties spiritual life which permits us to transcend
and ambitions, obligations to family, the clash of all dharmas that the human
society and self. Each of us has our own mind can conceive, and to discover a new
society, family and culture in which we dharma, the law of divine action, divyam
embedded and through which our self, karma, by the attainment of divine
behavior, personality and behavior are freedom in which the nature of the
conditioned. Our life is the perfect individual transcends its limitations, the
example of a battle between good and evil. limitations of the nature subject to three
Many types of question are come to our gunas — tamas, rajas, and sattva, —
mind such as; who we are? What is the and attains to the divine nature
purpose and meaning of our life? What (sādharmyam).
happen to us when we die? It is the
existential question that is not directly PURUSHA & PRAKRITI: The
come on the surface but run like a river intellectual exposition of the Sankhya
beneath our busy life. Many time we come begins with the statement of two ultimate
across a situation where we are afraid to do principles of existence, — Purusha, the
the right thing because of social pressure inactive being, and Prakriti, the active
and conformity. We face conflict with a force of action. Purusha is a pure
choice regarding what we want to do over conscious Being, immobile, immutable
what we should do. Bhagavad Gita is a and self-luminous. Prakriti is Energy and
story that tells us about the importance of its process. The human soul evolves
doing the right thing, of conquering our through at least three levels of Prakriti, its
own darkness, regardless of the cost or three gunas:TAMAS, RAJAS, SATTVA.
struggle. The first level is the tāmasic or the
darkened state of inertia and utter
SRI AUROBINDO’s TAKE ON GITA resistance to change. Here, the law of the
masses, the rules of the herd like a
The argument of the Gita resolves itself subconscious beast or a half-conscious
into three great steps by which action rises man, drive him. Next comes the rājasic or
out of the human into the divine plane. The the egoic stage of kinesis and dynamic
first step is Karma yoga, the selfless movement. Finally, there is the third or
sacrifice of works, and here the Gita's sāttvic stage wherein the individual learns
insistence is on action. The second is to subordinate his ego and take from life
Jnanayoga, the self-realization and only what is rightfully his.
knowledge of the true nature of the self
and the world; and here the insistence is on
knowledge; but the sacrifice of works
continues and the path of Works becomes
one with but does not disappear into the
path of Knowledge. The last step is Bhakti
B. SUFISM was brought to Europe and America by the

great Indian Sufi master, Hazrat Inayat
Khan, in the 1910s and 1920s from the
Islam: A brief introduction Chisti tradition, bringing the message of
Islam is one of the largest and fastest ‘love, harmony, and beauty’ to the West.
growing world religions. It began with the Islam spread to India as Arabs began
prophetic vision of Mohammad settling on the Indian west coast of Kerala
approximately 1,400 years ago in the as early as the eighth century, which is
Arabian Peninsula and spread at an much earlier than the time of the invasion
astonishing rate throughout the Old World. of India from the north by Mahmud
Islam teaches that there’s only one God/ Ghazni in 1001 CE. The development of
Ultimate Reality (Allah) and nothing is Sufism in India has a highly distinctive
ultimately real but God. God is neither feature, in that Islamic mysticism has
born nor gives birth, that is, it is not a been influenced by Indian mysticism
sentient being. throughout the centuries.
Islam literally means ‘peaceful
surrender’ in Arabic. This refers to the
process of yielding of human will to the
SUFI PHILOSOPHY
Divine Will, and ultimately the According to Sufi philosophy, Reality is
reconciliation and the unification of the the universal will, the true knowledge,
two. The agency of human Will is called eternal light and supreme beauty, whose
the nafs (self) which is the principle of nature is self-manifestation, reflected in
embodiment of spirit and the immediate the mirror of the universe; The world in
experience of the ordinary human being in comparison with the reality is a mere
the world; the nafs is of this material illusion, or non-reality or not-being.
world. Nafs-al-ammarah (the commanding Among Sufis, as well as in the Indian
self) is the human agency of organization, schools of philosophy, some believed in
control, volition and action in the world. the oneness of the existence. To them,
multiplicity indicated a mode of unity. The
phenomenal world is an outward
SUFISM IN INDIA manifestation of the one-real. The Real's
Sufism is the esoteric or inner dimension essence is above human knowledge.
of Islam, and not a branch of exoteric From the point of view of its attributes, it
Islam. Scholars trace the root of the term is a substance with two accidents, one as
Sufi to suf, a woolen garment worn by creator and the other as creature; one
some early Sufis. Some argue that the visible and the other invisible. In its
term is related to the Arabic word ‘saafi’, essence, it is attribute less, nameless,
meaning purity. Origins of indescribable, incomprehensible, but when
Sufism go back to the 8th century CE, covered with Avidya or descent from it
when the first known Sufis lived. Sufi absoluteness, names and attributes are
orders began to be established by 12th formed. The sum of these names and
and13th centuries, and historically attributes is the phenomenal world, which
developed more or less as a matter of represents reality under the form of
geographic location as Islam spread externality.
throughout the world. Man is the microcosm in whom divine
The Naqshabandi is a major Sufi order, attributes are manifested in most imperfect
which became popular in Central Asia, diminutive form. God is eternal beauty and
Kurdistan and the Indian subcontinent. the nature of beauty is self-manifestation
The Chisti order was founded in India and desire to be loved. Thus, the Sufis
by Khawja Mu’in al-Din Hassan Chisti
(1142–1236 CE), whose shrine is visited
by millions of people every year. Sufism
base their doctrine on the principles of they claimed that the realization of their
love and prefer the Course of love or the knowledge leads to the goal.
Indian Bhakti to other means of reaching The system has two aspects:
God. They consider love to be the essence (1) Knowledge and (2) Practice.
of all religions and the cause of creation
and its Continuation. God is unknowable, According to the Sufis, the object of man's
but may be thought through some concrete creation is the acquisition of the
comparison. Phenomenal diversity is the knowledge of God. Knowledge of God
reflection of the supreme beauty. The includes the knowledge of the Creator and
attributes are identical with him in fact, the creation comprising the universe and
though distinct in our thought. In His the individuals and so on. The knowledge
absolute beauty, He is called Jamal and in of the soul and the things of the world is
His phenomenal Husn. an essential step towards the knowledge of
God.
Man possesses three natures, viz.
The Object Of man's creation, according
Sensual, which corresponds to the Indian to Sufism, is the acquisition Of knowledge
Tamas. Of God. The Sufis believe that the true
Intellectual, somewhat like the Indian knowledge of God can be gained only in
Rajas. intuition. The Sufis believe that the heart
Spiritual or the Indian Sat. of man is a mirror in which he can see the
vision of God. But the heart mirror is
He becomes virtuous or wicked according polluted with the dust of worldly desires.
to the predominance of one of the three To see the vision of Reality it is essential
said qualities. His mind must receive that it should be cleansed of completely.
gradual training for which a guide is The worldly desires are identified with
absolutely necessary. The selection and nafs. It is not easy to kill the nays even for
following of a spiritual guide is the most a moment. The theorists of the system
important duty of a Sufi. A bad or have evolved a method of practice to kill it
imperfect guide may lead him to evil or and to lead the novice to the realization of
leave him imperfect and bewildered. He knowledge of God.
must use all his intellectual ability and
human endeavor to find out the true guide The practice is two-fold: Firstly, to
and once obtained, he must obey his practice detachment from the
direction. worldliness and secondly to develop love
of God through Muraqaba (Meditation)
In all brevity, the essence of Sufi thought and Muhasaba (Self-examination) etc.
is that the life is full of miseries and that The practice is metaphorically called Safr
man can get salvation from the miseries (Journey) to God and the stages of
only by renouncing the worldly spiritual attainment on it are described as
possessions. Different doctrines were
Muqamat (gyations). The Salik
propounded at different times to achieve
(Practicant) realizes spiritual moods called
renunciation.
Hal (States) at some of the stations and at
Ibn Arabi believed that God and his the end.
existence are one: According to him, the
apparent separation is due to ignorance. PRINCIPAL TEACHINGS OF
Thus, there is considerable variety in their SUFISM
conceptions of knowledge, God, self and Absolute Being (God) is also Absolute
the world. However, each sect of the Sufis Beauty.
declared their respective system and their
doctrines to be the true knowledge and
Since beauty tends towards manifestation, on solid moral and ethical principles,
Absolute Being developed the phenomenal Mysticism cannot flourish. In Arabic,
world.Man should practice virtues like Shariah means "road:' it is a clear
poverty, austerity, humility, fortitude and track, a well-traveled route that anyone
discipline. Ile should devote himself to the can follow. Second is the Tariqah,
ways of inwardness like withdrawal, which refers to the practice of Sufism.
silence, solitariness, and self-examination.
He should also keep in mind a constant
awareness of God with faith, awe and TARIQA, which literally means a path,
desire. These virtues, inwardness and like a trail in the forest or in the desert,
awareness will bring a sense of direct which is not pre-established and requires
communication with God. It would be the expert knowledge of a guide to
better if such slogans are raised which traverse. When one enters the tarigha, he
work as remainders of the mystic belief or she is initiated into a Sufi order with a
and aim and as aids to concentration on the help of a teacher (sheikh) who has
quest for unification. experience and knowledge of the path.
Man should follow these directions with Just as the Shariah refers to the
sufficient perseverance as they will external dimension of religion, the
advance through the standard mystic Tariqah refers to the inner practices
stages of concentration, apprehension of of Sufism. The guide you need in order
everything, sudden and unpredictable to find your way is the Sheikh, or Sufi
illumination, blissful ecstasy, sense of Teacher. The Shariah makes the outer
union with the deity, sense of nothingness
day-to-day life clean and attractive. The
and sense of the nothingness beyond
nothingness. Tariqah is designed to make the inner
life clean and pure. Each of these
supports the other.
THE FOUR STAGES OF
SUFISM HAQIQAH, or Truth: Haqiqah refers
According to Ibn Al-Arabi, the great to the inner meaning of the practices
Andalusian Sufi master, Islam consists of and guidance found in the Shariah and
four dimensions / stages, of practice and Tariqah. It is the direct experience of
understanding in Sufism, Shariah the mystical states of Sufism, direct
(religious Law), Tariqah (the mystical experience of the presence of God
path), Haqiqah (Truth), and Marifah within. Without this experience,
(Gnosis). Each is built upon the stages that seekers follow blindly, attempting to
go before. imitate those who know, those who
SHARIAH, which is the basic foundation have attained the station of Haqiqah.
for the next three stages. The Shariah The attainment of Haqiqah confirms
consists of teachings of Islam, basically and solidifies the practice of the first
the morality and ethics found in all two stages. Before Haqiqah all practice
religions. It provides guidance to us for is imitation. Without the deep inner
living properly in this world. Trying to understanding that comes from
follow Sufism without following the experience, one follows mechanically
Shariah is like trying to build a house on a the teachings and practices of others.
foundation of sand. Without an ordered
life built
MARIFAH, OR GNOSIS: Gnosis is yours." The advanced Sufis at this level

superior wisdom or knowledge of Spiritual realize that all things are from God, that
Truth. This is a deep level of inner they are really only caretakers and that
knowing, beyond Haqiqah. More than they "possess" nothing. Those who realize
momentary Spiritual experience, Marifah Truth have gone beyond attachment to
refers to an ongoing state of attunement possessions and beyond attachment to
with God and with Truth. It is the externals in general, including fame and
knowledge of Reality, attained by a very position. At the level of Gnosis (Marifah),
few. This is the station of the Messengers, there is "no me and no you," At this final
the prophets, and the great sages and saints. level, the individual has realized that all is
God, that nothing and no one is separate
The great Sufi sage Ibn 'Arabi explained
from God.
these four levels as follows: At the level of
the law (Shariah) there is "yours and mine." What is lawful at one level may not be
That is, the law guarantees individual rights lawful at another level of understanding.
and ethical relations between people. At the For example, the outer practice of fasting
level of the Sufi path (Tariqah), "mine is is required by religious law, but according
yours and yours is mine." The dervishes are to the Sufi path, one of the essential
expected to treat one another as brothers reasons for fasting is to develop self-
and sisters-to open their homes, their hearts, discipline and to control the insatiable ego.
and their purses to one another. At the level If a person is proud of fasting, the fast is
of Truth (Haqiqah),there is "no mine and no still technically lawful, but in terms of the
Sufi path, the fast is a failure.
TYPES OF SELF IN SUFISM
The The commanding self seeks to dominate and to control each individual. At
Commanding this level there is unbridled selfishness and no sense of morality or
Self compassion.
Descriptions of this level are similar to descriptions of the id in

psychoanalytic theory; it is closely linked to lust and aggression. These
have been called the swine and the dogs of the self - the sensual traits are
like swine, the ferocious ones like fierce dogs or wolves. This is the realm
of physical and egoistic desires.
Regretful Self At this level, wants and desires still dominate, but now the person repents
from time to time and tries to follow higher impulses.At this second level,
people do not yet have the ability to change their way of life in a
significant way. However, as they see their faults more clearly, their regret
and desire for change grow. At this level, people are like addicts who are
beginning to understand the pain they have caused themselves and others.
Inspired Self At the next level, the seeker begins to take genuine pleasure in prayer,
meditation, and other spiritual activities. Only now does the individual
taste the joys of spiritual experience. Now the seeker is truly motivated by
ideals such as compassion, service, and moral values. This is the beginning
of the real practice of Sufism. Before this stage, the best anyone can
accomplish is superficial outer understanding and mechanical outer
worship.
Though one is not free from desires and ego, this new level of motivation
and spiritual experience significantly reduces the power of these forces for
the first time. What is essential here is to live in terms of higher values.
Unless these new motivations become part of a way of life, they will
wither and die away. Behaviors common to the inspired self-include
gentleness, compassion, creative acts, and moral action. Overall, a person
who is at the stage of the inspired self seems to be emotionally mature,
respectable, and respected.
Contented Self The seeker is now at peace. The struggles of the earlier stages are basically
begins to let go, allowing the individual to come more closely in contact
with the Divine.
This level of self predisposes one to be liberal, grateful, trusting, and

adoring. If one accepts difficulties with the same overall sense of security
with which one accepts benefits, it may be said that one has attained the
level of the contented self. Developmentally, this level marks a period of
transition. The self can now begin to "disintegrate" and let go of all
previous concern with self-boundaries and then begin to "reintegrate" as an
aspect of the universal self.
Pleased Self At this stage the individual is not only content with his or her lot, but
pleased with even the difficulties and trials of life, realizing that these
difficulties come from God. The state of the pleased self is very different
from the way we usually experience the world, focused on seeking
pleasure and avoiding pain.
Self-pleasing Those who have reached the next stage realize that all power to act comes
to God from God, that they can do nothing by themselves. They no longer fear
anythingor ask for anything.The Sufi sage Ibn 'Arabi described this level
as the inner marriage or self and soul. The self-pleasing to God has
achieved genuine inner unity and wholeness.
Pure / Serene / Those few who attain the final level have transcended the self entirely.
Secure Self There is no ego or no separate self is left, only union with God. At this
stage, the individual has truly realized the truth, "There is no god but God."
The Sufi now knows that there is nothing but God, that only the Divine
exists, and that any sense of individuality or separateness is an illusion.
When an individual is ready and with These stages constitute the ascetic and ethical
God’s grace, the journey of spiritual discipline of Sufi. These stages are by one's
transformation begins and the nafs own efforts. Each of the stages is the result of
continues to transform first into the the stage preceding it. The path of Sufi is not
‘regretful self’, before turning into the finished until he travels all the stages. In each
‘inspired self’, and finally the stage he is to make himself perfect before
‘serene/secure self’. The process of advancing to the next. After completing all
spiritual transformation involves seven the stages, the seeker becomes Gnostic, A'rif
classical (main) stages. Repentence: It means, the sins are
abandoned and it is resolved never to return
MAIN STAGES OF SUFISM to them. A novice should think of his sins
with deep regret. Others should repent for
Islam has prescribed certain practices for
forgetting God. They should forget their sins
Muslims for attaining perfection in life.
These practices are Kalimah, Salat, Sawm, because the thought of the sins comes
Haj and Zakal. In addition to these, there between them and God.
are certain duties for a disciplined life. The
ritual practices in Islam are endless. The Abstinence: It means one should refrain
rituals of Sha'riat are not difficult to himself from indulgence. In Sufi sense, it may
follow. But there is another method which be of three types:(a) Abstaining from acts
is called Ma'rifat. It is called the path of which are doubtful (b) Abstaining from
Sufis. Ma'rifat is concerned mainly with whatever one's consciousness does not allow
immediate experience. This path is
(c) Abstaining from anything which diverts
described as a journey by Sufis. It has
attention from God.
seven stages which are called Maqamat.
The path is known as "Path" of Tariqat.
Renunciation: It means that one should give
There are differences in Sufis in regard to
up voluntarily those things which give
"Stages" but the main stages are as
physical enjoyment. It has itself three stages.
follows: -
(a) Renouncing something which may bring
name and fame. Investigating what to be
given up and what not to be given up. (c)
There are differences in Sufis in regard to
Not possessing nor wishing to possess any
"Stages" but the main stages are as
worldly thing.
follows: -
Repentence (Tawbah)
Poverty: It means to be stripped of every
Abstinence (Wisr) wish that can turn one's thought from God. It
Renunciation (Zuhd) may be of three types: (a) Neither to possess
Poverty (Faqr) nor seek anything (b) Not to possess anything
Patience (Sabr) but not to decline if offered (c) Not to possess
Trust (Tawakkul) anything but to seek the help of friends in
Satisfaction (Ridza) extreme need.
Patience: It means to keep mental

equilibrium in adversity in distress and in
trials from God. It may be of three types. (a)
Patience in God. (b) Patience in and for God.
(c) Patience in, for and with God. The
first type is of one who can endure understanding of who we are as human
distress at one time but loses beings and what the purpose of our
patience at another time. The embodied existence here on earth is. It
second type is of one who is not reveals to us the principal aspects of our
moved and who does not complain nature and a way to transform our selves
of his bad circumstances, the third to become true instruments of
manifestation of Divine love, Divine
type is of one whose equilibrium of
consciousness and Divine action.
mind is not lost in any adversity.
Trust in God: It means complete The term ‘psycho-spiritual
transformation’ highlights the importance
dependence on God in all affairs. It
of the psychological dimension in the
is of two types: (a) Renunciation of
overall process of spiritual transformation. It
every personal initiative such as refers to transformation of consciousness by
seeking food, taking medicine, etc. means of psychological insight. Insight into
Admission of some personal our emotional nature may help purify our
initiative such as working for the emotions and emotional attachments.
purpose of subsistence etc.
Three principal aspects of the human
Satisfaction: In this stage the Sufi being and their relationship comprise the
does everything to please God. The triadic foundation of Sufi psychology: the
end Of the Sufi path is Fana nafs (self), ghalb (heart) and ruh (soul).
followed by Baqa. Fana means The spiritual destiny of each human being
passing away Of the individual depends on whether the soul, or nafs,
self. Fana is a state of losing or becomes the eventual winner of the inner
forgetting self- consciousness in a battle (jihad) between the tendencies
state of ecstasy. In the highest stage exercised by the nafs and the higher
of Fana, even the consciousness of qualities of the soul. If the nafs
attaining Fana disappears. This dominates, the heart becomes darkened
stage is known as Fana al-Fana and weakened and ineffective. If the
which makes the beginning of the forces of the soul take over the heart, it
final stage. Baqa means passing becomes transparent and illumined.
from the phenomenal self to the
real self.
ESSENTIALS OF SUFI NAFS

PSYCHOLOGY: NAFS, HEART Nafs is simply the equivalent of the
AND SOUL English word ‘self’. It has often been
translated as ‘ego’ or ‘lower self’ both of
Sufism offers a comprehensive approach which are somewhat inaccurate.
to sacred psychology with the ultimate
aim of self-knowledge and self- The nafs often craves worldly objects and
acceptance. The collective experience and ignores the wisdom of the heart which is
knowledge from Sufi practice makes the medium of transmission of the
available to us today a thorough knowledge of the soul. The nafs needs
spiritual guidance to awaken to its spiritual
potential from the state of sleep-like
ignorance (gheflat).
POINTS TO REMEMBER: C. INTEGRAL YOGA

As the principle of embodiment, the
human self is the crown of the
INTEGRAL PSYCHOLOGY:
evolutionary process, presiding over the
animal self, vegetable self and the mineral A psychological framework for
self. Nafsal-ammarah undergoes a gradual understanding the total human being is
process of transformation known as fana, called integral psychology. It is a
paradigm of psychology that emerges from
which means ego-annihilation or loss of
a consciousness perspective.
self-centered personality characteristics.
The term saṁskāra refers to mental Integral psychology is concerned with the
impressions that are acquired through the study of the human psyche in its potential
mind and the senses associated with nafs fullness. Accordingly, integral psychology
is inspired by and founded upon four
and embodied existence. These
general postulates essential to an integral
impressions create numerous veils of
world view: non-duality,
illusion that keep human beings in the state
multidimensionality, holism, and
of gheflat or sleep-like ignorance and evolution. - Sri Aurobindo was a yogi and
unconsciousness. a mystic. He has said that the materials of
In Sufi practice the goal is to open the his spiritual philosophy were provided by
seeker’s heart, which is the gateway to the experiences obtained by practice of
soul. The open heart first helps to yoga. According to Sri Aurobindo, yoga
transcend and then transform the nafs. has the same relation with the inner
being and nature of man as science has
with the forces of external nature like
steam or electricity. Yoga, he says, is
scientific in that its methods are
observation of and experiment with the
states, forces, functions of our subjective, integral yoga is the transformation of

that is, inner being and nature. Yoga is the entire being. Because of this, the
both science and art. It is a science because various elements of one's make-up -
it knows by experience what man is Physical, Vital, Mental, Psychic, and
inwardly and it is an art because it can Spiritual, and the means of their
apply that knowledge to change man's transformation, are described in great
inner being and nature. Yoga is known as detail by Śrī Aurobindo, who in this way
a means of attaining spiritual liberation, formulates an entire integral psychology.
mukti or moksha. Maharishi Aurobindo says the meaning of
the word Yoga is to join our eternal
consciousness with our true self – the
INTEGRAL YOGA
divine within ourselves. He writes, all life
Śrī Aurobindo is the founder of the is Yoga, while Yoga as a sadhana is a
system “Samagra Yoga” (Integral Yoga) methodized effort towards self-perfection,
Integral yoga, also called supramental which brings to expression the latent,
yoga, is the yoga-based philosophy and hidden potentialities of being.
practice of Sri Aurobindo and The Mother
(Mirra Alfassa).
CENTRAL PURPOSE OF THE
INTEGRAL YOGA
ABOUT SRI AUROBINDO Transformation of our superficial, narrow
He was born on 15th August 1872 at and fragmentary human way of thinking,
Calcutta. For the primary education he was seeing, feeling and being into a deep and
taken along with his elder brothers to wide spiritual consciousness and an
England. He returned to India in 1893 and integrated inner and outer existence and of
joined the Baroda College as Professor of our ordinary human living into the divine
French and English. In 1906 hebecame the way of life.
Principal ofthe Calcutta College and
decided to work for the political and
spiritual freedom of India. The pioneering SÂDHANÂ OF THE INTEGRAL
work that he did was evidently a part of his YOGA
larger work for the entire humanity and for The Sâdhanâ [practice] of the Integral
the whole earth. In 1908 he was charged Yoga does not proceed through any set
for sedition and kept in Alipur Jail. During mental teaching or prescribed forms of
the period he had numerous Yogic meditation, mantras or others, but by
experiences and realized the assurance of aspiration, by a self-concentration
the liberation of the country. inwards or upwards, by a self-opening
to an Influence, to the Divine Power
He authored various texts on Yoga and above us and its workings, to the Divine
Spirituality. Some of them are The Life Presence in the heart and by the
Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, The Ideal rejection of all that is foreign to these
of Human Unity, The Human Cycle, things. It is only by faith, aspiration and
Essays on Gita, The Supramental surrender that this self-opening can come.
Manifestation upon Earth and The Savitri. It is a synthesis of the various branches of
Most yoga only develops a single aspect of Yoga. It is a scientific system for the
the being, and has as their aim a state of harmonious development of every aspect
liberation or transcendence. But the aim of of the individual.
It is a synthesis of all the following yoga:
Hatha Yoga Path to physical Includes asanas (postures), pranayama (breath control),
practice of mudras, bandhas, kriyas, yogic diet, and deep relaxation.
Yoga. These practices help to purify and strengthen the body
and mind.
Raja Yoga Path of Balancing and controlling the mind utilizing the eight
concentration & limbs of Yoga delineated in the Yoga Sutras of
meditation. Patanjali. This leads ultimately to the state of samadhi,
or super-consciousness.
Bhakti Yoga Path of Through prayer, kirtan, puja, and practices that help
devotion. transcend the limited personality or ego, one attains
union with the Divine.
Karma Path of selfless By engaging in one’s duties without attachment to the
Yoga service. fruits (or results) of the action, one becomes a pure
channel of love and service.
Jnana Yoga Path of wisdom. With study, self-analysis, and awareness, one ceases to
identify with the body and mind, and realizes the
Oneness. The path of wisdom takes an analytical
approach to the question: “Who am I?”
Japa Yoga Path of Mantra The concentrated repetition of a mantra (a sound
Repetition. vibration representing an aspect of the Divine) leads to
an awareness of and attunement to this cosmic vibration.
THE YOGA OF SELF-PERFECTION: leads to realization of Cosmic

PRACTICING INTEGRAL YOGA Self. We realize the one Self,
Brahman, Divine, first above the
The major topic in Sri Aurobindo's body, life, mind and not only
Integral Yoga is - Triple transformation within the heart supporting them. It
which describes the process through which manifests as a Transcending Light,
reality is transformed into the divinity. Knowledge, Power, Purity, Peace,
Ananda of which we become
TRIPLE TRANSFORMATION
aware and which descends into the
PSYCHIC TRANSFORMATION: You being and progressively replaces
can transform your consciousness by the the ordinary consciousness itself
opening of the psychic being within the by its own movements. The final
heart. With the Divine supporting this result of this recurring ascent-
psychic being takes charge of the sadhana descent-assimilation process is
and turns the whole being to the Truth, the known as Liberation of the Soul.
Divine, with results in the mind, the vital
The limitations of the present
and the physical consciousness.
being can be overcome by the
Triple transformation, the
SPIRITUAL TRANSFORMATION: This
process in which the lower
nature is transformed into the
divine nature.
PSYCHICISATION (PRONOUNCE: (FOR REFERENCE / EXTRA

SI-KA-SI-ZATION). READING)
Psychicisation is a turn inward, so that
one realizes the psychic being, the THREE TYPES OF BEING
psychic personality or Divine Soul, in Sri Aurobindo discerns three types of
the core of one's being. The Divine Soul being, namely the Outer being, the Inner
serves as a spiritual Guide in the yoga, and being, and the Psychic Being.
enables one to transform the outer being.
SPIRITUALISATION 1. THE OUTER BEING

As a result of the Psychicisation, light,
peace, and power descend into the body, The Outer Being includes the physical,
transforming all of its parts, physical, vital, vital and mental levels of being, which
and mental. This is the Spiritual characterizes our everyday
transformation, or Spiritualisation. It is consciousness and experience. It
equivalent to "enlightenment", as found in includes several levels of the
Vedanta and Buddhism. subconscient: a mental subconscient, a
vital subconscient, and a physical
INTERMEDIATE ZONE subconscient, down to the material
Aurobindo asserted that spiritual aspirants Inconscient. Integral Yoga involves
may pass through an intermediate zone going beyond this surface
where experiences of force, inspiration, consciousness to the larger life of the
illumination, light, joy, expansion, power, Inner Being, which is more open to
and freedom from normal limits are spiritual realization.
possible. These can become associated
with personal aspirations, ambitions, 2. THE INNER OR SUBLIMINAL
notions of spiritual fulfilment and yogic BEING
siddhi, and even be falsely interpreted as
full spiritual realization. One can pass The Inner Being, or Subliminal,
through this zone, and the associated includes the inner realms or aspects of
spiritual dangers, without harm by the physical, vital and mental being.
perceiving its real nature, and seeing They have a larger, subtler, freer
through the misleading experiences.Those consciousness than that of the everyday
who go astray in it may end in a spiritual consciousness. Its realization is
disaster, or may remain stuck there and essential for any higher spiritual
adopt some half-truth as the whole truth. realization. The Inner Being is also
transitional between the surface or
SUPRAMENTALISATION Outer Being and the Psychic or Inmost
Supramentalisation is the realization of Being. By doing yoga practice
the Super mind, or Supramental (sadhana), the inner consciousness is
consciousness, and the resulting being opened, and life turns away from
transformation of the entire being. the outward to the inward. The inner
Psychicisation and spiritualization serve as consciousness becomes more real than
necessary prerequisites for the
Supramentalisation of the entire being.
the outer consciousness, and becomes a
peace, happiness and closeness to the
The supramental transformation is the final Divine.
stage in the integral yoga, enabling the birth
of a new individual, fully formed by the
supramental power.
3. THE PSYCHIC BEING ABOUT SIDDHARTHA
The Psychic Being is Sri Aurobindo's The historical facts of his life are
term for the Personal Evolving Soul, roughly these: He was born around 563
the principle of Divine spirit in every B.C. in what is now Nepal. near the
individual. The Psychic is the Indian border. His full name was
"Innermost Being", the permanent Siddhartha Gautama of the Sakyas.
being in us that stands behind and Siddhartha was his given name,
supports the physical, vital and mental Gautama his surname, and Sakya the
principles. It "uses mind, life and body name of the clan to which his family
as its instruments," undergoing their belonged. His father was a king, but as
fate yet also transcending them. there were then many kingdoms in the
subcontinent of India, it would be more
accurate to think of him as a feudal lord.
BUDDHISM By the standards of the day his
upbringing was luxurious. "l wore
Buddhism begins with a man. In his garments of silk and my attendants held
later years, when' India was a fire with a white umbrella over me My unguents
his message and kings themselves were always from Banaras." He appears
were bowing before him, people came to have been exceptionally handsome,
to him to ask who or what he was? for there are numerous references to
Buddha’s answer provided an identity "the perfection of his visible body. At
for his entire message. sixteen he married a neighboring
"Are you a god?" they asked. "An princess, Yasodharå, who bore a son
angel?" "NO." "A saint?" "Then what whom they called Rahula.
are you?" Buddha answered. "I am
awake." His answer became his title,
for this is what Buddha means. The ABOUT BUDDHA’S DEATH:
Sanskrit root budh denotes both to After an arduous meal at the age of 80
wake up and to know. Buddha, then, and around the year 43 B.C., the Buddha
means the "Enlightened One," or the died from dysentery after eating a meal
"Awakened One." While the rest of the
of dried boar's flesh in the home Of
world was wrapped in the womb of sleep,
Cunda the smith. Even on his death bed
dreaming a dream known as the waking
state of human life one of their numbers his mind moved toward others. In the
roused him. Buddhism begins with a midst of his pain, it occurred to him that
man who shook off the doze, the dream- Cunda might feel responsible for his
like vagaries of ordinary awareness. It death. "is request, therefore was that
begins with a man who woke up. Cunda be informed that of all the meal
he had eaten during his long life only
two stood out as having blessed him
exceptionally. One was the meal whose
strength hadenabled him to reach
enlightenment under the Bo Tree and
the Other One that was opening to him
the final gates to nirvana.
The term dukkha as the First Noble

 THE FOUR NOBLE Truth, which represents the Buddha's
TRUTHS view of life and the world, has a
deeper philosophical meaning and
The Four Noble Truths are:
connotes enormouslywider senses.
Dukkha Fortunately the Buddha's teachings do
Dukkha-Samudaya, the arising or not end with suffering; rather, they go
origin of dukkha, on to tell us what we can do about it
Dukkha-Nirodha, the cessation of and how to end it.
dukkha,
SAMUDAYA: THE SECOND
Dukkha-Magga, the way leading to
NOBLE TRUTH
the cessation of dukkha.
 Origin of suffering (Samudāya)
DUKKHA: THE FIRST NOBLE Our day-to-day troubles may seem to
TRUTH have easily identifiable causes: thirst,
pain from an injury, sadness from the
The First Noble Truth (Dukkha-
loss of a loved one. In the second of
ariyasacca) is generally translated by
his Noble Truths, though, the Buddha
almost all scholars as 'The Noble
claimed to have found the cause of all
Truth of Suffering', and it is
suffering - and it is much more deeply
interpreted to mean that life according
rooted than our immediate worries.The
to Buddhism is nothing but suffering
Buddha taught that the root of all
and pain. First of all, Buddhism is
suffering is desire, tanhā. This comes
neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but
in three forms, which he described as
realistic. If anything at all, it is
the Three Roots of Evil, or the Three
realistic, for it takes a realistic view of
Fires, or the Three Poisons. These are
life and of the world. It looks at things
the three ultimate causes of suffering:
objectively (yathabhutam). It does nor
Greed and desire, represented in art by
falsely lull you into living in a fool's
a rooster Ignorance or delusion,
paradise, not does it frighten and
represented by a pig. Hatred and
agonized you with all kinds of
destructive urges, represented by a
imaginary fears and sins. It tells you
snake. (Tanhā is a term in Pali, the
exactly and objectively what you are
language of the Buddhist scriptures
and what the world around you is, and
that specifically means craving or
shows you the way to perfect freedom,
misplaced desire. Buddhists recognize
peace, tranquility and happiness.
that there can be positive desires, such
as desire for enlightenment and good
wishes for others. A neutral term for
such desires is chanda.)
 NIRODHA: THE THIRD The eight stages are not to be taken in

order, but rather support and reinforce
NOBLE TRUTH
each other:
Cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
The Buddha taught that the way Right Understanding - Sammā
to extinguish desire, which causes ditthi
suffering, is to liberate oneself
from attachment. This is the third Accepting Buddhist teachings.
Noble Truth - the possibility of (The Buddha never intended his
liberation. followers to believe his teachings
blindly, but to practice them and
Nirvana means extinguishing. judge for themselves whether they
Attaining nirvana - reaching were true.)
enlightenment - means
extinguishing the three fires of Right Intention - Sammā
greed, delusion and hatred. san̄kappa
Someone who reaches nirvana
does not immediately disappear to A commitment to cultivate the
a heavenly realm. Nirvana is right attitudes.
better understood as a state of
mind that humans can reach. It is Right Speech - Sammā vācā
a state of profound spiritual joy,
without negative emotions and Speaking truthfully, avoiding
fears. Someone who has attained slander, gossip and abusive speech.
enlightenment is filled with
compassion for all living things. Right Action - Sammā kammanta
 MAGGA: THE FOURTH Behaving peacefully and

NOBLE TRUTH harmoniously; refraining from
stealing, killing and overindulgence
Path to the cessation of suffering in sensual pleasure.
(Magga). The final Noble Truth is
the Buddha's prescription for the Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva
end of suffering. This is a set of
principles called the Eightfold Avoiding making a living in ways
Path. that cause harm, such as exploiting
people or killing animals, or
THE EIGHTFOLD PATH IS trading in intoxicants or weapons.
ALSO CALLED THE MIDDLE
WAY: It avoids both indulgence Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma
and severe asceticism, neither of
which the Buddha had found Cultivating positive states of mind;
helpful in his search for freeing oneself from evil and
enlightenment. unwholesome states and preventing
them arising in future.
Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati The eight stages can be grouped into
Wisdom (right understanding and
Developing awareness of the body, intention), Ethical Conduct (right
sensations, feelings and states of mind. speech, action and livelihood) and
Meditation (right effort, mindfulness
Right Concentration - Sammā Samadhi and concentration).
Developing the mental focus necessary for The Buddha described the Eightfold Path
this awareness. as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for
crossing a river. Once one has reached the
opposite shore, one no longer needs the
raft and can leave it behind.
PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY ERA
(It means: Methodologically poor, Untestable (e.g. concept of denial) and Limited impact on
scientific psychology)
(Greek Heritage, for e.g.)
Greek Heritage | The Basics
The ancient Greek philosophers gave us the basic categories of philosophy, beginning with
metaphysics. Metaphysics is the part of philosophy that asks questions such as "What is the
world made of?" and "What is the ultimate substance of all reality?" In fact, the ancient
Greeks were among the first to suggest that there is a "true" reality (noumenon) under the
"apparent" reality (phenomenon), an "unseen real" beneath the "unreal seen." The question
is, what is this true reality? Is it matter and energy, i.e. something physical? This is called
materialism. Or something more spiritual or mental, such as ideas or ideals? This is called
idealism.
Materialism and idealism constitute the two extreme answers. Later, we will explore some
other possibilities. A second aspect of philosophy is epistemology. Epistemology is the
philosophy of knowledge: How do we know what is true or false, what is real or not? Can
we know anything for certain, or is it ultimately hopeless?
Again, the Greeks outlined two opposing approaches to the problem of knowledge. One is
called empiricism, which says that all knowledge comes through the senses. The other is
rcalled rationalism, which says that knowledge is a matter of reason, thought.
Socrates He, only, orated his teachings, Plato recorded his teachings in
(469-399 BCE) writing,
Socrates work has been continued by Plato and was presented in

Plato’s published books.
In Book VII of The Republic, Plato wrote the “Allegory of the

Cave.” This allegory represents the inherent capacity to learn through
the concept of being, not becoming. Plato’s allegory is written as a
philosophical exchange between Socrates and his student. Socrates
illustrates a cave wherein a line of prisoners with no possible range of
movement face a cave wall.
Plato Socrates and his student Plato believed that the mind was
(428-348 BCE): separate from the body, that it continued to exist after death, and that
ideas were innate.
PLATO:
Plato was an early proponent of individual differences. He
recognized that we as individuals naturally differ in general aptitude,
intelligence, and talent. He set forth a classification system to
qualitatively rate people as being individuals of gold, silver, brass, or
iron. In his work, The Republic, Plato describes a model for the
perfect society in which a small collection of people with superior
intellect, or the Guardians, governed under a philosopher king. Other
members of this utopian society were given jobs based on their own
personal strengths.
Those who expressed great courage were posted as warriors, those
who were endowed with a great appreciation of beauty and harmony
would serve as artists and poets, and people who displayed little
talent or ability would be delegated to the roles of servants and
slaves.
PLATO’S MIND BRAIN DUALISM:

Plato might be given recognition as an early psychologist for his
descriptions of the psyche. Plato stated that the psyche is an active
entity which drives us and shapes our actions. Our most important
task as human beings is the nurturing of our psyche by striving for
good and gaining knowledge. For Plato, true knowledge is not gained
through the senses, but rather through cognizance of the world of
forms.
Plato’s position on the soul and his theory of the world of forms
was an early view of mind brain dualism. The soul is in an
intermediate position between the world of forms, and the physical
world to which to body belongs. The body and soul, for Plato
existed as two separate entities.
Important Terms associated with Plato:
- The allegory of the cave

- World of Forms
- Forms
Aristotle Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable from the body and
(384-322 BCE): that knowledge (ideas) grow from experience.
Aristotle {timeline} (384-322 BCE) was born in Macedonia. At 17

years old he left for Athens to study under Plato for 22 years. He
mentored Alexander the Great.
Aristotle founded his own school, the Lyceum in Athens (335 BCE).
Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not completely agree that mental
representations make us less aware of reality. In fact, he places
them at the center of the cognitive psychology and developed the
first theory in cognition.He refers to mental images as
Phantasmata, and claims that they are necessary not just for
recalling but even for thinking. In De Sensu et Sensili, translated as
on sense and sensible, Aristotle distinguishes animals from plants
based on the fact that they have perception. Perception according to
Aristotle is the purpose of the soul.
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Aristotle’s theory of sensation and perception was that there are
special sensible and common sensible. Special sensible’s are single
pieces of information such as color determined by only one of our
five senses. Common sensible’s can be perceived by more than once
sense such as
movement. Common sense was what Aristotle argued, the five senses
working together to form perceptions of something such as an apple.
Aristotle felt the most basic sense was the sense of touch which
developed to allow us to feel pleasure and pain.
MEMORY
In addition to how we sense objects, Aristotle covers how we
imagine objects or recall them. Recollection or memory is when the
senses are triggered that eventually causes a representation of the
object being sensed in the mind. Furthermore, Aristotle introduced
the idea that memory requires a process of recalling the image in the
mind. He says that the extent that we recall an image depends on how
we represent the object in our mind as well as how we associate it.
INTELLIGENCE
He believed that there are different types of intelligence or what he
called “practical wisdom”. He believed that there were different
ways to exercise these wisdoms including understanding
(knowing), action (doing), and production (making).
The different types of wisdoms paralleled Aristotle’s grouping of
works of which were his theoretical works, his practical works,
and his productive works. In relation to psychology today, Robert
Sternberg (2003) created the Triarchic Theories of Intelligence which
mirror Aristotle’s concepts of intelligence.
Hippocrates (450- Considered by many to be the “father of medicine”. He developed

380 BCE) the Theory of four Humors. One of the works he is credited with,
“On the Sacred Disease,” is considered an important piece of work
to the history of psychology, (Watson, 1968).
Hippocrates who determined that the disease, epilepsy, was not “the
intervention of a spirit who possessed the body of the sufferer,”
but was a disease that had a nature and a cause like any other
diseases, and could be treated as such.
Hippocrates determined that all mental disorders belonged to one of
three categories; mania, melancholia, and phrenitis. Hippocrates
went on to express that he believed that this epilepsy was caused in
the brain and more specifically was related to a “humoral
congestion.”
Theory of Four Humors aka (Theory of Disease)
Blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile are what, according to
Hippocrates theory, determine whether a person is healthy or has
disease. When the four humors are in a state of balance, then a
person is healthy but if there is any change in the amount of even one
of the humors, then a person is considered to have a disease.
The idea of therapy for curing disease, according to Hippocrates,
dealt with the idea of “cure by opposites”. If one of the humors is in
excess, then you cure the afflicted person by reducing the amount of
that humor.
Hippocrates believed that the brain was the center for all intelligence
and activity and because of this, any mental illness that was
discovered was due to brain pathology.

He also believed that because so much of conscious life is connected
to the brain, including emotions, all of our suffering comes from the
brain when it is not healthy. If the brain is too hot, cold, moist, or dry
then it is considered to be unhealthy and as a result disease occurs.
He explains that the brain can be affected by phlegm and bile, most
fevers are the thought to be caused by an imbalance with bile, too
much bile can also cause overheating leading to fear, too much
phlegm causes the body to be too cold, which can lead to feelings of
anxiety and grief and can also result in memory loss.
Juan Huarte de San He lived and worked as a physician during the Spanish Renaissance
Juan (1529-88) era (Chilsom, 1910.)
Examen de Ingenious par alas Ciencias, or The Trial of Men’s
Wits, is a source of information about Huarte’s ideas on psychology.
Huarte’s writing was the first attempt at connecting psychology
and physiology. The Trial of Men’s Wits is considered the precursor
to educational psychology, behaviorism, neuropsychology and
psychiatry.
Rene Descartes René Descartes {timeline} is an extremely important figure to the

(1596-1650) history of psychology; he is frequently referred to as the “Father of
Modern Philosophy”.
MIND-BODY DUALISM
Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind) body separation but
speculated on how the immaterial mind and the physical body
communicated. His definition of the mind was that it is “a thinking,
non-extended thing while the body is an extended, non-thinking
thing”. With these two ideas he concluded that the mind is distinct
from the body and can exist without it. This belief of the mind and
body being two separate things is referred to as “mind-body
dualism”.
Continental rationalism, mainly represented by René Descartes,

insisted on the primacy of so-called innate ideas placed in the human
mind at birth by God. These include mathematical principles, simple
ideas, and the idea of God.
Francis Bacon Bacon was one of the founders of modern science, especially the
(1561-1626) experimental method.
John Locke Locke held that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank sheet at birth and
(1632-1704) experience writes on it.
He theorized that the acquisition of human knowledge is a twofold

process. The first is sensory experience, in which we learn about the
world through our five senses. The second is reflection, in which we
use our minds and emotions to build those sensory experiences into
more complex ideas. As an example, one can experience an apple
through sight and taste, and afterward, one can reflect that it is a good
thing to eat, and conclude that mankind would benefit if we
cultivated apples through farming.
TABULA RASA:
Theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content and
that therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception.
Epistemological proponents of tabula rasa disagree with the doctrine

of innatism (represented by: Rene Descartes) which holds that the
mind is born already in possession of certain knowledge.
Christian Wolff He first popularized the term psychology to designate the study of
(1679–1754) mind. Wolff divided the discipline between empirical and rational
(Empirical vs. psychology.
Rational The data of mind that resulted from observing ourselves and others
Psychology) constituted empirical psychology; rational psychology referred to the
interpretation of the data of empirical psychology through the use of
reason and logic.
These psychologies were characterized as using knowledge acquired
through experience (empirical psychology) or using knowledge that
the mind possesses independent of experience (rational psychology)
(Murray, 1988).
Immanuel Kant He denied the validity of any rational psychology because, he argued,
(1724–1804) rational mental processes must be activated by mental content
derived from experience; therefore, the study of mind must be
confined to questions appropriate to an empirical psychology (Leary,
1978). An empirical psychology of mental content could not, Kant
contended, become a proper natural science because mental events
cannot be quantified (i.e., measured or weighed), and thus its data are
neither capable of being described mathematically nor subject to
experimental manipulation.
Finally, Kant asserted, the method of observing the mind -
introspection - distorts the events observed by observing them.
However, Kant suggested, psychology might improve its status as an
empirical science by adopting the methods of anthropology to
observe the activities of human beings in realistic settings.
EXTRA REFERENCES FOR TIMELINE
(NOT IMPORTANT FOR EXAM but FOR PROVIDING MEANING TO THE
TIMELINE)
Jakob Friederich Fries (1773–1843) raised the status of introspection by arguing that it
was not inherently more problematic than observing external phenomena; if introspection
was unreliable, at least it was not any more so than any other kind of observation.
At the same time, Johann Friederich Herbart (1776–1841) offered a system of psychology
that was both empirical and mathematical. If psychology needed to be mathematical to be a
true science, Herbart proposed that numbers could be assigned to mental events of different
intensities and a mathematical description of the relationship among them could be
formulated. Herbart could assign numbers to describe experiences of different intensities,
but he could not actually measure the subjective intensities in accord with an objective
standard.
Eduard Friederich Beneke (1798–1854) argued that it was premature to apply mathematics
to relationships among mental events absent more accurate empirical observations and
reliable means of measurement; psychology could hope to become an experimental
discipline by testing “empirical results and theoretical hypotheses under controlled
conditions and with the systematic variation of variables”.
Scientific Psychology
Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt–the father of psychology, set up the first psychology

(1870s-1900) lab in 1879.
Wundt’s research in his laboratory in Leipzig focused on the nature
of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was
possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify our
conscious experiences scientifically. Wundt began the field known as
structuralism, a school of psychology whose goal was to identify the
basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience. Its goal
was to create a “periodic table” of the “elements of sensations,”
similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently been

created in chemistry. Structuralists used the method of introspection
to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness.
Introspection involves asking research participants to describe
exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks, such as
viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or performing a math
problem. A participant who is reading a book might report, for
instance, that he saw some black and colored straight and curved
marks on a white background. In other studies the structuralists used
newly invented reaction time instruments to systematically assess not
only what the participants were thinking but how long it took them to
do so. Wundt discovered that it took people longer to report what
sound they had just heard than to simply respond that they had heard
the sound. These studies marked the first time researchers realized
that there is a difference between the sensation of a stimulus and the
perception of that stimulus, and the idea of using reaction times to
study mental events has now become a mainstay of cognitive
psychology.
Perhaps the best known of the structuralists was Edward Bradford

Titchener (1867–1927). Titchener was a student of Wundt who
came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory
at Cornell University. In his research using introspection, Titchener
and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000
sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste.
An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that it was

rigorous and scientific. The research marked the beginning of
psychology as a science, because it demonstrated that mental events
could be quantified. But the structuralists also discovered the
limitations of introspection. Even highly trained research participants
were often unable to report on their subjective experiences. When the
participants were asked to do simple math problems, they could
easily do them, but they could not easily answer how they did them.
Thus the structuralists were the first to realize the importance of
unconscious processes—that many important aspects of human
psychology occur outside our conscious awareness, and that
psychologists cannot expect research participants to be able to
accurately report on all of their experiences.
Edward Titchener– student of Wundt, introduced experimental

psychology to the USA.
Functionalism In contrast to Wundt, who attempted to understand the nature of

(1880s-current) consciousness, the goal of William James and the other members of the
school of functionalism was to understand why animals and
humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they
currently possess (Hunt, 1993).
James and the other members of the functionalist school were

influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) theory of natural
selection, which proposed that the physical characteristics of animals
and humans evolved because they were useful, or functional. The
functionalists believed that Darwin’s theory applied to psychological
characteristics too. Just as some animals have developed strong
muscles to allow them to run fast, the human brain, so functionalists
thought, must have adapted to serve a particular function in human
experience. Although functionalism no longer exists as a school of
psychology, its basic principles have been absorbed into psychology
and continue to influence it in many ways. The work of the
functionalists has developed into the field of evolutionary
psychology, a branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian
theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior.
Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists’ basic
assumption, namely that many human psychological systems,
including memory, emotion, and personality, serve key adaptive
functions.
Behaviorism By 1920, Structuralism and Functionalism were replaced by
(1915–current) Behaviorism, Gestalt Psychology & Psychoanalysis. Both
structuralism and functionalism were essentially studies of the mind.
The psychologists associated with the school of behaviorism, on the
other hand, were reacting in part to the difficulties psychologists
encountered when they tried to use introspection to understand
behavior. Behaviorism is a school of psychology that is based on the
premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and
therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study
of behavior itself. Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a
“black box” into which stimuli are sent and from which responses are
received. They argue that there is no point in trying to determine
what happens in the box because we can successfully predict
behavior without knowing what happens inside the mind.
Furthermore, behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws
of learning that can explain all behaviors. The first behaviorist was
the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958). Watson
was influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), who had discovered that dogs would
salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been associated
with the presentation of food. Watson and the other behaviorists
began to use these ideas to explain how events that people and other
organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce
specific behaviors (responses). For instance, in Pavlov’s research the
stimulus (either the food or, after learning, the tone) would produce
the response of salivation in the dogs.
In his research Watson found that systematically exposing a child to

fearful stimuli in the presence of objects that did not themselves elicit
fear could lead the child to respond with a fearful behavior to the
presence of the stimulus (Watson & Rayner, 1920; Beck, Levinson,
Irons, 2009). [11] In the best known of his studies, an 8-month-old
boy named Little Albert was used as the subject. Here is a summary
of the findings:
The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat
was placed near him and he was allowed to play with it. The child
showed no fear of the rat. In later trials, the researchers made a loud
sound behind Albert’s back by striking a steel bar with a hammer
whenever the baby touched the rat. The child cried when he heard
the noise. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, the child was
again shown the rat. Now, however, he cried and tried to move away
from the rat.
In line with the behaviorist approach, the boy had learned to

associate the white rat with the loud noise, resulting in crying. The
most famous behaviorist was Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner
(1904– 1990), who expanded the principles of behaviorism and also
brought them to the attention of the public at large. Skinner used the
ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards
or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals. And he used
the general principles of behaviorism to develop theories about how
best to teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful
and productive. Skinner even developed a method for studying
thoughts and feelings using the behaviorist approach.
The behaviorists made substantial contributions to psychology by

identifying the principles of learning. Although the behaviorists were
incorrect in their beliefs that it was not possible to measure thoughts
and feelings, their ideas provided new ideas that helped further our
understanding regarding the nature-nurture debate as well as the
question of free will. The ideas of behaviorism are fundamental to
psychology and have been developed to help us better understand the
role of prior experiences in a variety of areas of psychology.
The methods and subject matter of physiology, especially sensory physiology, helped to
provide the scientific basis for psychology.
SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
Johannes Müller (1801–1858), the “Father of Physiology,” produced the classic
systematic handbook (Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, 1833–1840) that set forth
what was then known about human physiology and offered observations and hypotheses for
further research. Among the formulations that Müller provided in the Handbuch was the law
of specific nerve energies, which stated that the mind is not directly aware of objects as such
but can only be aware of the stimulation in the brain conveyed by sensory nerves.
The following Approaches would be understood using the following Case. The Case would
be discussed from the lens of each therapy, thus mentioned.
Case I:
(The Case study has been taken from Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for
Substance Abuse. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No.
34. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment.)
Sandra is a 38-year-old African-American woman who has abused a number of substances,

including cocaine, heroin, alcohol, and marijuana over the past 15 years. She left high school
and was a prostitute for 5 years. Later she found a job as a sales clerk at a home furnishings
store. Sandra had two children in her early twenties, a daughter who is now 15, and a son,
aged 18. Because of her substance abuse problems, they live with other relatives who agreed
to raise them. Sandra has been in treatment repeatedly and has remained substance free for
the last 5 years, with several minor relapses. She has been married for 2 years, to Steve, a
carpenter; he is substance free and supports her attempts to stay away from substances.
Last month she became symptomatic with AIDS. She has been HIV-positive for 5 years but
had not developed any illnesses related to the disease. Sandra has practiced safe sex with her
husband who knew of her HIV status. Recently, after learning from the physician at her
clinic about her HIV symptoms, she began to "shoot up," which led her back into treatment.
Out of fear, she came to the treatment center and asked to see a counselor at the clinic one
day after work. She is worried about her marriage and that her husband will be devastated by
this news. She is afraid she is no longer strong enough to stay away from drugs since
discovering the onset of AIDS. She is also concerned about her children and her job.
Uncertain of how she will keep on living, she is also terrified of dying.
Gestalt Psychology Gestalt-German word meaning “form” or “configuration”.
Although Max Wertheimer could be considered as the founding

father of the Berlin school, his younger colleagues, Kurt Koffka and
Wolfgang Köhler were just as important in its further development.
Gestalt Psychologist’s primary interest was perception they believed
that perceptual experiences depend on the patterns formed by
stimulus and on the organization of experience.
It is a school of psychology founded in the 20th century that provided
the foundation for the modern study of perception. Gestalt theory
emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That
is, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the
parts in isolation.
Gestalt Psychology is focused on the experience of contact that
occurs in the here and now.
School of thought that emphasized the total experience of the

individual and not just parts of the mind or behavior.
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our
perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These principles
or laws determine what we see or make of things or situation.
Law of Proximity: Elements that are closer together will be

perceived as coherent object.
Law of Similarity: Elements that look similar will be perceived as

part of the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square. We
link similar elements together.
Law of Closure: We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we

perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring
gaps in the figure.
Law of Good Continuation: Individuals have the tendency to

continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an
implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous line.
Law of Good Pragnanz: The stimulus will be organized into as

good as figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry,
simplicity, and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square
overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated
shapes. Based on our experiences with perception, we “expect”
certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern
{The German word “Prägnanz” is derived from the verb “prägen,” -
to mint a coin. Hence, by describing the principle of Prägnanz as the
tendency towards the formation of Gestalten which are as regular,
simple, symmetric (“ausgezeichnet”, according to Wertheimer’s
term). “Prägnanz” has often been translated as “goodness”}.
Law of Figure/Ground: We tend to pay attention and perceive

things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as
separate from its ground.
The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler
in which he describes experiments with apes where the apes could
use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems.
INSIGHT LEARNING:In each of these problems, the important

aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of
thinking to create new organization (of material. Kohler referred to

this behavior as insight or discovery learning. Kohler proposed the
view that insight follows from the characteristics of objects under
consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when
an individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him
and reorganizes these elements and comes to a greater
understanding or insight. Learning could occur without
reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or
investigation is necessary.
RELEVANCE OF GESTALT IN LEARNING:

Gestalt is a theory of learning that focuses on the mind’s perspective.
It is useful as a behavioral tool as it enables the teacher to channel the
pupil’s energy into thinking of an item or subject as parts of a whole,
e.g. a car, being metal, paint, wheels etc. By thinking of components
and breaking down a situation it enables for a more psychological
process to take place and over time will broaden a pupil’s mind into
thinking of the sum of the whole rather than just a complete thing of
situation.
GESTALT THERAPY (BY FRITZ PERLS)

Fritz Perls coined the term 'Gestalt therapy' to identify the form of
psychotherapy that he developed with his wife, Laura Perls, in the
1940s and 1950s.
Gestalt theory holds that the analysis of parts can never provide an
understanding of the whole. In a therapeutic setting, this approach
opposes the notion that human beings can be understood entirely
through a rational, mechanistic, scientific process. The proponents of
Gestalt therapy insist that the experiential world of a client can be
understood only through that individual's direct experience and
description. Gestalt therapists seek to help their clients gain
awareness of themselves and the world. Discomfort arises from
leaving elements and experiences of the psyche incomplete--
primarily past relationships and intrapsychic conflicts that are
unresolved, which Perls calls "unfinished business" (Perls, 1969).
According to Gestalt theory
The organism should be seen as a whole (physical behavior is an

 important component, as is a client's mental and emotional life).
Being in the "here and now" (i.e., being aware of present
experience) is of primary importance.How is more important than
why (i.e., causes are not as important as results).The individual's
inner experience is central.
For Gestalt therapists the "power is in the present" (Polster and

Polster, 1973). This means that the "now" is the only place where
awareness, responsibility, and change can occur. Therefore, the
process of therapy is to help the client make contact with the
present moment.
Rather than seeking detailed intellectual analysis, the Gestalt

therapist looks to create a "safe emergency" in the therapeutic
encounter. Perls' invocation to "lose your mind and come to your
senses" implies that a feeling-level, "here and now" experience is the
optimal condition for therapeutic work. This may be accomplished in
a fairly short amount of time by explicitly asking clients to pay
attention (e.g., "What are you aware of now? How does your fear feel
to you?"). The therapist may point out how the client could be
avoiding the present moment through inauthentic "games" or ways of
relating such as "talking about" feelings rather than experiencing
them directly. Clients may be asked to exaggerate certain expressions
(e.g., pounding a fist) or role-play certain internal dialogs (e.g.,
through an empty chair technique). These may all serve the goal of
helping clients move into the immediacy of their experience rather
than remaining distant from it through intellectualization or
substance abuse.
The term contact in Gestalt refers to meeting oneself and what is

other than oneself. Without appropriate contact and contact
boundaries there is no real meeting of the world. Instead, one remains
either engulfed by the world on one hand or, on the other hand,
distant from the world and people.
RESPONSE TO THE CASE STUDY:

The Gestalt therapist begins with Sandra's current experience of the
world, starting with awareness and attention. The therapist may
simply help her become aware of basic sights, sounds, somatic
reactions, feelings, and thoughts as well as what her attention drifts
to. The immediate contact between therapist and client is a
component of the "now" where these sensations are explored
directly. The therapist might notice and ask about her style of eye
contact, or her fidgeting body, or stream of thoughts (e.g., "What is it
like to make eye contact now? What is the sensation in your body at
this moment?").
Sandra may also identify certain issues such as substance abuse,

relationship difficulties, and the threat of death from AIDS that seem
to dominate her life. The therapist might invite her to name and
explore the sensation that the thought of death, for example, brings;
perhaps this involves a sense of a void, or feeling cold and dark, or a
feeling of engulfment. She then may be asked to become these
sensations--for example, the therapist may ask her to be "the void"
and encourage her to speak as if she were that void. This may then
open possibilities for a dialog with the void through acting out the
opposite polarity: separateness and choice. This might involve using

an empty chair technique in which the client would literally move
into the chair of the "void," speak as if she were that, and then move
into an opposite chair and respond in a dialog. A therapist could also
explore her introjection through questions such as, "How is this void
different or the same as from the feeling of alcohol or in relationships
with your children or husband?" She might also use this same
technique to dialog with family members, or certain aspects of
herself. Sandra seems to have a great deal of "unfinished business"
that involves unexpressed feelings (e.g., anger, longing, hurt).
Experimentation with these sensations may begin to free her to
express and meet these feelings more directly. All of this work
encourages Sandra's experimentation with new ways of relating both
during and outside of the session in order to move into the "here and
now" and work toward the resolution of "unfinished business."
Psychoanalysis A theory of personality and method of psychotherapy originated by

Sigmund Freud.
Concept of unconsciousness, thoughts, attitudes, impulses etc that we

are unaware of.
Repressed Unconscious wishes and desires expressed in Dreams,

slips of tongue & physical mannerism.
Method of Free Association.
THE PRE-OEDIPAL STAGE

Freud claimed that all human beings are born with certain instincts,
i.e. with a natural tendency to satisfy their biologically determined
needs for food, shelter and warmth. The satisfaction of these needs is
both practical and a source of pleasure which Freud refers to as
"sexual". Thus, when the infant, sucking at its mother's breast
discovers the pleasure inherent in this activity, the first glimmers of
sexuality are awakened. The child discovers an erotogenic zone
which may be reactivated later in life through thumb sucking or
kissing. Through this intimate interaction with
the mother, upon whom the child is dependent, a sexual drive
emerges. As this drive is separated out from its original function as a
purely biological instinct, it achieves a relative autonomy. During the
early stages of childhood development, other erotogenic zones
emerge. The oral stage, associated with the drive to "incorporate"
objects through the
mouth, is followed by the anal stage during which the anus becomes
an erotogenic zone as the child takes pleasure in defecation. This
pleasure is characterized by Freud as "sadistic" because the child is
understood to be taking delight in expulsion and destruction. The

anal stage is also associated with the desire for retention and
possessive control (as in "granting or withholding" the faeces). The
next stage the child enters is the phallic stage when the sexual drive
is focused on the genitals. (Freud refers to this stage as "phallic"
rather than "genital" because, he claims, only the male organ is
recognized as significant.)
What is happening in this process -- though the stages overlap, and

should not be seen as a strict sequence -- is a gradual organization of
the libidinal drives, but one still centered on the child's own body.
The drives themselves are extremely flexible, in no sense fixed like
biological instinct: their objects are contingent and replaceable, and
one sexual drive can substitute for another. What we can imagine in
the early years of the child's life, then, is not a unified subject
confronting and desiring astable object, but a complex, shifting field
of force in which the subject (the child itself) is caught up and
dispersed, in which it has as yet no center of identity and in which the
boundaries between itself and the external world are indeterminate.
Within this field of libidinal force, objects and part-objects emerge
and disappear again, shift places kaleidoscopically, and prominent
among such objects is the child's body as the play of drives laps
across it. One can speak of this as an 'auto eroticism', within which
Freud sometimes includes the whole of infantile sexuality: the child
takes erotic delight in its own body, but without as yet being able to
view its body as a complete object. Auto-eroticism must thus be
distinguished from what Freud will call 'narcissism', a state in which
one's body or ego as a whole is 'cathected', or taken as an object of
desire.
The child in this state is described by Freud as "anarchic, sadistic,
aggressive, self-involved and remorselessly pleasure-seeking" -
wholly within the grip of the pleasure principle. It is also ungendered.
That is to say, even though it is riddled with sexual drives, it draws
no distinction between the gender categories masculine and feminine.
THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX: GENDERING THE SUBJECT

At the center of Freud's theory of childhood development is the
Oedipus Complex. According to Freud, a boy's close relation to his
mother, as the primary love-object, leads to a desire for complete
union with her. A girl, on the other hand, who is similarly attached to
the mother and thus caught up in a "homosexual" desire, directs her
libido (love, sexual energy broadly construed) toward her father (for
reasons which we'll consider shortly). This produces a triadic
relationship regardless of one's sex, with the parent of the same sex
cast in the role of a rival for the affections of the parent of the
opposite sex. The boy will eventually abandon his incestuous desire
for his mother out of fear of being castrated by his father. (This fear
arises when the boy comes to realize that females are "castrated" and
imagines that this may be his fate if he does not subordinate his
desire for the mother.) Thus, the boy represses his incestuous desire,
adjusts to the reality principle, and waits for the day when he will be
the patriarch. In this way the boy identifies with his father and the
symbolic role of manhood.
The girl's route through the Oedipal stage is far more problematic in
Freud's view. "Realizing" that she is castrated and thus inferior, the
girl turns away from her similarly castrated mother and attempts to
"seduce" her father. When this fails, she returns to the mother and
identifies with her feminine role. However, she still envies the penis
that she will never have; so she unconsciously substitutes a desire to
have her father's baby. (How she goes about giving up this desire is
not made clear. Since she is already "castrated", fear of castration
will not do the job.) Needless to say, Freud's theory shows little
insight into femininity and the experience of women.
His claim that female sexuality is a "dark continent" says as much.
THE UNCONSCIOUS
As we say, the unconscious is that part of the mind that lies outside
the somewhat vague and porous boundaries of consciousness, and is
constructed in part by the repression of that which is too painful to
remain in consciousness. (Not everything in the unconscious is
repressed. However, repression is the ego's primary defense against
disruption.) Freud distinguishes repression from sublimation - the
rechanneling of drives that cannot be given an acceptable outlet. The
unconscious also contains what Freud calls laws of transformation.
These are the principles that govern the process of repression and
sublimation. In general, we can say that the unconscious serves the
theoretical function of making the relation between childhood
experience and adult behavior intelligible.
EGO, ID AND SUPER-EGO

According to Freud, the ego is an aspect of the subject that emerges
from the id - the biological, inherited, unconscious source of sexual
drives, instincts, and irrational impulses. The ego develops out of the
id's interaction with the external world. It is produced from the non-
biological (social and familial) forces brought to bear on one's
biological development and functions as an intermediary between the
demands of the id and the external world. Thus, the ego can be
thought of as a variable aspect of the subject constructed as a system
of beliefs that organize one's dealings with the internal and external
demands of life according to certain laws referred to by Freud as
secondary process. It reconciles the biological, instinctual demands
and drives (both unifying and destructive in nature) of the id
(governed by primary process) with the socially determined
constraints of the super-ego (internalized rules placing limits on the
subject's satisfactions and pleasures) and the demands of reality. The
healthy, mature ego translates the demands of both the id and the
super-ego into terms which allow admission of them without

destruction. Thus, constructive acceptance and transformation of the
demands made by both the id and the superego are techniques of the
ego and essential elements of mental health.
Psychoanalytic therapy involves reliving repressed fantasies and
fears both in feeling and in thought. This process involves a
transference, i.e. a projection of the attitudes and emotions, originally
directed towards the parents, onto the analyst. This is necessary for
successful treatment. Access to these repressed fears is gained often
through dream interpretation, where the manifest content in dreams is
understood as a symbolic expression of the hidden or latent content.
(Internal censorship demands that the wish be transformed, leading to
a disguised or symbolic representation.)
The sources of dream content results from –

- lost memories
- linguistic symbols
- repressed experiences
- "archaic" material inherited but not directly experienced.
Dreams are "guardians of sleep", i.e. wish fulfillments that arise in
response to inner conflicts and tensions whose function is to allow
the subject to continue sleeping. Dream-Work is the production of
dreams during sleep -- the translation of demands arising from the
unconscious into symbolic objects of the preconscious and eventually
the conscious mind of the subject. Dream Interpretation is the
decoding of the symbols (manifest content) and the recovery of their
latent content, i.e. the
unconscious and, hence, hidden tensions and conflicts that give rise
to the dreams in the first place.
LIMITATION OF PSYCHOANALYSIS:
1. Freud's hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable. It is not
clear what would count as evidence sufficient to confirm or refute
theoretical claims.
2. The theory is based on an inadequate conceptualization of the
experience of women.
3. The theory overemphasizes the role of sexuality in human
psychological development and experience.
Humanistic- PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS:

Existential
Existential psychology is based on existential philosophy. Its
philosophical roots can be traced to the works of Søren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), Karl Jaspers (1883-
1969), Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), and Martin Heidegger (1889-

1976).
PSYCHOLOGICAL ROOTS:
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to
prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the work of early
pioneers like Carl Rogers and the philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence
through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy,
personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-
actualization.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY:
Humanistic psychology, often referred to as the "third force" besides

behaviorism and psychoanalysis, is concerned with human potential and
the individual's unique personal experience. Humanistic psychologists
generally do not deny the importance of many principles of behaviorism
and psychoanalysis. They value the awareness of antecedents to
behavior as well as the importance of childhood experiences and
unconscious psychological processes. Humanistic psychologists would
argue, however, that humans are more than the collection of behaviors
or objects of unconscious forces. Therefore, humanistic psychology
often is described as holistic in the sense that it tends to be inclusive and
accepting of various theoretical traditions and therapeutic practices. The
emphasis for many humanistic therapists is the primacy of establishing a
therapeutic relationship that is collaborative, accepting, authentic, and
honors the unique world in which the client lives. The humanistic
approach is also holistic in that it assumes an interrelatedness between
the client's psychological, biological, social, and spiritual dimensions.
Humanistic psychology assumes that people have an innate capacity
toward self-understanding and psychological health.
Some of the key proponents of this approach include Abraham

Maslow, who popularized the concept of "self-actualization," Carl
Rogers, who formulated person-centered therapy, and Fritz
Perls, whose Gestalt therapy focused on the wholeness of an
individual's experience at any given moment. Some of the essential
characteristics of humanistic therapy are
Empathic understanding of the client's frame of reference and

 subjective experience
Respect for the client's cultural values and freedom to
 exercise choice
Exploration of problems through an authentic and
collaborative approach to helping the client develop insight,
courage, and responsibility

Exploration of goals and expectations, including articulation
of what the client wants to accomplish and hopes to gain from
 treatment
Clarification of the helping role by defining the therapist's
 role but respecting the self determination of the client
Assessment and enhancement of client motivation both
 collaboratively and authentically
Negotiation of a contract by formally or informally asking,
 "Where do we go from here?"
Demonstration of authenticity by setting a tone of genuine,
authentic encounter
HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO THE CASE STUDY:
A client-centered therapist would engage in reflective listening,

accepting the client and her past, and clarifying her current situation
and feelings. As Sandra developed trust in the therapist, he would
begin to emphasize her positive characteristics and her potential to
make meaningful choices to become the person she wants to (and
can) become. Another goal of therapy would be to help her develop
sufficient insight so that she can make choices that reflect more
closely the values and principles to which she aspires. For example,
she may want to tell her husband about her symptoms and try to
strengthen her marriage.
If Sandra began to feel guilt about her past as a prostitute, the

therapist would demonstrate appreciation of her struggle to accept
that aspect of herself, highlighting the fact that she did eventually
choose to leave it. He may note that she did the best she could at that
time and underscore her current commitment to choose a better life.
Sandra would be supported and accepted, not criticized. She would
be encouraged to express her fear of death and the effect this fear has
on her. This might be the first time in her life that someone has been
unconditionally accepting of her or focused on her strengths rather
than her failings. She apparently has the ability to solve problems,
which is reflected by her return to therapy and her insight about
needing help. By being understood and accepted, her self-esteem and
sense of hope would increase and her shame would decrease. She
would feel supported in making critical choices in her life and more
confident to resume her recovery.
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
The existential approach to therapy emphasizes the following six

propositions:
All persons have the capacity for self-awareness.As free beings,

everyone must accept the responsibility that comes with freedom.
Each person has a unique identity that can only be known through
relationships with others.Each person must continually recreate
himself. The meaning of life and of existence is never fixed; rather,
it constantly changes.Anxiety is part of the human condition.Death
is a basic human condition that gives significance to life.
The core question addressed in existential therapy is "How do I

exist?" in the face of uncertainty, conflict, or death. An individual
achieves authenticity through courage and is thus able to define and
discover his own meaning in the present and the future. There are
important choices to be made (e.g., to have true freedom and to take
responsibility for one's life, one must face uncertainty and give up a
false sense of security).
A core characteristic of the existential view is that an individual is a

"being in the world" who has biological, social, and psychological
needs. Being in the world involves the physical world, the world of
relationships with others, and one's own relationship to self (May and
Yalom, 1995, p. 265). The "authentic" individual values
symbolization, imagination, and judgment and is able to use these
tools to continually create personal meaning.
Existential therapy focuses on specific concerns rooted in the

individual's existence. The contemporary existential psychotherapist,
Irvin Yalom, identifies these concerns as death, isolation, freedom,
and emptiness. Existential therapy focuses on the anxiety that occurs
when a client confronts the conflict inherent in life. The role of the
therapist is to help the client focus on personal responsibility for
making decisions, and the therapist may integrate some humanistic
approaches and techniques. Yalom, for example, perceives the
therapist as a "fellow traveler" through life, and he uses empathy and
support to elicit insight and choices. He strongly believes that
because people exist in the presence of others, the relational context
of group therapy is an effective approach (Yalom, 1980).
EXISTENTIAL APPROACH TO THE CASE STUDY:
An existential therapist may help Sandra understand that her

diagnosis of AIDS forces her to confront the possibility of death and,
consequently, face the responsibilities thrust upon her by life. The
therapist could accomplish this by helping her understand that her
life (like everyone else's) is finite. Therefore, she is challenged to
forge meaning from her life and make difficult decisions about her
relationships and ways of dealing (or not dealing) with choices about
substance abuse. The focus in her therapy would be on choosing the

life she wants to live. The therapist would assist her in dealing
constructively with anxiety so that she can find meaning in the rest of
her life. This could be accomplished by engaging her in the struggle
to assume authorship of her choices. She may be encouraged to "play
out" scenarios of choices she faces and acknowledge the
accompanying fears and anxieties. She might be asked, "What keeps
you from sharing your fears with your husband, and accepting the
possibility of his support?" or "Imagine yourself expressing your love
for your children and regret for the mistakes you have made." Thus,
the therapist would help her understand that making difficult choices
in the face of death is actually a way to find integrity, wholeness, and
meaning.
The teachings of the existential therapist, Yalom, can be a useful

resource in dealing with issues related to death, since he has worked
with terminally ill cancer patients for many years, helping them to
use their crisis and their danger as an opportunity for change (Yalom,
1998). Yalom explains that although death is a primary source of
anxiety for a client, incorporating death into life can enrich life and
allow one to live more purposefully.
Transpersonal: Transpersonal psychology emerged as a "fourth force" in

psychology in the late 1960s and has strong roots in humanistic and
existential psychologies, Jungian analysis, the East-West dialog, and
ancient wisdom traditions. Transpersonal therapy may be thought of
as a bridge between psychological and spiritual practice.
A transpersonal approach emphasizes development of the individual

beyond, but including, the ego. It acknowledges the human spiritual
quest and recognizes the human striving for unity, ultimate truth, and
profound freedom. It cultivates intuitive ways of knowing that
complement rational and sensory modes. This approach also
recognizes the potential for growth inherent in "peak" experiences
and other shifts in consciousness. Although grounded in
psychological theory, transpersonal practitioners also tend to
incorporate perspectives from ancient wisdom traditions.
The practice of transpersonal therapy is defined more by its

orientation and scope rather than by a particular set of techniques or
methods (Boorstein, 1980). Wittine suggests five postulates for a
transpersonal psychotherapy (Wittine, 1989):
Transpersonal psychotherapy is an approach to healing and growth

that recognizes the centrality of the self in the therapeutic process.
Transpersonal psychotherapy values wholeness of being and self-
realization on all levels of the spectrum of identity (i.e., egoic,
existential, transpersonal).
Transpersonal psychotherapy is a process of awakening from a

limited personal identity to expanded universal knowledge of self.
Transpersonal psychotherapy makes use of the healing restorative
nature of subjective awareness and intuition in the process of
awakening. In transpersonal psychotherapy, the therapeutic
relationship is a vehicle for the process of awakening in both client
and therapist.
Integrating insights and practices in everyday life is the goal of every

therapy. Bringing the transpersonal dimension to the forefront may
involve the following:
Exploration of "inner voices" including those of a higher self that
 provides guidance for growth of the individual (Rowan, 1993)
 Refinement of intuition or nonrational knowing
Practice of creativity in "formal" (art) or informal
 (personal relationships) encounters
Meditation
Loving service
Cultivation of mindfulness
Use of dreams and imagery
These techniques may be taught and supported explicitly in the

therapy session. At times, a therapist may directly cultivate shifts in
consciousness (e.g., through meditation [Weil, 1972], or imaginal
work [Johnson, 1987]), providing immediate insight and inspiration
that may not be available through more conventional means (Hart,
1998). This may provide clients with a skill they can practice on their
own; initiating such activity represents a potential for brief
intervention.
Transpersonal therapy recognizes the need for basic psychological
development to be integrated with spiritual growth (Nelson, 1994).
Without such integration there is danger of "spiritual bypassing,"
where issues of basic psychological functioning are avoided in the
name of spiritual development. In other words, the basic
psychological work should be undertaken first.
RESPONSE TO THE CASE STUDY:
As the existentialists remind us, there is nothing like death to rivet

our attention. A glimpse of death--for example, seeing the aftermath
of a serious car crash--reminds the witness of how valuable life is,
bringing up other issues as well. Sandra is now confronted with death
due to AIDS. This opportunity to face death and life squarely
provides a chance to reconsider and reprioritize her life. In fact, it
could be argued that the best catalyst to brief therapy may be a death
sentence precisely because it has the potential to wake up an

individual. In many respects, helping the client wake from habitual,
mechanical routines that are often based on ego protection and move
toward an appreciation that the individual is not bound to or defined
by a limited ego, is the goal of transpersonal therapy. This can be
seen as a transformation of identity.
Many inspiring instances of people facing death, including death

through AIDS, have shown that emergent spirituality can change the
quality and direction of existence very quickly. For treatment, the
basic sharing of these experiences with a group of others in a similar
predicament often quickly moves the client beyond isolation and a
sense of self-separateness to connect intimately with others who
understand her situation. This community may not only bring
comfort and support but also a deep sense of communion with
humanity. In this instance, breaking through the shell of isolation
may enable Sandra to begin to make new connections with her family
and with herself. A sense of interconnection, a central postulate and
experience in the wisdom traditions, may replace her perceived
isolation.
Sandra may use this opportunity of facing possible death to begin to

encounter and let go of such feelings as guilt, shame, disappointment,
and anger that have kept her life less satisfying than it could be.
Accessing the imaginal through art or dreams, for example, can
provide a clear and symbolic expression of unresolved issues. The
use of rituals or rites-of-passage inspired by the wisdom traditions
can provide some catalyst for shifting her consciousness through
forgiveness and release.
The therapist may engage in a wide variety of methods (e.g.,

imagery, art, or dream work, meditation, rituals), but the heart of the
work is in the simple and humane spirituality that is embodied by the
therapist's loving presence along with the therapist's openness to
explore the full range of human experience directly. For Sandra, this
experience may be seen as an opportunity for practicing love and
forgiveness, moving out from behind rigid self-separateness, facing
fears, and transforming her self-definition.
Cognitive Science is always influenced by the technology that surrounds it, and
revolution: psychology is no exception. Thus it is no surprise that beginning in
the 1960s, growing numbers of psychologists began to think about
the brain and about human behavior in terms of the computer, which
was being developed and becoming publicly available at that time.
Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies mental

processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment.
These actions correspond well to the processes that computers
perform. Although cognitive psychology began in earnest in the
1960s, earlier psychologists had also taken a cognitive orientation.

Some of the important contributors to cognitive psychology include
the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who
studied the ability of people to remember lists of words under
different conditions, and the English psychologist Sir Frederic
Bartlett (1886–1969), who studied the cognitive and social processes
of remembering. Bartlett created short stories that were in some ways
logical but also contained some very unusual and unexpected events.
Bartlett discovered that people found it very difficult to recall the
stories exactly, even after being allowed to study them repeatedly,
and he hypothesized that the stories were difficult to remember
because they did not fit the participants’ expectations about how
stories should go. The idea that our memory is influenced by what we
already know was also a major idea behind the cognitive-
developmental stage model of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
(1896–1980). Other important cognitive psychologists include
Donald E. Broadbent (1926–1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934–),
George Miller (1920–), Eleanor Rosch (1938–), and Amos
Tversky (1937–1996).
Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential today, and it

has guided research in such varied fields as language, problem
solving, memory, intelligence, education, human development, social
psychology, and psychotherapy. The cognitive revolution has been
given even more life over the past decade as the result of recent
advances in our ability to see the brain in action using neuroimaging
techniques. Neuroimaging is the use of various techniques to provide
pictures of the structure and function of the living brain.
COGNITIVE REVOLUTION:
The cognitive revolution in psychology was a counter-revolution.
The first revolution occurred much earlier when a group of
experimental psychologists, influenced by Pavlov and other
physiologists, proposed to redefine psychology as the science of
behavior. Since the beginning of experimental psychology in the
nineteenth century, there had been interest in the study of higher
mental processes. Cognitive Revolution, as now it is termed, during
the time (in the late 1950s) was a discontinuous process that rejected
Behaviorism and accepted the model of Mind based on the computer.
This marked the beginning of the counter-revolution called Cognitive
revolution, and the view of mental processes that it spawned is called
‘cognitive Psychology’.
The reference to the discontinuous process here means (in a way) the
minds that were independently working without knowing that they
were building towards Cognitive Psychology. During this time,

experimental psychologists were rethinking the definition of
psychology, other important developments were occurring elsewhere.
Norbert Wiener’s cybernetics was gaining popularity, Marvin
Minsky and John McCarthy were inventing artificial intelligence, and
Alan Newell and Herb Simon were using computers to simulate
cognitive processes. Finally, Chomsky was single-handedly
redefining linguistics.
COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH AND THE

INFORMATION PROCESSING:
Approach during World War II, new concepts and theories were
developed about signal processing and communication, and these
ideas had a profound impact on psychologists active during the war
years. One important work was Shannon’s 1948 paper
aboutInformation Theory.
It proposed that information was communicated by sending a signal
through a sequence of stages or transformations. This suggested
thathuman perception and memory might be conceptualized in a
similar way: sensory information enters the receptors, and then is fed
into perceptual analyzers, whose outputs in turn are input to memory
systems. This was the start of the ‘information processing’
approach—the idea that cognition could be under-stood as a flow of
information within the organism, an idea that continues to dominate
cognitive psychology. Perhaps the first major theoretical effort in
information processing psychology was Donald
Broadbent’sPerception and Communication (Broadbent1958).
According to Broadbent’s model, information output from the
perceptual system encountered a filter, which passed only
information to which people were attending. Although this notion of
an all-or-none filter would prove too strong (Treisman, 1960) it
offered a mechanistic account of selective attention, a concept that
had been banished during behaviorism. Information that passed
Broadbent’s filter then moved on to a ‘limited capacity decision
channel,’ a system that has some of the properties of short-term
memory, and from there on to long-term memory. This last part of
Broadbent’s model—the transfer of information from short- to long-
term memory—became the salient point of the dual-memory models
developed in the1970s.Another aspect of Information theory that
attracted psychologist’s interest was a quantitative measure of
information in terms of ‘bits’.
THE COMPUTER MODELING APPROACH

Technical developments during World War II also led to the
development of digital computers. Questions soon arose about the
comparability of computer and human intelligence (Turing 1950). By
1957, Alan Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herb Simon had designed a
computer program that could solve difficult logic problems, a
domain previously thought to be the unique province of humans.

This work would also help establish the field of artificial intelligence.
THE GENERATIVE LINGUISTICS APPROACH

A third external influence that leads to the rise of modern cognitive
psychology was the development of generative grammar in
linguistics by Noam Chomsky.
THE APPROACH INTRINSIC TO PSYCHOLOGY:

At least one source of modern cognitive psychology came from
within the field. This approach had its roots in Gestalt psychology,
and maintained its focus on the higher mental processes. A signal
event in this tradition was the 1956 book ‘A Study of Thinking’, by
Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (Bruner et al. 1956). The work
investigated how people learn new concepts and categories, and it
emphasized strategies of learning rather than just associative
relations. The proposals fit perfectly with the information-processing
approach—indeed, they were information processing proposals—and
offered still another reason to break from behaviorism. This likened
mind to a computer, and emphasized the representations and
processes needed to give rise to activities ranging from pattern
recognition, attention, categorization, memory, reasoning, decision
making, problem solving, and language.
THE NEW PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Beginning in the early 1960s there was great interest in determining
the psychological reality of Chomsky’s theories of language (these
theories had been formulated with ideal listeners and speakers in
mind). Some of these linguistically inspired experiments presented
sentences in perception and memory paradigms, and showed that
sentences deemed more syntactically complex by transformational
grammar were harder to perceive or store (Miller 1962). Subtler
experiments tried to show that syntactic units, like phrases,
functioned as units in perception, STM, and LTM (Fodor et al.
(1974) is the classic review). While many of these results are no
longer seen as critical, this research effort created a new subfield of
cognitive psychology, a psycholinguistics that demanded
sophistication in modern linguistic theory. As psychologists became
aware of related developments in linguistics and artificial
intelligence, so researchers in the latter disciplines become aware of
pertinent work in psychology. Thus, evolved the interdisciplinary
movement called ‘cognitive science’. In addition to psychology, AI,
and linguistics, the fields of cultural anthropology and philosophy of
mind also became involved. The movement eventuated in numerous
interdisciplinary collaborations (e.g., Rumelhart et al. 1986), as well
as in individual psychologists
becoming more interdisciplinary.
Multiculturalism Diversity is the central concern of almost all social, political

and cultural theorists. The common argument of them is that
thinking, perception, action and adjudication differs from culture to
culture and society to society.
Cultural diversity creates a climate in which different culture can
engage in a mutually beneficial dialogue. Different artistic,
literary, musical, moral and other traditions interrogate, challenge
and probe each other, borrow and experiment with each other’s
idea and often throw up wholly new ideas and sensibilities that none
of them could have generated of their own.
Cultural Pluralism, Cultural Diversity and Multiculturalism are the
terms very commonly used to describe societies of different cultures,
religions, languages and races. In our day to day life these words are
used interchangeably. The presence of many and different
communities are common in these terms plural, diverse and
multiculturalism.
The term ‘multiculturalism’ has become very popular in the last few
decades and, as often happens to popular words, it has ended up
expressing quite different meanings. In fact, multicultural discussions
refer to a wide variety of situations – integration policies and welfare
state regimes, the legal and political accommodation of cultural
diversity, the management of immigration and national borders, the
recognition and respect of cultural/religious difference,
living with ‘difference’ in daily contexts, the ideological
representation of identities, cultures and ‘the good society’, to name
only a few. These also involve different disciplines – philosophy,
sociology, anthropology, social psychology, political science,
pedagogy, and cultural and post-colonial studies – with their own
distinct questions, perspectives and tool-kits.
Multiculturalism is a body of thought in political philosophy about

the proper way to respond to cultural diversity.
Multiculturalism refers to situations in which people who hold
‘different’ habits, customs, traditions, languages and/or religions live
alongside each other in the same social space, willing to maintain
relevant aspects of their own difference and to have it publicly
recognized. Usually the term involves a positive evaluation of
cultural diversity and the institutional commitment to its
preservation. Multiculturalism is closely associated with ‘identity
politics’, ‘the politics of difference’ and ‘the politics of recognition’,
all of which consider proper recognition of cultural diversity a
necessary step towards revaluing disrespected identities
and changing dominant pat-terns of representation and
communication that marginalize certain groups (Song, 2010).
MULTICULTURALISM IN INDIA
The management of cultural diversity within state has become an
increasingly prominent issue in recent times not only in developed
countries but also in developing countries like India. Diversity has
become the defining characteristic of our social and cultural worlds.
We are now constantly confronted with a multitude of ways in which
we can define ourselves, and categorize others. In fact, in itself India
isa multi-ethnic andmulti lingual society. The 2001census of India
reports 122 languages and 234 mother tongues.
Most of the major religions of the world such as Hinduism and

Buddhism, originated in this land while others, such as Christianity
and Islam, though came from outside has remained and grown in it
for a thousand years and more. This great profusion of linguistic,
religious and other customs and usages was associated with a
multitude of castes, communities and tribes each of which was bearer
of a particular sub-culture or even sub-sub-culture which is
transmitted from generation to generation
(ONLY FOR REFERENCE)
MULTICULTURALISM IN COUNSELING:
Psychology is at a "pivotal period" in which the rules are being
changed in ways that we are only beginning to appreciate (Mahoney
& Pattetson, 1992). One clear indication that multiculturalism is
introducing a permanent paradigm shift and not merely a passing fad
in counselling is the strength of the multicultural controversies in the
field of counselling. By "paradigm shift" I refer to changes in the
underlying assumptions about psychology moving from a
monocultural to a multicultural basis with profound implications for
how psychology is applied in direct service. All change is painful and
the moreprofound the change the more the pain. As the counselling
profession responds to the requests and demands of many culturally
different special interest groups, the rules have begun to change,
causing controversy and confusion. Even when we recognize that the
old rules are not working, it is not easy to replace them with new
culturally different rules. The old rules of psychology focused on
dissonance reduction. The new rules focus on tolerance of ambiguity.
Smith, Harre, and VanLangenhove (1995) contrast the new with the
old paradigms. The new paradigms emphasize the following
qualities: (a) under-standing and description more than just
measuring, (b) predicting consequences more than causation, (c)
social significance more than statistical significance, (d) language
and discourse more than numerical reductionism, (e) holistic
perspectives more than atomistic trivia, (f) complex interacting

particulars more than simplistic universals, and (g) subjectively
derived meaning more than objectively imposed meaning.
MULTICULTURALISM IN MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES
https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/Foundations-of-Multicultural-
Psychology-Intro-Sample.pdf
WHEN TO USE BRIEF HUMANISTIC

AND EXISTENTIAL THERAPIES
These approaches can be useful at all
stages of recovery in creating a foundation
of respect for clients and mutual
acceptance of the significance of their
experiences. There are, however, some
therapeutic moments that lend themselves
more readily to one or more specific
approaches. The details of the specific
approaches are laid out later in this
chapter. Client-centered therapy, for
example, can be used immediately to
establish rapport and to clarify issues
throughout the session. Existential therapy
may be used most effectively when a client
is able to access emotional experiences or
when obstacles must be overcome to
facilitate a client's entry into or
continuation of recovery (e.g., to get
someone who insists on remaining helpless
to accept responsibility). Narrative therapy
may be used to help the client
conceptualize treatment as an opportunity
to assume authorship and begin a "new
chapter" in life. Gestalt approaches can
also be used throughout therapy to
facilitate a genuine encounter with the
therapist and the client's own experience.
Transpersonal therapy can enhance
spiritual development by focusing on the
intangible aspects of human experience MEASUREMENT AND

and awareness of unrealized spiritual PSYCHOPHYSICS
capacity. These approaches increase self- Time was also Wundt’s royal road towards
awareness, which promotes self-esteem a scientific model of the human mind. He
and allows for more client responsibility, relied on the skills of clock makers to
thus giving the client a sense of control construct the delicate instruments his
and the opportunity to make choices. All methods demanded. Matthäus Hipp’s
of these approaches can be used to support chronoscope (1840) for example, an
the goals of therapy for substance abuse instrument that often featured in
disorders. photographs of Wundt’s laboratory, was
theoretically capable of recording intervals
of 1/1000th of a second. The Leipzig
FOUR FOUNDING PATHS OF group used the chronoscope to measure
ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY: ‘reaction time’, the time it took for a
subject to respond to a stimulus.
WUNDT
INTROSPECTION
Wilhelm Wundt (1832 –1920), the
physiologist, psychologist, and Wundt went on to develop another
philosopher, is generally acknowledged as procedure: introspection. This technique
the founder of experimental psychology, involved the perception of asensory event
having established the first laboratory and then reporting on the
specifically devoted to a systematic phenomenological experience of theevent.
program of research in psychology. The This proceduresounds simple. However in
tributes of his contemporizes, his honors practiceit was extremely tricky to get right.
and obituaries indicate that Wundt was Firstly, of course, there were large
held in high esteem at that time. variations in reaction times between
subjects. Perceiving a sensory event and
Wundt’s innovation was the attempt to then reporting on the phenomenological
project the experimental rigor of experience of the event were not
physiology into the domain of inner straightforward matters. Experimental
experience by supplementing these subjects had to be knowledgeable about
experiments with a purely psychological the purpose of the experiment and adopt
set of procedures. These procedures the right ‘mental set’ to perceive stimuli
constituted Wundt’s well-known method correctly. They effectively had to know
of ‘Selbstbeobachtung’, i.e., how to produce the kind of data Wundt
“introspection” or, better, “self- wanted. As both experimenter and subject
observation.” had to be experts on experimental
Wundt studied with Helmholtz and protocol, their roles were therefore
Bunsen, both famous. Many of Wundt’s interchangeable. As a result, only a few
students became prominent too: experimenter-subjects needed to be trained
G. Stanley Hall in the art of introspection, because the aim
Cattell was to discover the workings of the
Kraepelin generalized human mind that everyone
Munsterberg was assumed to share. According to
Kulpe Wundt, introspection was not about
Titchener ruminating on one’s own feelings or
emotions, in the manner of a poet or
philosopher. On the contrary, introspection
was a highly controlled process — a
systematic method used to study the mind
by breaking up
conscious awareness into basic structures systems: the higher system was governed
of thoughts, images and sensations. by the laws of apperception; the lower
In practice, introspective reports tended to system by the laws of association. The
consist of simple judgments of the size, higher processes presupposed the lower
intensity and duration of physical stimuli, ones but they were not determined by
occasionally supplemented by judgments them. A complete psychology must
of the simultaneity and succession of therefore embrace both quantitative and
stimuli. Wundt’s ambition to construct a qualitative methods.
theory of the human mind began with this
simple technique of ‘mental chronometry’. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE USA
While Wundt embarked on what would
PERCEPTION AND APPERCEPTION eventually become ten volumes of
Wundt knew that experimental methods ‘Völkerpsychologie’, his students returned
were only useful for investigating the most home to launch scientific psychology in
elementary psychological processes. In his America. The first American experimental
theory, he distinguished between psychology research laboratory was
perceptions on the one hand, and what he established by G. Stanley Hall at Johns
called apperception on the other. Stimuli Hopkins University in 1883. Four years
outside awareness are merely perceived, he later, James McKeen Cattell founded one
said, whereas stimuli receiving attention at the University of Pennsylvania. They
are apperceived. Apperception was closely followed Wundt’s practice of
therefore affected by ‘higher level’ stocking their laboratories with
psychological processes such as motives, impressive-looking ‘brass instruments’.
innate tendencies, memory andso on. By 1913 there were ten times as many
Higher mental processes such as emotion psychological laboratories in the USA as
and language were not readily amenable to there were across the whole of Europe.
experimental investigation and could not
be reliably studied using introspection and FREUD
mental chronometry.
Psychodynamic psychology is an approach
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY to understanding human behavior that
focuses on the role of unconscious
Given the problems of investigating thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud
apperception, Wundt argued that there developed his theories about behavior
must therefore be an alternative to through extensive analysis of the patients
experimental psychology - a way to that he treated in his private clinical
investigate social, cultural and historical practice. Freud believed that many of the
phenomena beyond the confines of the problems that his patients experienced,
laboratory. This would be a kind of including anxiety, depression, and sexual
social psychology based on the historical dysfunction, were the result of the effects
analysis of human cultural products, of painful childhood experiences that the
especially language, myth and person could no longer remember. Freud’s
customs. Experimental psychology ideas were extended by other
rightlystudied the lower perceptual psychologists whom he influenced,
processes of sensation and perception. But including Carl Jung (1875–1961), Alfred
cultural psychology — or what Adler (1870–1937), Karen Horney (1855–
Wundt called ‘völkerpsychologie’ — 1952), and Erik Erikson (1902–1994).
examined the higher processes of These and others who follow the
thinking, emotion and other products of psychodynamic approach believe that it is
collective activity. Two different laws, possible to help the patient if the
Wundt explained, governed the two unconscious drives can be remembered,
particularly through a deep and thorough from the anxiety of seeing

exploration of the person’s early sexual ourselves as deficient. This is a
experiences and current sexual desires. common defense mechanism
These explorations are revealed through because of the importance placed
talk therapy and dream analysis, in a on giving good reasons for things.
process called psychoanalysis. However, this is not rational, it is
The first of the modern personality rationalizing. Being rational means
theories was developed by Sigmund Freud being objective. In rationalization,
and is known as psychoanalytictheory. The our mind protects us with a reason
psychiatric practice of this theory is called that only sounds good; it is not
psychoanalysis. Freud’s ideas were
objective, it just seems to be.
plentiful, profound, and often
controversial. His theory about personality
has had tremendous influence on societies PROJECTION: In this case,
around the world through many different when we have some thoughts or
disciplines. Not only psychology has been feelings that we consider to be
influenced and in formed by the ideas of wrong or upsetting, we project
Freud, but also literature, art, philosophy, them onto other people instead of
cultural studies, film theory, and many on our-selves. If I believe that a
other academic subjects. Freud’s theory certain attitude or feeling that I
represents one of the major intellectual have is terribly wrong, I will claim
ideas of the modern world. that others have it. A person who
wants to use illegal drugs but who
DEFENSE MECHANISM: believes that it would make him a
Psychoanalytic theory suggests that there horrible person might expect
are other ways in which our unconscious everyone else to want to use illegal
protects us besides by repression. These drugs. This defense mechanism
protective devices of the unconscious are deflects the anxiety away from us
known as defense mechanisms. and onto others. Many of the
predictions that a person makes
RATIONALIZATION: Sometimes our about someone else are, in fact,
unconscious makes up a good-sounding true about the person making the
reason to explain something we don’t like. prediction. Be careful what you say
If we fail a test, we blame it on others. If about others, it might be true about
our favorite candidate doesn’t win the you! If a man says that he believes
election, we say that it’s for the best people lie on their resumes,
anyway. If we don’t complete an perhaps it’s an indication that he
assignment, we think the teacher was has an inclination to lie on his
unfair to have given the assignment. “Sour resume. Is he simply being
grapes” is another example—if we don’t objective? Or is he saying people
get something we want, we find something lie because his unconscious knows
wrong with it and convince ourselves he would act that way? That would
we’re better off without it. Rationalizing be projection.
protects us
SUBLIMATION: We sublimate if
we redirect or re-channel our
undesirable emotions and thoughts
into a socially acceptable activity. protests too much. If a man

If I am full of rage and horrible believes that being gay is a horrible
thoughts, I might vigorously wash thing yet feels attracted to other
my car. Many people sublimate by men, he might express a deep
pouring their emotions into works hatred of gays and attempt to harm
of art. The famous painter Vincent them. In reaction formation, a
van Gogh is the example that is person’s unconscious takes on the
most often given. His mental and beliefs that are opposite of the true
emotional distress seems evident in desires, those repressed in the
the vivid colors, thick paint, and unconscious. This protects the
forceful brushstrokes of his conscious part of the mind from
paintings. We can imagine van what the unconscious considers to
Gogh’s moods merely by looking be awful.
at his paintings. Many famous
com-posers and poets also are good DISPLACEMENT: Freud
examples of this defense suggested this defense mechanism
mechanism. Their mental anguish to explain how a per-son’s
is redirected into wonderful works unconscious wishes could appear
of art. There is a long list of in dreams but in disguise. A
composers and poets who suffered woman who is angry with her
from depression and bipolar brother Tom might dream that she
disorder. That is a tragedy, but one harms a noisy tomcat. Her
that provided us with a world of conscious will not be aware of the
music and literature. Through connection between the names. Her
sublimation, unpleasant mental anger is displaced onto a symbol of
energy is redirected into acceptable her brother. This defense
work. mechanism is often used to explain
behaviors outside of dreams; for
REACTION FORMATION: instance, when a person’s
Sometimes people’s mental and displeasure is directed toward
emotional energy is so threatening some object other than the source
that they adopt the reverse—the of the displeasure (for example, if
opposite—of what they really an employee displaces his anger
want. A person who believes that toward his boss onto his wife, a
drinking alcohol is a terrible sin yet subordinate, or his dog).
who has a desire to drink alcohol
might be protected by reaction DENIAL: This defense
formation. In this case, the per- mechanism is a primitive form of
son’s unconscious adopts a hatred repression. In this instance, a
of alcohol. The person might join person simply denies things that
groups that protest alcohol use and produce anxiety. The term is often
might attempt to pass laws against used today in referring to people
drinking alcohol. She becomes who have obvious problems with
vociferous, wildly critical of alcohol, drugs, or relationships but
alcohol. We might say, refuse to accept that those
paraphrasing Shakespeare, that she problems exist.
REGRESSION: Under conditions of

severe trauma or stress, a person might
revert to developmentally earlier forms of
behavior and thinking. This is known as
regression. A person who is under
significant stress, for example, might begin
sucking his or her thumb. Freudian theory
argues that regression provides a person
with feelings of security and calm when
under threatening conditions. Defense
mechanisms protect us from anxiety and
threats. In that sense, they are useful and
good. However, they can go too far and
take us into abnormality. When defense
mechanisms become extreme, they cause
more problems than they solve. A person THE ID: Latin for the term “it,” this
might then develop symptoms of mental division of the mind includes our basic
disturbance. Freud proposed a clinical instincts, inborn dispositions, and
therapy to deal with those instances, as animalistic urges. Freud said that the id
noted above, a therapy known as is totally unconscious, that we are
psychoanalysis. unaware of its workings. The id is not
rational; it imagines, dreams, and
invents things to get us what we want.
PERSONALITY STRUCTURES Freud said that the id operates
Freud suggested an analogy about the according to the pleasure principle—it
mind. He said that the mind is like an aims toward pleasurable things and
iceberg in the ocean, floating 10% above away from painful things. The id aims
the water and 90% below. The to satisfy our biological urges and
unconscious, Freud proposed, makes up drives. It includes feelings of hunger,
the vast majority of our mind. In Freud’s
thirst, sex, and other natural body
view, only about 10% of our behaviors are
caused by conscious awareness—about desires aimed at deriving pleasure.
90% are produced by unconscious factors.
According to psychoanalytic theory, most THE EGO: Greek and Latin for “I,”
of what controls our behaviors, thoughts, this personality structure
and feelings is unknown to our aware
minds. Normally, the unconscious guides
us. Freud said that the mind could be
divided into three abstract categories.
These are the id, the ego, and the superego.
Although these are known as structures, do
not take the term literally.
begins developing in childhood and superego is satisfied in making the person

can be interpreted as the “self.” The feel proud and not overwhelmed by guilt.
ego is partly conscious and partly If the id is too strong, a person will be
unconscious. The ego operates rude, overbearing, selfish, and animalistic.
according to the reality principle; that If the superego is too strong, a person is
is, it attempts to help the id get what it constantly worried, nervous, and full of
guilt and anxiety and is always repressing
wants by judging the difference
the id’s desires. An overly strong id makes
between real and imaginary. If a one a psychopath, lacking a conscience, or
person is hungry, the id might begin to an ogre, selfishly meeting one’s needs
imagine food and even dream about without concern for others. An overly
food. (The id is not rational.) The ego, strong superego, on the other hand, makes
however, will try to determine how to one a worrier, a neurotic, so overwhelmed
get some real food. The ego helps a by guilt that it is difficult to get
person satisfy needs through reality. satisfaction. Sometimes it is said that the
ego is the mediator between the id and the
THE SUPEREGO: This term means superego, but this is not what Freud said.
“above the ego,” and includes the The ego does not help to find compromise;
the ego helps the id to satisfy its desires by
moral ideas that a person learns within
focusing on what is real.
the family and society. The superego
gives people feelings of pride when
they do something correct (the ego THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
ideal) and feelings of guilt when they Freud’s psychosexual stages are as
do something, they consider to be follows:
morally wrong (the conscience). The ORAL: The first stage in Freud’s theory
superego, like the ego, is partly covers babies up to about the age of one
conscious and partly unconscious. The and a half years. The driving force
superego is a child’s moral barometer, during this stage is interest and pleasure
and it creates feelings of pride and in activities involving the mouth (hence
guilt according to the beliefs that have the term oral), such as sucking and
been learned within the family and the biting. Adult oral personality traits that
culture. derive from the oral stage include
Freud theorized that healthy personality anything to do with the mouth, such as
development requires a balance between smoking, overeating, or biting the nails,
the id and the superego. These two and anything that is babylike, such as
divisions of the mind are naturally at being naïve (“swallowing” anything you
conflict with one another: The id attempts are told) or being dependent on others.
to satisfy animal, biological urges, while
the super ego preaches patience and ANAL: This stage centers on toilet
restraint. The struggle between these two training, beginning around the age of
is an example of intrapsychic conflict— 18 months or two years and extending
conflict within the mind. According to up to preschool, about age three. The
psychoanalytic theory, defense term anal, of course, refers to the
mechanisms are automatic (unconscious) anus, the rear end (the opposite end of
reactions to the fear that the id’s desires oral), and one of the jokes in
will overwhelm the ego. Freud believed psychology is that you can’t spell
that a healthy personality was one in which
analysis without anal.
the id’s demands are met but also the
This joke makes light of the fact that seen when preschool girls develop a
Freud believed this stage to be crucial deep fondness for horses, unicorns,
in planting the seeds for a number of and other strong, masculine things or
adult personality traits. In the anal long, pointed objects. Freud proposed
stage the child is being toilet trained an unconscious drama during this stage
and is learning to hold in and to let out that he called his most important idea.
at appropriate times. Therefore, Freud It is called the Oedipus complex
proposed that personality traits related (some-times referred to as the Oedipal
to either holding in or letting out were conflict). This unconscious process is
formed during the anal stage. The named after the Greek story of
following traits are known as anal- Oedipus, the man who was raised by
retentive (finding pleasure from foster parents and grew up to
holding in): neatness, orderliness, unwittingly kill his biological father
punctuality, cleanliness, compulsive- and marry his biological mother. Freud
ness, perfectionism, and stinginess. said that a similar drama occurs in the
The following are called anal- unconscious minds of preschool boys,
expulsive (finding pleasure from who favor their mothers and fear their
letting out): being undisciplined, fathers (castration anxiety). The child
messy, disorderly, late, impulsive, and resents the father for getting all of the
overly generous. mother’s attentions. Many
psychoanalysts suggest a similar
3. PHALLIC: This stage occurs conflict for preschool girls, referred to
approximately during the preschool as the Electra complex; it is essentially
years. The term phallic means any the reverse of the situation for boys:
representation of the penis, which, love and desire for father, resentment
according to Freud, is the main for mother. According to
occupation of the unconscious during psychoanalytic theory, these
the childhood years of about three to complexes become so severe and
six among both boys and girls. It is at anxiety-producing that the child’s
this time, theoretically, that children unconscious must resolve them using a
become aware of whether or not they defense mechanism. The solution is for
have a penis, and Freud believed that the child to begin to identify with the
this causes a bit of anxiety in the same-sexed parent. The child begins to
unconscious parts of their minds. Boys, internalize the personality of the same-
Freud reasoned, become protective of sexed parent, thereby relieving the
their penis and fear having it taken anxiety and vicariously winning the
away. This is known as castration love of the opposite-sexed parent. For
anxiety and might be manifested in a a little boy, being like daddy means no
young boy’s fear of knives, scissors, or longer having to fear and resent him,
being bitten by dogs. Girls, Freud and it also means getting mommy’s
thought, feel resentful that they do not love through daddy. For a little girl, it
have a penis and hence seek phallic means winning daddy’s love by being
things and activities that will provide like mommy. This process is called
them with feelings of power and identification with the aggressor;
possession. This is known as penis sometimes simply known as
envy and might be identification. The result is that
children begin to internalize the values,

morals (the superego), traits, attitudes,
and behaviors of their parents. In fact,
in 1925, Freud concluded that he had
been wrong about penis envy in young
girls and theorized that the oedipal
struggle for girls, as well as for boys,
centered on love for the mother. As
you can imagine, this remains a
controversial idea among
psychoanalysts.
LATENCY: After resolving the JAMES

Oedipal conflict through identification William James (1842–1910), an American
(at about the age of six), children enter psychologist and philosopher who is
a stage during which sexual urges are referred to as the "Father of American
dormant or resting. The term latent psychology." He founded a psychology
means that something is present or has laboratory at Harvard University. James
potential without being active or wrote and published extensively, and he
evident. During this stage, sexual urges was the first to offer a course in
are taking a recess; they are at a psychology in the United States. As a
minimum. From about the ages of 6 to leading thinker during the latter half of the
12, boys typically stick together and nineteenth century, his theories were
influential in both psychology and
say that they do not like girls, or they
philosophy.
act squeamish around girls. Similarly,
girls during this stage are highly Pragmatism and functionalism are two
critical of boys, are shy around them, philosophies. William James used to
and avoid them. Apparently, the further his understanding of the world
around him. James posited the pragmatic
demands of the previous stage and the
theory of truth, and he used this
Oedipal drama were so overwhelming philosophy to define and re-define,
that the unconscious needs a bit of a filtering answers to his questions through
rest. this theory. As a philosopher and
psychologist, all his findings, theories, and
GENITAL: This final of the inquiries were viewed through the lens of
psychosexual stages arises during his pragmatic theory of truth.
adolescence when teenagers begin To James, the truth was subjective, and he
again to show sexual interests. This delved into all mental pursuits with an
stage leads to adult affection and love. open mind. He was named the 14th most
If all has gone well in the previous eminent psychologist of the 20th century.
stages, Freud theorized, interest during
WILLIAM JAMES' PRINCIPLES OF
adolescence is on heterosexual
PSYCHOLOGY
relationships. This is a time of
exploring pleasure through more In 1890, James wrote published his book
about psychology, "The Principles of
mature love and affection.
Psychology.
"The Principles of Psychology took twelve PRAGMATISM AND

years to write, and the result consists of FUNCTIONALISM
two volumes. During the last half of the
nineteenth-century psychology was Pragmatism is a philosophy, and to
beginning to gain respectable ground in William James, it was a philosophy of
the United States and this book by William truth. James was a pragmatist, and he
James helped to strengthen its hold. understood truth through the lens of
The book, The Principles of Psychology pragmatism. Pragmatism means practical,
was a comprehensive work covering the and William James believed only the
entire field of psychology as it was practical, those things that are beneficial
understood up until publication. Many and help to move us in the right direction,
individuals who work in the field of are worthwhile. Pragmatism as a
psychology today still find many of the philosophy of truth was something James
concepts and theories in this book to be believed in, to him the truth was arbitrary;
informative and interesting. Modern it depends on belief.
psychology has come a long way since the The pragmatist approach was the approach
year 1890 and the publication of James' James took whenever he was validating a
book, but his brilliance is still respected theory of his own or others. The
and discussed today. pragmatist movement, as a philosophical
Four main concepts are put forth by James movement, was one James fell in with
in this book; stream of consciousness, early in his career. It was an easy fit for
emotion, habit, and will. Along with these James, he was a pragmatist at heart, and he
four main concepts, James discusses scrutinized all the experience and
theories and hypothesizes about centers in information he accumulated, searching all
the brain receiving specific input from the the while for pragmatic answers to his
physical senses. The concept of instinct is inquiries.
covered comparatively, and the evolution William James founded the school of
of brain function, particularly the cerebrum Functionalism. This school of thought in
is also discussed. psychology was developed in direct
The topic of experimental psychology is response to the school of structuralism and
covered, and his experience with illusions the work of Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt
both visual and auditory are explained. criticized functionalism as nothing more
The illusion is explained as a physiological than literature, and James criticized
response; pathways in the brain are formed structuralism as "all school and no
through repeated behaviors and use, this thought." When the criticisms faded,
leads to illusion when similar stimuli occur functionalism went on to influence the
and are guided through the same pathways. major schools of thought still in use today,
James goes on to explain that the mind such as the cognitive-behavioral and
becomes accustomed to recognizing behavioral schools.
something that is repeated and when Functionalism focused on the human
stimuli are similar an assumption is made, propensity for individualism and this
this assumption is the "illusion." heavily influenced how education was
The four main concepts of habit, stream of structured. James was influenced by his
consciousness, emotion, and will make up early physiology education and the work
the bulk of the work. Each of these of Charles Darwin. Functionalism was
concepts is complete with explanations built around a more systematic approach
and in some cases, empirical knowledge to understanding mental processes.
from James himself. These four concepts William James developed functionalism to
are a bit out sync with modern psychology, search for consciousness and behavior.
but they still have their merit.
DILTHEY
shooting a man is a physical event.
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) was a However, understanding the event in
German Philosopher, best known for the human terms involves more than tracing
way he distinguished between the the path of the bullet and showing how the
natural and human sciences. Whereas bullet caused the man's death. We need to
the main task of the natural sciences is to know why she shot the man, not just how
arrive at law-based causal explanations, she did so.
the core task of the human sciences is the Dilthey defended his use of the term
understanding of the organizational Geisteswissenschaft (literally, "science of
structures of human and historical life. the mind" or "spiritual knowledge") by
He promoted psychology as a “human pointing out that other terms such as
science” (Geisteswissenschaft). His human "social science" and "cultural sciences" are
scientific psychology took as its subject equally one-sided and that the human
matter experience in its totality. mind or spirit is the central phenomenon
Appropriate methods included description from which all others are derived and
and analysis, with the goal of analyzable.
understanding. For Dilthey, the mind was Dilthey wanted psychology to remember
the medium through which meaning that its primary subject matter was the
was formed; thus, the content, rather subjective or psychological world itself,
than the structure, of the mind was of not just the physical properties that made
most interest to him. Understanding the this world possible. Dilthey suggested that
meaning of human historical events if we want to find out ‘why’, priority must
requires being able to organize them in be given to the psychological world – the
their proper contexts and to articulate the ways that people make sense of their
structural uniformities that can be found in experience and the meanings they attach to
this way. Dilthey’s reflections on the them. In other words, to understand why I
human sciences, historical am running, you will first need to
contextualization and hermeneutics understand my experience of the current
influenced many subsequent thinkers such situation and the meanings I assign to it,
as Husserl, Heidegger, Cassirer, Gadamer because only in this way can you find out
and Ricoeu. my motives and reasons for acting. This
Dilthey offered clear advice to psychology. task demands a social scientific approach.
First, he acknowledged that humans and So, what should psychology do? If the
human events both possess important psychological world was its proper subject
physical properties. As an example, your matter, then surely psychology was a
brain is a physical object and its physical humanitarian discipline? For this reason,
properties are going to be pretty important Dilthey felt a social scientific approach
if you want to think. I’m sure you’d was preferable. But the psychological
realized that (see ‘Aside’). This simple world can only exist through the physical
observation nonetheless creates a serious world. If I don’t have a physical body I
complication for psychology, because it can’t see or hear, for example. Psychology
means that our status as physical and couldn’t ignore this either. It needed to
material ‘objects’ has a massive effect on study the physical world as well and the
our capacity to be psychological. In other natural scientific model dominated in this
words, in order to fully grasp the domain.
psychological world, the discipline of A lifelong concern was to establish a
psychology must also engage with aspects proper theoretical and methodological
of the physical world. He wrote,explaining foundation for the "human sciences" (e.g.
human actions are fundamentally different history, law, literary criticism), distinct
from explaining physical events. A woman
from, but equally "scientific" as, the "ideal types") and conflicting ways of
"natural sciences" (e.g. physics, conceiving of humanity's relation to
chemistry). He suggested that all human Nature, In Naturalism, represented by
experience divides naturally into two parts: Epicureans of all times and places, humans
that of the surrounding natural world, in see themselves as determined by nature, In
which "objective necessity" rules, and that the Idealism of Freedom (or Subjective
of inner experience, characterized by Idealism), represented by Friedrich
"sovereignty of the will, responsibility for Schiller and Immanuel Kant, humans are
actions, a capacity to subject everything to conscious of their separation from nature
thinking and to resist everything within the by their free will in Objective Idealism,
fortress of freedom of his/her own person". represented by G. W. F. Hegel, Baruch
Spinoza, and Giordano Bruno, humans are
This double-edged nature of psychology conscious of their harmony with nature.
was (and remains) both a challenge and an This approach influenced Karl Jaspers'
opportunity. Psychology had the chance to Psychology of Worldviews as well as
bridge the divide between the natural and Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy of Freedom.
social sciences and it could do so by
retaining a foot in both camps (Danziger, Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict
1990). Nomothetic and idiographic adherence to experimental analytical
knowledge, quantitative and qualitative paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic
methods, could all be embraced. It needed influences on modern psychology.
to study its subject matter from both
All this part is covered in Identity crisis of
perspectives. Wilhelm Wundt tried to
the Discipline (in the above sections after
support this vision (as did other early
‘Academic Psychology in India’ content)
psychologists), but it was not a vision that
psychology would ultimately sustain.
In his work Ideas Concerning a Essential aspects of knowledge
Descriptive and Analytic Psychology, he paradigms: Ontology,
introduced a distinction between epistemology, and methodology
explanatory psychology and descriptive
psychology. In his terminology,
explanatory psychology is the study of ONTOLOGY
psychological phenomena from a third-
person point of view, which involves their Ontology is the study of ‘being’ and is
subordination to a system of causality, concerned with ‘what is’, i.e., the nature of
while descriptive psychology is a existence and structure of reality as such
discipline that attempts to explicate how (Crotty, 1998) or what it is possible to
different mental processes converge in the know about the world (Snape & Spencer,
"structural nexus of consciousness." 2003). The SAGE Online Dictionary of
Social Research Methods (2006) defines
In his later work (1910), he used the
ontology as “a concept concerned with the
alternative term structural psychology for
existence of, and relationship between,
descriptive psychology.
different aspects of society such as social
actors, cultural norms and social
WELTANSCHAUUNGEN OR structures… Ontological issues are
WORLD VIEWS concerned with questions pertaining to the
In 1911, Dilthey developed a typology of kinds of things that exist within society”.
the three basic Weltanschauung, or World- For Richards, (2003), ontology is the
Views, which he considered to be "typical" assumptions we make about the kind and
(comparable to Max Weber's notion of nature of reality and what exists. Snape
and Spencer (2003) also define ontology
as the nature of the world and what we can
know about it.
EPISTEMOLOGY It involves knowledge and, necessarily, it

Epistemology in general is the embodies a certain understanding of what
assumptions we make about the kind or the that knowledge entails. He further explains
nature of knowledge (Richards, 2003) or that epistemology deals with the ‘nature’
how it is possible to find out about the of knowledge, its possibility (what
world (Snape & Spencer, 200). For Crotty knowledge is possible and can be
(1998), epistemology is a way of looking attempted and what is not), its scope and
at the world and making sense of it. legitimacy.
If knowledge, on one hand, is viewed as

hard, objective and tangible, this
demands of the researcher an observer
role together with an allegiance to the
methods of natural science such as
testing, measuring, etc.
If knowledge, on the other hand, is

mainly concerned with the human world
viewed as personal, subjective and unique,
of meanings and interpretations and the
then this imposes on the researcher a
epistemological stance is mainly
rejection of the methods used by natural
constructionist in nature, thus, it is
science and a greater involvement with
logically sequenced that interpretivism is
their subjects.
the theoretical perspective underpinning
THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE this study.
The theoretical perspective is defined as METHODOLOGY

“the theoretical stance informing the Methodology is “the strategy, plan of
methodology and thus providing a context action, process or design lying behind the
for the process and grounding its logic and choice and use of particular methods and
criteria.” (Crotty, 2003:7). For e.g., Let’s linking the choice and use of the methods
say the ontology of any given study is to the desired outcomes.” Crotty, (2003:3).
It aims to describe, evaluate and justify the

use of particular methods.
METHOD VS METHODOLOGY
Methods are ‘the techniques or procedures
used to gather and collect data related to
some research question or hypothesis’.
(Crotty, 2003: 3).
For e.g., in a Research, a Case Study
Methodology was used to design the given
research. Therefore, the use of two
methods – Interview Method and Reaction
Papers Method, is justified.
This became a prime or only model for

Paradigms of Western inquiry and knowledge.The basic belief
Psychology: Positivism, Post- system of positivism is rooted in a realist
Positivism,Critical perspective, ontology, i.e. the belief that there exists a
reality ‘out there’, driven by immutable
Social Constructionism, natural laws. Once committed to a realist
Existential Phenomenology, ontology, the positivist is constrained to
and Co-operative Enquiry practice an objectivist epistemology. The
positivists make use of manipulative or
experimental methodology that allows the
control and make use of manipulative or
POSITIVISM experimental methodology that allows the
The word ‘Positivism’ was coined by control and manipulation of variables to
the French philosopher Auguste observe a cause-and-effect relationship.
Comte. For Comte, positivism was the Therefore, the goal of inquiry is to form
modern scientific outlook that was in cause-and-effect relationship and thus
the process of replacing previously values, beliefs, emotions, or anything
dominant supernatural ways of “subjective” is prevented.
thinking about the world. However, a Hence, the basic belief system of logical
more comprehensive version of positivism is-
positivism for 20th century social Ontology: REALISM
science was, ‘Logical Positivism’ or Epistemology: DUALIST &
‘Logical Empiricism’ OBJECTIVIST

Hence, the basic belief system of logical Etic/Emic dilemma: Inability of
 general data to individual cases
positivism is- 

Received view of natural science
Ontology: REALISM followed blindly by positivists
Epistemology: DUALIST &
OBJECTIVIST Human science should study web of meanings
Methodology: EXPERIMENTAL & that people live in.
MANIPULATIVE
POST-POSITIVISM
DISENCHANTMENT WITH CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
POSITIVISM
 It believes that nature cannot be seen as it
Shattering of the ‘objectivist’ ideal of
positivism  “really is” or how it “really works” except


Pluralization of life worlds through a value window. Thus, findings
Research conducted in the real world are value mediated. Reality is assumed to

Knowledge needs to be ‘locally’, be constantly evolving over time & is
‘temporally’ & ‘situationally’ relevant ‘apprehend able’. The reality is constantly

“Sensitizing Concepts” required to
approach social contexts  shaped by social, political, cultural,

Recognition of central role of language & economic, gender, and ethnic forces.

discourse
 This critical form of research is a meta-
Concern with process &individual rather
than statistics & variables process of investigation, which questions

Human face’ is lost in statistical currently held values and assumptions and

manipulations challenges conventional social structures.
Knowledge production is relative to It invites both researchers and participants
frames of reference

Truth is not absolute and is decided by to discard what they term ‘false
human judgment consciousness’ in order to develop new
ways of understanding as a guide to
POSITIVISM: Context stripping, effective action, confronting unjust social
Exclusion of meaning, Theory ladenness systems.


Crisis of representation 

Exclusion of ‘discovery’ 

 dimension in positivism
In a Marxist sense, the critical inquiry EXISTENTIAL

perspective is not content to interpret the PHENOMENOLOGY
world but also seeks to change it.
The aim of ‘critical’ paradigm is to smash Phenomenology holds that any attempt to
myth & empower people to change society understand social reality has to be grounded
and thus Advocacy and Activism becomes in people’s experiences of that social reality.
its key concepts. At methodological level, Hence, phenomenology insists that we must
critical theorists (ideologists) seem more lay aside our prevailing understanding of
consistent. The aim of the inquiry is to phenomena and revisit our immediate
transform the world by raising the experience of them in order that new
consciousness of participants so that they meanings may emerge. Current
are energized and facilitated towards understandings have to be ‘bracketed’ to the
transformation. This is achieved by taking best of our ability to allow phenomena to
a DIALOGIC approach that seeks to ‘speak for themselves’, unadulterated by our
eliminate false consciousness. In a way preconceptions. The result will be new
they critique conditions and imply a plan meaning, fuller meaning or renewed
of change and provide vision of future to meaning. Attempts are made to avoid ways
facilitate transformation. The believed in which the prejudices of researchers bias
criterion for progress is that the data. The key is gaining the subjective
“emancipation” should occur. The experience of the subject, sometimes by
dialogue between the researcher and the trying to put oneself in the place of the
participant must be dialectical in nature to subject. Hence, phenomenology becomes an
transform ignorance. exploration, via personal experience, of
prevailing cultural understandings. Value is
ascribed not only to the interpretations of
Ontology: HISTORICAL REALISM researchers, but also to the subjects of the
Epistemology: TRANSACTIONAL & research themselves.
SUBJECTIVIST
Methodology: DIALOGIC &
DIALECTICAL
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Like Nietzsche, the French philosopher

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) emphasized
choice and freedom in human existence;
we choose what we become through our
actions which in turn, determines our
possibilities for the future (Sartre, 1946).
Sartre (1943) also contends that as humans
we have no fixed essence but only and
primarily our existence; we exist first and
in the process of our existence have to
create ourselves. However, in order to
escape from the anxiety of this uncertainty
of our nature we act at being something
definite and ‘fixed’ (essentially a nothing
pretending to be a something) through our
BACKGROUND: mauvaise foi – ‘bad faith’ (or self -
The German philosopher Friedrich deception) (Sartre,1943).The philosophy
Nietzsche (1844-1900) emphasized the of Phenomenology, founded by the
sense of individuality and isolation to German philosopher Edmund Husserl
human existence by arguing that we have (1859-1938) refers to the study of
to identify our own meanings and direction phenomena (the appearance of things) as
without reference to God as our ‘guiding- they present to our consciousness
light’ (Nietzsche, 1882). Thus, an (Spinelli, 1989). Thus, the ‘reality’ that
engagement with the struggles and each of us experiences is the result of an
imperfections of life directly facilitates the inseparable interaction between the raw
process of establishing our own values and matter of the physical world (e.g. things,
sense of self-empowerment (Deurzen- people, places etc.) and our consciousness
Smith, 1997). Here, Nietzsche introduced of it. This interactive process is known as
the key existential themes of choice, ‘intentionality’, i.e. that our consciousness
freedom, responsibility and courage is always of something and involves an
(Deurzen-Smith, 1995). The German interpretative act from which our sense of
philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889- reality is experienced and shaped (Spinelli,
1976) (most often regarded as the founder 1996). As such, our ‘reality’ is a
of Existentialism) interpreted the term phenomenal one open to a multiplicity of
‘Dasein’ (roughly translated as ‘Being-in- interpretations and meanings (Spinelli,
the-world’) to capture that the essence of 1989). From this perspective, there is no
human being is always in the world and ‘objective’ and ‘true’ reality – we can only
always with others. In turn, this demands ever have an interpreted reality and one
‘Authenticity’, i.e. a full recognition of our which is entirely ours’ alone (Spinelli,
ultimate ‘being-towards-death’ and other 1996). Further still, this openness to our
‘being’ limitations whilst being true to our interpretations of experience directly
own sense of values and sense of direction invokes meaninglessness, i.e. that there is
(Heidegger, 1927). By contrast, no ultimate ‘truth’ or meaning to our
‘Inauthenticity’ is seen as a defense against experiences (and therefore to life itself)
the anxiety of this realization and is other than what/how we interpret it; it is
marked by a resignation to convention, our construction based upon our personal
conformity and duty, i.e. by doing what values and beliefs.
people imagine is expected of them
Existential-phenomenological
(Deurzen-Smith, 1988).
psychotherapy is therefore a philosophical
approach to therapy (rather than a
technique per se). It concerns itself with Epoch – refers to a ‘bracketing (or
how the ‘givens’ of human existence setting aside) of our initial
(death, anxiety, meaninglessness, isolation, assumptions, biases and prejudices
choice, freedom and responsibility) are within the therapeutic encounter in
negotiated (or not) through the order to fully engage with the
interpretations and meanings given to client and their material in a spirit
experience – to self, others and the world
of relative naivete.
and how in turn, this shapes our sense of
reality. As such, it regards that all peoples’ Description – to facilitate a
forms of human dilemma, tragedy and detailed description of the client’s
suffering (from the normative to the events, experiences and beliefs so
extraordinary) are fundamentally problems that meanings within meanings
about their ‘Being-in-the-world’. Thus, all may be identified and the implicit
clients’ difficulties are seen to reflect their made explicit;
attempts to avoid, resist or deny the angst Horizontalization – each
and uncertainty that authentic living descriptive element of an event or
demands (Spinelli, 1989). experience is regarded as having
The basic framework through which the equal value/significance so that an
existential-phenomenological approach initial hierarchy of assumptions is
aims to understand and clarify clients’ avoided as the client’s story
difficulties is through reference to the four unfolds (Spinelli, 1989).
realms of existence. These are as follows:
The Umwelt – the physical,
biological dimension, our CO-OPERATIVE ENQUIRY
 embodied existence; Co-operative inquiry is one articulation of
The Mitwelt – the social/public action research. The original proposal for
dimension involving relating and experiential inquiry was put forward by
interacting with others; John Heron in 1971. This developed into

The Eigenwelt – the practice of co-operative inquiry. In co-
personal/psychological dimension, operative inquiry, all those involved in the
comprising our sense of identity; research endeavor are both co-researchers,
 whose thinking and decision-making
The Uberwelt – the spiritual contributes to generating ideas, designing
dimension referring to our sense of and managing the project, and drawing
values,ideal and purpose (Deurzen- conclusions from the experience; and also
Smith, 1988). co-subjects, participating in the activity
that is being researched.
Although people inhabit all four
dimensions of existence at once, the
salience and significance of each may PARTICIPATIVE WORLDVIEW
become more/less apparent as the client’s
A participatory worldview is articulated
difficulties are explored and clarified in
based on a subjective-objective ontology;
increasing depth and understanding. In
an extended epistemology of experiential,
order to facilitate the exploration of
presentational, propositional, and practical
existence in these domains, there are three
ways of knowing; a methodology based
basic principles (or ‘rules’) of the
on cooperative relations between
existential-phenomenological method coresearchers; and an axiology that affirms
which are as follows: the primary value of practical knowing in
the service of human flourishing.
Co-operative inquiry can be seen as In Phase II, the co-researchers now also
cycling through four phases of reflection become co-subjects: they engage in the
and action, drawing on a fourfold actions agreed, observing and recording
“extended” epistemology: the process and outcomes of their own and
Experiential knowing is through each other’s experience. In particular, they
direct face-to-face encounter with a are careful to notice the subtleties of
experience, to hold lightly the
person, place or thing; it is knowing
propositional frame from which they
through empathy and resonance, that
started so that they are able to notice how
kind of in-depth knowing which is practice does and does not conform to
almost impossible to put into words. their original ideas. This phase involves
Presentational knowing grows out of primarily practical knowledge: knowing
experiential knowing, and provides the how (and how not) to engage in
first form of expression through story, appropriate action, to bracket off the
drawing, sculpture, movement, dance, starting idea, and to exercise relevant
drawing on aesthetic imagery. discrimination.
Propositional knowing draws on In Phase III is, in some ways, the
concepts and ideas, and, touchstone of the inquiry method. It is a
Practical knowing consummates the stage in which the co-subjects become fully
other forms of knowing in action in the immersed in and engaged with their
world. experience. They may develop a degree of
openness to what is going on so free of pre-
conceptions that they see it in a new way.
In Phase I, a group of co-researchers come They may deepen into the experience so that
together to explore an agreed area of superficial understandings are elaborated
human activity. In this first phase, they and developed. Or they may be led away
agree on the focus of their inquiry and from the original ideas and proposals into
together develop a setof questions or new fields, unpredicted action and creative
propositions they wish to explore. They insights. It is also possible that they may get
agree to undertake some action, some so involved in what they are doing that they
practice, which will contribute to this lose the awareness that they are part of an
exploration, and agree to a set of inquiry group: there may be a practical
procedures by which they will observe and crisis, they may become enthralled, they
record their own and each other’s may simply forget. Phase III involves
experience. Phase I is primarily in the mainly experiential knowing, although it
mode of propositional knowing, although will be richer if new experience is
it will also contain important elements of expressed, when recorded, in creative
presentational knowing as group members presentational form through graphics, color,
use their imagination in story, fantasy, and sound, movement, drama, story, poetry, and
graphics to help them articulate their so on. In Phase IV, after an agreed period
interests and to focus on their purpose in engaged in phasesII and III, the co-
the inquiry. Once the focal idea—what the researchers reassemble to consider their
inquiry is about—is agreed upon, Phase I original propositions and questions in the
will conclude with planning a method for light of their experience. As a result, they
exploring the idea in action, and with may modify, develop or reframe them; or
devising ways of gathering and recording reject them and pose new questions. They
data from this experience. may choose, for the next cycle of action, to
focus on the same or on different aspects of
the overall inquiry. The group may also
choose to amend or develop its inquiry new models in psychology that would
procedures—forms of action, ways of have relevance not only to India but also
gathering data—in the light of experience. to psychology in general.... By Indian
Phase IV is primarily the stage of psychology we mean a distinct
propositional knowing, although psychological tradition that is rooted in
presentational forms of knowing will form Indian ethos and thought, including the
an important bridge with the experiential variety of psychological practices that
and practical phases. In a more complete exist in the country". The Manifesto also
inquiry, the cycle will be repeated several recommended eight "necessary steps for
times. The group itself may become more responsibly promoting psychology in
cohesive and self-critical, more skilled in India" that ranged from preparing resource
its work and in the practices of inquiry. materials to offering student fellowships,
Ideally the inquiry is finished when the conducting seminars, offering courses,
initial (and emergent) questions and generating a website, and appointing a
concerns have been thoroughly addressed committee for follow-up action to ensure
in practice, when there is a new the implementation of the
congruence between the four kinds of recommendations.
knowing. It is, of course, rare for a group Rao and Paranjpe (2016) stated that Indian
to complete an inquiry so fully. It should psychology, “subscribes to methodological
be noted that the actual process is not as pluralism. Without rejecting objectivity,
straightforward as the model suggests: control, and simplicity of experimental
there are usually mini-cycles within major exploration, Indian psychology recognizes
cycles; some cycles will emphasize one the need to go beyond experimentation to
phase more than others; and some usefully capture the richness and manifold
practitioners have advocated a more complexity of human experience to
emergent process of inquiry, which is less embrace and accommodate
structured into phases; nevertheless, the phenomenological methods as coequals.”
discipline of the research cycle is
fundamental.
SIGNIFICANT INDIAN PARADIGMS INDIAN TRADITION: ONTOLOGY

ON PSYCHOLOGICAL Two major planes (satta) of reality:
KNOWLEDGE: YOGA, BHAGAVAD
GITA, BUDDHISM, SUFISM, AND TRANSCENDENTAL
INTEGRAL YOGA. REALITY (PARMARTHIKA)
From September 29 to October 1, 2002, is considered to be non-changing
more than 150 Indian psychologists met in and universal. it can be
Pondicherry at the National Conference on experienced in this life under
Yoga and Indian Approaches to certain conditionslike samadhi.
Psychology. These psychologists issued a can be approximately termed as the
declaration that has become known as the spiritual realm.
Manifesto on Indian Psychology, which 
was published in Psychological Studies, EMPIRICAL REALITY
the journal of the Indian National (VYAVHARIKA) is that which is
Academy of Psychology. The Manifesto apprehended through the sense
affirmed that "Rich in content,
modalities. can be approximately
sophisticated in its methods and valuable
understood as the material realm
in its applied aspects, Indian psychology is
(which includes all physio-psycho-
pregnant with possibilities for the birth of
social aspects of mundane
existence).
EPISTEMOLOGY: Vedic concept of knowledge is something

entirely different from the scientific
(a) PARMARTHIKA – Knower and concept of knowledge. The ancients were
known are one and the same (ahm brahma aware of the more mundane type of
asmi). knowledge, but they were less exclusively
interested in it than modern science.
(b) VYAVAHARIKA – Subject and Avidya, or "ignorance", as they called it
object dichotomy is upheld (knowledge of somewhat disdainfully, denotes all
object is within the reach of knower). knowledge that is not knowledge of the
Absolute and the word is specifically used
METHODOLOGY: for knowledge of the world, in other
words, for science. According to Sri
(A) EXPERIENTIAL; (B) EMPIRICAL Aurobindo’s interpretation of the Isha
Upanishad, both vidya (Knowledge of the
(a) PARMARTHIKA– This involves
One) and avidya (knowledge of the
sadhana (spiritual praxis) in the multiplicity) are needed for a complete
supervision of a rsi or drsta (seer). understanding of reality.
Ultimate authority in India is in practice
held to belong not to ancient books nor Vidya: The higher knowledge of the Self
their learned expositions, but to those who (Atman) and the Supreme Self. spiritual
have personal experience of spiritual knowledge arises from the contact with the
truth. It is a living vision that transforms Self in a deeper state of self-absorption, at
the inner life, faculties and powers of the the end of a long spiritual journey and self-
person who attains it. purification. It arises in a state in which the
mind and the senses are withdraw and fully
Sadhana also denotes ‘making’, and thus resting. Spiritual knowledge is
implicates transformation of self. It involves transcendental knowledge which arises in a
detached truth seeking (jijnasa), person who is self-aware without the
sensitiveness (aksipartrakalpata), involvement of his mind or its faculties.
earnestness (samvega), maturity and Avidya: The lower knowledge of the
wisdom (viveka), and realization of the rituals, sacrifices, obligatory duties,
constraints and limitations emanating from occupational knowledge. This knowledge
egoism and acquisitiveness. In general, three is considered inferior, because it does not
ways (marga) of spiritual realization are in liberate us from the cycle of births and
practice; knowledge, action and devotion deaths. Instead, it leads to more
(jnana, karma and bhakti). attachment, karma, egoism, worldliness
and more involvement with things and
(b) VYAVAHARIKA– The major means Nature. All learned knowledge is
of knowledge include the following: accumulated knowledge and as long as the
mind is clogged with worldly knowledge,
pratyaksa (perception) peace and equanimity are not possible.
anuman (inference) From the lower knowledge comes the
upaman (comparison) discipline and the ability to practice the
sabda (verbal testimony) higher and realize the highest. They also
arthapatti (postulation) and affirm that knowledge of Brahman is the
anupalabdhi (non-cognition) highest knowledge, because it is
permanent, unchanging and indivisible, by
knowing which there is no further
SCIENCE AND SPIRITUALITY knowing.
(AVIDYA AND VIDYA)
It is important to know that Brahman is not around us. It is sense-based and

an object of knowledge, something that we (supposed to be) guided by reason and
need to know or gain or possess or “common sense”. There are two
remember but the goal of our spiritual varieties of it. The naive variety is
effort to achieve liberation. simply whatever ordinary people know
about the world outside of themselves.
The expert variety is science. These
THE PRIMACY OF SELF- two don't differ in principle, but they
KNOWLEDGE IN INDIAN differ considerably in their actual
PSYCHOLOGY processes and results. Science is more
REFERENCE: rigorous, specialized and cumulative;
https://ipi.org.in/texts/matthijs/mc-tok- the senses are extended by instruments
ppb.php that have been constructed with the
A consistent view of orthodox Hindu help off knowledge of this same type;
philosophy is that the Self is an the reason is extended in the form of
independent, incorporeal substance. The mathematics. Modernity is the scene of
Yogic ontology, a subscriber to this theme, an almost incredible collective growth
is inherently dualistic. It endorses two of this type of knowledge.
ultimate realities- Purusa or pure  SUBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE.
consciousness, which is non-corporeal and Subjective knowledge is the
thus Nirguna and the psycho-physical knowledge we have of what is
substantiality called Prakriti, which is happening inside ourselves. The word
unconscious. Prakriti endorses three “subjective” has nowadays largely
attributes or Guna and is thus Saguna. It is negative connotations, and I use it here
in the unique interaction of the higher Self only for the naive variety of what we
or Pursha, and the Prakriti that the world know about our own nature and our
and the human beings are created. Prakriti own self-existence. Within the realm
and its components namely Buddhi of subjective knowledge one can
(intelligence), Ahamkara (ego-sense), distinguish three types: introspection
Manas (mind) and Indriya (senses) borrow which is a naive attempt at being
consciousness of the Self (Purusa). “objective” about oneself (knowledge
However, in course of interaction with the of type three), experiential knowledge
material world each of these components which deals with processes we
mistakes itself to be the absolute reality or intimately identify with (knowledge of
the Self. type two), and a superficial, ego-based
awareness of one's own identity. All
three are limited in scope and
The four "knowledge realms" are “subjective knowledge” has access
as follows: only to a tiny fraction of what we are
and what happens inside ourselves.
 OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE. This
is the knowledge we have of the
physical and socio-economic world
INNER KNOWLEDGE.This consists other types of knowledge. According
of the sophisticated, expert variety of to the Indian tradition, a perfect
two types of knowledge of which knowledge of oneself automatically
subjective knowledge uses the naive gives in principle the possibility of
variety. Expert knowledge of Sri perfect knowledge of everything else.
Aurobindo's type three is the pure,
 detached witness consciousness that As mentioned before, the realms of
allows genuinely “objective” objective and subjective knowledge (as
knowledge of whatever happens in defined here) are the only ones that can be
one's own inner nature. The expert accessed fully in the ordinary waking
variety of type two, knowledge by consciousness (or OWC).
intimate direct contact, allows one's
consciousness to touch directly the
consciousness in others and even in
things so that one can know these by
 an intimate, unmediated direct contact.
SELF-KNOWLEDGE.This is the
expert variety of knowledge by identity
(type one) and it leads us directly to
who we are in the very essence of our
being. The little of real self-knowledge
that reaches our surface consciousness
may never attain to that level of
perfection, but in itself this type of
knowledge is intrinsically true and
perfect. It is the secret origin of
whatever there is of real truth in all
CONTENTS
RESEARCH: Meaning, Purpose, and Dimensions. Research problems, Variables and

Operational Definitions, Hypothesis, Sampling. Ethics in conducting and reporting research
PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed methods approach
Methods of research: Observation, Survey [Interview, Questionnaires], Experimental, Quasi-
experimental, Field studies, Cross-Cultural Studies, Phenomenology, Grounded theory, Focus
groups, Narratives, Case studies, Ethnography
STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY: Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion. Normal
Probability Curve. Parametric [t-test] and Non-parametric tests [Sign Test, Wilcoxon Signed
rank test, Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Friedman]. Power analysis. Effect size.
CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS: Correlation [Product Moment, Rank Order], Partial
correlation, multiple correlation. Special Correlation Methods: Biserial, Point biserial,
tetrachoric, phi coefficient. Regression: Simple linear regression, Multiple regression. Factor
analysis: Assumptions, Methods, Rotation and Interpretation.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: ANOVA [One-way, Factorial], Randomized Block Designs,
Repeated Measures Design, Latin Square, Cohort studies, Time series, MANOVA,
ANCOVA. Single-subject designs.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH
UNIT METHODOLOGY
2 AND STATISTICS
RESEARCH: MEANING, PURPOSE, proposition about the presumed relations

AND DIMENSIONS among natural phenomena.”
Aims of Research:
Kerlinger- “Scientific research is a 
systematic, controlled, empirical and Explorative/Formulative Research
critical investigation of hypothetical Studies: Achieving new insights.

Hypothesis Testing Research
Point of Departure is driven by Research Point of departure is driven by Specific tasks

problem/ question. such as data collection, or sampling, etc.
Focuses on the logic of research: What Focuses on the individual steps in the research
evidence is required to address the question process.
adequately?
RESEARCH PROBLEMS, IDENTIFYING VARIABLES

VARIABLES AND Variables are the properties that take on
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS, different values and is measurable.
HYPOTHESIS, SAMPLING. TYPES OF VARIABLES:
1. Independent Variables vs.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Dependent Variables
Formulating a research problem
determines almost every step that follows.
Independent Dependent
Sources of research problems: 4 P’s
variables variables
People Independent Dependent Variable
Problems variables are is observed and
Programs manipulated by the recorded by the
Phenomena experimenter experimenter.
It depends on the
behavior of the
There must be some objectives to be participant, which in
attained to. (Researcher’s Hypothesis) turn, is supposed to
There must be an alternative means to the depend on the
objective. (Alternative Hypothesis) independent
variable.
Control Variables/ Extraneous variables It does not vary as it held under control.
A control variable is a potential E.g., Temperature, Time of the day, etc.
independent variable that is held constant
during an experiment.
2. Quantitative vs Qualitative The Continuous variables exist between a

Variables range, say from 30 to 40, the value can be
30.1 to 39.9
Quantitative are numbers (Interval/ Ratio) The discreet Variables are the absolute
Qualitative are attitude (good or bad). values and can be divided into 3 parts-
They can be compared but not measured Constant: When a variable can have
(Nominal/Ordinal). only one value. E.g., Tree, Taxi,
etc
3. Active vs Attribute Variables Dichotomous: Can have two values.
E.g., Yes/No, Good/Bad, etc
Active Variables are those that can be
Polytomous: Can have many values.
manipulated, changed or controlled
E.g., Religion
experimentally.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
1. Elimination: Noise can be
Attribute variables are those that cannot be eliminated by using sound-proof
manipulated, or controlled, rather reflect situations or settings.
the characteristics of the study population. 2. Constancy: By holding the
They are, thus, the pre-existing qualities of extraneous values constant in all
the population. situations. E.g., Choosing subjects
E.g. level of motivation, Gender, Age etc. of same sex.
Balancing: Participants are made
equal in all aspects in both
controlled and experimental
4. Continuous vs Discrete variables groups.
Counter Balancing: Used to
control variables occurring as a
result of practice or fatigue ISG: INDUCTIVE IS SPECIFIC

together called as order effect. E.g., TO GENERAL
AB BA design treatment.
Randomization: Each member of AIM OF A HYPOTHESIS
the population, having an equal TESTING IS
TO FIND-
 Difference
chance to be selected. This
Relationship (Statistically
technique is applied where the
 significant- Implies differencein
extraneous variable are known, but result didnot occur by chance)
Interaction
these effects can’t be controlled by
known technique.
CONSTRUCTING HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS:
Characteristics of Hypothesis A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a

It should be simple, specific and precise, testable statement of what the
conceptually clear. researchers predict will be the outcome of
It should be capable of verification. the study.
It should be related to the existing This usually involves proposing a possible
body of knowledge. relationship between two variables: the
It should be operationalized i.e. could independent variable (what the researcher
be expressed in terms of measurement. changes) and the dependent variable (what
the research measures).
Difficulties in Formulating a In research, there is a convention that the
Hypothesis: hypothesis is written in two forms, the null
The absence of knowledge of a hypothesis, and the alternative hypothesis
theoretical framework. (called the experimental hypothesis when
When the investigator lacks the ability the method of investigation is an
to utilize the knowledge of the experiment).
theoretical framework.
When the investigator is not aware of TYPES OF RESEARCH
the important scientific research
techniques.
HYPOTHESES higher than females with respect to math

Alternative Hypothesis achievement.
HA: Males score significantly higher than
The alternative hypothesis states that there females with respect to math achievement.
is a relationship between the two variables
being studied (one variable has an effect
on the other). It states that the results are There are other types of Hypothesis too
not due to chance and that they are which you can refer to for knowledge, not
significant in terms of supporting the necessary to go into detail for NET. Above
theory being investigated. defined types are sufficient. They are:
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis states that there is no 1. Research Hypothesis vs Null vs
relationship between the two variables Alternate Hypothesis
being studied (one variable does not affect 2. Substantive vs Statistical Hypothesis
the other). It states results are due to 3. Simple vs Complex Hypothesis
chance and are not significant in terms of 4. Null vs Positive vs Negative
supporting the idea being investigated. Hypothesis
Nondirectional Hypothesis 5. Universal vs Existential Hypothesis
Two-tailed non-directional hypothesis

predicts that the independent variable will TYPE I AND II ERRORS
have an effect on the dependent variable, (IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND
but the direction of the effect is not THE DIFFERENCE)
specified. E.g., there will be a difference in
how many numbers are correctly recalled Type I error: reject a null hypothesis that is
by children and adults. really true (with tests of difference this means
Research Question: Is there a that you say there was a difference between
(statistically) significant difference the groups when there really was not a
between males and females with respect to difference). The probability of making a Type
math achievement? H0: There is no I error is the alpha level you choose. If you set
(statistically) significant difference your probability (alpha level) at p < 05, then
between males and females with there is a 5% chance that you will make a
respect to math achievement. HA: There is Type I error. You can reduce the chance of
a (statistically) significant difference making a Type I error by setting a smaller
between males and females with respect to alpha level (p < .01). The problem with this is
math achievement. that as you lower the chance of making a Type
I error, you increase the chance of making a
Directional Hypothesis
Type II error.
A one-tailed directional hypothesis
predicts the nature of the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent
variable. E.g., adults will correctly recall
more words than children.
Research Question: Do males score
significantly higher than females with
respect to math achievement?
H0: Males do not score significantly
inferring patterns of behaviors within

Type II error: fail to reject a null specific populations. We cannot study
hypothesis that is false (with tests of entire populations because of feasibility
differences this means that you say there and cost constraints, and hence, we must
select a representative sample from the
population of interest for observation and

was no difference between the groups
analysis. It is extremely important to
when there really was one)
choose a sample that is truly representative
SAMPLING of the population so that the inferences
Sampling is the statistical process of derived from the sample can be
selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a generalized back to the population of
population of interest for purposes of interest. Sampling techniques can be
making observations and statistical grouped into two broad categories:
inferences about that population. Social probability (random) sampling and
science research is generally about non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling is ideal if the strength of this technique. Because the
generalizability of results is important for sampling frame is not subdivided or
your study, but there may be unique partitioned, the sample is unbiased and the
circumstances where non-probability inferences are most generalizable amongst
sampling can also be justified. all probability sampling techniques.
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING Systematic sampling: In this technique, the

sampling frame is ordered according to
Probability sampling is a technique in some criteria and elements are selected at
which every unit in the population has a regular intervals through that ordered list.
chance (non-zero probability) of being Systematic sampling involves a random start
selected in the sample, and this chance can and then proceeds with the selection of
be accurately determined. Sample statistics every ‘k’ th element from that point
thus produced, such as sample mean or onwards, where k = N / n, where k is the
standard deviation, are unbiased estimates ratio of sampling frame size N and the
of population parameters, as long as the desired sample size n , and is formally
sampled units are weighted according to called the sampling ratio. It is important
their probability of selection. All that the starting point is not automatically
probability sampling has two attributes in the first in the list, but is instead randomly
common: (1) every unit in the population chosen from within the first k elements on
has a known non-zero probability of being the list. In our previous example of selecting
sampled, and (2) the sampling procedure 200 firms from a list of 1000 firms, you can
involves random selection at some point. sort the 1000 firms in increasing (or
The different types of probability sampling decreasing) order of their size (i.e.,
techniques include: employee count or annual revenues),
randomly select one of the first five firms on
Simple random sampling: In this the sorted list, and then select every fifth
technique, all possible subsets of a firm on the list. This process
population (more accurately, of a sampling will ensure that there is no
frame) are given an equal probability of overrepresentation of large or small firms
being selected. The probability of selecting in your sample, but rather that firms of all
any set of n units out of a total of N units sizes are generally uniformly represented,
in a sampling frame is N C n. Simple as it is in your sampling frame. In other
random sampling involves randomly words, the sample is representative of the
selecting respondents from a sampling population, at least on the basis of the
frame, but with large sampling frames, sorting criterion.
usually a table of random numbers or a
computerized random number generator is Stratified sampling: In stratified
used. For instance, if you wish to select sampling, the sampling frame is divided
200 firms to survey from a list of 1000 into homogeneous and non-overlapping
firms, if this list is entered into a subgroups (called “strata”), and a simple
spreadsheet like Excel, you can use random sample is drawn within each
Excel’s RAND() function to generate subgroup. In the previous example of
random numbers for each of the 1000 selecting 200 firms from a list of 1000
clients on that list. Next, you sort the list in firms, you can start by categorizing the
increasing order of their corresponding firms based on their size as large (more
random number, and select the first 200 than 500 employees), medium (between 50
clients on that sorted list. This is the and 500 employees), and small (less than
simplest of all probability sampling 50 employees). You can then randomly
techniques; however, the simplicity is also select 67 firms from each subgroup to
make up your sample of 200 firms. you can cluster these governments based
However, since there are many more small on their counties, randomly select a set of
firms in a sampling frame than large firms, three counties, and then interview officials
having an equal number of small, medium, from every official in those counties.
and large firms will make the sample less However, depending on between- cluster
representative of the population (i.e., differences, the variability of sample
biased in favor of large firms that are estimates in a cluster sample will generally
fewer in number in the target population). be higher than that of a simple random
This is called non-proportional stratified sample, and hence the results are less
sampling because the proportion of sample generalizable to the population than those
within each subgroup does not reflect the obtained from simple random samples.
proportions in the sampling frame (or the
population of interest), and the smaller EXTRA FOR REFERENCES
subgroup (large-sized firms) is over-
sampled. An alternative technique will be Matched-pairs sampling: Sometimes,
to select subgroup samples in proportion to researchers may want to compare two
their size in the population. For instance, if subgroups within one population based on
there are 100 large firms, 300 mid-sized a specific criterion. For instance, why are
firms, and 600 small firms, you can sample some firms consistently more profitable
20 firms from the “large” group, 60 from than other firms? To conduct such a study,
the “medium” group and 120 from the you would have to categorize a sampling
“small” group. In this case, the frame of firms into “high profitable” firms
proportional distribution of firms in the and “low profitable firms” based on gross
population is retained in the sample, and margins, earnings per share, or some other
hence this technique is called proportional measure of profitability. You would then
stratified sampling. Note that the non- select a simple random sample of firms in
proportional approach is particularly one subgroup, and match each firm in this
effective in representing small subgroups, group with a firm in the second subgroup,
such as large-sized firms, and is not based on its size, industry segment, and/or
necessarily less representative of the other matching criteria. Now, you have
population compared to the proportional two matched samples of high-profitability
approach, as long as the findings of the and low-profitability firms that you can
non-proportional approach is weighted in study in greater detail. Such matched-pairs
accordance to a subgroup’s proportion in sampling technique is often an ideal way
the overall population. of understanding bipolar differences
between different subgroups within a
Cluster sampling: If you have a given population.
population dispersed over a wide
geographic region, it may not be feasible Multi-stage sampling: The probability
to conduct a simple random sampling of sampling techniques described previously
the entire population. In such case, it may are all examples of single-stage sampling
be reasonable to divide the population into techniques. Depending on your sampling
“clusters” (usually along geographic needs, you may combine these single-
boundaries), randomly sample a few stage techniques to conduct multi-stage
clusters, and measure all units within that sampling. For instance, you can stratify a
cluster. For instance, if you wish to sample list of businesses based on firm size, and
city governments in the state of New York, then conduct systematic sampling within
rather than travel all over the state to each stratum. This is a two-stage
interview key city officials (as you may combination of stratified and systematic
have to do with a simple random sample), sampling. Likewise, you can start with a
cluster of school districts in the state of its patrons, or its location (e.g., a shopping
New York, and within each cluster, select center close to a university will attract
a simple random sample of schools; within primarily university students with unique
each school, select a simple random purchase habits), and therefore may not be
sample of grade levels; and within each representative of the opinions of the
grade level, select a simple random sample shopper population at large. Hence, the
of students for study. In this case, you scientific generalizability of such
have a four-stage sampling process observations will be very limited. Other
consisting of cluster and simple random examples of convenience sampling are
sampling. sampling students registered in a certain
class or sampling patients arriving at a
NONPROBABILITY certain medical clinic. This type of
SAMPLING sampling is most useful for pilot testing,
where the goal is instrument testing or
It is a sampling technique in which some measurement validation rather than
units of the population have zero chance of obtaining generalizable inferences.
selection or where the probability of
selection cannot be accurately determined. Quota sampling: In this technique, the
Typically, units are selected based on population is segmented into mutually-
certain non-random criteria, such as quota exclusive subgroups (just as in stratified
or convenience. Because selection is non- sampling), and then a non-random set of
random, nonprobability sampling does not observations is chosen from each subgroup
allow the estimation of sampling errors, to meet a predefined quota. In proportional
and may be subjected to a sampling bias. quota sampling, the proportion of
Therefore, information from a sample respondents in each subgroup should
cannot be generalized back to the match that of the population. For instance,
population. Types of non-probability if the American population consists of
sampling techniques include: 70% Caucasians, 15% Hispanic-
Americans, and 13% African-Americans,
Convenience sampling: Also called and you wish to understand their voting
accidental or opportunity sampling, this is preferences in an sample of 98 people, you
a technique in which a sample is drawn can stand outside a shopping center and
from that part of the population that is ask people their voting preferences. But
close to hand, readily available, or you will have to stop asking Hispanic-
convenient. For instance, if you stand looking people when you have 15
outside a shopping center and hand out responses from that subgroup (or African-
questionnaire surveys to people or Americans when you have 13 responses)
interview them as they walk in, the sample even as you continue sampling other
of respondents you will obtain will be a ethnic groups, so that the ethnic
convenience sample. This is a non- composition of your sample matches that
probability sample because you are of the general American population. Non-
systematically excluding all people who proportional quota sampling is less
shop at other shopping centers. The restrictive in that you don’t have to
opinions that you would get from your achieve a proportional representation, but
chosen sample may reflect the unique perhaps meet a minimum size in each
characteristics of this shopping center such subgroup. In this case, you may decide to
as the nature of its stores (e.g., high end- have 50 respondents from each of the three
stores will attract a more affluent ethnic subgroups (Caucasians, Hispanic-
demographic), the demographic profile of Americans, and African- Americans), and
stop when your quota for each subgroup is
reached. Neither type of quota sampling In the preceding sections, we introduced

will be representative of the American terms such as population parameter,
population, since depending on whether sample statistic, and sampling bias. In this
your study was conducted in a shopping section, we will try to understand what
center in New York or Kansas, your results these terms mean and how they are related
may be entirely different. The non- to each other.
proportional technique is even less
representative of the population but may When you measure a certain observation
be useful in that it allows capturing the from a given unit, such as a person’s
opinions of small and underrepresented response to a Likert-scaled item, that
groups through oversampling. observation is called a response (see
Figure 8.2). In other words, a response is a
Expert sampling: This is a technique measurement value provided by a sampled
where respondents are chosen in a non- unit. Each respondent will give you
random manner based on their expertise on different responses to different items in an
the phenomenon being studied. For instrument. Responses from different
instance, in order to understand the respondents to the same item or
impacts of a new governmental policy observation can be graphed into a
such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, you can frequency distribution based on their
sample an group of corporate accountants frequency of occurrences. For a large
who are familiar with this act. The number of responses in a sample, this
advantage of this approach is that since frequency distribution tends to resemble a
experts tend to be more familiar with the bell-shaped curve called a normal
subject matter than non-experts, opinions distribution , which can be used to
from a sample of experts are more credible estimate overall characteristics of the
than a sample that includes both experts entire sample, such as sample mean
and non-experts, although the findings are (average of all observations in a sample)
still not generalizable to the overall or standard deviation (variability or spread
population at large. of observations in a sample). These sample
estimates are called sample statistics (a
Snowball sampling: In snowball “statistic” is a value that is estimated from
sampling, you start by identifying a few observed data). Populations also have
respondents that match the criteria for means and standard deviations that could
inclusion in your study, and then ask them be obtained if we could sample the entire
to recommend others they know who also population. However, since the entire
meet your selection criteria. For instance, population can never be sampled,
if you wish to survey computer network population characteristics are always
administrators and you know of only one unknown, and are called population
or two such people, you can start with parameters (and not “statistic” because
them and ask them to recommend others they are not statistically estimated from
who also do network administration. data). Sample statistics may differ from
Although this method hardly leads to population parameters if the sample is not
representative samples, it may sometimes perfectly representative of the population;
be the only way to reach hard-to-reach the difference between the two is called
populations or when no sampling frame is sampling error. Theoretically, if we could
available. gradually increase the sample size so that
the sample approaches closer and closer to
the population, then sampling error will
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES:
decrease and a sample statistic will
Statistics of Sampling
increasingly approximate the property, to be used under conditions that

corresponding population parameter. commit the researcher to certain ethical
guidelines.
ETHICS IN CONDUCTING AND These conditions are as follows:
REPORTING RESEARCH
Participants must fully understand (at the
ETHICAL DILEMMA DURING level known to the researcher at that
DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE point) the meaningof the study and truly
RESEARCH volunteer to participate in it. Researchers
must not distort the meaning of the
A research project follows a participants’ voices. Researchers must
developmental trajectory. Each stage has a protect the anonymity of the participants.
different purpose that, to a certain degree, Researchers have an obligation to
shapes the respective roles of the participants’ beneficence—an obligation
participants and the researcher. The to provide benefits for the participant and
developmental nature of the research to balance such benefits against risks.
process leads to changes in power Researchers have an obligation to non-
relations, which pose specific ethical malfeasance that requires doing no harm.
issues to the researcher.
Three major stages in qualitative research One of the major factors associated with
are- observational studies is ethics. While
 Initial stage of subject/participant observation is generally seen as the least
recruitment
intrusive data collection method, it can
 Data collection
also be an abuse of an individual’s privacy
 Data analysis and production of the
report It was emphasized that we should ensure
that participation is voluntary, no harm
INITIAL STAGE OF comes to the respondents, the research is
SUBJECT/PARTICIPANT of some benefit to the participants, and
RECRUITMENT that their privacy will be protected. One
way of addressing all these concerns is
At this stage, ethical dilemmas involve through the informed consent process
questions about strategically obscuring whereby verbal or written statements are
some of the research goals to persuade the shared with research participants to inform
participants to take part in the study. This them about the topic of the study, its
raises concerns about the patients feeling potential benefit or harm, and the specific
an obligation to participate. This is also the steps taken to guard their privacy.
case when researchers tend to reduce the
ethical principle of informed consent to a The difficulties inherent in qualitative
formal regulatory requirement by IRBs or research can be alleviated by awareness
other overseeing bodies. and use of well-established ethical
After the data are transferred into the principles, specifically autonomy,
realm of research, they become research beneficence, and justice.
1. AUTONOMY WHAT IS QUALITATIVE

In a qualitative research study this RESEARCH?
principle is honoured by informed consent, “Qualitative approach emphasizes the
which means making a reasonable balance qualities of entities, processes and
between over-informing and under- meanings that are not experimentally
informing. It also means that participants examined or measured in terms of
exercise their rights as autonomous quantity, amount, intensity or frequency.
persons to voluntarily accept or refuse to (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)
participate in the study. The root term from which the phrase has
been historically derived is from Latin,
2. BENEFICENCE QUALITAS refers to a primary focus on
qualities, the features, of entities- to
A second ethical principle closely linked distinction in kind- while the contrasting
with research is beneficence—doing good term QUANTITAS refers to the primary
for others and preventing harm. focus on differences in amount.
Beneficence in some situations may be There is no single definition for qualitative
taken to the extreme as paternalism. A research, as no single definition could
paternalistic approach indicates the denial encapsulate the vastness that Qualitative
of autonomy and freedom of choice. For research offers. One such attempt for a
example, the researcher may want to study definition is:
the problem of violence among elderly “Qualitative Research is a form of social
women but may decide not to include them inquiry that tends to adopt a flexible and
because they may be too vulnerable. In this data-driven research design, to use
case, the researcher is not giving elderly relatively unstructured data, to emphasize
women the opportunity to decide for the essential role of subjectivity in the
themselves and for their experiences to be research process, to study a small number
heard. of naturally occurring cases in detail, and
to use verbal rather than statistical form of
If researchers are maintaining the principle analysis.”
of beneficence, overseeing the potential
consequences of revealing participants’
identities is a moral obligation. The use of Elaborating-
pseudonyms is recommended. A flexible and data-driven research
design: Qualitative research place
3. JUSTICE more emphasis on generating and

The principle of justice refers to equal developing descriptions and
share and fairness. One of the crucial and explanations than upon testing pre-
distinctive features of this principle is defined hypothesis. It means that a
avoiding exploitation and abuse of flexible research design is laid out
participants. The researcher’s  at the start of the research and then
understanding and application of the ‘implemented’. The same is also
principle of justice in qualitative research reflected at the stage of analysing
studies is demonstrated by recognizing data, where the task is to generate
vulnerability of the participants and their categories rather than to place data
contributions to the study. into pre-determined ones.

Using relatively unstructured data:
PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH:
There is a little pressure to engage
QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE,
in formal counting, ranking, or
MIXED METHODS APPROACH
measurement. As in case of FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE

interviews, qualitative research RESEARCH-
typically involves a relatively It allows us to study what normally
unstructured approach where the happens in the ‘real’ world, rather
aim is to invite informants to talk at than what happens under
length about matters that are experimental conditions. Thus
broadly relevant to the research, allows a direct interaction with the
with the interviewer following up people being studied in their
to encourage more elaboration, context.
detail, or exemplification where It allows us to observe what
necessary. happens rather than to rely solely
 Subjectivity: The data and upon respondent’s accounts in
inferences made from them are formal interviews and
always shaped by the social and questionnaires.
personal characteristics of the It focuses on the need to allow
researcher. It is impossible to people to speak in their own terms
eliminate this effect and also that in interviews if we are able to
this may facilitate insight as well as understand their distinctive
may lead to error. perspectives.
 The study of ‘natural’ setting: It contrasts the concern that the
Most Qualitative work investigates kind of variable analysis employed
what goes on in the ordinary by quantitative researchers ignores
settings in which people live and the complex, contingent and
work, and/or uses interviews that context-sensitive character of
are designed to approximate to social life, and the extent to which
ordinary conversations in key actions and outcomes are produced
 respects. by people interpreting situations in
A small number of cases studies: diverse ways, and acting on the
Qualitative inquiry often involves basis of these interpretations, rather
investigation of a small number of than passively responding to the
naturally occurring cases, perhaps external causes.
just one as there is a need for in-
depth examination of each case, in
order of document complexity. NATURE OF QUANTITATIVE AND
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Verbal rather than statistical
analysis of data: The predominant Quantitative research derives from the
mode of analysis is verbal natural sciences and is based on the premise
description and interpretation, that phenomena can be explained by
supported by illustrative examples. objective and factual measures that help to
Many approaches are very similar keep data free from researcher bias. It makes
to that employed by historians, who epistemological assumptions that reality is
produce narrative accounts of the unitary and objective and can only be
events leading to some outcome 'discovered' through transcending the
that they are interested in perspective of the individual, and, therefore,
explaining. that phenomena must be explained through
the analysis of data obtained by objective
forms of
measurement. In that it attempts to data, drawing upon their own experiences,

measure the cause-effect relationships following-up leads and checking out
between discrete and pre-selected variables hunches. These data are usually generated
by controlling and manipulating data in naturalistic settings and the qualitative
through experimental or quasi- researcher avoids controlling or
experimental techniques (Leininger, 1985), manipulating situations, events or actions.
the perceived knowledge outcome of
quantitative inquiry is singular truth. QUALITATIVE V/S QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH:
It is with the above epistemological
assumptions that qualitative research takes
issue (Wildemuth, 1993). Interpretative The word qualitative implies an emphasis
approaches such as ethnography, on the qualities of entities and on
phenomenology and symbolic processes and meanings. Qualitative
interactionism attempt to understand the researchers stress the socially constructed
nature of social reality through people's nature of reality, the intimate relationship
narrated accounts of their subjectively between the researcher and what is
constructed processes and meanings, as studied, the situational constraints that
opposed to the measurement of quantity, shape inquiry. Such researchers emphasize
frequency and distribution across a given the value-laden nature of enquiry. They
population. Qualitative research, therefore, seek answers to questions that stress how
is an approach that yields findings by social experience is created and given
means other than quantifiable statistical meaning.
procedures (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). That In contrast, Quantitative studies emphasize
is, it tends to generate verbal data as the measurement and analysis of causal
opposed to numerical (Knafl& Howard, relationships between variables, not
1984; Polgar & Thomas, 1995) and processes. Proponents of such studies
reflects an epistemology where phenomena claim that their work is done from within a
have "multiple, socially defined realities" value-free framework.
(McMurray, 1994, p. 18). The qualitative
tradition assumes that the complexity of Sr DIFFERE QUALITA QUANTIT
phenomena necessitates researcher's . NCES TIVE ATIVE
utilizing methods that will bring them N
closer to information sources, interacting o.
with participants, interrogating
Root TermLatin, ‘QUALITAS’ Latin
1. (The root term refers to a primary ‘QUANTITAS’
fromwhich focus on qualities, refers to The
the phrase has the features, of primary focus On
been entities- to differences In
historically distinction in kind. amount.
derived)
2. Definition Qualitative research Quantitative
methods focus on research Methods
discovering and attempt To
understanding the maximize
experiences, objectivity,
perspectives, and replicability, And
thoughts of generalizability Of
participants—that is, findings, and Are
qualitative research typically interested
explores meaning, in prediction.
purpose or reality.
3. Paradigms Interpretive Positivist
(Philosophical perspective. perspective i.e.
Assumptions) “Reality is in the objective reality.
form of multiple, “Reality is
intangible mental assumed to ‘exist’
constructions” i.e. out there”
multiple & Ontology:
subjective reality REALISM
where Epistemology:
researcher interacts OBJECTIVE
with that Methodology:
being researched. EXPERIMENTAL
Ontology: &
RELATIVIST MANIPULATIVE.
Epistemology:
SUBJECTIVE
Methodology:
HERMENEUTICAL
& DIALECTICAL.
4. Method/Types Phenomenology, Experimental,
of Research case study, quasi-
ethnography, experimental,
grounded theory, descriptive,
cultural studies. correlational.
5. Purpose/Goal Understanding Generalizability,

of Research actor’s view, insight, explanation,
contextualization Prediction, Cause
and and effect.
interpretation. The goal Is
The goal is to “better “collecting ‘facts’
understand human of human behavior,
behavior and which When
experience... grasp accumulated Will
the processes by provide
which people verification And
construct meaning elaboration on A
and to describe what theory that Will
those meaning are. allow scientists To
state causes And
predict
human behavior.
6. Research Question is Hypothesis Is
Question / evolving, general informed guess
Hypothesis and flexible. or prediction.
There are two The Researcher
general positions on uses the theories,
question/design results, And
matters depending findings of Other
on the researcher’s studies in order To
view. First, is an form a Hypothesis
Inductive process to test.
where the This type Of
researcher relies on inquiry Usually
what is observed in produces A
the field to develop a research Design
grounded theory to that is structured,
see what emerges. formal, And
Second could be one specific,
of Preparation where outlining a detailed
researcher reviews plan of operation.
the literature prior to
entering the field.
Here, the researcher
“enters the field with
an open mind, not an
empty head”.
Those Being Usually a small A subset of the

Researched number of population, a
non-representative sample, is usually
cases. randomly selected.
Those being The random
researched in a selection is to
qualitative study are ensure that the
selected using characteristics of
purposeful sampling. the subjects in the
Particular study appear in the
participants are same proportion as
chosen for a they exist in the
qualitative study total population
because they are
believed to facilitate
the expansion of the
developing theory.
8. Those Interpretive and Positivistic or Etic
Conducting emic (other’s points (outsider’s point of
the of view); personal view); objective,
Research involvement. neutral,
The interpretive detached and
researcher’s role is impartial.
involved, trusting, Researcher has a
intense neutral role Where
and close to the he or she remains
participants. detached,
uninvolved, And
distant Bringing
objectivity to The
research.
9. Data Participant Questionnaires,

observation, direct surveys, tests,
observation, etc. in the form of
interview, focus numbers
group, discussions, and statistics.
case studies, visual Quantifiable
data, life histories, coding with counts
document analysis. and measures And
Most data come operationalized
from fieldwork variables.
where the researcher Preconceived
spends time in the concepts And
setting under study. theories are used to
The researcher determine What
makes first-hand data will Be
observations of collected
activities and
interactions,
sometimes engaging
personally in those
activities as a
“participant
observer”.
10. Data Analysis Inductive process: Deductive process,

grounded theory, statistical
narrative analysis, Procedures.
thematic analysis, Statistical
discourse analysis, inference
content analysis, procedures are
conversation used to generalize
analysis. findings from a
Data analysis is an sample to a
ongoing, inductive defined population.
process where data
are sorted, sifted
through, read and
reread. With some
methods, codes are
assigned to certain
themes and patterns
that emerge.
Categories are
formed and
restructured until the
relationships seem
appropriately
represented, and the
story and
interpretation can be
written.
11. Role of Research can be Research can be
Values subjective and value conducted
bound (i.e. the objectively and
researcher’s own value free.
values). Values are emotive
Values are and therefore
personally relative outside the
and need to be scientific inquiry.
understood.
ASSUMPTIONS OF QUALITATIVE in the “field” or get to know the

RESEARCH participants, the more they “know what
When researchers undertake a qualitative they know” from firsthand
study, they are in effect agreeing to its information.
underlying philosophical assumptions, AXIOLOGICAL (The role of
while bringing to the study their own values in research):
world views that end up shaping the
direction of their research. They are beliefs In a qualitative study, the inquirers
about ontology (the nature of reality), admit the value-laden nature of the
epistemology (what counts as knowledge study and actively report their values
and how knowledge claims are justified), and biases as well as the value-laden
axiology (the role of values in research), nature of information gathered from
and methodology (the process of research). the field. In a way, they “position
themselves” in a study.
Creswell describes the following four
philosophical assumptions: METHODOLOGY (How should
the inquirer go about finding out
ONTOLOGICAL (What is the
knowledge?):
nature of the ‘knowable’? or, what
is the nature of ‘reality’?): The procedures of qualitative research,
or its methodology are characterized as
The ontological issue relates to the inductive, emerging, and shaped by the
nature of reality and its characteristics. researcher’s experience in collecting
When researchers conduct qualitative and analyzing the data. The logic that
research, they are embracing the idea the qualitative researcher follows is
of multiple realities and report on these
inductive, from the ground up, rather
multiple realities by exploring multiple
than handed down entirely from a
forms of evidence from different
theory or from the perspectives of the
individual’s perspectives and inquirer. Sometimes the research
experiences. questions change in the middle of the
EPISTEMOLOGICAL: study to reflect better the types of
questions needed to understand the
It poses the following questions: What
research problem. In response, the data
is the nature of relationship between
collection strategy, planned before the
the knower and what is known? How
study, needs to be modified to
do we know what we know? What
accompany the new questions. During
counts as knowledge? With the
the data analysis, the researcher
epistemological assumption, follows a path of analyzing the data to
conducting a qualitative study means develop an increasingly detailed
that researchers try to get as close as knowledge of the topic being studied.
possible to the participants being
studied. Therefore, subjective evidence
is assembled based on individual [OUT OF SYLLABUS
views. This is how knowledge is (Subjectivity, Positionality, &
known- through the subjective
experiences of people. It becomes
Triangulation) BUT IMPORTANT
important, then, to conduct studies in TO UNDERSTAND
the “field,” where the participants live TERMINOLOGY ESPECIALLY
and work-these are important contexts FOR PhD EXAMS (DU majorly)
for understanding what the participants AND TO UNDERSTAND
are saying. The longer researchers stay
CERTAIN OPTIONS IN THE Embedded in the conversation about

QUESTIONS] subjectivity is the concept of
representation. Referring to the “crisis of
representation,” Denzin and Lincoln
SUBJECTIVITY (2000b) described a growing concern with
The manner in which people make sense reflexivity. In particular, the crisis of
representation deals with questions about
of their experiences is referred to as
whose reality is represented in the
subjectivity by quantitative researchers,
research. To conclude, all
who recognize that people construct
research is subject to researcher
meanings in relation to their environment
bias; qualitative and quantitative
and previous experiences. Munhall (2001,
perspectives have their own ways of
p. 73) postulates that the objective of
approaching subjectivity and are very
quantitative research is to "disclose
much influenced by the paradigms guiding
subjectivity" through exploring and
the research.
collecting data that describes the
experience being researched. POSITIONALITY
In direct contrast to quantitative research A researcher’s knowledge is therefore
traditions, which view objectivity as a goal always partial, because his/her
or, at a minimum, as an aspiration, positionality (perspective shaped by his/
qualitative researchers acknowledge that her unique mix of race, class, gender,
the very nature of the data we gather and nationality, sexuality and other
the analytic processes in which we engage identifiers), as well as location in time and
are grounded in subjectivity. Depending on space will influence how the world is
the underlying paradigm, we may work to viewed and interpreted. Drawing upon
limit, control, or manage subjectivity— or metaphors of spatiality, it can be therefore
we may embrace it and use it as data. argued that knowledge is never pure but is
situated in the complex and sometimes
Approaches to subjectivity have been
contradictory social locations of producers
referred to as “bracketing,” “monitoring
and audiences.
of self”, or being “rigorously
subjective”. Bracketing to describe the Interpretivists/constructivists and
process of becoming aware of one’s ideological/critical theorists are more
implicit assumptions and predispositions likely to embrace the positioning of the
and setting them aside to avoid having researcher as co-constructor of meaning,
them unduly influence the research. In the as integral to the interpretation of the data.
absence of an articulated perspective on
subjectivity, researchers leave themselves Researchers must especially take account
open to questions regarding whose of their own position in relation to the
perceptions are really being described in research participants and research setting.
the findings. Qualitative researchers In particular, the reconstructing of
address a number of important issues to insider/outsider status in terms of one’s
accomplish the goal of managing positionality in respect of education, class,
subjectivity, including making their race, gender, culture and other factors,
implicit assumptions and biases overt to offer us better tools for understanding the
themselves and others, reflexivity, and dynamics of researching within and across
representation. one’s culture.
REFLEXIVITY HOW TO CARRY OUT

REFLEXIVITY OR SELF-
‘Re-flexivity’ involves looking again,
REFLECTION?
turning your gaze to the self.
One of the most valuable is for the
Reflexivity refers to active
researcher to keep a self-reflective journal
acknowledgement by the researcher that
from the inception to the completion of the
her/his own actions and decisions will
investigation. In it, the investigator keeps
inevitably impact upon the meaning and
an ongoing record of her or his
context of the experience under
experiences, reactions, and emerging
investigation.
awareness of any assumptions or biases
Thus, it becomes a way for the researchers that come to the fore.
to inform their audiences about their
Another reflexive strategy is consulting
perspectives as well as to manage their
with a research team or peer debriefers,
subjectivities. Researcher’s reflexivity
who serve as a mirror, reflecting the
provides an opportunity for the researcher
investigator’s responses to the research
to understand how his or her own
process.
experiences and understandings of the
world affect the research process. Engaging in bracketing – a process where
Reflexivity can function both as a control researchers attempt to recognize and set
for researcher bias and as a tool for gaining aside their personal beliefs at the
new depth in research. It is especially beginning of their study, while remaining
during the interview that expanded cognizant of them throughout the entire
reflexivity may be seen in action. research project.
Qualitative researchers have typically Reflexivity may also be demonstrated by
employed reflexivity as a means of use of the ‘first person’ when the
controlling the effects of researcher bias researcher describes the aspects of the
and its influence on the research process. research in which (s)he has had personal
For example, practitioners of involvement. It provides sufficient
phenomenology may engage in information for the reader to identify the
bracketing – a process where researchers foundations upon which the findings of the
attempt to recognize and set aside their study have been grounded.
personal beliefs at the beginning of their
To conclude, Reflexivity is often
study, while remaining cognizant of them
considered only as a concept of qualitative
throughout the entire research project.
validity. At its most basic level, this may
In order to deal with biases and include raising researcher awareness of
assumptions that come from their own life how their presence affects the research
experiences or in interactions with process and participants, as well as how
research participants, which are often the participants affect the researcher.
emotion-laden, qualitative researchers Applied in this manner, reflexivity is the
attempt to approach their endeavour process of analysing how various elements
reflexively. affect and transform the research.
TRIANGULATION
Triangulation is the process by which which the data were collected or measured. By
several methods (data sources, theories or linking different methods, the researcher
researchers) are used in the study of one intends that each method
phenomena. The concept has its origin in Denzin (1989) differentiates between four
ancient Greek mathematics; in modern different types of triangulation:
times, it is employed in topographic
surveying as a checking system. Triangulation of Data
'Triangulation' is a process of verification Triangulation of
that increases validity by incorporating Investigators/Observers
several viewpoints and methods. In the
Triangulation of Theories
social sciences, it refers to the combination
of two or more theories, data sources, Triangulation of Methodologies
methods or investigators in one study of a
single phenomenon to converge on a single
construct, and can be employed in both DATA TRIANGULATION:
quantitative (validation) and qualitative
(inquiry) studies. Using one data origin may sometimes not
be ideal. Collecting information from
When researchers employ triangulation, more than one source can extend and
multiple measures are used to ensure that enhance the research process. Banister and
any data variance is not due to the way in colleagues suggest that more than one
enhances the other, since all the viewpoint, site, or source, increases
information that is collected potentially diversity, thus leading to increased
offers to be contextually richer than if it understanding of the research topic.
were seen from only one vantage point.
The authors propose it can be helpful to It involves the use of different theoretical
look at data collected at different times, or perspectives in the study of one problem.
stages, of fieldwork, in order to re-evaluate Theoretical triangulation explores, and is
(“research”) the material. This might mean informed by, more than one theory or
checking if anything has been overlooked theoretical framework. It acknowledges,
or given too much emphasis, during the and allows for, the broad range of theories,
research process. The use of triangulation complexity and diversity of the real world
can be very helpful when verification of and how different theories may be
data is needed. accounted for in research.
The approach supports research being a METHODOLOGICAL
reflexive, organic process, enriched by TRIANGULATION:
researchers’ increasing depth of
It involves using more than one research
knowledge as they investigate the area.
method or data collection technique. Here
This is linked to the role of reflexivity in
the researcher chooses the method of
qualitative research, considered by many
inquiry according to the question being
to be an essential component in qualitative
researched e.g. by observing behaviours
inquiry (Banister et al., 2011). Other
(an observational approach) or exploring
factors which may be considered include
how participants feel e.g. using interviews.
whether flaws were found in the research
Triangulated techniques are helpful for
design, how the research study might be
cross-checking and used to provide
improved or refined, what further research
confirmation and completeness, which
might be needed etc. Some researchers
brings 'balance' between two or more
advocate keeping a journal or diary
different types of research. The purpose is
recording these reflexions during the
to increase the credibility and validity of
actual research process.
the results.
INVESTIGATOR TRIANGULATION:
Although triangulation is generally
It means that more than one researcher is considered helpful when using qualitative
involved in the research. Investigator methods, it can just as equally be applied
triangulation has the potential to enrich the to quantitative or mixed methods research.
research process, however, it also flags up It is a pragmatic and strategic approach,
the possibility of difficulties in using this whether applied to qualitative or
method. qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln,
1998). It may be viewed as providing a
The authors suggest that- “it cannot be way of expanding the research perspective
assumed that that those around the table and becomes another means of
will have an equally shared degree of strengthening research findings.
responsibility and contribution. If not, then
once again fairness is challenged and 'TRIANGULATION' AS AN
ultimately more problems are created than EFFECTIVE TOOL OF RESEARCH
solved.” METHODOLOGY
THEORY TRIANGULATION: By combining multiple observers, theories,

methods, and data, researchers can hope to
overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases
and the problems that come from single
method, single-observer, and single-theory
studies. There are basically three types of research, with agreement between two
biasness: firstly, the measurement bias is independent researchers being similar to
caused by the way in which data are the notion of inter-rater reliability, and
collected; secondly, sampling bias causes agreement between two observations of
as all the population under study are not the same phenomenon by the same
covered; and thirdly, procedural bias researcher akin to test -retest reliability. To
occurs when participants are put under ensure dependability, interpretive
some kind of pressure to provide researchers must provide adequate details
about their phenomenon of interest and the
information.
social context in which it is embedded so
RIGOR IN INTERPRETIVE as to allow readers to independently
RESEARCH / QUALITATIVE authenticate their interpretive inferences.
RESEARCH Credibility. Interpretive research can be
While positivist research employs a considered credible if readers find its
“reductionist” approach by simplifying inferences to be believable. This concept is
social reality into parsimonious theories akin to that of internal validity in
and laws, interpretive research attempts to functionalistic research. The credibility of
interpret social reality through the interpretive research can be improved by
subjective viewpoints of the embedded providing evidence of the researcher’s
participants within the context where the extended engagement in the field, by
reality is situated. These interpretations are demonstrating data triangulation across
heavily contextualized, and are naturally subjects or data collection techniques, and
less generalizable to other contexts. by maintaining meticulous data
However, because interpretive analysis is management and analytic procedures, such
subjective and sensitive to the experiences as verbatim transcription of interviews,
and insight of the embedded researcher, it accurate records of contacts and
is often considered less rigorous by many interviews, and clear notes on theoretical
positivist (functionalist) researchers. and methodological decisions, that can
Because interpretive research is based on allow an independent audit of data
different set of ontological and collection and analysis if needed.
epistemological assumptions about social Confirmability. Confirmability refers to the
phenomenon than positivist research, the extent to which the findings reported in
positivist notions of rigor, such as interpretive research can be independently
reliability, internal validity, and confirmed by others (typically,
generalizability, do not apply in a similar participants). This is similar to the notion
manner. However, Lincoln and Guba of objectivity in functionalistic research.
(1985) [16] provide an alternative set of Since interpretive research rejects the
criteria that can be used to judge the rigor notion of an objective reality,
of interpretive research. confirmability is demonstrated in terms of
Dependability. Interpretive research can be “inter-subjectivity”, i.e., if the study’s
viewed as dependable or authentic if two participants agree with the inferences
researchers assessing the same derived by the researcher. For instance, if
phenomenon using the same set of a study’s participants generally agree with
evidence independently arrive at the same the inferences drawn by a researcher about
conclusions or the same researcher a phenomenon of interest (based on a
observing the same or a similar review of the research paper or report),
phenomenon at different times arrives at then the findings can be viewed as
similar conclusions. This concept is similar confirmable.
to that of reliability in positivist
Transferability. Transferability in arrive at a score that will facilitate

interpretive research refers to the extent to comparative analysis.
which the findings can be generalized to 3. Time Sampling
other settings. This idea is similar to that
of external validity in functionalistic An observation procedure, in which the
research. The researcher must provide rich, researcher records whether or not certain
detailed descriptions of the research behavior occurs during a sample of short
context (“thick description”) and time intervals.
thoroughly describe the structures, The observer, thus, records the frequency
assumptions, and processes revealed from of observable form of occurrence during
the data so that readers can independently the time intervals that are systematically
assess whether and to what extent are the spaced.
reported findings transferable to other
4. Event Sampling
settings.
An observation procedure, wherein
researcher records all instances of a
METHODS OF RESEARCH: particular event or behavior during specific
time-period ignoring all other behavior.
OBSERVATION 5. Specimen Sampling
Observation is defined as the systematic An observational procedure wherein
viewing, which is intentional and planned. researcher record the description of the
Maybe done in a natural setting or in a lab. subject’s entire scheme of behavior for a
It is preferred as the supreme technique for specific period.
nonverbal behavior.
Collecting facts that are in direct
knowledge of the investigator, i.e. a
deliberate study through the eyes.
Observation is the perception with the
purpose, aka, ‘Regulated Perception’.
PROCEDURE OF OBSERVATION:
1. By Mechanical & Electronic Device

This include audio or visual recording of
the scenario, etc.
2. Checklist & Schedules
This instrument tends to objectify the
observation. After each listed item, a space
is provided for the observer to write in few
descriptive words. Some checklists are so
designed that they enable the researcher to
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Non-participant Observation Participant Observation

Naturalistic
Observing events that occur naturally. The participant have interface with the subjects.
They are of two types.
Belief: Artificial probes or manipulation might
destroy all or basic character of the event being  Undisguised Participant Observation:
studied. The individual being observed know that they
are being observed about the social aspect of
Key Requirement: To avoid intrusion. their behavior.
Disguised Participant Observation:

The observer disguise himself to the extent of
being accepted as an insider.
Allows the observer to watch the activities from
a close quarter.
ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
Can be used where experimental method Allows better understanding of the natives
perspectives.
cannot be used.

Original behavior can be observed.  Being a member, there is access to the
private or the tabooed data.
 Any kind of reliance on any kind of
informant is reduced and thus a higher
objectivity is obtained.
LIMITATION: LIMITATION:
 
Cause-effect relationship Cannot be Mental and Physical strain.

established. Expectancyeffectmightbiasthe

Replication opportunities are absent. observation.

Observer bias can produce subjectivity in May lead to emotional binding with the 
the findings. group under study and may dilute
researcher’s objectivity.
Primary problem unique to observation is that it is simply descriptive in nature and does not allow
us to assess the relationship among events.
SURVEY [INTERVIEW,
QUESTIONNAIRES] one opportunity to collect data from each
informant. Therefore, questions needs to
QUESTIONNAIRES be clear, comprehensive and effective. The
A notable feature: There is usually only steps in developing questions is very
similar to developing questions for a semi- types of data. For example, closed
structured interview. questions provide people with a fixed set
 of responses, whereas open questions

Closed Questions allow people to express what they think in
their own words.
Also called, MCQ’s. They are straight-
forward, quick to answer and lie within Sometimes researchers use an interview
intellectual range of the majority of schedule. This is a set of prepared
population. questions designed to be asked exactly as
worded. Interviews schedules have a
The responses are easily turned into standardised format which means the same
quantitative data. questions are asked to each interviewee in
Types of Closed Questions: the same order.
a. Checklist: Presents a range of Quite often interviews will be recorded by
possible answers to tick as many as the researcher and the data written up as a
may apply. transcript (a written account of interview
b. Questions: Answering the question questions and answers) which can be
by placing in rank-order in terms of analyzed at a later date.
preferences, frequency, etc. The interviewer must ensure that they take
special care when interviewing vulnerable
c. Graded Response Questions: groups, such as the children. For example,
Expresses degree of magnitude. children have a limited attention span and
Such as asking for degree of for this reason lengthy interviews should
be avoided.
agreement.
Also the language the interviewer uses
Open-ended questions: Inviting a more should be appropriate to the vocabulary of
precise, and personal response. the group of people being studied. For
example, the researcher must change the
The MCQ’s though are relatively language of questions to match the social
inexpensive to analyze, poses a major background of respondents' age /
drawback of fixed alternative questions is educational level / social class / ethnicity
putting answers in people’s mouth. In etc.
such situations, open-ended questions
allow a free response from the respondent. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS:
It is always advisable to conduct a ‘pilot
study’ for testing the questionnaires due to STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
their limitations in true representation.
Pilot Survey is the replica and rehearsal of This is also known as a formal interview.
the main survey. This allows bringing in The questions are asked in a set /
light the weakness of the questionnaires standardized order and the interviewer will
and also of the survey techniques. not deviate from the interview schedule or
probe beyond the answers received (so
they are not flexible). These are based on
INTERVIEWS structured, closed-ended questions.
Interviews are different from Strengths Structured interviews are easy
questionnaires as they involve social to replicate as a fixed set of closed
interaction. Unlike questionnaires questions are used, which are easy to
researchers need training in how to quantify – this means it is easy to test for
interview (which costs money). reliability.
Researchers can ask different types of
questions which in turn generate different
Structured interviews are fairly quick to They also have increased validity because
conduct which means that many interviews it gives the interviewer the opportunity to
can take place within a short amount of probe for a deeper understanding, ask for
time. This means a large sample can be clarification & allow the interviewee to
obtained resulting in the findings being steer the direction of the interview etc.
representative and having the ability to be Limitations
generalized to a large population.
It can be time consuming to conduct an
Limitations unstructured interview and analyze the
Structure interviews are not flexible. qualitative data (using methods such as
This means new questions cannot be thematic analysis).
asked impromptu (i.e. during the Employing and training interviewers is
interview) as an interview schedule expensive, and not as cheap as
must be followed. collecting data via questionnaires. For
The answers from structured interviews example, certain skills may be needed
lack detail as only closed questions are by the interviewer. These include the
asked which generates quantitative data. ability to establish rapport & knowing
This means a research will won't know when to probe.
why a person behaves in a certain way.
UNSTRUCTURED GROUP INTERVIEW

INTERVIEW This refers to interviews where a dozen or
These are sometimes referred to as so respondents are interviewed together –
‘discovery interviews’& are more like a also known as a ‘focus group’. This role of
‘guided conservation’ than a strict the interviewer is to make sure the group
structured interview. They are sometimes interact with each other and do not drift
called informal interviews. off topic.
An interview schedule might not be used, A researcher must be highly skilled to
and even if one is used, they will contain conduct a group interview. For example,
open-ended questions that can be asked in certain skills may be needed by the
any order. Some questions might be added interviewer including the ability to
establish rapport and knowing when to
missed as the Interview progresses.
probe.
Strengths
Strengths
Unstructured interviews are more
Group interviews generate qualitative
flexible as questions can be adapted and
data through the use of open questions.
changed depending on the respondents’
This allows the respondents to talk in
answers. The interview can deviate from
the interview schedule. some depth, choosing their own words.
This helps the researcher develop a real
Unstructured interviews generate sense of a person’s understanding of a
qualitative data through the use of open situation.
questions. This allows the respondent to
talk in some depth, choosing their own They also have increased validity
words. This helps the researcher develop because some participants may feel
a real sense of a person’s understanding more comfortable being with others as
of a situation. they are used to talking in groups in real
life (i.e. it's more natural).
Limitations
The researcher must ensure that they

keep all the interviewees details
confidential and respect their privacy. This clothing) of the interviewer can have an
is difficult when using a group interview. effect on the rapport between the
For example, the researcher cannot interviewer and interviewee.
guarantee that the other people in the Ethnicity: People have difficulty
group will keep information private. interviewing people from a different ethnic
Group interviews are less reliable as they group.
use open questions and may deviate from
the interview schedule making them EXPERIMENTAL (IMPORTANT
difficult to repeat. Group interviews may FOR PAPER 1 – RESEARCH
sometimes lack validity as participants APTITUDE & PAPER II)
may lie to impress the other group
members. They may conform to peer Experimental research, often considered to
pressure and give false answers. be the “gold standard” in research designs,
is one of the most rigorous of all research
THE INTERVIEWER EFFECT designs. In this design, one or more
independent variables are manipulated by
Because an interview is a social interaction the researcher (as treatments), subjects are
the appearance or behavior of the randomly assigned to different treatment
interviewer may influence the answers of levels (random assignment), and the
the respondent. This is a problem as it can results of the treatments on outcomes
bias the results of the study and make them (dependent variables) are observed. The
invalid. unique strength of experimental research is
For example, the gender, ethnicity, body its internal validity (causality) due to its
language, age, and social status of the ability to link cause and effect through
interview can all create an interviewer treatment manipulation, while controlling
effect. for the spurious effect of extraneous
For example, if a researcher was variable. Experimental research is best
investigating sexism amongst males, suited for explanatory research (rather than
would a female interview be more for descriptive or exploratory research),
preferable than a male? It is possible that if where the goal of the study is to examine
a female interviewer was used male cause-effect relationships. It also works
participants may lie (i.e. pretend they are well for research that involves a relatively
not sexist) to impress the interview, thus limited and well-defined set of
creating an interviewer effect. independent variables that can either be
manipulated or controlled. Experimental
research can be conducted in laboratory or
DESIGN OF INTERVIEWS field settings.
First you must choose whether to use a
structured or non-structured interview. Experimental research can be grouped into
Next, you must consider who will be the two broad categories: true experimental
interviewer, and this will depend on what designs and quasi-experimental designs.
type of person is being interviewed. There Both designs require treatment
are a number of variables to consider: manipulation, but while true experiments
also require random assignment, quasi-
Gender and age: This can have a big
experiments do not. Sometimes, we also
effect on respondent’s answer,
refer to non-experimental research, which
particularly on person issues.
is not really a research design, but an all-
Personal characteristics: Some people inclusive term that includes all types of
are easier to get on with than others. research that do not employ treatment
Also, the accent and appearance (e.g. manipulation or random assignment, such
as survey research, observational research, They allow for precise control of

and correlational studies. extraneous and independent variables.
This allows a cause and effect relationship
An experiment is an investigation in which to be established.
a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an
experiment, an independent variable (the Limitation:
cause) is manipulated and the dependent
variable (the effect) is measured; any The artificiality of the setting may produce
extraneous variables are controlled. unnatural behavior that does not reflect
real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This
An advantage is that experiments should means it would not be possible to
be objective. The views and opinions of generalize the findings to a real life
the researcher should not affect the results setting.
of a study. This is good as it makes the
data more valid, and less bias. Demand characteristics or experimenter
effects may bias the results and become
1. LAB EXPERIMENT confounding variables.
A laboratory experiment is an experiment 2. FIELD EXPERIMENT

conducted under highly controlled
conditions (not necessarily a laboratory), Field experiments are done in the
where accurate measurements are possible. everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
participants. The experimenter still
The researcher decides where the manipulates the independent variable, but
experiment will take place, at what time, in a real-life setting (so cannot really
with which participants, in what control extraneous variables).
circumstances and using a standardized
procedure. Participants are randomly Field experiments, conducted in field
allocated to each independent variable settings such as in a real organization, and
group. high in both internal and external validity.
But such experiments are relatively rare,
Laboratory experiments, conducted in because of the difficulties associated with
laboratory (artificial) settings, tend to be manipulating treatments and controlling
high in internal validity, but this comes at for extraneous effects in a field setting.
the cost of low external validity
(generalizability), because the artificial An example is Holfing’s hospital study
(laboratory) setting in which the study is on obedience.
conducted may not reflect the real world.
Strength:
An example is Milgram’s experiment on
obedience or Loftus and Palmer's car Behavior in a field experiment is more
crash study. likely to reflect real life because of its
natural setting, i.e. higher ecological
Strengths: validity than a lab experiment. There is
less likelihood of demand characteristics
It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a affecting the results, as participants may
laboratory experiment. This is because a not know they are being studied. This
standardized procedure is used. occurs when the study is covert.
Limitation: Limitation:
There is less control over extraneous They may be more expensive and time
variables that might bias the results. This consuming than lab experiments. There is
makes it difficult for another researcher to no control over extraneous variables that
replicate the study in exactly the same might bias the results. This makes it
way. difficult for another researcher to replicate
the study in exactly the same way.
3. NATURAL EXPERIMENT
KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
Natural experiments are conducted in the
everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
Ecological validity: The degree to
participants, but here the experimenter has
which an investigation represents
no control over the IV as it occurs
real-life experiences.
naturally in real life.
Experimenter effects: These are the
For example, Hodges and Tizard's
ways that the experimenter can
attachment research (1989) compared the
accidentallyinfluencethe
long term development of children who
participant through their
have been adopted, fostered or returned to
appearance or behavior.
their mothers with a control group of
children who had spent all their lives in
Demand characteristics: The clues
their biological families.
in an experiment that lead the
participants to think they know
Strength:
what the researcher is looking for
(e.g. experimenter’s body
Behavior in a natural experiment is more
language).
likely to reflect real life because of its
natural setting, i.e. very high ecological
Independent variable (IV):
validity.
Variable the experimenter
manipulates (i.e. changes) –
There is less likelihood of demand
assumed to have a direct effect on
characteristics affecting the results, as the dependent variable.
participants may not know they are being
studied.
Dependent variable (DV): Variable
the experimenter measures. This is
Can be used in situations in which it would the outcome (i.e. result) of a study.
be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the
independent variable, e.g. researching
Extraneous variables (EV): All
stress.
variables, which are not the
independent variable, but could
affect the results (DV) of the
experiment. EVs should be
controlled where possible.
Confounding variables: Variable(s) eliminates the directionality problem. But

that have affected the results (DV), because participants are not randomly
apart from the IV. A confounding assigned—making it likely that there are
variable could be an extraneous other differences between conditions—
variable that has not been quasi-experimental research does not
controlled. eliminate the problem of confounding
variables. In terms of internal validity,
Random Allocation: Randomly therefore, quasi-experiments are generally
allocating participants to somewhere between correlational studies
independent variable conditions and true experiments.
means that all participants should
have an equal chance of taking part Quasi-experiments are most likely to be
in each condition. The principle of conducted in field settings in which
random allocation is to avoid bias random assignment is difficult or
in the way the experiment is carried impossible. They are often conducted to
out and to limit the effects of evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment—
participant variables. perhaps a type of psychotherapy or an
educational intervention. There are many
Order effects: Changes in different kinds of quasi-experiments, but
participants’ performance due to we will discuss just a few of the most
their repeating the same or similar common ones here.
test more than once. Examples of
order effects include: ADVANTAGES:
o (i) practice effect: an Quasi-experimental research may

improvement in be more feasible because it often
performance on a task due does not have the time and
logistical constraints associated
to repetition, for example,
because of familiarity with  with many true experimental

designs. 
the task; True experimental designs are
o (ii) fatigue effect: a sometimes impractical or
decrease in performance of impossible because the research
a task due to repetition, for can only effectively be carried out
example, because of in natural settings. Experimental
boredom or tiredness. research can create artificial
situations that do not always
represent real-life situations. This
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL is largely due to fact that all other
variables are tightly controlled
The prefix quasi means “resembling.” which may not create a fully
Thus, quasi-experimental research is realistic situation. For this reason,
research that resembles experimental external validity is increased quasi-
 experimental research.
research but is not true experimental
research. Although the independent Reactions of test subjects are more
 likely to be genuine because it not 
variable is manipulated, participants are an artificial research environment.
not randomly assigned to conditions or 
It can be very useful in identifying
general trends from the results,
orders of conditions (Cook & Campbell,
1979). Because the independent variable is
manipulated before the dependent variable
is measured, quasi-experimental research
especially in social science education, overall health, and access to

disciplines. health care in general that may be
 It reduces the difficulty and ethical playing a role in the outcome. If other
concerns that may surround the
variables are not controlled, the
pre-selection and random
researcher can be assured that the
assignment of test subjects. For
treatment was the sole factor causing
example, if examining the effects
the outcome.
of cigarette smoking by pregnant Human error also plays a key role in
women on the fetus, it would be
  as discussed
the validity of any project
unethical to randomly assign in previous modules.
 pregnant women to groups. The research must adhere to ethical
Matching procedures may be used standards in order to be valid. These
to help create a reasonable control  in the next module of
will be discussed
this series.
group, making generalization more
feasible. For example, if one group
of migraine suffers received a new FIELD STUDIES
treatment and a second group did
not receive the treatment, the Field research is defined as a qualitative
difference in the pain levels may be method of data collection that aims to
attributed to the treatment if the observe, interact and understand people
control group is  an appropriate while they are in a natural environment.
 comparison group. For example, nature conservationists
The results generated can often be observe behavior of animals in their
used to reinforce the findings of
case studies by conducting research natural surroundings and the way they
that maylend itself to statistical react to certain scenarios. In the same way,
analysis. social scientists conducting field research
may conduct interviews or observe people
DISADVANTAGES: from a distance to understand how they
behave in a social environment and how
The lack of random assignment into they react to situations around them.
test groups leads to non-equivalent test
groups which can limit the Thus, it involves collecting data outside of
generalizability of the results to a an experimental or lab setting. Since, this
larger population. Beside of the lack of type of data collection is most often done
randomization and the reduced internal
validity, conclusions about causality in natural settings or environments and can
are less definitive in quasi- be done in a variety of ways for various
experimental designs. disciplines, therefore, Field studies are
 known to be expensive and timely;
Statistical analyses may not be however, the amount and diversity of the
meaningful due to the lack of data collected can be invaluable.
randomization and the threats to
 internal validity. Field studies collect original or

 unconventional data via face-to-face
Pre-existing factors and other interviews, surveys, or direct observation.
influences are not considered because This research technique is usually treated
variables are less controlled in quasi- as an initial form of research because the
experimental research. For example, data collected is specific only to the
when examining the impact of purpose for which it was gathered.
smoking by pregnant mothers, there Therefore, it is not applicable to the
may be other factors such as diet, general public.
Field research encompasses a diverse collected efficiently. The equipment

range of social research methods including needed will depend on the type of study
direct observation, limited participation, being conducted. The process first starts
analysis of documents and other with clearly stating the problem and
information, informal interviews, surveys defining the area of study. From there, a
etc. Although field research is generally hypothesis, or a theory of explanation, is
characterized as qualitative research, it set forth to explain any occurrences
often involves multiple aspects of expected for the specified group or
quantitative research in it. phenomena. This is why, before a field
study is conducted, it is important to
Field research typically begins in a specific identify the data/phenomena to observe.
setting although the end objective of the
study is to observe and analyze the specific Once the hypothesis has been established,
behavior of a subject in that setting. The the data can be classified and scaled so
cause and effect of a certain behavior, that it will be easy to know how to
though, is tough to analyze due to presence categorize information. Observations are
of multiple variables in a natural classified because not all field
environment. Most of the data collection is observations will be needed; therefore, the
based not entirely on cause and effect but observer can know what to look for and
mostly on correlation. While field research what to disregard. Observations are also
looks for correlation, the small sample size scaled to give the observer a way to rank
makes it difficult to establish a causal the importance or significance of what has
relationship between two or more been observed. Once field observations are
variables. concluded, this data will be analyzed and
processed in order to resolve the problem
initially presented or to accept or reject the
hypothesis that was presented.
EXAMPLES OF FIELD RESEARCH 

Decipher social metrics in a slum
Purely by using observational methods

and in-depth interviews, researchers
can be part of a community to
understand the social metrics and
social hierarchy of a slum. This study
can also understand the financial
independence and day-to-day
operational nuances of a slum. The
analysis of this data can provide an
Figure: 5 distinct methods of Field insight into how different a slum is
Research from structured societies.
Understand the impact of sports on

METHOD a child’s development
This method of field research takes

Field studies should be carefully planned
multiple years to conduct and the
and prepared in order to ensure that the
sample size can be very large. The data
data collected is accurate, valid, and
 
It is an interpretive method and this
analysis of this research provides is subjective and entirely
insights into how the kids of different dependent on the ability of the
geographical locations and  researcher.
backgrounds respond to sports and the In this method, it is impossible to
impact of sports on their all-round control external variables and this
development.
constantly alters the nature of the
 research.
Study animal migration patterns
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES
Field research is used extensively to
study flora and fauna. A major use case Cross-cultural research is a scientific
is scientists monitoring and studying method of comparative research which
animal migration patterns with the focuses on systematic comparisons that
change of seasons. Field research helps compares culture to culture and explicitly
collect data across years and that helps aims to answer questions about the
draw conclusions about how to safely incidence, distributions, and causes of
expedite the safe passage of animals. cultural variation and complex problems
across a wide domain, usually worldwide.
ADVANTAGES OF FIELD It commonly involves comparison of some

RESEARCH cultural trait (or relationships between
traits) across a sample of societies. What is
It is conducted in a real-world and most important to keep in mind is that
natural environment where there is
 the cultures change over time, so most cross-
 no tampering of variables and
environment is not doctored. cultural comparisons need to focus on
Due to the study being conducted particular time frames (and sometimes
in a comfortable environment, data particular place foci) for each culture.
 can be collected  even about
ancillary topics.
The researcher gains a deep To compare culture is not to deny their
understanding into the research individual uniqueness. Cross-culturalists
subjects due to the proximity to do not deny the uniqueness of culture;
them and hence the research  is uniqueness and similarity are always
extensive, thorough and accurate.
present, simultaneously. Cross-cultural
research deals with what is general, what
DISADVANTAGES OF FIELD is true for some or even all human
RESEARCH cultures.
The studies are expensive and Results of Cross-cultural research are
 time-consuming and can take years generalizable to all types of society from a
to complete. small hamlet with population in the
It is very difficult for the researcher hundreds or a few thousands to urban
 to distance themselves from a bias societies with population in the hundreds
in the research study.
The notes have to be exactly what of millions. It helps researchers to make
the researcher says but the general (cross-cultural) statements about

nomenclature is very tough to the similarities and differences of cultures
follow.
and to identify what may be universal and and characteristic ways of interrelating
variable about human cultures, as well as that are shared with neighbouring and
to discover reasons why the variation interacting groups, and shared among
exists. Cross-cultural psychologists dispersed groups that have common
generally collect primary data, they do not historical experiences and similarities,
make use of secondary data derived from including common origin, common
national surveys on issues such as crime membership in historical civilizations, and
rate, gross national product, etc. however, languages that are mutually understood or
their comparison tend to be limited often that derive common families. Lines of
only to two-cultures (the investigator’s cleavage, conflict, and marginality, of
own and one other). course, are part of cultural phenomena.
Elements and relationships that individuals
PERSPECTIVES IN CROSS- or communities have in common are
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY shared in a variety of ways. Some, such as
the more intensive patterns of interaction
Basically, there are two types of that derive from common residence, joint
perspectives in cross-cultural psychology: experience, and discourse in a common
the Absolutist Approach and the Relativist language or system of signs, are relatively
approach. The absolutists view in cross- well bounded. Other patterns of sharing or
cultural psychology is that psychological similarity derive from processes of
phenomena are basically the same in all dispersal: migration, Diasporas, the
cultures while the relativists view in cross- trajectory of lives lived through spatial
cultural psychology is that psychological movements, social mobility, careers, and
phenomena should be studied only from distinctive histories.
“within” a culture where these phenomena Interactions are by no means limited to
occur. localities, but to the trajectories of
inhabitants who move through and
TYPES OF CULTURES: between localities. Cultures consist of
SUBCULTURES OR POPULATIONS shared constructions that emerge out of
social interactions of sets of individuals
Culture is a matrix of behaviours, beliefs, who inhabit overlapping social and
practices and values that typifies a physical spaces. Coherence may be
particular group of people. It deals with a viewed as an emergent property, but may
variety of things that influence all aspects be present or absent to varying degrees
of behaviour; emphasizes group influence and along varying dimensions or
rather than individual variability and trajectories.
essential part of the meaning-formation
process.
PHENOMENOLOGY
Human communities have a variety of
practices, beliefs, social roles, norms, Phenomenology is a research method that
expressions, forms of organization and emphasizes the study of conscious
conflicts (economic, political, legal, experiences as a way of understanding the
religious, expressive and artistic) that reality around us. It is based on the ideas
exhibit various sorts of internal coherence of German philosopher Edmund Husserl in
as well as cleavages within communities. th
the early 20 century who believed that
These coherences and cleavages bear
human experience is the source of all
many close connections to the different
knowledge. Phenomenology is concerned
historical experiences, physical and social with the systematic reflection and analysis
environments in which people live. They
include configurations of elements
of phenomena associated with conscious Examples of such units of significance are

experiences, such as human judgment, concepts such as “felt space” and “felt
perceptions, and actions, with the goal of time,” which are then used to document
appreciating and describing social participants’ psychological experiences.
reality from the diverse subjective For instance, did participants feel safe,
perspectives of the participants involved, free, trapped, or joyous when
and (2) understanding the symbolic experiencing phenomenon (“felt-space”)?
meanings (“deep structure”) underlying Did they feel that their experience was
these subjective experiences. pressured, slow, or discontinuous (“felt-
Phenomenological inquiry requires that time”)?
researcherseliminateanyprior Phenomenological analysis should
assumptions and personal biases, consider the participants’ temporal
empathize with the participant’s situation, landscape (i.e., their sense of past, present,
and tune into existential dimensions of that and future), and the researcher must
situation, so that they can fully understand transpose herself in an imaginary sense in
the deep structures that drives the the participant’s situation (i.e., temporarily
conscious thinking, feeling, and behavior live the participant’s life). The
of the studied participants. participants’ lived experience is described
in form of a narrative or using emergent
Some researchers view phenomenology as themes. The analysis then delves into these
a philosophy rather than as a research themes to identify multiple layers of
method. In response to this criticism, meaning while retaining the fragility and
Giorgi and Giorgi (2003) developed an ambiguity of subjects’ lived experiences.
existential phenomenological research
method to guide studies in this area. This GROUNDED THEORY
method, illustrated in Figure 10.2, can be
grouped into data collection and data How can you analyze a vast set qualitative
analysis phases. In the data collection data acquired through participant
phase, participants embedded in a social observation, in-depth interviews, focus
phenomenon are interviewed to capture groups, narratives of audio/video
their subjective experiences and recordings, or secondary documents? One
perspectives regarding the phenomenon of these techniques for analyzing text data
under investigation. is grounded theory – an inductive
technique of interpreting recorded data
Examples of questions that may be about a social phenomenon to build
asked include “can you describe a theories about that phenomenon.
typical day” or “can you describe that
particular incident in more detail?”
These interviews are recorded and
transcribed for further analysis. During
data analysis, the researcher reads the
transcripts to:
Get a sense of the whole, and

establish “units of
significance” that can
faithfully represent
participants’ subjective
experiences.
The technique was developed by Glaser convention or standardized labels taken

and Strauss (1967) in their method of from the research literature. Once a basic
constant comparative analysis of grounded set of concepts are identified, these
theory research, and further refined by concepts can then be used to code the
Strauss and Corbin (1990) to further remainder of the data, while
illustrate specific coding techniques – a simultaneously looking for new concepts
process of classifying and categorizing text and refining old concepts. While coding, it
data segments into a set of codes is important to identify the recognizable
(concepts), categories (constructs), and characteristics of each concept, such as its
relationships. The interpretations are size, color, or level (e.g., high or low), so
“grounded in” (or based on) observed that similar concepts can be grouped
empirical data, hence the name. To ensure together later. This coding technique is
that the theory is based solely on observed called “open” because the researcher is
evidence, the grounded theory approach open to and actively seeking new concepts
requires that researchers suspend any relevant to the phenomenon of interest.
preexisting theoretical expectations or
biases before data analysis, and let the data Next, similar concepts are grouped into
dictate the formulation of the theory. higher order categories. While concepts may
be context-specific, categories tend to be
Strauss and Corbin (1998) describe three broad and generalizable, and ultimately
coding techniques for analyzing text data: evolve into constructs in a grounded theory.
Categories are needed to reduce the amount
Open of concepts the researcher must work with
 Axial, and and to build a “big picture” of the issues
Selective. salient to understanding a social
phenomenon. Categorization can be done is
OPEN CODING: phases, by combining concepts into
subcategories, and then subcategories into
It is a process aimed at identifying higher order categories. Constructs from the
concepts or key ideas that are hidden existing literature can be used to name these
within textual data, which are potentially categories, particularly if the goal of the
related to the phenomenon of interest. The research is to extend current theories.
researcher examines the raw textual data However, caution must be taken while using
line by line to identify discrete events, existing constructs, as such constructs may
incidents, ideas, actions, perceptions, and bring with them commonly held beliefs and
interactions of relevance that are coded as biases. For each category, its characteristics
concepts (hence called in-vivo codes). (or properties) and dimensions of each
Each concept is linked to specific portions characteristic should be identified. The
of the text (coding unit) for later dimension represents a value of a
validation. Some concepts may be simple, characteristic along a
clear, and unambiguous while others may continuum. For example, a “communication
be complex, ambiguous, and viewed media” category may have a characteristic
differently by different participants. The called “speed”, which can be
coding unit may vary with the concepts dimensionalized as fast, medium, or
being extracted. Simple concepts such as slow. Such categorization helps
“organizational size” may include just a differentiate between different kinds of
few words of text, while complex ones communication media and enables
such as “organizational mission” may span researchers identify patterns in the data,
several pages. Concepts can be named such as which communication media is
using the researcher’s own naming used for which types of tasks.
AXIAL CODING:
The second phase of grounded theory is phenomenon of interest (open coding),

axial coding, where the categories and which may lead to further refinement of
subcategories are assembled into causal the initial theory. Hence, open, axial, and
relationships or hypotheses that can selective coding may proceed
tentatively explain the phenomenon of simultaneously. Coding of new data and
interest. Although distinct from open theory refinement continues until
coding, axial coding can be performed theoretical saturation is reached, i.e.,
simultaneously with open coding. The when additional data does not yield any
relationships between categories may be marginal change in the core categories
clearly evident in the data or may be or the relationships.
subtler and more implicit. In the latter
instance, researchers may use a coding The “constant comparison” process
scheme (often called a “coding paradigm”, implies continuous rearrangement,
but different from the paradigms discussed aggregation, and refinement of categories,
in Chapter 3) to understand which relationships, and interpretations based on
categories represent conditions (the increasing depth of understanding, and an
circumstances in which the phenomenon is iterative interplay of four stages of
embedded), actions/interactions (the activities: (1) comparing incidents/texts
responses of individuals to events under assigned to each category (to validate the
these conditions), and consequences (the category), (2) integrating categories and
outcomes of actions/ interactions). As their properties, (3) delimiting the theory
conditions, actions/interactions, and (focusing on the core concepts and
consequences are identified, theoretical ignoring less relevant concepts), and (4)
propositions start to emerge, and writing theory (using techniques like
researchers can start explaining why a memoing, storylining, and
phenomenon occurs, under what diagramming, discussed later in this
conditions, and with what consequences. section). Having a central category does
not necessarily mean that all other
SELECTIVE CODING: categories can be integrated nicely around
it. In order to identify key categories that
The third and final phase of grounded are conditions, action/interactions, and
theory is selective coding, which involves consequences of the core category, Strauss
identifying a central category or a core and Corbin (1990) recommend several
variable and systematically and logically integration techniques, such as
relating this central category to other storylining, memoing, or concept
categories. The central category can evolve mapping.
from existing categories or can be a higher In storylining, categories and relationships
order category that subsumes previously are used to explicate and/or refine a story of
coded categories. New data is selectively the observed phenomenon.
sampled to validate the central category
and its relationships to other categories Memos are theorized write-ups of ideas
(i.e., the tentative theory). Selective coding about substantive concepts and their
limits the range of analysis, and makes it theoretically coded relationships as they
move fast. At the same time, the coder evolve during ground theory analysis, and
must watch out for other categories that are important tools to keep track of and
may emerge from the new data that may be refine ideas that develop during the
related to the analysis. Memoing is the process of using
these memos to discover patterns and
relationships between categories using
two-by-two tables, diagrams, or figures, or sample of texts for accuracy and adequacy.
other illustrative displays. However, if the coding schema is biased
or incorrect, the resulting analysis of the
Concept mapping is a graphical entire population of text may be flawed
representation of concepts and and non-interpretable. However, software
relationships between those concepts (e.g., programs cannot decipher the meaning
using boxes and arrows). The major behind the certain words or phrases or the
concepts are typically laid out on one or context within which these words or
more sheets of paper, blackboards, or phrases are used (such as those in
using graphical software programs, linked sarcasms or metaphors), which may lead
to each other using arrows, and readjusted to significant misinterpretation in large
to best fit the observed data. scale qualitative analysis.
After a grounded theory is generated, it FOCUS GROUPS

must be refined for internal consistency
and logic. Researchers must ensure that the Focus group research is a type of research
central construct has the stated that involves bringing in a small group of
characteristics and dimensions, and if not, subjects (typically 6 to 10 people) at one
the data analysis may be repeated. location, and having them discuss a
Researcher must then ensure that the phenomenon of interest for a period of 1.5
characteristics and dimensions of all to 2 hours. The discussion is moderated
categories show variation. For example, if and led by a trained facilitator, who sets
behavior frequency is one such category, the agenda and poses an initial set of
then the data must provide evidence of questions for participants, makes sure that
both frequent performers and infrequent ideas and experiences of all participants
performers of the focal behavior. Finally, are represented, and attempts to build a
the theory must be validated by comparing holistic understanding of the problem
it with raw data. If the theory contradicts situation based on participants’ comments
with observed evidence, the coding and experiences.
process may be repeated to reconcile such
contradictions or unexplained variations. Internal validity cannot be established due
to lack of controls and the findings may
EXTRA FOR REFERENCE: not be generalized to other settings
because of small sample size. Hence,
Standard software programs, such as focus groups are not generally used for
ATLAS.ti.5, NVivo, and QDA Miner, explanatory or descriptive research, but
can be used to automate coding processes are more suited for exploratory research.
in qualitative research methods. These
programs can quickly and efficiently NARRATIVES
organize, search, sort, and process large
volumes of text data using user-defined UNDERSTANDING NARRATIVE
rules. To guide such automated analysis, a
In Latin, the noun narrario means a
coding schema should be created,
specifying the keywords or codes to search narrative or a story, and theverbnarrare to
for in the text, based on an initial manual tell or narrate (Heikkinen, 2002). A
examination of sample text data. The narrative is a story that tells a sequence of
schema can be organized in a hierarchical events that is significant for the narrator or
manner to organize codes into higher-order
codes or constructs. The coding schema
should be validated using a different
her or his audience. To repeat, when they are being told (Bakhtin, 1986).
narratives are looked on within the Bruner (1984) maintained that you always
framework of sociocultural theory, we create or hear about a narrative in terms
have to remember the interlinking between of your life experiences and background.
the individual and her or his context. As
UNDERSTANDING NARRATIVE
individuals are telling their stories, they
RESEARCH:
are not isolated and independent of their
context. On the contrary, it is important to Narrative research is a term that subsumes
remember that the individual in question is a group of approaches that in turn rely on
irreducibly connected to her or his social, the written or spoken words or visual
cultural and institutional setting (Wertsch, representation of individuals. These
1991). Narratives, therefore, capture both approaches typically focus on the lives of
the individual and the context. individuals as told through their own
stories. The emphasis in such approaches
Like all of us, teachers tell and retell their
is on the story, typically both what and
stories of experience both for themselves
how is narrated.
and for others in different social settings,
at different times and for different Narrative research can be considered
addressees. This means that the both a research method in itself but also
perspective on their experiences constantly the phenomenon under study.
changes form as they gain new experiences
and engage in dialogues with other people Narrative methods can be considered “real
(Heikkinen, 2002). Stories cannot be world measures” that are appropriate when
viewed simply as abstract structures “real life problems” are investigated. In a
isolated from their cultural context. They basic linear approach, they encompass the
must be seen as rooted in society and as study of the experiences of a single
experienced and performed by individuals individual embracing stories of the life and
in cultural settings (Bruner, 1984). Human exploring the learned significance of those
knowledge and personal identities are individual experiences. However, in most
therefore continually constructed and cases one will be creating an aggregate of
revised. Experience of the world, like each narratives each bearing on the others.
person’s perception of While some types of qualitative analysis
her-orhimself, is a continuously have a standard set of procedures,
developing narrative that is constantly narrative research is questionable in this
forming and changing form. Here human regard. One of the weaknesses of
knowledge is regarded as a plurality of studying narratives is that the text is by
small narratives, local and personal in its own nature linguistically subjective. i.e.
nature, that are always under construction difficult to quantitatively access in an
(Heikkinen, 2002). There isno single, objective manner since it is subjective i.e.
dominant, or static reality but, rather, a personally meaningful.
number of realities that are constructed in
the process of interactions and dialogues. A number of data collection methods can be
Human knowledge of the world is thus used, as the researcher and the research
relative. It is dependent on the individual’s subjects work together in this collaborative
past and present experiences, her or his dialogic relationship. Data can be in the
values, the people the stories are being told form of field notes; journal records;
to (the addressees), and when and where interview transcripts; one’s own and other’s
observations; storytelling; letter
writing; autobiographical writing; field notes; journal records; interview

documents such as school and class plans, transcripts; one’s own and other’s
newsletters, and other texts, such as rules observations; storytelling; letter writing;
and principles; and pictures. To this list, autobiographical writing; documents such
one should add audio and video as school and class plans, newsletters, and
recordings, as these are also useful data in other texts, such as rules and principles;
narrative research. and pictures (Connelly &Clandinin, 1990).
To this list, I would add video recordings,
Dedicated research software like
as these are also useful data in narrative
ATLAS.ti help the researcher to catalog,
research. Although other qualitative
penetrate and analyze the data generated in
research approaches, such as case studies,
a given research project. All forms of
biographies, phenomenological studies,
narrative research benefit extensively from
grounded theory studies, and ethnographic
the special capabilities of a dedicated data
studies, are described in detail, the
analysis tool like ATLAS.ti.
literature on narrative research appears to
As stated above, the narrative approach is be rather vague about concrete inquiry
situated within the qualitative or procedures. In this section I will focus on
interpretive research method three recurrent issues in discussions on the
(Gudmundsdottir, 1997, 2001). A narrative research approach. First is the
qualitative approach to the field of relationship between the researcher and
investigation means that researchers study her or his research subjects. The second is
things in their natural settings, attempting how a narrative is developed from an
to make sense ofand interpret phenomena experienced and orally told story into a
in terms of the meaning people bring to written text, and the third is the
them. hermeneutic or interpretive nature of
narrative research.
THE NARRATIVE RESEARCH
PROCESS EXTRA FOR REFERENCES:
One of the main characteristics of narrative BRUNER (1986): 2 DIFFERENT

research is the collaboration process WAYS OF KNOWING/THINKING
between the researcher and her or his
‘Paradigmatic mode of thought’
research subjects. Within this approach,
…draws on reasoned analysis,
the research subject is regarded as a
logical proof, and empirical
collaborator rather than an informant
observation - used to explain
guided by the agenda of the researcher
‘cause and effect’, to predict and
(Altork, 1998). This is the reason why I
control reality, and to create
prefer research subject rather than the
unambiguous objective ‘truth’ that
more traditional term informant. Other
can be proven or disproved.
terms I just as easily could have preferred
are collaborator or participant. In narrative ‘Narrative knowing’ Narrative
research, stories of experience are shaped knowledge - created and
through discussions with the research constructed through stories of lived
subject in a dialogue. A number of data experiences, and the meanings
collection methods can be used, as the created. Helps make sense of the
researcher and the research subjects work ambiguity and complexity of
together in this collaborative dialogic human lives.
relationship. Data can be in the form of
Narrative inquiry/analysis is a means by with or make sense of disturbing

which we systematically gather, analyse, events/misfortune.
and represent people’s stories as told by
Narrative as a Genre
them, which challenges traditional and
modernist views of truth, reality, Early narrative forms, reaching back as far
knowledge and personhood. as 1500 BCE, reflect forms of recorded
historical experience in epic formats and are
Anything that is communicated from
argued to be instrumental in the creation of
someone to another, is a narrative. A table,
communal (tribal) education. In the course
a list, a schedule, etc. are not a narrative.
of sociogenesis, the epic form is joined and
Stories… everywhere is a narrative,
partly replaced by folk tales,
anything that can be described and
communicated is a narrative, be it fables, travelogues--all already
fairytale/ folktale, history, present, a foreshadowing the rise of the romantic
painting, news… fiction and the novel.
Narrative vs a story: A story has a The new and innovative narrative

moralistic overtone. techniques put to use in these genres--in
concert with the development of the print
Analysis is a detailed examination. culture--gave rise to the writing (and
Analysis is the process of breaking a reading) of letters, confessions and
complex topic or substance into smaller memoirs. This in turn fed readers’ interest
parts in order to gain a better in personal histories, the biography, life
understanding of it. history, and auto-biographies--all making
use of temporal sequences of lived events
This focuses on people’s narratives/stories
for a systematic and self-reflective quest
either about themselves or a set of events.
of the (authentic) self.
Instead of looking for themes that emerge
from an account, it concentrates on the Narrative has emerged as a new but central
sequential unfolding of someone’s story so formatting device for the organization of
there is an emphasis on emplotment and self and (modern) identity. It successfully
characters. It is time-consuming and fed the commonly shared belief that who
usually includes a very small number of we are, or who we think we are, is realized
cases in the stories we tell about ourselves;
everyone not only has a story but also has
Narrative inquiry is an umbrella term that
a right to tell their story (Bamberg, 2010)
captures personal and human dimensions
of experience over time, and takes account Narrative as method
of the relationship between individual
experience and cultural context (Clandinin The term narrative as method implies a
and Connelly 2000). general approach that views the individual
within their social environments as
Narrative is referred to as the relating of actively conferring meaning onto objects
experiences or events with temporal and in the world, including others and selves;
spatial orientation. the way this happens in everyday
situations, as well as in interviews or
Narratives can help construct individual or
surveys, is necessarily subjective and
group identity, persuade, rationalize, make
interpretive. If narrative is elevated into
an argument, teach a lesson, remember,
“the primary form by which human
mobilize, offer perspective, entertain, cope
experience is made meaningful”
(Polkinghorne, 1988, p. 1), then it makes interviews and other sources, such as
sense to argue that the stories we tell are observation. The client also reports detail
such because they reflect the stories we are of events from his or her point of view.
(McAdams, 1993) The researcher then writes up the
information from both sources above as
Narrative Methods the case study, and interprets the
information.The research may also
In recent years, a number of qualitative, in-
continue for an extended period of time, so
depth interviewing techniques have been processes and developments can be
designed to elicit explicitly narrative studied as they happen.
accounts--some open-ended and
unstructured, others semi-structured and Amongst the sources of data the
guided; the free association narrative psychologist is likely to turn to when
interview method (Hollway& Jefferson, carrying out a case study are observations
2008), the biographic-narrative of a person’s daily routine, unstructured
interpretive method--an interview interviews with the participant herself (and
technique that leads into personal with people who know her), diaries,
experience, lived situations and life- personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs,
histories, or narrative oriented inquiry, to notes) or official document (e.g. case
name a few. notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).
CASE STUDIES The case study method often involves

simply observing what happens to, or
Case studies are in-depth investigations of reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a
a single person, group, event or single participant or group of individuals
community. Typically, data are gathered (such as a school class or a specific social
from a variety of sources and by using group), i.e. the idiographic approach.
several different methods (e.g.
observations & interviews). The interview is also an extremely
effective procedure for obtaining
The case study research method originated
information about an individual, and it may
in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e.
be used to collect comments from the
the patient’s personal history). In
person's friends, parents, employer,
psychology, case studies are often
workmates and others who have a good
confined to the study of a particular
knowledge of the person, as well as to
individual.
obtain facts from the person him or
The information is mainly biographical herself.Most of this information is likely to
and relates to events in the individual's be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather
past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to than measurement) but the psychologist
significant events which are currently might collect numerical data as well.
occurring in his or her everyday life.
The case study is not itself a research ANALYZING CASE STUDY DATA:
method, but researchers select methods of
data collection and analysis that will The data collected can be analyzed using
generate material suitable for case studies. different theories (e.g. grounded theory,
CONDUCTING A CASE STUDY: interpretative phenomenological analysis,
text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding).
All the approaches mentioned here use
The procedure used in a case study means
preconceived categories in the analysis and
that the researcher provides a description
of the behavior. This comes from
they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. adopt a holistic point of view (i.e.
they focus on the individual case without humanistic psychologists).
reference to a comparison group.
LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDIES
Interpreting the information means the
researcher decides what to include or leave Can’t generalize the results to the
out. A good case study should always wider population.
make clear which information is the Researchers' own subjective
factual description and which is an feeling may influence the case
inference or the opinion of the researcher. study (researcher bias).
Difficult to replicate.
STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDIES Time-consuming.
Provides detailed (rich qualitative) Because a case study deals with only one
information. person/event/group we can never be sure
Provides insight for further whether the conclusions drawn from this
research. particular case apply elsewhere.
Permitting investigation of The results of the study are not

otherwise impractical (or unethical) generalizable because we can never know
situations. whether the case, we have investigated is
representative of the wider body of
Case studies allow a researcher to "similar" instances. Because they are
investigate a topic in far more detail than based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e.
might be possible if they were trying to descriptive) data a lot depends on the
deal with a large number of research interpretation the psychologist places on
participants (nomothetic approach) with the information she has acquired. This
the aim of ‘averaging’.Because of their in- means that there is a lot of scope for
depth, multi-sided approach case studies observer bias and it could be that the
often shed light on aspects of human subjective opinions of the psychologist
thinking and behavior that would be intrude in the assessment of what the data
unethical or impractical to study in other means.
ways.Research which only looks into the
measurable aspects of human behavior is ETHNOGRAPHY
not likely to give us insights into the
subjective dimension to experience which The ethnographic research method,
is so important to psychoanalytic and derived largely from the field of
humanistic psychologists. anthropology, emphasizes studying a
phenomenon within the context of its
Case studies are often used in exploratory culture. The researcher must be deeply
research. They can help us generate new immersed in the social culture over an
ideas (that might be tested by other extended period of time (usually 8 months
methods). They are an important way of to 2 years) and should engage, observe,
illustrating theories and can help show and record the daily life of the studied
how different aspects of a person's life are culture and its social participants within
related to each other.The method is their natural setting. The primary mode of
therefore important for psychologists who data collection is participant observation,
and data analysis involves a “sense-
making” approach. In addition, the
researcher must take extensive field notes,
and narrate her experience in descriptive EXTRA FOR REFERENCES: (For

detail so that readers may experience the someone who wants to understand the
same culture as the researcher. In this Qualitative Research Methods)
method, the researcher has two roles: rely
on her unique knowledge and engagement Content Analysis
to generate insights (theory), and convince
the scientific community of the trans- Content analysis is the systematic analysis
situational nature of the studied of the content of a text (e.g., who says
phenomenon. what, to whom, why, and to what extent
and with what effect) in a quantitative or
The advantages of this approach are its qualitative manner. Content analysis
sensitiveness to the context, the rich and typically conducted as follows. First, when
nuanced understanding it generates, and there are many texts to analyze (e.g.,
minimal respondent bias. However, this is newspaper stories, financial reports, blog
also an extremely time and resource- postings, online reviews, etc.), the
intensive approach, and findings are researcher begins by sampling a selected
specific to a given culture and less set of texts from the population of texts for
generalizable to other cultures. analysis. This process is not random, but
The classic example of ethnographic instead, texts that have more pertinent
research is Jane Goodall’s study of primate content should be chosen selectively.
behaviors, where she lived with Second, the researcher identifies and
chimpanzees in their natural habitat at applies rules to divide each text into
Gombe National Park in Tanzania, segments or “chunks” that can be treated
observed their behaviors, interacted with as separate units of analysis. This process
them, and shared their lives. During that is called unitizing. For example,
process, she learnt and chronicled how assumptions, effects, enablers, and barriers
chimpanzees seek food and shelter, how in texts may constitute such units. Third,
they socialize with each other, their the researcher constructs and applies one
communication patterns, their mating or more concepts to each unitized text
behaviors, and so forth. A more segment in a process called coding. For
contemporary example of ethnographic coding purposes, a coding scheme is used
research is Myra Bluebond-Langer’s based on the themes the researcher is
(1996) [14] study of decision making in searching for or uncovers as she classifies
families with children suffering from life- the text. Finally, the coded data is
threatening illnesses, and the physical, analyzed, often both quantitatively and
psychological, environmental, ethical, qualitatively, to determine which themes
legal, and cultural issues that influence occur most frequently, in what contexts,
such decision-making. The researcher and how they are related to each other.
followed the experiences of approximately
80 children with incurable illnesses and A simple type of content analysis is
their families for a period of over two sentiment analysis – a technique used to
years. Data collection involved participant capture people’s opinion or attitude toward
observation and formal/informal an object, person, or phenomenon.
conversations with children, their parents Reading online messages about a political
and relatives, and health care providers to candidate posted on an online forum and
document their lived experience. classifying each message as positive,
negative, or neutral is an example of such
an analysis. In this case, each message
represents one unit of analysis. This
analysis will help identify whether the
sample as a whole is positively or Hermeneutic Analysis

negatively disposed or neutral towards that
candidate. Examining the content of online Hermeneutic analysis is a special type of
reviews in a similar manner is another content analysis where the researcher tries to
example. Though this analysis can be done “interpret” the subjective meaning of a given
manually, for very large data sets (millions text within its socio-historic context. Unlike
of text records), natural language grounded theory or content analysis, which
processing and text analytics-based ignores the context and meaning of text
software programs are available to documents during the coding process,
automate the coding process, and maintain hermeneutic analysis is a truly interpretive
a record of how people sentiments technique for analyzing qualitative data.
fluctuate with time. This method assumes that written texts
narrate an author’s experience within a
A frequent criticism of content analysis is socio-historic context, and should be
that it lacks a set of systematic procedures interpreted as such within that context.
that would allow the analysis to be Therefore, the researcher continually iterates
replicated by other researchers. Schilling between singular interpretation of the text
(2006) [20] addressed this criticism by (the part) and a holistic understanding of the
organizing different content analytic context (the whole) to develop a fuller
procedures into a spiral model. This model understanding of the phenomenon in its
consists of five levels or phases in situated context, which German philosopher
interpreting text: (1) convert recorded Martin Heidegger called the hermeneutic
tapes into raw text data or transcripts for circle. The word hermeneutic (singular)
content analysis, (2) convert raw data into refers to one
condensed protocols, (3) convert particular method or strand of
condensed protocols into a preliminary interpretation.
category system, (4) use the preliminary
category system to generate coded More generally, hermeneutics is the study
protocols, and (5) analyze coded protocols of interpretation and the theory and
to generate interpretations about the practice of interpretation. Derived from
phenomenon of interest. religious studies and linguistics, traditional
hermeneutics, such as biblical
Content analysis has several limitations. hermeneutics , refers to the interpretation
First, the coding process is restricted to the of written texts, especially in the areas of
information available in text form. For literature, religion and law (such as the
instance, if a researcher is interested in Bible). In the 20th century, Heidegger
studying people’s views on capital suggested that a more direct, non-
punishment, but no such archive of text mediated, and authentic way of
documents is available, then the analysis understanding social reality is to
cannot be done. Second, sampling must be experience it, rather than simply observe
done carefully to avoid sampling bias. For it, and proposed philosophical
instance, if your population is the hermeneutics , where the focus shifted
published research literature on a given from interpretation to existential
topic, then you have systematically understanding. Heidegger argued that texts
omitted unpublished research or the most are the means by which readers can not
recent work that is yet to be published. only read about an author’s experience,
but also relive the author’s experiences.
Contemporary or modern hermeneutics,
developed by Heidegger’s students such as
Hans-Georg Gadamer, further examined
the limits of written texts for
communicating social experiences, and
went on to propose a framework of the MEASURES OF CENTRAL

TENDENCY AND DISPERSION:
interpretive process, encompassing all
forms of communication, including
Univariate analysis, or analysis of a single
written, verbal, and non-verbal, and
variable, refers to a set of statistical
exploring issues that restrict the
techniques that can describe the general
communicative ability of written texts,
properties of one variable. Univariate
such as presuppositions, language
structures (e.g., grammar, syntax, etc.), and statistics include: (1) frequency
semiotics (the study of written signs such distribution, (2) central tendency, and (3)
as symbolism, metaphor, analogy, and dispersion. The frequency distribution of a
sarcasm). The term hermeneutics is variable is a summary of the frequency (or
sometimes used interchangeably and percentages) of individual values or ranges
inaccurately with exegesis , which refers to of values for that variable. For instance,
the interpretation or critical explanation of we can measure how many times a sample
written text only and especially religious of respondents attend religious services (as
texts. a measure of their “religiosity”) using a
categorical scale: never, once per year,
several times per year, about once a
STATISTICS IN month, several times per month, several
PSYCHOLOGY: MEASURES times per week, and an optional category
OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND for “did not answer.” If we count the
number (or percentage) of observations
DISPERSION. NORMAL within each category (except “did not
PROBABILITY CURVE. answer” which is really a missing value
PARAMETRIC [T-TEST] AND rather than a category), and display it in
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS the form of a table as shown in Figure
[SIGN TEST, WILCOXON 14.1, what we have is a frequency
SIGNED RANK TEST, MANN- distribution. This distribution can also be
depicted in the form of a bar chart, as
WHITNEY TEST, KRUSKAL- shown on the right panel of Figure 14.1,
WALLIS TEST, FRIEDMAN]. with the horizontal axis representing each
POWER ANALYSIS. EFFECT category of that variable and the vertical
SIZE. axis representing the frequency or
percentage of observations within each
category.
With very large samples where median, is the middle value within a
observations are independent and range of values in a distribution. This is
random, the frequency distribution tends computed by sorting all values in a
to follow a plot that looked like a bell- distribution in increasing order and
shaped curve (a smoothed bar chart of selecting the middle value. In case there
the frequency distribution) similar to that are two middle values (if there is an even
shown in Figure 14.2, where most number of values in a distribution), the
observations are clustered toward the average of the two middle values
center of the range of values, and fewer represent the median. In the above
and fewer observations toward the example, the sorted values are: 15, 15,
extreme ends of the range. Such a curve 15, 18, 22, 21, 25, 36. The two middle
is called a normal distribution. values are 18 and 22, and hence the
median is (18 + 22)/2 = 20.
Central tendency is an estimate of the Lastly, the mode is the most frequently
center of a distribution of values. There occurring value in a distribution of values. In
are three major estimates of central the previous example, the most frequently
tendency: mean, median, and mode. The occurring value is 15, which is the mode of
arithmetic mean (often simply called the the above set of test scores. Note that any
“mean”) is the simple average of all value that is estimated from a sample, such as
values in a given distribution. Consider a mean, median, mode, or any of the later
set of eight test scores: 15, 22, 21, 18, estimates are called a statistic.
36, 15, 25, 15. The arithmetic mean of
these values is (15 + 20 Dispersion refers to the way values are spread
21+20+36+15+25+15)/8= around the central tendency, for example, how
20.875. Other types of means include tightly or how widely are the values clustered
geometric mean (n th root of the product around the mean. Two common measures of
of n numbers in a distribution) and dispersion are the range and standard
harmonic mean (the reciprocal of the deviation. The range is the difference between
arithmetic means of the reciprocal of the highest and lowest values in a distribution.
each value in a distribution), but these The range in our previous example is 36-15 =
means are not very popular for statistical 21.
analysis of social research data. The
second measure of central tendency, the
The range is particularly sensitive to the

dispersion, corrects for such outliers by
presence of outliers. For instance, if the
using a formula that takes into account
highest value in the above distribution was
how close or how far each value from the
85 and the other vales remained the same, distribution mean:
the range would be 85-15 = 70. Standard
deviation, the second measure of
where σ is the standard deviation, x i is the

ith observation (or value), µ is the
NORMAL PROBABILITY
arithmetic mean, n is the total number of CURVE
observations, and Σ means summation
across all observations. The square of the A normal distribution has a bell-shaped
standard deviation is called the variance of curve and is symmetrical around its center,
a distribution. In a normally distributed so the right side of the center is a mirror
frequency distribution, it is seen that 68% image of the left side.Most of the
of the observations lie within one standard continuous data values in a normal
deviation of the mean (µ + 1 σ), 95% of distribution tend to cluster around the
the observations lie within two standard mean, and the further a value is from the
deviations (µ + 2 σ), and 99.7% of the mean, the less likely it is to occur. The
observations lie within three standard tails are asymptotic, which means that they
deviations (µ + 3 σ), as shown in Figure approach but never quite meet the horizon
14.2. (i.e. x-axis).
For a perfectly normal distribution the

mean, median and mode will be the same
value, visually represented by the peak of
the curve.
The normal distribution is often called the

bell curve because the graph of its
probability density looks like a bell. It is
Also known as called Gaussian

distribution, after the German WHY IS THE NORMAL
mathematician Carl Gauss who first DISTRIBUTION IMPORTANT?
described it
WHAT IS THE EMPIRICAL values that fall within certain distances

RULE FORMULA? from the mean. The empirical rule is often
referred to as the three-sigma rule or the
68-95-99.7 rule.
The empirical rule in statistics allows
researchers to determine the proportion of
If the data values in a normal distribution

are converted to z-scores in a standard
normal distribution the empirical rule bell-shaped distribution (SPSS command

describes the percentage of the data that here).
fall within specific numbers of standard
deviations (σ) from the mean (μ) for bell- It is also advisable to a frequency graph
shaped curves. For example, in a normal too, so you can check the visual shape of
distribution, 68% of the observations fall your data (If your chart is a histogram, you
within +/- 1 standard deviation from the can add a distribution curve using SPSS:
mean. From the menus choose: Elements > Show
Distribution Curve).
Normal distributions become more

apparent (i.e. perfect) the finer the level of
measurement and the larger the sample
from a population.
HOW CAN I CHECK IF MY DATA
FOLLOWS A NORMAL
You can also calculate coefficients which
DISTRIBUTION?
tell us about the size of the distribution
Statistical software (such as SPSS) can be
used to check if your dataset is normally
distributed by calculating the three
measures of central tendency. If the mean,
median and mode are very similar values
there is a good chance that the data follows
tails in relation to the bump in the middle

of the bell curve. For example,
Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk
tests can be calculated using SPSS.
These tests compare your data to a normal

distribution and provide a p-value, which
if significant (p < .05) indicates your data

is different to a normal distribution (thus,
on this occasion we do not want a
significant result and need a p-value higher
than 0.05).
Kurtosis is a statistical measure used to

describe the degree to which scores cluster
in the tails or the peak of a frequency
distribution. The peak is the tallest part of
the distribution, and the tails are the ends
of the distribution.
There are three types of kurtosis:

mesokurtic, leptokurtic, and
platykurtic.
Mesokurtic: Distributions that are WHAT DOES IT MEAN WHEN

moderate in breadth and curves KURTOSIS IS ZERO?
 with a medium peaked height.
When kurtosis is equal to 0, the
Leptokurtic: More values in the
distribution tails and more values distribution is mesokurtic. This means the
close to the mean (i.e.  sharply kurtosis is the same as the normal
 peaked with heavy tails) distribution, it is mesokurtic (medium
peak). The kurtosis of a mesokurtic
Platykurtic: Fewer values in the tails distribution is neither high nor low, rather
and fewer values close to the mean it is considered to be a baseline for the two
(i.e. the curve has a flat peak and
other classifications.

has more dispersed scores with
lighter tails).
PARAMETRIC [T-TEST]
The t test is one type of inferential

statistics. It is used to determine whether
there is a significant difference between
the means of two groups. With all
inferential statistics, we assume the
dependent variable fits a normal
distribution. When we assume a normal
distribution exists, we can identify the
probability of a particular outcome. We
specify the level of probability (alpha
level, level of significance, p) we are
willing to accept before we collect data (p If our t test produces a t-value that results
.05 is a common value that is used). in a probability of .01, we say that the
After we collect data, we calculate a test likelihood of getting the difference we
statistic with a formula. We compare our found by chance would be 1 in 100 times.
test statistic with a critical value found on We could say that it is unlikely that our
a table to see if our results fall within the results occurred by chance and the
acceptable level of probability. Modern difference we found in the sample
computer programs calculate the test probably exists in the populations from
statistic for us and also provide the exact which it was drawn.
probability of obtaining that test statistic
with the number of subjects we have. Five factors contribute to whether the
difference between two groups’ means
STUDENT’S TEST (T TEST): can be considered significant:
When the difference between two How large is the difference between
population averages is being the means of the two groups?
investigated, a t test is used. In other Other factors being equal, the
words, a t test is used when we wish to greater the difference between the
compare two means (the scores must be two means, the greater the
measured on an interval or ratio likelihood that a statistically
measurement scale). We would use a t test significant mean difference exists.
if we wished to compare the reading If the means of the two groups are
achievement of boys and girls. With a t far apart, we can be fairly
test, we have one independent variable and confident that there is a real
one dependent variable. The independent difference between them.
variable (gender in this case) can only How much overlap is there between
have two levels (male and female). The the groups? This is a function of
dependent variable would be reading the variation within the groups.
achievement. If the independent had Other factors being equal, the
more than two levels, then we would use smaller the variances of the two
a one-way analysis of variance groups under consideration, the
(ANOVA). greater the likelihood that a
statistically significant mean
The test statistic that a t test produces is a difference exists. We can be more
t-value. Conceptually, t-values are an confident that two groups differ
extension of z-scores. In a way, the t- when the scores within each group
value represents how many standard units are close together.
the means of the two groups are apart. How many subjects are in the two
samples? The size of the sample is
With a t test, the researcher wants to state extremely important in determining
with some degree of confidence that the the significance of the difference
obtained difference between the means of between means. With increased
the sample groups is too great to be a sample size, means tend to become
chance event and that some difference also more stable representations of
exists in the population from which the group performance. If the
sample was drawn. In other words, the difference we find remains
difference that we might find between the constant as we collect more and
boys’ and girls’ reading achievement in more data, we become more
our sample might have occurred by confident that we can trust the
chance, or it might exist in the population. difference we are finding.
What alpha level is being used to test

the mean difference (how confident EXTRA for Reference
do you want to be about your
statement that there is a mean Three Types of t tests
difference). A larger alpha level
requires less difference between the
means. It is much harder to find
differences between groups when
you are only willing to have your
results occur by chance 1 out of a
100 times (p < .01) as compared to
5 out of 100 times (p < .05).
Is a directional (one-tailed) or non-
directional (two-tailed) hypothesis
being tested? Other factors being
equal, smaller mean differences
result in statistical significance
with a directional hypothesis. For
our purposes we will use non-
directional (two-tailed) hypotheses.

ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE 
TEST
The samples have been randomly This is concerned with the difference
drawn from their respective between the average scores of a single
populations sample of individuals who are assessed
The scores in the population are at two different times (such as before
normally distributed treatment and after treatment). It can
The scores in the populations have the also compare average scores of
same variance (s1=s2) Note: We samples of individuals who are paired
use a different calculation for the in some way (such as siblings,
standard error if they are not. mothers, daughters, persons who are
Pair-difference t test (a.k.a. t-test for matched in terms of a particular
dependent groups, correlated t test) df= n characteristics).
(number of pairs) -1 
T-test for Independent Samples (with
 two options)
This is concerned with the difference
between the averages of two
populations. Basically, the procedure
compares the averages of two samples
that were selected independently of each
other, and asks whether those sample
averages differ enough to believe that
the populations from which they were
selected also have different averages. An
example would be comparing math
achievement scores
of an experimental group with a control EFFECT SIZE is used to calculate

group. practical difference. If you have several
thousand subjects, it is very easy to find a
Equal Variance (Pooled- statistically significant difference.
variance t-test) df=n (total of Whether that difference is practical or
both groups) meaningful is another questions. This is
-2 Note: Used when both samples where effect size becomes important.
have the same number of subject With studies involving group differences,
or when s1=s2 (Levene or F-max effect size is the difference of the two
tests have p > .05). means divided by the standard deviation
Unequal Variance (Separate- of the control group (or the average
variance t test) df dependents on standard deviation of both groups if you
a formula, but a rough estimate do not have a control group). Generally,
are one less than the smallest effect size is only important if you have
group. statistical significance. An effect size of
.2 is considered small, .5 is considered
The basic idea for calculating a t-test is to medium, and .8 is considered large.
find the difference between the means of
the two groups and divide it by the
STANDARD ERROR (OF THE FYI: William Sealy Gosset (1905) first
DIFFERENCE) — which is the standard published a t-test. He worked at the
deviation of the distribution of differences. Guiness Brewery in Dublin and published
under the name Student. The test was
For information: A CONFIDENCE called Student Test (later shortened to t
INTERVAL for a two-tailed t-test is test).
calculated by multiplying the CRITICAL
VALUE times the STANDARD ERROR How do I decide which type of t test to
and adding and subtracting that to and use?
from the difference of the two means.
How do I decide which type of t test to
use?
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
WHITNEY TEST, KRUSKAL-
[SIGN TEST, WILCOXON SIGNED
WALLIS TEST, FRIEDMAN].
RANK TEST, MANN-
A non-parametric test (sometimes called a
distribution free test) does not assume
anything about the underlying distribution
(for example, that the data comes from a
normal distribution). That’s compared to
parametric test, which makes assumptions
about a population’s parameters (for
example, the mean or standard deviation);
When the word “non parametric” is used
in stats, it doesn’t quite mean that you Use this test to estimate the median of a
know nothing about the population. It population and compare it to a reference
usually means that you know the value or target value.
population data does not have a normal
distribution. The sign test is a statistical test to compare
the sizes of two groups. It is a non-
For example, one assumption for the one- parametric or “distribution free” test,
way ANOVA is that the data comes from a which means the test doesn’t assume the
normal distribution. If your data isn’t data comes from a particular distribution,
normally distributed, you can’t run an like the normal distribution. The sign test
ANOVA, but you can run the is an alternative to a one sample t test or a
nonparametric alternative—the Kruskal- paired t test. It can also be used for
Wallis test. ordered (ranked) categorical data.
If at all possible, you should us parametric The null hypothesis for the sign test is that
tests, as they tend to be more accurate. the difference between medians is zero.
Parametric tests have greater statistical For a one sample sign test, where the
power, which means they are likely to find median for a single sample is analyzed.
a true significant effect. Use nonparametric
tests only if you have to (i.e. you know HOW TO CALCULATE A
that assumptions like PAIRED/MATCHED SAMPLE SIGN
normality are being violated). TEST: (FOR REFERENCE)
Nonparametric tests can perform well with
non-normal continuous data if you have a https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece
sufficiently large sample size (generally ntral.com/sign-test/
15-20 items in each group). 1-SAMPLE WILCOXON
SIGNED RANK TEST.
TYPES OF NONPARAMETRIC
TESTS With this test, you also estimate the
population median and compare it to a
When the word “parametric” is used in reference/target value. However, the test
stats, it usually means tests like ANOVA assumes your data comes from a
or a t test. Those tests both assume that the symmetric distribution (like the Cauchy
population data has a normal distribution. distribution or uniform distribution).
Non-parametric do not assume that the
data is normally distributed. The only non- The Wilcoxon signed rank test (also called
parametric test you are likely to come the Wilcoxon signed rank sum test) is a
across in elementary stats is the chi-square non-parametric test. When the word “non-
test. However, there are several others. For parametric” is used in stats, it doesn’t quite
example: the Kruskal Willis test is the mean that you know nothing about the
non-parametric alternative to the One-way population. It usually means that you know
ANOVA and the Mann Whitney is the the population data does not have a normal
non-parametric alternative to the two- distribution. The Wilcoxon signed rank
sample t test. test should be used if the differences
between pairs of data are non-normally
THE MAIN NON-PARAMETRIC distributed.
TESTS ARE: 
1-SAMPLE SIGN TEST. Two slightly different versions of the test
exist:
The Wilcoxon signed rank from a particular distribution (like the

test compares your sample normal distribution). Basically, it’s used in
median against a place of the ANOVA test when you don’t
hypothetical median. know the distribution of your data.
The Wilcoxon matched-
pairs signed rank test Friedman’s test is an extension of the sign
computes the difference test, used when there are multiple
between each set of treatments. In fact, if there are only two
matched pairs, then follows treatments the two tests are identical.
the same procedure as the
signed rank test to compare Your data should meet the following
the sample against some requirements:
median.
Data should be ordinal (e.g. the
The term “Wilcoxon” is often used for Likert scale) or continuous,
either test. This usually isn’t confusing, as o Data comes from a single
it should be obvious if the data is matched, group, measured on at least
or not matched. three different occasions,
The sample was created with a
The null hypothesis for this test is that the random sampling method,
medians of two samples are equal. It is o Blocks are mutually
generally used: independent (i.e. all of the pairs
are independent — one doesn’t
o As a non-parametric affect the other),
alternative to the one- Observations are ranked within
sample t test or paired t test. blocks with no ties.
o For ordered (ranked)
categorical variables The null hypothesis for the test is that the
without a numerical scale. treatments all have identical effects, or that
the samples differ in some way. For
HOW TO RUN THE WILCOXON example, they have different centers,
spreads, or shapes. The alternate
SIGNED RANK TEST: (FOR
hypothesis is that the treatments do have
REFERENCE)
different effects.
https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece
ntral.com/wilcoxon-signed-rank-test/ RUNNING THE TEST: (FOR
REFERENCE)

FRIEDMAN TEST
This test is used to test for differences
ntral.com/friedmans-test/
between groups with ordinal dependent
variables. It can also be used for GOODMAN KRUSKA’S
GAMMA:
continuous data if the one-way ANOVA
with repeated measures is inappropriate
A test of association for ranked variables.
(i.e. some assumption has been violated).
RUNNING THE TEST: (FOR
Friedman’s test is a non-parametric test for
REFERENCE) 
finding differences in treatments across
multiple attempts. Nonparametric means KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST.
the test doesn’t assume your data comes
for the calculations, rather than the data.

Use this test instead of a one-way
ANOVA points themselves. To find out if
two or more medians are different.
Ranks of the data points are used
O Your observations should be

independent. In other words,
Assumptions for the Kruskal Wallis Test there should be no relationship
between the members in each
Your variables should have: group or between groups. For
more information on this point,
One independent variable with see: Assumption of
two or more levels Independence.
(independent groups). The test O All groups should have the
is more commonly used when same shape distributions. Most
you have three or more levels. software (i.e. SPSS, Minitab)
For two levels, consider using Part of the test.
the Mann Whitney U Test
instead.Ordinal scale, Ratio Scale
Interval scale dependent variables.
RUNNING THE TEST:(FOR REFERENCE)
https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece normal distribution) before running the

ntral.com/kruskal-wallis/ test. That said, your samples should have
been drawn from distributions with the

THE MANN-KENDALL TREND same shape. This test has very low
TEST: statistical power for samples drawn from
normal distributions or short-tailed
Looks for trends in time-series data.
 distributions.
MANN-WHITNEY TEST.
Use this test instead of the sign test when
Use this test to compare differences you have two independent samples.
between two independent groups when
dependent variables are either ordinal or The null hypothesis for this test is that the
continuous. The Mann-Whitney U test is medians are the same for both groups.The
the nonparametric equivalent of the two alternate hypothesis for the test is that the
sample t-test. While the t-test makes an medians are different for both groups.
assumption about the distribution of a
population (i.e. that the sample came from
t-distributed population), the Mann RUNNING THE TEST: (FOR
Whitney U Test makes no such REFERENCE)
assumption. https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece
ntral.com/moods-median-test/
REFERENCE)
ntral.com/mann-whitney-u-test/
 SPEARMAN RANK
MOOD’S MEDIAN TEST. CORRELATION.
Use this test instead of the sign test when Use when you want to find a correlation
you have two independent samples. between two sets of data. The Spearman
rank correlation coefficient, rs, is the
Mood’s median test is used to compare the nonparametric version of the Pearson
medians for two samples to find out if they correlation coefficient. Your data must be
are different. For example, you might want ordinal, interval or ratio. Spearman’s
to compare the median number of positive returns a value from -1 to 1, where:
calls to a hotline vs. the median number of
negative comment calls to find out if +1 = a perfect positive
you’re getting significantly more negative correlation between ranks
comments than positive comments (or vice -1 = a perfect negative
versa). correlation between ranks
0 = no correlation
This test is the nonparametric alternative to between ranks.
a one way ANOVA; Nonparametric means
that you don’t have to know what
distribution your sample came from (i.e. a

REFERENCE) The following table lists the nonparametric
tests and their parametric alternatives.
ntral.com/spearman-rank-correlation-
definition-calculate/
Compared to parametric tests, outliers or that has been measured

nonparametric tests have several imprecisely.However, they do have
advantages, including: their disadvantages. The most
notable ones are:

More statistical power when Less powerful than parametric tests
assumptions for the parametric  
if assumptions haven’t been
tests have been violated. When violated.
assumptions haven’t been violated, More labor-intensive to calculate
they can be almost as powerful.  by hand (for computer  calculations,
 this isn’t an issue).
Fewer assumptions (i.e. the Critical value tables for many tests
assumption of normality doesn’t aren’t included in many computer
apply).Small sample sizes are software packages. This is
 acceptable. compared to tables for parametric
 They can be used for all data types, tests (like the z-table or  t-table)
including nominal variables, which usually are included.
interval variables, or data that has
POWER 1 It is the probability of correctly rejecting
a false null hypothesis.
Power is defined as the probability of 2 With low power, the null hypothesis is
correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis. unlikely to be rejected. When the null
In terms of our example, it is the hypothesis is not rejected, the experiment
probability that given there is a difference is inconclusive.
between the population means of the new
method and the standard method, the
sample means will be significantly FACTORS AFFECTING POWER
different. The probability of failing to
reject a false null hypothesis is often Several factors affect the power of a
referred to as β. Therefore, power can be statistical test. Some of the factors are
defined as: under the control of the experimenter,
whereas others are not.
Larger the sample size, the higher the

power. Since sample size is
typically under an experimenter's
It is very important to consider power control, increasing sample size is
while designing an experiment. You one way to increase power.
should avoid spending a lot of time and/or
money on an experiment that has little
chance of finding a significant effect.
However, it is sometimes difficult and/or Effect size is a quantitative measure of the

expensive to use a large sample size. magnitude of the experimenter effect. The
Power is higher when the standard larger the effect size the stronger the
deviation is small.Larger the effect size, relationship between two variables.
the more likely it is that an experiment
would
 find a significant effect. It is used to calculate practical difference.
There is a trade-off between the If you have several thousand subjects, it is
significance level and power: the more very easy to find a statistically significant
stringent (lower) the significance level, the difference. Whether that difference is
lower the power.Power is higher with a practical or meaningful is another
one-tailed test than with a two-tailed test question. This is where effect size
as long as the hypothesized direction is becomes important. With studies involving
correct. A one-tailed test at the 0.05 level group differences, effect size is the
has the same power as a two-tailed test at difference of the two means divided by the
the 0.10 level. A one-tailed test, in effect, standard deviation of the control group (or
raises the significance level. the average standard deviation of both
groups if you do not have a control group).
Generally, effect size is only important if
you have statistical significance. An effect
size of .2 is considered small, .5 is
considered medium, and .8 is considered
large. Thus, Effect sizes either measure the
sizes of associations between variables or
the sizes of differences between group
means.
COHEN'S D
It is an appropriate effect size for the
comparison between two means. It can be
used, for example, to accompany the
reporting of t-test and ANOVA results. It
2 All except (A) is also widely used in meta-analysis.
3 Only decreasing the significance level.
The others have no effect. To calculate the standardized mean
difference between two groups, subtract
EFFECT SIZE the mean of one group from the other (M1
– M2) and divide the result by the standard
deviation (SD) of the population from
which the groups were sampled.
PEARSON R CORRELATION
Cohen suggested that d=0.2 be considered
This parameter of effect size summarizes
a 'small' effect size, 0.5 represents a
the strength of the bivariate relationship.
'medium' effect size and 0.8 a 'large' effect
The value of the effect size of Pearson r
size. This means that if two groups' means
correlation varies between -1 (a perfect
don't differ by 0.2 standard deviations or
negative correlation) to +1 (a perfect
more, the difference is trivial, even if it is
positive correlation).
statistically significant.
CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS:
PARTIAL CORRELATION,
MULTIPLE CORRELATION.
PARTIAL CORRELATION,
MULTIPLE CORRELATION
Correlation means association - more A negative correlation is a relationship

precisely it is a measure of the extent to between two variables in which an
which two variables are related. There are increase in one variable is associated
three possible results of a correlational with a decrease in the other. An
study: a positive correlation, a negative example would be height above sea
correlation, and no correlation. level and temperature. As you climb
the mountain (increase in height)  it
 gets colder (decrease in temperature).
A positive correlation is a relationship
between two variables in which both
variables either increase or decrease at A zero correlation exists when there is no
the same time. An example would be relationship between two variables.
For example, there is no relationship
 Taller people tend
height and weight.
between the amount of tea drunk and
to be heavier.
level of intelligence.
that maybe unethical or impractical to test

experimentally. For example, it would be
unethical to conduct an experiment on
whether smoking causes lung cancer.
Correlation allows the researcher to

clearly and easily see if there is a
relationship between variables. This can
then be displayed in a graphical form.
LIMITATIONS OF
CORRELATIONS
Correlation is not and cannot be taken to

imply causation. Even if there is a very
strong association between two
variables, we cannot assume that one
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS causes the other.For example, suppose
we found a positive correlation between
Instead of drawing a scattergram a watching violence on T.V. and violent
correlation can be expressed numerically behavior in adolescence. It could be that
as a coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1. the cause of both these is a third
When working with continuous variables, (extraneous) variable - say for example,
the correlation coefficient to use is growing up in a violent home - and that
Pearson’s r. both the watching of T.V. and the
violent behavior are the outcome of this.
Correlation does not allow us to go

beyond the data that is given. For
example, suppose it was found that
there was an association between time
spent on homework (1/2 hour to 3
hours) and number of G.C.S.E. passes
(1 to 6). It would not be legitimate to
infer from this that spending 6 hours on
homework would be likely to generate
12 G.C.S.E. passes.
The correlation coefficient (r) indicates the SPECIAL CORRELATION

extent to which the pairs of numbers for METHODS: BISERIAL, POINT
these two variables lie on a straight line. BISERIAL, TETRACHORIC, PHI
Values over zero indicate a positive COEFFICIENT.
correlation, while values under zero
indicate a negative correlation. https://statistics.laerd.com/features-
tests.php
STRENGTHS OF CORRELATIONS
WHY SO MANY CORRELATION
Correlation allows the researcher to COEFFICIENTS?
investigate naturally occurring variables
The Pearson product moment correlation
coefficient required quantitative (interval
or ratio) data for both x and y whereas the moment correlation coefficient, there are
Spearman rho correlation coefficient coefficients which are instead measures of
applied to ranked (ordinal) data for both x association which are also in common use.
and y. It is often the case that the data
variables are not at the same level of For the purposes of correlation
measurement, or that the data might coefficients, we can generally lump the
instead of being quantitative be categorical interval and ratio scales together as just
(nominal or ordinal). In addition to quantitative. In addition, the regression of
correlation coefficients based on the x on y is closely related to the regression
product moment and thus related to the of y on x, and the same coefficient applies.
Pearson product
Quantitative X Ordinal
Variable Y/X X Nominal X
(Interval/Ratio)
Quantitative Y Pearson’s r - -
(Interval/Ratio)
Tetrachoric r
Biserial
(Both variables are
Ordinal Y (Artificial Dichotomous- -
dichotomous + Continuous
+
Continuous)
Normally distributed)
Point-
biserial
Phi
Nominal Y (Dichotomous- Rank Biserial
Coefficient
Dichotomous)
POINT-BISERIAL CORRELATION: values 1 (presence) and 0 (absence) are

used for the dichotomous variable.
Like all correlation analyses the Point-
Biserial Correlation measures the For example, you could use a point-
strength of association or co-occurrence biserial correlation to determine whether
between two variables. there is an association between salaries,
measured in US dollars, and gender (i.e.,
A point-biserial correlation is used to your continuous variable would be
measure the strength and direction of the "salary" and your dichotomous variable
association that exists between one would be "gender", which has two
continuous variable and one dichotomous categories: "males" and "females").
variable. It is a special case of the Alternately, you could use a point-biserial
Pearson’s product-moment correlation, correlation to determine whether there is
which is applied when you have two an association between cholesterol
continuous variables, whereas in this case concentration, measured in mmol/L, and
one of the variables is measured on a smoking status (i.e., your continuous
dichotomous scale. variable would be "cholesterol
concentration", a marker of heart disease,
The point-biserial correlation coefficient, and your dichotomous variable would be
referred to as rpb, is a special case of "smoking status", which has two
Pearson in which one variable is categories: "smoker" and "non-smoker").
quantitative and the other variable is When you choose to analyse your data
dichotomous and nominal. The using a point-biserial correlation, part of
calculations simplify since typically the the process involves checking to make
sure that the data you want to analyse can
actually be analysed using a point-biserial
correlation. You need to do this because it employed or unemployed), smoker

is only appropriate to use a point-biserial (two groups: yes or no), and so forth.
correlation if your data "passes" five Assumption #3: There should be no
assumptions that are required for a point-
outliers for the continuous variable for
biserial correlation to give you a valid
result. each category of the dichotomous
variable. You can test for outliers
Assumption #1: One of your two using boxplots.
variables should be measured on a Assumption #4: Your continuous variable
continuous scale. Examples of should be approximately normally
continuous variables include revision distributed for each category of the
time (measured in hours), intelligence dichotomous variable. You can test
(measured using IQ score), exam this using the Shapiro-Wilk test of
performance (measured from 0 to 100), normality.
weight (measured in kg), and so forth. Assumption #5: Your continuous variable
Assumption #2: Your other variable should have equal variances for each
should be dichotomous. Examples of category of the dichotomous variable.
dichotomous variables include gender You can test this using Levene's test of
(two groups: male or female), equality of variances.
employment status (two groups:
variable (ratio or interval data) and a

binary variable. Binary variables are
variables of nominal scale with only two
values. They are also called dichotomous
variables or dummy variables in
Regression Analysis. Binary variables are
commonly used to express the existence of
EXTRA FOR REFERENCE: a certain characteristic (e.g., reacted or did
not react in a chemistry sample) or the
The point-biserial correlation membership in a group of observed
coefficient, which is simply the specimen (e.g., male or female). If needed
Pearson’s correlation coefficient when for the analysis, binary variables can also
one of the samples is dichotomous. be created artificially by grouping cases or
recoding variables. However, it is not
The Point-Biserial Correlation Coefficient advised to artificially create a binary
is a correlation measure of the strength of variable from ordinal or continuous-level
association between a continuous-level (ratio or scale) data because ordinal and
continuous-level data contain more show that the test of the phi coefficient is
variance information than nominal data equivalent to the chi-square test.
and thus make any correlation analysis
more reliable. Remember, one of the ways chi-square is
interpreted is as a test of independence.
The test of independence refers to whether
BISERIAL CORRELATION: or not two varables are related. If two
variables are related, they are correlated.
Biserial correlation (rbis) is a
correlational index that estimates the So, when we conduct a chi-square test, and
strength of a relationship between an we want to have a rough estimate of how
artificially dichotomous variable (X) and a strongly related the two variables are, we
true continuous variable (Y). Both can examine phi. Squaring phi will give
variables are assumed to be normally you the approximate amount of shared
distributed in their underlying populations. variance between the two variables, as
does r-square.
The biserial correlation coefficient is
also a correlation coefficient where one of If both variables instead are nominal and
the samples is measured as dichotomous, dichotomous, the Pearson simplifies even
but where that sample is really normally further. First, perhaps, we need to
distributed. In such cases, the point- introduce contingency tables. A
biserial correlation generally under-reports contingency table is a two dimensional
the true value of the association. The table containing frequencies by category.
biserial correlation coefficient provides a For this situation it will be two by two
better estimate in this case. since each variable can only take on two
values, but each dimension will exceed
The phi-coefficient and the tetrachoric two when the associated variable is not
correlation coefficient are two measures dichotomous. In addition, column and row
of association for dichotomous headings and totals are frequently
variables. appended so that the contingency table
ends up being n + 2 by m + 2, where n and
PHI COEFFICIENT m are the number of values each variable
can take on. The label and total row and
There is another special case of correlation column typically are outside the gridded
called "phi" (or f, the Greek letter f ). Phi portion of the table, however.
represents the correlation between two
dichotmous variables. As with the point- EXTRA FOR REFERENCES
biserial, computing the Pearson correlation
for two dichotomous variables is the same Cramer's V
as the phi.
Cramer's V is used to examine the
Similar to the t-test/correlation association between two categorical
equivalence, the relationship between two variables when there is more than a 2 X 2
dichotomous variables is the same as the contingency (e.g., 2 X 3). In these more
difference between two groups when the complicated designs, phi is not
dependent variable is dichotmous. The appropriate, but Cramer's statistic is.
appropriate test to compare group Cramer's V represents the association or
differences with a dichotmous outcome is correlation between two variables. I've
the chi-square statistic. And, we can also also seen this statistic referred to as
"Cramers Phi".
TETRACHORIC CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT
The tetrachoric correlation coefficient, rtet, Ranks are discrete so in this manner it
is used when both variables are differs from the Spearman. The tetrachoric
dichotomous, like the phi, but we need correlation is used in a variety of contexts,
also to be able to assume both variables one important one being in Item Response
really are continuous and normally Theory (IRT) analyses of test scores, a
second in the conversion of co-morbity
distributed. Thus it is applied to ordinal vs.
statistics to correlation coefficients.
ordinal data which has this characteristic.
Assumptions for the Test level of agreement largely depends on

what type of data you’re dealing with. For
example, medical ratings between medical
The two main assumptions are:
professionals will require a higher level of
agreement than most non-medical
The underlying variables come from a situations. In general, an agreement over
normal distribution. With only two about .7 is usually considered “strong
variables, this is impossible to test. enough.”
You should, therefore, have a good
theoretical reason for using this
particular type of correlation; in
other words, you might know that REGRESSION: SIMPLE
the type of data you are dealing LINEAR REGRESSION,
with tends to follow a normal MULTIPLE REGRESSION.
distribution most of the time.
Rating errors should also follow a Simple & Multiple Regression Videos are
 normal distribution. accessible Online on PowerWithin
There is a latent continuous scale YouTube Channel.
underneath your binary data. In
other words, the trait you are REGRESSION
measuring should be continuous
and not discrete. Statisticians are often called upon to
develop methods to predict one variable
The tetrachoric correlation coefficient rtet from other variables. For example, one
(sometimes written as r* or rt) tells you might want to predict college grade point
how strong (or weak) the association is average from high school grade point
between ratings for two raters. A “0” average. Or, one might want to predict
indicates no agreement and a “1” income from the number of years of
represents a perfect agreement. Most education.
correlations will fall somewhere in
between; what constitutes an acceptable In simple linear regression, we predict
scores on one variable from the scores
on a second variable. The variable we are
predicting is called the criterion variable the regression line and consists of the
and is referred to as Y. The variable we predicted score on Y for each possible
are basing our predictions on is called the value of X. The vertical lines from the
predictor variable and is referred to as points to the regression line represent the
X. When there is only one predictor errors of prediction. As you can see, the
variable, the prediction method is called red point is very near the regression line;
simple regression. In simple linear its error of prediction is small. By contrast,
regression, the topic of this section, the the yellow point is much higher than the
predictions of Y when plotted as a function regression line and therefore its error of
of X form a straight line. prediction is large.
Linear regression consists of finding the The error of prediction for a point is the
best-fitting straight line through the points. value of the point minus the predicted
The best-fitting line is called a regression value (the value on the line).
line. The black diagonal line in Figure 2 is
By far, the most commonly-used criterion column in Table 2 shows the squared
for the best-fitting line is the line that errors of prediction. The sum of the
minimizes the sum of the squared errors of squared errors of prediction shown in
prediction. That is the criterion that was Table 2 is lower than it would be for any
used to find the line in Figure 2. The last other regression line.
1 Plug X = 4 into the equation to find Y'= high high-school GPAs are close to
3(4)-2=10 the regression line, whereas the
2 Plug A = 40 into the equation to find B'= points for low high-school GPA
2.3(40) + 9.5 = 101.5 students are not.
3 Predicted value, B' = 2.3(32.5) + 9.5 = The errors of prediction are
84.25; Error of prediction = B - B' = 95.25 distributed normally. This means
- 84.25 = 11 that the deviations from the
4 The most common criterion used to regression line are normally
determine the best-fitting line is the line distributed. It does not mean that X
that minimizes the sum of squared errors or Y is normally distributed.
of prediction. This line does not need to go
through any of the actual data points, and KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
it can have a different number of points
above it and below it. INFLUENCE
It is possible for a single observation to
have a great influence on the results of a
ASSUMPTIONS regression analysis. It is therefore
important to be alert to the possibility of
Although no assumptions were needed to influential observations and to take them
determine the best-fitting straight line, into consideration when interpreting the
assumptions are made in the calculation of results.
inferential statistics. Naturally, these
assumptions refer to the population, not The influence of an observation can be
the sample. thought of in terms of how much the
predicted scores for other observations
Linearity: The relationship between would differ if the observation in question
the two variables is linear. were not included.
Homoscedasticity: The variance
around the regression line is the A common rule of thumb is that an
same for all values of X. A clear observation with a value of Cook's D over
violation of this assumption is 1.0 has too much influence. As with all rules
shown in Figure 1. Notice that the of thumb, this rule should be applied
predictions for students with high judiciously and not thoughtlessly.An
high-school GPAs are very good, observation's influence is a function of two
whereas the predictions for factors: (1) how much the observation's
students with low high-school value on the predictor variable differs from
GPAs are not very good. In other the mean of the predictor variable and (2)
words, the points for students with the difference between the predicted score
for the observation and its actual score. The
former factor is called the
observation's leverage. The latter factor is DISTANCE

called the observation's distance. The distance of an observation is based on
the error of prediction for the observation:
LEVERAGE The greater the error of prediction, the
The leverage of an observation is based on greater the distance. The most commonly
how much the observation's value on the used measure of distance is the studentized
predictor variable differs from the mean of residual. The studentized residual for an
the predictor variable. The greater an observation is closely related to the error
observation's leverage, the more potential of prediction for that observation divided
it has to be an influential observation. by the standard deviation of the errors of
prediction.
1 The Studentized residual measures the (HSGPA) and their total SAT score
distance which is based on the error of the (verbal + math). The values of b (b1 and
prediction for the observation. It is the b2) are sometimes called "regression
combination of an observation's leverage coefficients" and sometimes called
and distance that determines its influence. "regression weights." These two terms are
synonymous.The multiple correlation (R)
is equal to the
1 The standard error of the estimate is a correlation between the predicted scores
measure of the accuracy of predictions. and the actual scores.
The regression line is the line that
minimizes the sum of squared deviations INTERPRETATION OF
of prediction (also called the sum of REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
squares error), and the standard error of the
estimate is the square root of the average A regression coefficient in multiple
squared deviation. regression is the slope of the linear
relationship between the criterion variable
and the part of a predictor variable that is
MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION independent of all other predictor
variables.
In simple linear regression, a criterion
variable is predicted from one predictor The sum of squares uniquely attributable
variable. In multiple regression, the to a variable is computed by comparing
criterion is predicted by two or more two regression models: the complete
variables. For example, in the SAT case model and a reduced model. The
study, you might want to predict a complete model is the multiple regression
student's university grade point average on with all the predictor variables included
the basis of their High-School GPA (HSGPA and SAT in this example). A
reduced model is a model that leaves out
one of the predictor variables.
FACTOR ANALYSIS: description of behaviour by reducing the

ASSUMPTIONS, METHODS, number of categories. After identifying the
ROTATION AND factors, each test can be characterised in
INTERPRETATION. terms of major factors determining its
Video available online on scores, weight or load of each factor and
PowerWithin YouTube Channel. the correlation of each factor with the test.
So, correlation of each factor with the test
is known as factorial validity of the test.
Detailed and curated PPT on Factor One of the objectives of factor analysis is
Analysis by Raunaq Chawla (Team of to analyse the common variance to
Psychology Aaramse): determine the number and types of
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1rXC common variances which are responsible
nA7D1ogKi6z_YXchBaIixlCEYMG7u for the correlations between variables. The
values of the square roots of the common
If you want to understand FA using a variance are known as factor loading. Each
practical example, use the link: factor loading represents the amount of
https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/spss/seminars/int correlation of the sub-traits with that
roduction-to-factor-analysis/a-practical- factor.Several methods are available, but
introduction-to-factor-analysis/ principle component analysis is used most
commonly.
Factor analysis is a way to condense the

data in many variables into a just a few TYPES OF FACTORING:
variables. For this reason, it is also
sometimes called “dimension reduction” or There are different types of methods used
“data reduction.” You can reduce the to extract the factor from the data set:
“dimensions” of your data into one or Principal component analysis: This is
more “super-variables.” The most common the most common method used by
technique is known as Principal researchers. PCA starts extracting the
Component Analysis (PCA). maximum variance and puts them into the
first factor. After that, it removes that
variance explained by the first factors and
It is, therefore, a procedure used to then starts extracting maximum variance
determine the extent to which shared for the second factor. This process goes to
variance (the intercorrelation between the last factor.
measures) exists between variables or
items within the item pool for a developing Common factor analysis: The second
measure. It is a means of determining to most preferred method by researchers, it
what degree individual items are extracts the common variance and puts
measuring a something in common, such them into factors. This method does not
as a factor. include the unique variance of all
variables. This method is used in SEM.
Image factoring: This method is based on
It is a systematic method for examining the correlation matrix. OLS Regression
meaning of the test studying its correlation method is used to predict the factor in
with other variables. In the process of image factoring.
factor analysis the number of variables or
categories is reduced from the number of
original tests to a relatively small number
of factors or common traits. Major purpose
is to simplify the
Maximum likelihood method: This

ROTATION METHOD:
method also works on correlation metric
but it uses maximum likelihood method to (Refer PPT)
factor. Rotation method makes it more reliable to
FACTOR LOADING: understand the output. Eigenvalues do not
affect the rotation method, but the rotation
Factor loading is basically the correlation
method affects the Eigenvalues or
coefficient for the variable and factor.
percentage of variance extracted. There
Factor loading shows the variance
are a number of rotation methods
explained by the variable on that particular
available: (1) No rotation method, (2)
factor. In the SEM approach, as a rule of
Varimax rotation method, (3) Quartimax
thumb, 0.7 or higher factor loading
rotation method, (4) Direct oblimin
represents that the factor extracts sufficient
rotation method, and (5) Promax rotation
variance from that variable.
method. Each of these can be easily
EIGENVALUES: selected in SPSS, and we can compare our
Eigenvalues is also called characteristic variance explained by those particular
roots. Eigenvalues shows variance methods.
explained by that particular factor out of Assumptions:
the total variance. From the commonality
column, we can know how much variance
is explained by the first factor out of the No outlier: Assume that there
total variance. For example, if our first are no outliers in data.
factor explains 68% variance out of the Adequate sample size: The case
total, this means that 32% variance will be must be greater than the factor.
explained by the other factor. o No perfect multicollinearity:
FACTOR SCORE: Factor analysis is an
The factor score is also called the interdependency technique.
component score. This score is of all row There should not be perfect
and columns, which can be used as an multicollinearity between the
index of all variables and can be used for variables.
further analysis. We can standardize this Homoscedasticity: Since factor
score by multiplying a common term. With analysis is a linear function of
this factor score, whatever analysis we will measured variables, it does not
do, we will assume that all variables will requirehomoscedasticity
behave as factor scores and will move. between the variables.
o Linearity: Factor analysis is
CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING also based on linearity
THE NUMBER OF FACTORS: assumption. Non-linear
According to the Kaiser Criterion, variables can also be used.
Eigenvalues is a good criteria for After transfer, however, it
determining a factor. If Eigenvalues is changes into linear variable.
greater than one, we should consider that a Interval Data: Interval data are
factor and if Eigenvalues is less than one, assumed.
then we should not consider that a factor.
According to the variance extraction rule, Key concepts and terms:
it should be more than 0.7. If variance is Exploratory factor analysis: Assumes
less than 0.7, then we should not consider that any indicator or variable may be
that a factor. associated with any factor. This is the
most common factor analysis used by
researchers and it is not based on any prior PARTITIONING THE VARIANCE IN

theory. FACTOR ANALYSIS
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA): Since the goal of factor analysis is to
Used to determine the factor and factor model the interrelationships among items,
loading of measured variables, and to we focus primarily on the variance and
confirm what is expected on the basic or covariance rather than the mean. Factor
pre-established theory. CFA assumes that analysis assumes that variance can be
each factor is associated with a specified partitioned into two types of variance,
subset of measured variables. It commonly common and unique:
uses two approaches:
Common variance is the amount of variance (e.g., the person got a call from
variance that is shared among a set of her babysitter that her two-year old son
items. Items that are highly correlated will ate her favorite lipstick).
share
 a lot of variance.
o Communality (also called h2)
is a definition of common EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:
variance that ranges between 0 ANOVA [ONE-WAY,
and 1. Values closer to 1 FACTORIAL], RANDOMIZED
suggest that extracted factors BLOCK DESIGNS, REPEATED
explain more of the variance of
MEASURES DESIGN, LATIN
 an individual item.
SQUARE, COHORT STUDIES,
Unique variance is any portion of
variance that’s not common. There are
TIME SERIES, MANOVA,
ANCOVA. SINGLE-SUBJECT
 two types:
o Specific variance: is variance DESIGNS.
that is specific to a particular
item (e.g., Item 4 “All EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
computers hate me” may have
variance that is attributable to
ANOVA [One-way, Factorial]
anxiety about computers in
addition to anxiety about Two-group Experimental Designs /
SPSS). One-way ANOVA Design

o Error variance: comes from
errors of measurement and The simplest true experimental designs are
basically anything unexplained two group designs involving one
by common or specific treatment group and one control group,
and are ideally suited for testing the
effects of a single independent variable between pretest and posttest observations

that can be manipulated as a treatment. of treatment and control groups).
The two basic two-group designs are the
pretest-posttest control group design and PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL
the posttest-only control group design, GROUP DESIGN: In this design,
while variations may include covariance subjects are randomly assigned to
designs. These designs are often depicted treatment and control groups, subjected to
using a standardized design notation, an initial (pretest) measurement of the
where R represents random assignment of dependent variables of interest, the
subjects to groups, X represents the treatment group is administered a
treatment administered to the treatment treatment (representing the independent
group, and O represents pretest or posttest variable of interest), and the dependent
observations of the dependent variable variables measured again (posttest).
(with different subscripts to distinguish
The effect E of the experimental treatment expected to influence both treatment and
in the pretest posttest design is measured control groups in a similar (random)
as the difference in the posttest and pretest manner. The selection threat is controlled
scores between the treatment and control via random assignment. However,
groups: additional threats to internal validity may
exist. For instance, mortality can be a
E=(O2–O1)–(O4–O3) problem if there are differential dropout
rates between the two groups, and the
Statistical analysis of this design pretest measurement may bias the posttest
involves a simple analysis of variance measurement (especially if the pretest
(ANOVA) between the treatment and introduces unusual topics or content).
control groups. The pretest posttest
design handles several threats to internal Posttest-only control group design: This
validity, such as maturation, testing, and design is a simpler version of the pretest-
regression, since these threats can be posttest design where pretest
measurements are omitted.
The treatment effect is measured simply as Covariance designs: Sometimes,

the difference in the posttest scores measures of dependent variables may be
between the two groups: influenced by extraneous variables called
E=(O1–O2) covariates. Covariates are those variables
that are not of central interest to an
experimental study, but should
The appropriate statistical analysis of this nevertheless be controlled in an
design is also a two- group analysis of experimental design in order to eliminate
variance (ANOVA). The simplicity of this their potential effect on the dependent
design makes it more attractive than the variable and therefore allow for a more
pretest-posttest design in terms of internal accurate detection of the effects of the
validity. This design controls for independent variables of interest. The
maturation, testing, regression, selection, experimental designs discussed earlier did
and pretest-posttest interaction, though the not control for such covariates. A
mortality threat may continue to exist. covariance design (also called a
concomitant variable design) is a special
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES:
type of pretest posttest control group
ANOVA TEST details (if anyone wants to design where the pretest measure is
know about it) essentially a measurement of the
:https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencece covariates of interest rather than that of the
ntral.com/probability-and- dependent variables. The design notation
statistics/hypothesis- is shown in Figure 10.3, where C
testing/anova/#OneWayANOVA represents the covariates:
Becaue the pretest measure is not a

measurement of the dependent variable,
but rather a covariate, the treatment effect
is measured as the difference in the
posttest scores between the treatment and
control groups as: E=(O1–O2)
Due to the presence of covariates, the right
test only design, but with internal validity
statistical analysis of this design is a two-
due to the controlling of covariates.
group analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).
Covariance designs can also be extended to
This design has all the advantages of post-
pretest-posttest control group design.
FACTORIAL DESIGNS
Two-group designs are inadequate if your
research requires manipulation of two or
more independent variables (treatments).
In such cases, you would need four or
higher-group designs. Such designs, quite
popular in experimental research, are
commonly called factorial designs. Each vary with the time of instruction (1.5 or 3
independent variable in this design is hours per week). In this case, you have
called a factor , and each sub-division of a two factors: instructional type and
factor is called a level . Factorial designs instructional time; each with two levels
enable the researcher to examine not only (in-class and online for instructional type,
the individual effect of each treatment on and 1.5 and 3 hours/week for instructional
the dependent variables (called main time), as shown in Figure 8.1. If you wish
effects), but also their joint effect (called to add a third level of instructional time
interaction effects). (say 6 hours/week), then the second factor
The most basic factorial design is a 2 x 2 will consist of three levels and you will
factorial design, which consists of two have a 2 x 3 factorial design. On the other
treatments, each with two levels (such as hand, if you wish to add a third factor such
high/low or present/absent). For instance, as group work (present versus absent), you
let’s say that you want to compare the will have a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. In
learning outcomes of two different types of this notation, each number represents a
instructional techniques (in-class and factor, and the value of each factor
online instruction), and you also want to represents the number of levels in that
examine whether these effects factor.
Factorial designs can also be depicted factorial design should have a minimum
using a design notation, such as that shown sample size of 20 (this estimate is derived
on the right panel of Figure 10.4. R from Cohen’s power calculations based on
represents random assignment of subjects medium effect sizes). So, a 2 x 2 x 2
to treatment groups, X represents the factorial design requires a minimum total
treatment groups themselves (the sample size of 160 subjects, with at least
subscripts of X represents the level of each 20 subjects in each cell. As you can see,
factor), and O represent observations of the cost of data collection can increase
the dependent variable. Notice that the 2 x substantially with more levels or factors in
2 factorial design will have four treatment your factorial design. Sometimes, due to
groups, corresponding to the four resource constraints, some cells in such
combinations of the two levels of each factorial designs may not receive any
factor. Correspondingly, the 2 x 3 design treatment at all, which are called
will have six treatment groups, and the 2 x incomplete factorial designs. Such
2 x 2 design will have eight treatment incomplete designs hurt our ability to draw
groups. As a rule of thumb, each cell in a inferences about the incomplete factors.
In a factorial design, a main effect is said homogeneous blocks), subjects in

to exist if the dependent variable shows a both blocks are randomly split
significant difference between multiple between treatment group (receiving
levels of one factor, at all levels of other the same treatment) or control
factors. No change in the dependent group (see Figure 10.5). The
variable across factor levels is the null case purpose of this design is to reduce
(baseline), from which main effects are the “noise” or variance in data that
evaluated. In the above example, you may may be attributable to differences
see a main effect of instructional type, between the blocks so that the
instructional time, or both on learning actual effect of interest can be
outcomes. An interaction effect exists detected more accurately.
when the effect of differences in one factor
depends upon the level of a second factor.
In our example, if the effect of
instructional type on learning outcomes is
greater for 3 hours/week of instructional
time than for 1.5 hours/week, then we can
say that there is an interaction effect
between instructional type and
instructional time on learning outcomes.
Note that the presence of interaction
effects dominates and make main effects
irrelevant, and it is not meaningful to
interpret main effects if interaction effects REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
are significant. Repeated measures designs, also known as
a within-subjects designs, can seem like
oddball experiments. They don’t fit our
HYBRID EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS impression of a typical experiment in
Hybrid designs are those that are formed several key ways. When we think of an
by combining features of more established experiment, we often think of a design that
designs. Three such hybrid designs are
has a clear distinction between the
randomized bocks design, Solomon four-
group design (not in syllabus), and treatment and control groups. Each subject
switched replications design (not in is in one, and only one, of these non-
syllabus). overlapping groups. Subjects who are in a
treatment group are exposed to only one
RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGNS type of treatment. This is the common
independent groups experimental design.
This is a variation of the posttest-
only or pretest-posttest control Repeated Measures Design doesn’t follow
group design where the subject these rules.
population can be grouped into
relatively homogeneous subgroups WHEN TO USE A REPEATED
(called blocks) within which the MEASURES ANOVA?
experiment is replicated. For ANOVA is an acronym for Analysis of
instance, if you want to replicate Variance. It’s called Repeated Measures
the same posttest-only design
among university students and full because the same group of study
-time working professionals (two participants is being measured over and
over again.
For example, you could be studying the month exercise training programme on
glucose levels of the patients at 1 month, 6 blood pressure and want to measure blood
months, and 1 year after receiving pressure at 3 separate time points (pre-,
nutritional counseling. midway and post-exercise intervention),
We can analyse data using a repeated which would allow you to develop a time-
measures ANOVA for two types of study course for any exercise effect. For (2), you
design. Studies that investigate either (1) might get the same subjects to eat different
changes in mean scores over three or more types of cake (chocolate, caramel and
time points, or (2) differences in mean lemon) and rate each one for taste, rather
scores under three or more different than having different people taste each
conditions. For example, for (1), you different cake. The important point with
might be investigating the effect of a 6- these two study designs is that the same
people are being measured more than once
on the same dependent variable (i.e., why
it is called repeated measures).
In repeated measures ANOVA, the level of the independent variable (a

independent variable has categories called schematic of a time-course repeated
levels or related groups. Where measures design is shown above).
measurements are repeated over time, such
as when measuring changes in blood Where measurements are made under
pressure due to an exercise-training different conditions, the conditions are the
programme, the independent variable is levels (or related groups) of the
time. Each level (or related group) is a independent variable (e.g., type of cake is
specific time point. Hence, for the the independent variable with chocolate,
exercise-training study, there would be caramel, and lemon cake as the levels of
three time points and each time-point is a the independent variable). A schematic of
different-conditions repeated measures
design is shown below.
Fewer patients are needed
HYPOTHESIS FOR REPEATED overall. In a traditional
MEASURE DESIGN  experiment, you would need x
For our exercise-training example, the null patients per experimental
hypothesis (H0) is that mean blood  group, plus a control; If you
pressure is the same at all time points (pre- had three experimental
3 months, and 6 months). The alternative conditions (e.g. nutrition,
hypothesis is that mean blood pressure is exercise, drugs) plus a control,
significantly different at one or more time you would need 4x patients. In
points. A repeated measures ANOVA will a repeated measures design,
not inform you where the differences you would only need one group
between groups lie as it is an omnibus of patients of size x, because all
statistical test. The same would be true if 
patients are given all
you were investigating different conditions
 conditions.
or treatments rather than time points, as
used in this example. If your repeated Fewer patients are needed to
measures ANOVA is statistically  detect an effect size.
significant, you can run post hoc tests that Higher statistical power:
can highlight exactly where these controlling for variability
differences occur. between subjects is built in.
DISADVANTAGES INCLUDE:
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
Order effects: the possibility
that the position of the
ADVANTAGES INCLUDE:  treatment in the order of
 treatmentsmatters.
Randomizationor
counterbalancing can correct  Subjects can drop out before

for this. the second or third part of the
 Carryover Effects: experiment, resulting in sample
administration of one part of sizes that are too small to yield
the experiment can have trickle meaningful results.
down effects to Subsequent
parts.
LATIN SQUARE row and each column in the design. We

denote by Roman characters the
Reference Article: treatments. Therefore, the design is called
http://compneurosci.com/wiki/images/9/98 a Latin square design. This kind of design
/Latin_square_Method.pdf is used to reduce systematic error due to
rows (treatments) and columns.
A Latin square design is a method of Replicates are also included in this design.
placing treatments so that they appear in a
balanced fashion within a square block or
field. Treatments appear once in each row Treatments are assigned at random
and column. within rows and columns, with each
treatment once per row and once per
In other words, a Latin square design is the
 column.
arrangement of t treatments, each one
repeated t times, in such a way that each There are equal numbers of rows,
treatment appears exactly one time in each  columns, and treatments.
Useful where the experimenter desires
to control variation in two different
directions
The Latin square design, perhaps, with any combination of levels involving
represents the most popular alternative the two blocking factors assigned to one
design when two (or more) blocking treatment only, rather than to all!
factors need to be controlled for. A Latin
square design is actually an extreme
example of an incomplete block design,
PROS AND CONS OF LATIN between the treatment variable and

SQUARE DESIGN the blocking variable.
The advantages of Latin square designs
are:
COHORT STUDIES
They handle the case when we have
Cohort studies are a type of medical
several nuisance factors and we
research used to investigate the causes of
either cannot combine them into a disease and to establish links between risk
single factor or we wish to keep factors and health outcomes.
 them separate.
The word cohort means a group of
They allow experiments with a
people. These types of studies look at
relatively small number of runs.
groups of people. They can be forward-
The disadvantages are: looking (prospective) or backward-looking
(retrospective).
The number of levels of each blocking
variable must equal the number of Prospective studies are planned in
levels of the treatment factor. advance and carried out over a future
 period of time. Retrospective cohort
The Latin square model assumes that
studies look at data that already exist and
there are no interactions between try to identify risk factors for particular
the blocking variables or conditions. Interpretations are limited
because the researchers cannot go back
and gather missing data.
These long-term studies are sometimes
called longitudinal studies.
potential long term consequences of the
The cohort study design is the best use of oral contraceptives.

available scientific method for measuring
the effects of a suspected risk factor. This study recruited its second generation
cohort for the Nurses' Health Study II in
1989, and its third-generation cohort of
In a prospective cohort study, researchers nurses from across the United States and
raise a question and form a hypothesis Canada in 2010.
about what might cause a disease. Then The nurses in the first NHS were married
they observe a group of people, known as women aged 30 to 55 years. The NHS II
the cohort, over a period of time. This may and III aimed to look at a more diverse
take several years. They collect data that cohort including women aged between 20
may be relevant to the disease. In this way, and 46 years.
they aim to detect any changes in health
linked to the possible risk factors they Numerous and important insights into
have identified. health and wellbeing have already been
gained by researchers using data from the
EXAMPLES Nurses' Health Study, which is run by the
Harvard School of Public Health, and the
Some cohort studies have been very large Brigham and Women's Hospital, both
and continued for a long time, producing a based in Boston, MA.
good deal of data that serves researchers in
The following headlines are from news
different fields.
stories published recently by MNT. They
NURSES HEALTH STUDY report on some of the findings from this
huge study of hundreds of thousands of
One famous example of a cohort study is
women:
the Nurses' Health Study, a large, long-
running analysis of women's health, Nuts may protect against heart
originally set up in 1976 to investigate the  disease
Weight gain in early adulthood
linked to health risks later in
lifeColon cancer: Could
proinflammatory diets raise
risk?
Because the Nurses' Health Study asks experiments such as randomized

participants about their lifestyle choices, it controlled trials, but they are not always
has yielded much information about the the best form of observational work.
harms and benefits of various factors, Cohort studies do have some limitations:
including specific types of food in the diet.
They are less suited to finding
Cohort studies are also good at finding
clues about rare diseases. A
relationships between health and
case-control study identifies
environmental factors such as chemicals in
the air, water and food. These are issues cases of disease first and then
that the World Health Organization analyzes exposure to risk
(WHO) helps researchers to investigate factors, whereas cohort studies
with large-scale cohort studies. follow exposure data and watch
for any emerging cases of
Pooling data from different studies can
increase the sample size, and this can make  disease.
the results more reliable, especially for They are typically unsuitable
rare conditions such as some types of for identifying the causes of a
cancer. sudden outbreak of disease. A
case-control study can give
 quicker results.
FRAMINGHAM HEART STUDY
They are expensive to run and
Another example is the Framingham Heart usually take many years, often
Study, which recruited over 5,209 male decades, to produce results.
and female participants in 1948 from 
around the area of Framingham, MA. It They can only offer clues about
has continued to serve as a source of data the causes of disease, rather
for cardiovascular risk factors. than definitive proof of links
 between risk factors and health.
A second cohort was recruited in 1971 and
This is true of any
a third in 2002. The study has made
 observational medical research.
important contributions to the
understanding of heart health. The Participants may leave the
researchers are now looking into how cohort, perhaps move away,
genetic factors may affect cardiovascular lose touch, or die from a cause
risk. that is not being studied. This
can bias the results.
LIMITATIONS (The Below Image is FOR
REFERENCE)
Cohort studies are graded as the most
robust form of medical research after
TIME SERIES MEASURING BEHAVIOR AS A
Time series analysis is a technique for TIME SERIES
analyzing time series data, or variables that
continually changes with time. Examples According to Daniel T. Kaplan and Leon
of applications include forecasting stock
Glass (1995), there are two critical features
market fluctuations and urban crime rates.
of a time series that differentiate it from
This technique is popular in econometrics,
cross-sectional data-collection procedures:
mathematical finance, and signal
processing. Special techniques are used to Repeated measurements of a given
correct for auto-correlation, or correlation behavior are taken across time at
within values of the same variable across equally spaced intervals. Taking
time. multiple measurements is essential for
Time-series analysis (TSA), thus, is a understanding how any given behavior
statistical methodology appropriate for unfolds over time, and doing so at
longitudinal research designs that involve equal intervals affords a clear
single subjects or research units that are investigation of how the dynamics of
measured repeatedly at regular intervals that behavior manifest at distinct time
over time. TSA can be viewed as the scales.
exemplar of all longitudinal designs. TSA 
can provide an understanding of the The temporal ordering of
underlying naturalistic process and the
measurements is preserved. Doing so
pattern of change over time, or it can
is the only way to fully examine the
evaluate the effects of either a planned or
unplanned intervention. dynamics governing a particular
process. If we expect that a given
stimulus will influence the development of considerable time period. The time series
a behavior in a particular way, utilizing is the only design to furnish a continuous
summary statistics will completely ignore record of fluctuations in the experimental
the temporal ordering of the data and variables over the entire course of the
likely occlude one’s view of important program. Such record keeping should
behavioral dynamics. constitute an integral part of the
experimental program; problems of
Linear computations such as mean and reactivity (Webb, Camp-bell, Schwartz,
variance merely describe global properties &Sechrest, 1966) area voided by
of a data set and thus may fail to capture incorporating the measurement operations
meaningful patterns that only can be as a natural part of the environment to
identified by looking at the sequential which one wishes to generalize. Second,
dependency between time points. the time-series design functions as an
Consequently, time-series techniques heuristic device. When coupled with a
provide a valuable approach in studying care-fully kept historical log of potentially
psychological processes, which are, by relevant non-experimental events, the time
their very nature, fundamentally embedded series is an invaluable source of post hoc
in time. hypotheses regarding observed, but
This design involves successive unplanned, changes in program variables.
observations throughout a programmed Moreover, where treatment programs
intervention and assesses the require practical administrative decisions,
characteristics of the change process. It is the time series serves as a source of
truly the mainstay of the proposed design hypotheses regarding the most promising
package because it serves several decisions, and later as a
simultaneous functions. First, it is feedback source regarding the
descriptive. The descriptive function of the consequences and effectiveness of such
time series is particularly important when decisions.
the intervention extends over a
ANALYZING TIME-SERIES DATA
are the two dependent variables, and our

(If needed details can be read from the hypothesis is that both together are
following link: affected by the difference in textbooks. A
https://www.psychologicalscience.org/obs multivariate analysis of variance
erver/time-series-methods-in- (MANOVA) could be used to test this
experimental-research ) hypothesis. Instead of a univariate F value,
we would obtain a multivariate F value
(Wilks' λ) based on a comparison of the
Once you’ve collected a series of
error variance/covariance matrix and the
behavioral measurements on your
variable(s) of interest, there are a variety of effect variance/covariance matrix.
ways to explore and quantify the observed Although we only mention Wilks' λ here,
there are other statistics that may be used,
dynamics.
including Hotelling's trace and Pillai's
MANOVA criterion. The "covariance" here is
included because the two measures are
probably correlated and we must take this
Multivariate analysis of variance correlation into account when performing
(MANOVA) is simply an ANOVA with the significance test. Testing the multiple
several dependent variables. dependent variables is accomplished by
creating new dependent variables that
MANOVA designs are appropriate when maximize group differences. These
multiple dependent variables are included artificial dependent variables are linear
in the analysis. The dependent variables combinations of the measured dependent
should represent continuous measures (i.e., variables.
interval or ratio data). Dependent variables
should be moderately correlated. If there is RESEARCH QUESTIONS
no correlation at all, MANOVA offers no The main objective in using MANOVA is
improvement over an analysis of variance to determine if the response variables
(ANOVA); if the variables are highly (student improvement in the example
correlated, the same variable may be mentioned above), are altered by the
measured more than once. In many observer’s manipulation of the
MANOVA situations, multiple independent variables.
independent variables, called factors, with
multiple levels are included. The Therefore, there are several types of
independent variables should be research questions that may be answered
categorical (qualitative). Unlike ANOVA by using MANOVA:
What are the main effects of the
procedures that analyze differences across
independent variables?
two or more groups on one dependent
variable, MANOVA procedures analyze What are the interactions among the
differences across two or more groups on independent variables?
two or more dependent variables. What is the importance of the dependent
variables?
For example, we may conduct a study What is the strength of association
where we try two different textbooks, and between dependent variables?
we are interested in the students' What are the effects of covariates? How
improvements in math and physics. In that may they be utilized?
case, improvements in math and physics
RESULTS
Under these circumstances, use of a single
If the overall multivariate test is ANOVA test would be preferable.
significant, we conclude that the respective
effect (e.g., textbook) is significant. ASSUMPTIONS
However, our next question would of
Normal Distribution: - The dependent
course be whether only math skills
variable should be normally distributed
improved, only physics skills improved, or
within groups. Overall, the F test is robust to
both. In fact, after obtaining a significant
non-normality, if the non-normality is
multivariate test for a particular main
caused by skewness rather than by outliers.
effect or interaction, customarily one
Tests for outliers should be run before
would examine the univariate F tests for
performing a MANOVA, and outliers
each variable to interpret the respective
should be transformed or removed.
effect. In other words, one would identify
the specific dependent variables that Linearity - MANOVA assumes that there
contributed to the significant overall effect. are linear relationships among all pairs of
dependent variables, all pairs of covariates,
and all dependent variable-covariate pairs
MANOVA is useful in experimental
situations where at least some of the in each cell. Therefore, when the
independent variables are manipulated. It relationship deviates from linearity, the
has several advantages over ANOVA. power of the analysis will be
First, by measuring several dependent compromised.
variables in a single experiment, there is a Homogeneity of Variances: -
better chance of discovering which factor Homogeneity of variances assumes that
is truly important. Second, it can protect the dependent variables exhibit equal
against Type I errors that might occur if levels of variance across the range of
multiple ANOVA’s were conducted predictor variables. Remember that the
independently. Additionally, it can reveal error variance is computed (SS error) by
differences not discovered by ANOVA adding up the sums of squares within each
tests. group. If the variances in the two groups
However, there are several cautions as are different from each other, then adding
well. It is a substantially more complicated the two together is not appropriate, and
design than ANOVA, and therefore there will not yield an estimate of the common
can be some ambiguity about which within-group variance. Homoscedasticity
independent variable affects can be examined graphically or by means
each dependent variable. Thus, the of a number of statistical tests.
observer must make many potentially Homogeneity of Variances and
subjective assumptions. Moreover, one Covariances: In multivariate designs,
degree of freedom is lost for each with multiple dependent measures, the
dependent variable that is added. The gain homogeneity of variances assumption
of power obtained from decreased SS error described earlier also applies. However,
may be offset by the loss in these degrees since there are multiple dependent
of freedom. Finally, the dependent variables, it is also required that their
variables should be largely uncorrelated. If intercorrelations (covariances) are
the dependent variables are highly homogeneous across the cells of the
correlated, there is little advantage in design. There are various specific tests of
including more than one in the test given this assumption.
the resultant loss in degrees of freedom.
LIMITATIONS
Outliers - Like ANOVA, MANOVA is The purpose of including covariates in

extremely sensitive to outliers. Outliers ANOVA is two-fold:
may produce either a Type I or Type II
error and give no indication as to which To reduce within-group error
type of error is occurring in the analysis. variance: In ANOVA we assess
There are several programs available to the effect of an experiment by
test for univariate and multivariate outliers.
comparing the amount of
Multicollinearity and Singularity - When variability in the data that the
there is high correlation between experiment can explain, against the
dependent variables, one dependent variability that it cannot explain. If
variable becomes a near-linear we can explain some of this
combination of the other dependent ‘unexplained’ variance (SSR) in
variables. Under such circumstances, it terms of covariates, then we reduce
would become statistically redundant and the error variance, allowing us to
suspect to include both combinations. more accurately assess the effect of
the experimental manipulation
ANCOVA (SSM).
ANCOVA is short for Analysis of Elimination of Confounds: In any

Covariance. The analysis of covariance is experiment,there may be
a combination of an ANOVA and a
unmeasured variables that
regression analysis.
confound the results (i.e. a variable
In basic terms, the ANCOVA examines that varies systematically with the
the influence of an independent variable experimental manipulation). If any
on a dependent variable while removing variables are known to influence
the effect of the covariate factor. the dependent variable being
ANCOVA first conducts a regression of measured, then ANCOVA is
the independent variable (i.e., the ideally suited to remove the bias of
covariate) on the dependent variable. The these variables. Once a possible
residuals (the unexplained variance in the confounding variable has been
regression model) are then subject to an identified, it can be measured and
ANOVA. Thus, the ANCOVA tests
entered into the analysis as a
whether the independent variable still
covariate. Or, we can say the
influences the dependent variable after the
influence of the covariate(s) has been following (Interpretation or
removed. The One-Way ANCOVA can different statements to mean the
include more than one covariate, and SPSS same thing). The ANCOVA is
handles up to ten. The ANCOVA model most useful in that it explains an
has more than one covariate it is possible ANOVA’s within-group variance,
to calculate the one-way ANCOVA using and controls confounding factors.
contrasts just like in the ANOVA to
identify the influence of each covariate.
Firstly, as explained in the chapter on the independence of the covariate and

ANOVA, the analysis of variance splits treatment effect, and homogeneity of
the total variance of the dependent variable regression slopes. The first one
into: basically means that the covariate
should not be different across the
1. Variance explained by the independent groups in the analysis (in other words,
variable (also called between groups if you did an ANOVA or t-test using
variance) the groups as the independent variable
and the covariate as the outcome, this
Unexplained variance (also called analysis should be non-significant).
within group variance)
The ANCOVA looks at the unexplained

SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS:
variance and tries to explain some of it
with the covariate(s). Thus, it increases the Single subject research (also known as
power of the ANOVA by explaining more single case experiments, single system
variability in the model. designs) is popular in the fields of special
The One-Way ANCOVA needs at least education and counseling. This research
three variables. These variables are: design is useful when the researcher is
attempting to change the behavior of an
The independent variable, which
individual or a small group of individuals
groups the cases into two or more
and wishes to document that change.
groups. The independent variable Unlike true experiments where the
 has to be at least of nominal scale. researcher randomly assigns participants to
The dependent variable, which is a control and treatment group, in single
 influenced by the independent subject research the participant serves as
variable. It has to be of continuous- both the control and treatment group. The
level scale (interval or ratio data). researcher uses line graphs to show the
Also, it needs to be homoscedastic effects of a particular intervention or
and multivariate normal. treatment. An important factor of single
The covariate, or variable that subject research is that only one variable is
moderates the impact of the changed at a time. Single subject research
independent on the dependent designs are “weak when it comes to
external validity.
 variable. The covariate needs to be
 acontinuous-levelvariable Single-subject research usually involves
(interval or ratio data). The collecting data on one subject at a time.
covariate is sometimes also called Single-subject researchers generally use
confounding factor, or concomitant line graphs to illustrate the effect of their
intervention.
variable. The ANCOVA covariate
is often a pre-test value or a Suppose a researcher wished to investigate
baseline. the effect of praise on reducing disruptive
behavior over many days. First, she would
ASSUMPTIONS IN ANCOVA need to establish a baseline of how
frequently the disruptions occurred. She
would measure how many disruptions
ANCOVA has the same assumptions as occurred each day for several days. In the
any linear model except that there are two example below, the target student was
important additional considerations: disruptive seven times on the first day, six
times on the second day, and seven times
on the third day. Note how the sequence of Sometimes an individual’s behavior is so
time is depicted on the x-axis (horizontal severe that the researcher cannot wait to
axis) and the dependent variable (outcome establish a baseline and must begin with
variable) is depicted on the y-axis (vertical an intervention. In this case, a B-A-B
axis). design is used. The intervention is
implemented immediately (before
establishing a baseline). This is followed
by a measurement without the intervention
and then a repeat of the intervention.
Generally, in single subject research we
count the number of times something
occurs in a given time period and see if it
occurs more or less often in that time
period after implementing an intervention.
Once a baseline of behavior has been

established (when a consistent pattern Extra for References:
emerges with at least three data points), the
intervention begins. The researcher Single subject designs are thought to be a
continues to plot the frequency of behavior direct result of the research of B.F.
while implementing the intervention of Skinner who applied the techniques of
praise. operant conditioning to subjects and
measured the outcomes at various points
in time. Because of this, single subject
designs are often considered the design of
choice when measuring behavioral change
or when performing behavioral
modification. Rather than comparing
groups of subjects, this design relies on the
comparison of treatment effects on a
single subject or group of single subjects.
In this example, we can see that the

frequency of disruptions decreased once UNIT 2 IS COMPLETE
praise began. The design in this example is *
known as an A-B design. The baseline
period is referred to as A and the
intervention period is identified as B. (EXTRA FOR REFERENCES – OUT
OF SYLLABUS)
(Read further only if you have enough
time for Preparation ahead for other
topics)
Quasi-Experimental Designs explanations seek to explain a class of

situations or events rather than a specific
situation or event. For example, students
Quasi-experimental designs are almost who do poorly in exams do so because they
identical to true experimental designs, but did not spend adequate time preparing for
lacking one key ingredient: random exams or that they suffer from nervousness,
assignment. For instance, one entire class attention-deficit, or some
section or one organization is used as the other medical disorder. Because
treatment group, while another section of nomothetic explanations are designed to
the same class or a different organization be generalizable across situations, events,
in the same industry is used as the control or people, they tend to be less precise, less
group. This lack of random assignment complete, and less detailed. However, they
potentially results in groups that are non- explain economically, using only a few
equivalent, such as one group possessing explanatory variables. Because theories
greater mastery of a certain content than are also intended to serve as generalized
the other group, say by virtue of having a explanations for patterns of events,
better teacher in a previous semester, behaviors, or phenomena, theoretical
which introduces the possibility of explanations are generally nomothetic in
selection bias. Quasi-experimental designs nature.
are therefore inferior to true experimental
designs in interval validity. Theory
Many true experimental designs can be While understanding theories, it is also
converted to quasi-experimental designs important to understand what theory is not.
by omitting random assignment. For Theory is not data, facts, typologies,
instance, the quasi-equivalent version of taxonomies, or empirical findings. A
pretest-posttest control group design is collection of facts is not a theory, just as a
called nonequivalent groups design pile of stones is not a house. Likewise, a
(NEGD), with random assignment R collection of constructs (e.g., a typology of
replaced by non-equivalent (non-random) constructs) is not a theory, because
assignment N. theories must go well beyond constructs to
include propositions, explanations, and
boundary conditions. Data, facts, and
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES: findings operate at the empirical or
Idiographic or Nomothetic: observational level, while theories operate
at a conceptual level and are based on
Explanations can be idiographic or
logic rather than observations.
nomothetic. Idiographic explanations are
those that explain a single situation or Building Blocks of a Theory
event in idiosyncratic detail. For example, David Whetten (1989) suggests that there
you did poorly on an exam because: (1) are four building blocks of a theory:
you forgot that you had an exam on that constructs, propositions, logic, and
day, (2) you arrived late to the exam due to boundary conditions/assumptions.
a traffic jam, (3) you panicked midway Constructs capture the “what” of theories
through the exam, (4) you had to work late (i.e., what concepts are important for
the previous evening and could not study explaining a phenomenon), propositions
for the exam, or even (5) your dog ate your capture the “how” (i.e., how are these
text book. The explanations may be concepts related to each other), logic
detailed, accurate, and valid, but they may represents the “why” (i.e., why are these
not apply to other similar situations, even concepts related), and boundary
involving the same person, and are hence conditions/assumptions examines the
not generalizable. In contrast, nomothetic “who, when, and where” (i.e., under what
circumstances will these concepts and falsified. If a theory is indeed falsified

relationships work). based on empirical evidence, then it was
Attributes of a Good Theory probably a poor theory to begin with!
Theories are simplified and often partial Parsimony: Parsimony examines how
explanations of complex social reality. As much of a phenomenon is explained with
such, there can be good explanations or how few variables. The concept is
poor explanations, and consequently, there attributed to 14 th century English logician
can be good theories or poor theories. How Father William of Ockham (and hence
can we evaluate the “goodness” of a given called “Ockham’s razor” or “Occam’s
theory? Different criteria have been razor), which states that among competing
proposed by different researchers, the explanations that sufficiently explain the
more important of which are listed below: observed evidence, the simplest theory
(i.e., one that uses the smallest number of
Logical consistency: Are the theoretical
variables or makes the fewest
constructs, propositions, boundary assumptions) is the best. Explanation of a
conditions, and assumptions logically complex social phenomenon can always
consistent with each other? If some of be increased by adding more and more
these “building blocks” of a theory are constructs. However, such approach
inconsistent with each other (e.g., a theory defeats the purpose of having a theory,
assumes rationality, but some constructs which are intended to be “simplified” and
represent non-rational concepts), then the generalizable explanations of reality.
theory is a poor theory. Parsimony relates to the degrees of
Explanatory power: How much does a freedom in a given theory. Parsimonious
given theory explain (or predict) reality? theories have higher degrees of freedom,
Good theories obviously explain the target which allow them to be more easily
phenomenon better than rival theories, as generalized to other contexts, settings, and
often measured by variance explained (R- populations.
square) value in regression equations.
Falsifiability: British philosopher Karl Key Terminologies:
Popper stated in the 1940’s that for
theories to be valid, they must be Factors and Levels
falsifiable. Falsifiability ensures that the The section on variables defined an
theory is potentially disprovable, if independent variable as a variable
empirical data does not match with manipulated by the experimenter. In the
theoretical propositions, which allows for case study "Smiles and Leniency," the
their empirical testing by researchers. In effect of different types of smiles on the
other words, theories cannot be theories leniency shown to a person was
unless they can be empirically testable. investigated. Four different types of smiles
Tautological statements, such as “a day (neutral, false, felt, and miserable) were
with high temperatures is a hot day” are shown. In this experiment, "Type of
not empirically testable because a hot day Smile" is the independent variable. In
is defined (and measured) as a day with describing an ANOVA design, the term
high temperatures, and hence, such factor is a synonym of independent
statements cannot be viewed as a variable. Therefore, "Type of Smile" is the
theoretical proposition. Falsifiability factor in this experiment. Since four types
requires presence of rival explanations it of smiles were compared, the factor "Type
ensures that the constructs are adequately of Smile" has four levels.
measurable, and so forth. However, note An ANOVA conducted on a design in
that saying that a theory is falsifiable is not which there is only one factor is called a
the same as saying that a theory should be
one-way ANOVA. If an experiment has Multi-Factor Designs

two factors, then the ANOVA is called a It is common for designs to have more
two-way ANOVA. For example, suppose than one factor. For example, consider a
an experiment on the effects of age and hypothetical study of the effects of age and
gender on reading speed were conducted gender on reading speed in which males
using three age groups (8 years, 10 years, and females from the age levels of 8 years,
and 12 years) and the two genders (male 10 years, and 12 years are tested. There
and female). The factors would be age and would be a total of six different groups as
gender. Age would have three levels and shown in Table 1.
gender would have two levels.
Between- and Within-Subjects Factors
In the "Smiles and Leniency" study, the
four levels of the factor "Type of Smile"
were represented by four separate groups
of subjects. When different subjects are
used for the levels of a factor, the factor is
called a between-subjects factor or a
between-subjects variable. The term
"between subjects" reflects the fact that
comparisons are between different groups
of subjects.
In the "ADHD Treatment" study, every
This design has two factors: age and
subject was tested with each of four
gender. Age has three levels and gender
dosage levels (0, 0.15, 0.30, 0.60 mg/kg)
has two levels. When all combinations of
of a drug. Therefore there was only one
the levels are included (as they are here),
group of subjects, and comparisons were
the design is called a factorial design. A
not between different groups of subjects
concise way of describing this design is as
but between conditions within the same
a Gender (2) x Age (3) factorial design
subjects. When the same subjects are used
where the numbers in parentheses indicate
for the levels of a factor, the factor is
the number of levels. Complex designs
called a within-subjects factor or a within-
frequently have more than two factors and
subjects variable. Within-subjects may have combinations of between- and
variables are sometimes referred to as within-subjects factors.
repeated-measures variables since there are
repeated measurements of the same
subjects.
ANSWERS is unwarranted, the ANOVA hypothesis

testing procedure will not work.
1 (B): This is a within-subjects design In ANOVA there is at least one
since each subject was tested in each independent variable or factor. There are
condition. different kinds of factors; treatment, trial,
(B) blocking, and group. All factors, however,
(A): This is a between-subjects design have some finite number of different
because each subject was tested in either levels. Each level is the same in either
one condition (drug) or another (placebo). some quality or quantity. The only
restriction on the number of levels is that
A total of 12. All combinations of there are fewer levels than scores,
Gender and Treatment would be in the although in practice one seldom sees more
design. than ten levels in a factor unless the data
Experimental design set is very large. It is not necessary that the
It refers to the manner in which the independent variables or factors be
experiment was set up. Experimental measured on an interval scale. If the
factors are measured on an (approximate)
design includes the way the treatments
interval scale, then some flexibility in
were administered to subjects, how
analysis is gained. The continued
subjects were grouped for analysis, how
popularity of ANOVA can partially be
the treatments and grouping were
explained by the lack of the necessity of
combined.
the interval assumption for the factors.
In ANOVA there is a single dependent
Assumptions made by ANOVA:
variable or score. In Psychology the
dependent measure is usually some
The populations have the same variance.
measure of behavior. If more than one
This assumption is called the
measure of behavior is taken, multivariate
assumption of homogeneity of
analysis of variance, or MANOVA, may
 variance.
be the appropriate analysis. Because the
 The populations are normally distributed.
ANOVA model breaks the score into
component parts, or effects, which sum to Each value is sampled independently
the total score, the one must assume the from each other value. This assumption
interval property of measurement for this requires that each subject provide only
variable. Since in real life the interval one value. If a subject provides two
property is never really met, one must be scores, then the values are not
independent. The analysis of data with
satisfied that at least an approximation of
two scores per subject is shown in the
an interval scale exists for the dependent
section on within-subjects ANOVA later 
variable. To the extent that this assumption
second attribute would not hold and the

in this chapter. These assumptions are the
factor would be called a group factor.
same as for a t test of differences between
groups except that they apply to two or Group Factors
more groups, not just to two groups. As described above, a group factor is one
in which the subjects are arbitrarily
Kinds of Factors assigned to a given group which differs
Treatment Factors from other groups only in that different
Treatments will be defined as subjects are assigned to it. If each group
quantitatively or qualitatively different had some type of distinguishing feature,
levels of experience. For example, in an other than the subjects assigned to it, then
experiment on the effects of caffeine, the it would no longer be considered as a
treatment levels might be exposure to group factor. If a group factor exists in an
different amounts of caffeine, from none to experimental design, it will be symbolized
by G.
.0375 milligrams. In a very simple
experiment there are two levels of Trials Factors
treatment, none, called the control If each subject is scored more than once
condition, and some, called the under the same condition and the separate
experimental condition. scores are included in the analysis, then a
Treatment factors are usually the main trials factor exists. If the different scores
focus of the experiment. A treatment factor for a subject were found under different
is characterized by the following two levels of a treatment, then the factor would
attributes (Lee, 1975): be called a treatment factor rather than a
An investigator could assign any of his trials factor. Trials factors will be denoted
experimental subjects to any one of the by T.
levels of the factor. Trials factors are useful in examining
The different levels of the factor consist practice or fatigue effects. Any change in
of explicitly distinguishable stimuli or scores over time may be attributed to
situations in the environment of the having previously experienced similar
subject. conditions.
In the solitaire example, practice time Blocking Factors

would be a treatment factor if the If subjects are grouped according to some
experimenter controlled the amount of pre-existing subject similarity, then that
time that the subject practiced. If subject's grouping is called a blocking factor. The
came to the experiment having already experimenter has no choice but to assign
practiced a given amount, then the the subject to one or the other of the levels
experimenter could not arbitrarily or of a blocking factor. For example, gender
randomly assign that subject to a given (sex) is often used as a blocking factor. A
practice level. In that case the factor would subject enters the experiment as either a
no longer be considered a treatment factor. male or female and the experimenter may
not arbitrarily (randomly) assign that
In an experiment where subjects are run in
individual to one gender or the other.
groups, it sometimes is valuable to treat
each group as a separate level of a factor. Because the experimenter has no control
There might be, for example, an obnoxious over the assignment of subjects to a
subject who affects the scores of all other blocking factor, causal inference is made
subjects in that group. In this case the much more difficult. For example, if in the
solitaire experiment, the practice factor was
based on a pre-existing condition, then any
differences between the groups may
be due either to practice or to the fact that the understanding that it might be some
some subjects liked to play solitaire, were other type of unit than subject.
better at the game and thus practiced more.
Since the subjects are self-selected, it is Error Factors
not possible to attribute the differences The error factor, designated as E, is not a
between groups to practice, enjoyment of factor in the sense of the previous factors
the game, natural skill in playing the game, and is not included in the experimental
or some other reason. It is possible, design. It is necessary for future
however, to say that the groups differed. theoretical development.
Even though causal inference is not Relationships Between Factors
possible, blocking factor can be useful. A
The following two relationships between
factor that accounts for differences in the
factors describe a large number of useful
scores adds power to the experiment. That
designs. Not all possible experimental
is, a blocking factor that explains some of
designs fit neatly into categories described
the differences between scores may make
by the following two relationships, but
it more likely to find treatment effects. For most do.
example, if males and females performed
significantly different in the solitaire Crossed
experiment, it might be useful to include When two factors are crossed, each level
sex as a blocking factor because of each factor appears with each level of
differences due to gender would be the other factor. An "X" indicates a
included in the error variance otherwise. crossing relationship.
In other cases blocking factors are For example, consider two factors, A and
interesting in their own right. It may be B, were A is gender (a1 = Females, a2 =
interesting to know that freshmen, Males) and B is practice (b1 = none, b2 =
sophomores, juniors, and seniors differ in one hour, b3 = five hours, and b4 = twenty
attitude toward university authority, even hours). If gender was crossed with
though causal inferences may not be made. practice, A X B, then both males and
In some cases the pre-existing condition is females would participate in all four levels
quantitative, as in an IQ score or weigh. In of practice. There would be eight groups
these cases it is possible to use a median of subjects including: ab11, females who
split where the scores above the median had no practice, ab12, females who had
are placed in one group and the scores one hour of practice, and so forth to ab24,
below the median are placed in another. males who practiced twenty hours. An
Variations of this procedure divide the additional factor may be added to the
scores into three, four, or more design, say handedness (C), where c1 =
approximately equal sized groups. Such right handed and c2 = left handed. If the
procedures are not recommended as there design of the experiment was A X B X C,
are better ways of handling such data then there would be sixteen groups,
(Edwards, 1985). including abc231, left-handed males who
practiced five hours.
Unit Factors
If subjects (S) are crossed with treatments
The unit factor is the entity from which a
(A), S X A, each subject sees each level of
score is taken. In experimental
the treatment conditions. In a very simple
psychology, the unit factor is usually a
experiment such as the effects of caffeine
subject (human or animal), although
on alertness (A), each subject would be
classrooms, dormitories, or other units
exposed to both a caffeine condition (a1)
may serve the same function. In this text,
and a no caffeine condition (a2). For
the unit factor will be designated as S, with
example, using the members of a statistics It is difficult to find subjects for a S X A

class as subjects, the experiment might be design where A is gender. I generally will
conducted as follows. On the first day of take points off if a student attempts such a
the experiment the class is divided in half design.
with one half of the class getting coffee Nested
with caffeine and the other half getting
coffee without caffeine. A measure of Factor B is said to be nested within factor
alertness is taken for each individual, such if each meaningful level of factor B occurs
as the number of yawns during the class in conjunction with only one level of A.
period. On the second day the conditions This relationship is symbolized a B(A),
are reversed, that is, the individuals who and is read as "B nested within A". Note
received coffee with caffeine are now that B(A) is considerably different from
given coffee without and vice-versa. A(B). In the latter, each meaningful level
of A would occur in one and only one
level of B. These types of designs are also
The distinguishing feature of crossing designated as hierarchical designs in some
subjects with treatments is that each textbooks.
subject will have more than one score. A B(A) design occurs, for example, when
This feature is sometimes used in referring the first three levels of factor B (b1 ,b3,
to this class of designs as repeated and b3) appear only under level a1 of
measures designs. The effect also occurs factor A and the next three levels of B (b4
within each subject, thus these designs are ,b5, and b6) appear only under level a2 of
sometimes referred to as within subjects factor A. Depending upon the labeling
designs. scheme, b4 ,b5, and b6 may also be called
Crossing subjects with treatments has two b1 ,b3, and b3, respectively. It is
advantages. One, they generally require understood by the design designation that
fewer subjects, because each subject is the b1 occurring under a1 is different from
used a number of times in the experiment. the b1 occurring under a2.
Two, they are more likely to result in a Nested or hierarchical designs can appear
significant effect, given the effects are real. because many aspects of society are
This is because the effects of individual organized hierarchically. For example
differences between subjects is partitioned within the university, classes (sections) are
out of the error term. nested within courses, courses are nested
Crossing subjects with treatments also has within departments, departments within
disadvantages. One, the experimenter must colleges, and colleges within the
be concerned about carry-over effects. For university.
example, individuals not used to caffeine In experimental research it is also possible
may still feel the effects of caffeine on the to nest treatment conditions within other
second day, when they did not receive the treatment conditions. For example,
drug. Two, the first measurements taken suppose a researcher was interested in the
may influence the second. For example, if effect of diet on health in hamsters. One
the measurement of interest was score on a factor (A) might be a high cholesterol (a1)
statistics test, taking the test once may or low cholesterol (a2) diet. A second
influence performance the second time the factor (B) might be type of food, peanut
test is taken. Three, the assumptions butter (b1), cheese (b2), red meat (b3),
necessary when more than two treatment chicken (b4), fish (b5), or vegetables(b6).
levels are employed in a crossing subjects Because type of food may be categorized
with treatments may be restrictive. as being either high or low in cholesterol,
When a factor is a blocking factor, it is not a B(A) experimental design would result.
possible to cross that factor with subjects. Chicken, fish, and vegetables would be
relabeled as b1 ,b3, and b3, respectively, effects of gender and current religious
but it would be clear from the preference, for example.
experimental design specification that Treatment factors, however, may be nested
peanut butter and chicken, cheese and fish, or crossed with subjects. The effect of
and red meat and vegetables, were caffeine on alertness could be studied by
qualitatively different, even though they all dividing the subjects into two groups, with
share the same label. one receiving a beverage with caffeine and
While any factor may possibly be nested one group not. This design would nest
within any other factor, the critical nesting subjects with caffeine and be specified as
relationship is with respect to subjects. If S S(A), or simply A, as the S is often
is nested within some combination of other dropped when the design is completely
factors, then each subjects appear under between subjects.
one, and only one, combination of factors If subjects appeared under both caffeine
within which they are nested. These effects conditions, receiving caffeine on one day
are often called the Between Subjects and no caffeine on the other, then subjects
effects. If S is crossed with come would be crossed with caffeine. The
combination of other factors, then each design would be specified as S X A. In
subject see all combinations of factors with this case the S would remain in the design.
which they are crossed. These effects are
referred to as Within Subjects effects.
As mentioned earlier subjects are REFERENCE ARTICLE
necessarily nested within blocking factors. :http://onlinestatbook.com/2/analysis_of_v
Subjects are necessarily nested within the ariance/anova_designs.html
Answers
1 False, both t tests and ANOVAs use
both. In a t test, the difference between
means is in the numerator and the
denominator is based on differences within
groups. In an ANOVA, the variance of the
group means (multiplied by n) is the
numerator. The denominator is based on
differences within groups.
True
A
C
True. When a subject provides more
than one data point, the values are not
independent, thus violating one of the
assumptions of between-subjects ANOVA.
13 F is defined as MSB/MSE. Since both
MSB and MSE are variances and negative
variance is impossible, an F score can
never be negative.
14 k-1 = 7-1 = 6
15 N-k = 105-7 = 98
16 The F distribution has a long tail to the
right which means it has a positive skew.
2
F equals t = 6.25.
Sum of squares total equals sum of
squares condition + sum of squares error.
Divide sums of squares by degrees of
freedom to get mean squares. Then divide
MSB by MSE to get F which equals 42.
F=t(square)
CONTENTS
History of Psychological Testing.
Psychological Tests vs. Assessments vs. Measurements vs. Surveys
Types of tests Test construction: Item writing, item analysis
Test standardization: Reliability, validity and Norms
Areas of testing: Intelligence, creativity, neuropsychological tests, aptitude,

Personality assessment, interest inventories
Attitude scales – Semantic differential, Staples, Likert scale. Computer-based psychological

testing
Applications of psychological testing in various settings: Clinical, Organizational and business,

Education, Counseling, Military. Career guidance.
UNIT UNIT 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL

3 TESTING
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING differ in terms of the behavior they require

Psychological testing is best defined as “The you to perform, what they measure, their
process of administering, scoring, and content, how they are administered and
interpreting psychological tests.” formatted, how they are scored and
(Maloney& Ward, 1976, p. 9). interpreted, and their psychometric quality
Although all psychological tests require that (psychometrics is the quantitative and
you perform some behavior to measure technical aspect of mental measurement).
personal attributes, traits, or characteristics For clinical psychologists, assessment is
or to predict outcomes, these tests can differ second only to psychotherapy in terms of its
in various ways. For example, they can professional importance
.
CHARACTERISTICS:
(TABLE)
ASSUMPTIONS:
There are many assumptions that must be made when using psychological tests. The following
are what we consider the most important assumptions:
Psychological tests measure what they say they measure, and any inferences that are drawn
 about test takers based on their test scores are appropriate.
 An individual's behavior, and therefore test scores, will remain unchanged over time.
 Individuals understand test items similarly.
 Individuals can report about themselves accurately.
 Individuals will report their thoughts and feelings honestly.
The test scores an individual receives is equal to his or her true ability plus some error, and
this error may be attributable to the test itself the examiner, the examinee, or the environment.
HISTORY OF TESTING:
Some scholars believe that the use of intelligence, and in 1905 he and Théodore
psychological tests can be traced to 2200 Simon published the first test of mental
BCE in ancient China. Most scholars agree ability, the Binet–Simon Scale. Parisian
that serious research efforts on the use and school officials used this scale to decide
usefulness of psychological tests did not which children, no matter how hard they
th
begin until the 20 century with the advent tried, were unable to profit from regular
of intelligence testing. Intelligence Tests school programs (Binet & Simon,1905).
Alfred Binet and the Binet–Simon Scale Lewis Terman and the Stanford Binet
th
Late in the 19 century, Alfred Binet Binet’s work influenced psychologists
founded the first experimental psychology across the globe. Psychological testing
research laboratory in France. In his lab, became a popular method of evaluation, and
Binet attempted to develop experimental the Binet–Simon Scale was adapted for use
techniques to measure intelligence and in many countries. In 1916, Lewis Terman,
reasoning ability. He believed that an American psychologist, produced the
intelligence was a complex characteristic Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, an
that could be determined by evaluating a adaptation of Binet’ s original test. This test,
person’s reasoning, judgment, and problem- developed for use with Americans ages 3
solving abilities. Binet tried a variety of years to adulthood, was used for many
tasks to measure reasoning, judgment, and years. A revised edition of the Stanford–
problem solving on his own children as well Binet remains one of the most widely used
as on other children in the French school intelligence tests today.
system. Binet was successful in measuring
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS test takers to answer questions or perform
V/S PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS tasks to measure personal attributes. The
Psychological assessments and concept of a psychological test is
psychological tests both are methods of represented by the lighter circle in the
collecting important information about figure. With psychological tests, test takers'
people, and both are also used to help answers to questions or their performance on
understand and predict behavior (Kline, some task is not initially expressed in
2000, Maloney & Ward, 1976). Assessment, physical units of any kind; instead, scores
however, is a broader concept than are derived according to some
psychological testing. Psychological predetermined method. In some cases, the
assessment involves multiple methods, such end result of a psychological test is not a
as personal history interviews, behavioral derived score at all, but rather a verbal
observations, and psychological tests, for description of an individual. For example,
gathering information about an individual. there are some personality tests that,
Psychological assessment involves both an although they have rules for scoring or
objective component and a subjective summarizing information, do not produce
component (Matarazzo, 1990), and overall scores. Instead, these tests yield
psychological tests are only one tool in the profiles. The MBTI is an example of such a
assessment process. For example, a clinical test. Psychological tests can be considered
psychologist may conduct a psychological psychological measurements when a sample
assessment of a patient and, as a part of this of behavior can be expressed as a numerical
assessment, may administer a psychological score.
test such as the MMPI. Although most psychological tests are
measurements, not all psychological tests,
strictly defined, meet the definition of a
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS V/S measurement. Throughout the remainder of
MEASUREMENTS this text, we follow the common practice of
Although the meanings overlap, referring to all psychological tests as
psychological test and measurement are not measurements because most of them are, but
synonyms. Measurement, broadly defined, is keep in mind the distinctions we have drawn
the assignment of numbers according to in this section.
specific rules. Psychological tests require
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS V/S individuals. For example, a psychological

SURVEYS test may suggest that a child is unusually
Surveys, like psychological tests (and intelligent and therefore should be placed in
psychological assessments), are used to a gifted or honors program. Surveys, on the
collect important information from other hand, provide important information
individuals. Surveys differ from about groups and help us make important
psychological tests in two important ways. decisions about groups. For example, an
First, psychological tests focus on individual organizational survey may suggest that
outcomes, and surveys focus on group employees are displeased with a company
outcomes. Psychological tests provide benefits program and that a new benefits
important information about individual program is needed.
differences and help individuals and Second, the results of a psychological test
institutions make important decisions about are often reported in terms of an overall
derived score or scaled scores. Results of cases, surveys focus on individual outcomes
surveys, on the other hand, are often and are constructed using scales. In such
reported at the question level by providing cases, the survey approximates a
the percentage of respondents who selected psychological test.
each answer alternative. Of course, in some
TYPES OF TESTS people typically respond in a particular

There are tens of thousands of commercially context. Unlike with tests of maximal
available psychological tests, and performance, many times people do not
professionals refer to these tests in various know that their behavior is being
ways. Tests are classified based on observed and there is no single defined
multitude of perspectives considered. task for the individual to perform. Many
restaurants use this technique to assess
food servers' competence in dealing with
MAXIMAL PERFORMANCE, customers. Sometimes managers hire
BEHAVIOR OBSERVATION, trained observers to visit their restaurant
OR SELF-REPORT disguised as a typical customer. In
exchange for a free meal or some
Most psychological tests can be
predetermined compensation, observers
defined as being tests of
agree to record specific behaviors
maximal performance,
performed by a food server. For
behavioral observation tests, or
example, observers may document
self-report tests.
whether a food server greeted them in a
friendly manner. Other examples of
Tests of maximal performance require behavior observations include
test takers to perform a particular well- documenting job performance for
defined task such as making a right-hand performance appraisals or clinical
turn, arranging blocks from smallest to interviews.
largest, tracing a pattern, or completing
mathematical problems. Test takers try Self-report tests require test takers to
to do their best because their scores are report or describe their feelings, beliefs,
determined by their success in opinions, or mental states. Many
completing the task. Intelligence tests, personality inventories, such as the
tests of specific abilities (for example, Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI), are
mechanical ability), driving tests (road self-report tests. The HPI, a test used
and written), and classroom tests all are primarily for personnel selection and
good examples  of tests of maximal individualized assessment, asks test
 performance. takers to indicate whether each of more
 
than 200 statements about themselves is
true or false.
Behavior observation tests  involve
observing people's behavior and how
STANDARDIZED OR NON- Objective tests are structured and
STANDARDIZED require test takers to respond to
structured true/false questions, multiple-
Standardized tests are those that have choice questions, or rating scales. What
been administered to a large group of the test taker must do is clear, for
individuals who are similar to the group example, answer true or false, circle the
for whom the test has been designed. For correct multiple-choice answer, or circle
example, if a test is designed to measure the correct item on the rating scale. The
the writing ability of high school GRE, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales,
students, the test would be administered General Aptitude Test Battery, and most
to a large group of high school students. classroom tests are examples of
This group is called the standardization objective tests. Another example of an
sample—people who are tested to obtain objective test is the NEO Personality
data to establish a frame of reference for Inventory, an objective self-report
interpreting individual test scores. These instrument designed to identify what
data, called norms, indicate the average makes individuals unique in their
performance of a group and the thinking, feeling, and interaction with
distribution of scores above and below others. Although there are two forms of
this average. For example, if you took the inventory, both measure five broad
the SAT, the interpretation of your score personality dimensions: neuroticism,
included comparing it with the SAT extroversion, openness, agreeableness,
standardization sample to determine and conscientiousness. Test takers are
whether your score was high or low in asked to indicate whether they strongly
comparison with others and whether you disagree, disagree, are neutral, agree, or
scored above average, average, or below strongly agree with each of 240
average. In addition, standardized tests statements. These statements are about 

always have specific directions for  their thoughts, feelings, and goals. P
 administration and scoring.
Projective tests are unstructured. They
Non-standardized tests do not have require test takers to respond to
 standardization samples and are more  unstructured or ambiguous stimuli such
common than standardized tests. Non-
as incomplete sentences, inkblots, and
standardized tests are usually
abstract pictures. The role of the test
constructed by a teacher or trainer in a taker is less clear than with a
less formal manner for a single standardized test. People who use
administration. For example, in many projective tests believe that test takers
cases, the exams you take in your project themselves into the task they are
college courses are non-standardized asked to perform and that their responses
 tests. are based on what they believe the
stimuli mean and, on the feelings, they
OBJECTIVE OR experience while responding. These tests
PROJECTIVE tend to elicit highly personal concerns.
They are often used to detect
Sometimes people make a distinction unconscious thoughts or personality
between objective and projective tests.
 to
characteristics, and they may be used
identify the need for psychological
counseling. The TAT is an example of a perform in a new job or situation. Aptitude

projective test. tests measure the product of cumulative life
experiences—or what one has acquired over
time. They help determine what "maximum"
4. DIMENSION MEASURED can be expected from a person. Schools,
businesses, and government agencies often
Psychological tests are often discussed in use aptitude tests to predict how well
terms of the dimensions they measure. For someone will perform or to estimate the
example, sometimes we distinguish among extent to which an individual will profit
achievement tests, aptitude tests, intelligence from a specified course of training.
tests, personality tests, and interest Vocational guidance counseling may
inventories. We refer to these as dimensions involve aptitude testing to help clarify the
because they are broader than a single test taker's career goals. If a person's score is
attribute or trait level. Often these types of similar to scores of others already working
tests measure various personal attributes or in a given occupation, the test will predict
traits. success in that field.

 INTELLIGENCE TESTS
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
Intelligence tests, like aptitude tests, assess
Achievement tests measure a person's the test taker's ability to cope with the
previous learning in a specific academic area environment, but at a broader level.
(for example, computer programming, Intelligence tests are often used to screen
German, trigonometry, psychology). A test individuals for specific programs (for
that requires you to list the three example, gifted programs, honors programs)
characteristics of psychological tests would or programs for the mentally challenged.
be considered an achievement test. Intelligence tests are typically used in
Achievement tests are also referred to as educational and clinical settings.
tests of knowledge. Achievement tests are 
used primarily in educational settings to INTEREST INVENTORIES
determine how much students have learned Interest inventories assess a person's
or what they can do at a particular point in interests in educational programs for job
time. Many elementary schools and high settings and provide information for making
schools rely on achievement tests to career decisions. Because these tests are
compare what students know at the often used to predict satisfaction in a
beginning of the year with what they know particular academic area or employment
at the end of the year, to assign grades, to setting, they are administered primarily to
identify students with special educational students by counselors in high schools and
needs, and to measure students' progress. colleges. Interest inventories are not
 intended to predict success; rather, they are
APTITUDE TESTS
intended only to offer a framework for
Achievement tests measure a test taker's narrowing career possibilities.
knowledge in a specific area at a specific 
point in time. Aptitude tests assess a test PERSONALITY TESTS
taker's potential for learning or ability to
Personality tests measure human character thousands of tests into 19 major subject
or disposition. The first personality tests categories:
were designed to assess and predict clinical Achievement
disorders. These tests remain useful today
 Behavior assessment
for determining who needs counseling and Developmental
who will benefit from treatment programs. Education
Newer personality tests measure "normal" English
personality traits. For example, the Myers— Fine arts
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is often used Foreign languages
by industrial/organizational psychologists to
 Intelligence
increase employees' understanding of Mathematics
individual differences and to promote better 
Miscellaneous (for example,
communication between members of work courtship and marriage, driving
teams. Career counselors also use the MBTI
 and safety education, etiquette)
to help students select majors and careers Multi-aptitude batteries
consistent with their personalities. Neuropsychological
Personality tests can be either objective or Personality
projective. The MBTI is an example of an  Reading
objective personality test. Projective Science
personality tests, such as the TAT, serve the Sensorimotor
same purpose as some objective personality
tests, but they require test takers to respond Reference books such as the Mental
to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli. Measurements Year book often indicate
 whether a test is (a) a test of maximal
SUBJECT TESTS performance, a behavior observation test, or
self-report test; (b) standardized or non-
Many popular psychological testing
reference books also classify tests by standardized; and (c) objective or projective.
subject. For example, the Seventeenth
Mental Measurements Yearbook (Geisinger,
Spies, Carlson, & Plake, 2007) classifies
TEST CONSTRUCTION: ITEM items. These requirements are briefly

WRITING, ITEM ANALYSIS discussed as follows;
Command on subject matter:

ITEM WRITING:
The item writer must have a thorough
Item writing is essentially a creative art. knowledge and complete mastery of the
There are no set rules to guide and guarantee subject matter. In other words, he must be
writing of good items. A lot depends upon fully acquainted with all facts, principles,
the item writer’s intuition, imagination, misconceptions, fallacies in a particular field
experience, practice and ingenuity. so that he may be able to write good and
However, there are some essential appropriate items.
prerequisites which must be met if the item
writer wants to write good and appropriate Fully aware of the population:
The item writer must be fully aware of those meanings of a word so that confusion in
persons for whom the test is meant. He must writing the items may be avoided. He must
also be aware of the intelligence level of be able to convey the meaning of the items
those persons so that he may manipulate the in the simplest possible language.
difficulty level of the items for proper
adjustment with their ability level. He must Expert opinion:
also be able to avoid irrelevant clues to
correct responses. After writing down the items, they must be
submitted to a group of subject experts for
Familiarity with different types of items: their criticism or suggestions, which must
then be duly modified.
The item writer must be familiar with
different types of items along with their Cultivate a rich source of ideas:
advantages and disadvantages. He must also
be aware of the characteristics of good items The item writer must also cultivate a rich
and the common probable errors in writing source of ideas for items. This is because
items. ideas are not produced in mind
automatically but rather require certain
Command on language: factors or stimuli. The common source of
such factors are textbooks, journals,
The item writer must have a large discussions, questions for interview, coarse
vocabulary. He must know the different outlines and other instructional materials.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
ITEM It must have discriminating power, that is, it
must clearly distinguish between those who
An item must have the following possess the trait and those who do not.
characteristics;
To the point:
Clarity:
It should not be concerned with the trivial
An item should be phrased in such a manner aspects of the subject matter, that is, it must
that there is no ambiguity regarding its only measure the significant aspects of
meaning for both the item writer as well as knowledge or understanding.
the examinees who take the test.
Not encourage guesswork:
Moderately difficult:
As far as possible, it should not encourage
The item should not be too easy or too guesswork by the subjects.
difficult.
Clear in reading:
Discriminating power:
It should not present any difficulty in
reading.
Independent for its meaning: It should not be such that its meaning is
dependent upon another item and/or it can
be answered by referring to another item. for
ITEM ANALYSIS: norm-referenced and criterion-referenced
Item analysis uses statistics and expert tests, but they differ in specific, significant
judgment to evaluate tests based on the ways.
quality of individual items, item sets, and The item analysis is one of the most
entire sets of items, as well as the important steps in the process of test
relationship of each item to other items. It construction. It gives us two kinds of
“investigates the performance of items information i.e. The idea about difficulty
considered individually either in relation to index of the item and index of validity;
some external criterion or in relation to the index of validity is also known as internal
remaining items on the test”. It uses this consistency or discriminative power of the
information to improve item and test quality. statement.
Item analysis concepts are similar
ITEM DIFFICULTY: of.75. An item answered correctly by 35%
Item difficulty is the percentage of people of the examinees has an item difficulty level
who answer an item correctly. It is the of .35.item difficulty is a characteristic of
relative frequency with which examinees the item and the sample that takes the test.
choose the correct response. It has an index For example, a vocabulary question that
ranging from a low of 0 to a high of +1.00. asks for synonyms for English nouns will be
Higher difficulty indexes indicate easier easy for American graduate students in
items. An item answered correctly by 75% English literature, but difficult for
of the examinees has an item difficult level elementary children.
ITEM DISCRIMINATION value and is probably flawed. A negative

discrimination index occurs for items that
It compares the number of high scorers are too hard or poorly written, which
and low scorers who answer an item makes it difficult to select the correct
correctly. It is the extent to which items answer. On these items poor students may
discriminate among trainees in the high guess correctly, while good students,
and low groups.The higher the suspecting that a question is too easy, may
discrimination index, the better the item answer in-correctly by reading too much
because high values indicate that the item into the question. Good items have a
discriminates in favor of the up-per group discrimination index of .40 and higher;
which should answer more items reasonably good items from .30 to .39;
correctly. If more low scorers answer an marginal items from .20 to .29, and poor
item correctly, it will have a negative items less than .20 (Ebel & Frisbie, 1986).
DISTRACTORS items. A discrimination index or

Analyzing the distractors (i.e., incorrect discrimination coefficient should be
alternatives) is useful in determining the obtained for each option in order to
relative usefulness of the decoys in each determine each distractor's usefulness
item. Items should be modified if students (Millman & Greene, 1993). Whereas the
consistently fail to select certain multiple- discrimination value of the correct answer
choice alternatives. The alternatives are should be positive, the discrimination
probably totally implausible and therefore values for the distractors should be lower
of little use as decoys in multiple choice and, preferably, negative.
TEST STANDARDIZATION:
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND
NORMS
means consistency of the test result, internal
RELIABILITY: consistency and consistency of results over a
Reliability refers mainly to stability, internal period of time.
consistency and equivalence of a measure. According to Anastasi and Ubrina (1982)
Reliability is one of the most essential “Reliability refers to the consistency of
characteristic of a test. If a test gives same scores obtained by the same persons when
result on different occasions, it is said to be they are re-examined with the same test on
reliable. So Reliability different occasions, or with different sets of
equivalent items, or under other variable
examining conditions.”
METHODS OF ESTIMATING RELIABILITY:
There are different methods of establishing training, akin to parallel tests, the correlation
the reliability of the test. They are: between the scores assigned by Rater 1 and
by Rater 2 to persons can be used to
determine interrater reliability – the
INTER-RATER OR INTER- consistency among raters (in the sense of
OBSERVER RELIABILITY relative or deviation scores assigned)
Measures the degree to which different
observers give consistent estimates of the 
STRATIFIED COEFFICIENT
same persons. Often with essay and other ALPHA
constructed-response tests, two (or more)
raters score individuals’ performance. Each A reliability estimates that takes account this
rater would provide a performance score for stratification is stratified coefficient alpha.
each individual (e.g., a total score summed Tests may contain different types of items
over open-ended test items). Assuming that can be categorized. For example,
“parallel raters” are created by selection and reading achievement tests may include both
vocabulary and reading comprehension strata, coefficient alpha will be smaller than
items. Or, a battery of tests might be stratified alpha.
categorized into subsets as is done with the
Wechsler intelligence test with both verbal
(e.g., information, comprehension, TEST - RE-TEST RELIABILITY
arithmetic) and performance (e.g., block Measures the consistency of measurement
design, picture arrangement, matrix on two separate occasions. This type of
reasoning) categories. When components Reliability is estimated by the Pearson
(items or subtests) fall within categories or product - moment coefficient of correlations
strata, we might view the composite as a between two administrations of the same
result of stratified random sampling of inventory. Estimation is based on the
subtests or items. When we have such correlation between scores of two or more
stratification, we would expect that items or administrations of the same inventory. In
subtests within a stratum would correlate designing a reliability study to produce two
more highly with each other than with items sets of observations, one might give the
or subtests in other strata. When the same test on two occasions, separated (say)
stratification holds up and correlations by two weeks.
within strata are higher than those between
ADVANTAGES: If the interval between tests is rather long

(more than six months) growth factor and
Self-correlation or test-retest method, for maturity will affect the scores and tends to
estimating reliability coefficient is generally lower down the reliability index.
used. It is worthy to use in different
situations conveniently. A test of an If the test is repeated immediately or after
adequate length can be used after an interval a little time gap, there may be the possibility
of many days between successive testing. of carry-over effect/transfer
effect/memory/practice effect.
DISADVANTAGES:
On repeating the same test, on the same
If the test is repeated immediately, many group second time, makes the students
subjects will recall their first answers and disinterested and thus they do not like to
spend their time on new material, thus take part wholeheartedly.
tending to increase their scores—sometimes
by a good deal. Sometimes, uniformity is not maintained
which also affects the test scores.
Besides immediate memory effects,
practice and the confidence induced by Chances of discussing a few questions
familiarity with the material will almost after the first administration, which may
certainly affect scores when the test is taken increase the scores at second administration
for a second time.Index of reliability so affecting reliability.
obtained is less accurate.
PARALLEL-FORMS RELIABILITY Guilford: The alternative form method
indicates both equivalence of content and
Estimating reliability by means of the stability of performance.
equivalent form method involves the use of
two different but equivalent forms of the ADVANTAGES:
test. Parallel form reliability is also known
as Alternative form reliability or Equivalent This procedure has certain advantages
form reliability or Comparable form over the test-retest method:
reliability.
Here the same test is not repeated.
In this method two parallel or equivalent
forms of a test are used. By parallel forms Memory, practice, carryover effects and
we mean that the forms arc equivalent so far recall factors are minimized and they do not
as the content, objectives, format, difficulty effect the scores.
level and discriminating value of items,
length of the test etc. arc concerned. The reliability coefficient obtained by this
method is a measure of both temporal
Parallel tests have equal mean scores, stability and consistency of response to
variances and inter co-relations among different item samples or test forms. Thus,
items. That is, two parallel forms must be this method combines two types of
homogeneous or similar in all respects, but reliability.
not a duplication of test items. Let the two
forms be Form A and Form B. Useful for the reliability of achievement
tests.
The reliability coefficient may be looked
upon as the coefficient correlation between This method is one of the appropriate
the scores on two equivalent forms of test. methods of determining the reliability of
The two equivalent forms are to be possibly educational and psychological tests.
similar in content, degree, mental processes
tested, and difficulty level and in other LIMITATIONS:
aspects.
It is difficult to have two parallel forms of
One form of the test is administered on the a test. In certain situations (i.e. in
students and on finishing immediately Rorschach) it is almost impossible.
another form of test is supplied to the same
group. The scores, thus obtained are When the tests are not exactly equal in
correlated which gives the estimate of terms of content difficulty, length, the
reliability. Thus, the reliability found is comparison between two set of scores
called coefficient of equivalence. obtained from these tests may lead to
erroneous decisions.
Gulliksen 1950: has defined parallel tests as
tests having equal means, equal variance and Practice and carryover factors cannot be
equal inter co-relations. completely controlled.
Moreover, administering two forms

simultaneously creates boredom. That is
why people prefer such methods in which Test scores of second form of the test are
only one administration of the test is generally high.
required.
Although difficult, carefully and cautiously
5. The testing conditions while constructed parallel forms would give us
administering the Form B may not be the reasonably a satisfactory measure of
same. Besides, the testes may not be in a reliability. For well-made standardized tests,
similar physical, mental or emotional state at the parallel form method is usually the most
both the times of administration. satisfactory way of determining the
reliability.

INTERNAL CONSISTENCY All the items of the test are generally
RELIABILITY arranged in increasing order of difficulty and
administered once on sample. After
Measures the consistency of results across
administering the test it is divided into two
items within a test.
comparable or similar or equal parts or
halves.
SPLIT - HALF RELIABILITY The scores are arranged or are made in two
Split-half method is an improvement over sets obtained from odd numbers of items
the earlier two methods, and it involves both and even numbers of items separately. As
the characteristics of stability and for example a test of 100 items is
equivalence. The above discussed two administered.
methods of estimating reliability sometimes The scores of individual based on 50 items
seems difficult. of odd numbers like 1, 3, 5, 99 and scores
It may not be possible to use the same test based on even numbers 2, 4, 6… 10 are
twice and to get an equivalent forms of test. separately arranged. In part ‘A’ odd number
Hence, to overcome these difficulties and to items are assigned and part ‘B’ will consist
reduce memory effect as well as to of even number of items.
economize the test, it is desirable to estimate After obtaining two scores on odd and even
reliability through a single administration of numbers of test items, co-efficient of
the test. correlation is calculated. It is really a
In this method the test is administered once correlation between two equivalent halves of
on the sample and it is the most appropriate scores obtained in one sitting. To estimate
method for homogeneous tests. This method reliability, Spearman-Brown Prophecy
provides the internal consistency of a test formula is used.
scores.
Split-half can also be calculated using: Flanagan Formula: This formula is very
Rulon - Guttmann’s formulas: In this close to Rulon's formula. In this formula
method, the variance of the differences the variance of two halves are added
between each person’s scores on the two instead of difference between two
half-tests and the variance of total scores halves.
are considered.
ADVANTAGES: coefficient of correlation in each case may

Here we are not repeating the test or using be different.
the parallel form of it and thus the testee is This method cannot be used for
not tested twice. As such, the carry over estimating reliability of speed tests.
effect or practice effect is not there. As the lest is administered once, the
In this method, the fluctuations of chance errors may affect the scores on the
individual’s ability, because of two halves in the same way and thus tending
environmental or physical conditions is to make the reliability coefficient too high.
minimized. This method cannot be used in power
Because of single administration of test, tests and heterogeneous tests.
day-to-day functions and problems do not In spite of all these limitations, the split-half
interfere. method is considered as the best of all the
Difficulty of constructing parallel forms methods of measuring test reliability, as the
of test is eliminated. data for determining reliability are obtained
upon on occasion and thus reduces the time,
labor and difficulties involved in case of
LIMITATIONS: second or repeated administration.
1. A test can be divided into two equal
halves in a number of ways and the
Consistency’. It is a method based on single

 METHOD OF RATIONAL administration. It is based on consistency of
EQUIVALENCE: responses to all items. The most common
way for finding inter-item consistency is
This method is also known as “Kuder- through the formula developed by Kuder
Richardson Reliability’ or ‘Inter-Item and Richardson (1937). This method enables
to compute the inter-correlation of the items correlation between the items are equal, all
of the test and correlation of each item with the items measure essentially the same
all the items of the test. J. Cronbach called it ability and the test is homogeneous in
as coefficient of internal consistency. nature. Like split-half method this method
In this method, it is assumed that all items also provides a measure of internal
have same or equal difficulty value, consistency.
EXAMPLE
ADVANTAGES: It neither requires administration of two

equivalent forms of tests nor it requires to
This coefficient provides some indications
split the tests into two equal halves.
of how internally consistent or
homogeneous the items of the tests are.
Rational equivalence is superior to the split- LIMITATIONS:
half technique in certain theoretical aspects, The coefficient obtained by this method is
but the actual difference in reliability generally somewhat lesser than the
coefficients found by the two methods is coefficients obtained by other methods.
often negligible.
If the items of the tests are not highly
Split-half method simply measures the homogeneous, this method will yield lower
equivalence but rational equivalence method reliability coefficient.
measures both equivalence and
Kuder-Richardson and split-half method are
homogeneity. Economical method as the test
not appropriate for speed test. Different KR
is administered once.
formula yield different reliability index.

CRONBACH’S ALPHA
Unsatisfactory internal consistency
This method is commonly used as a measure
reliability. An important property of
of internal consistency or reliability of a test.
coefficient alpha is that its value tends to
This was developed by Lee Cronbach in
increase with an increase in the number of
1951. As an extension of the Kuder-
scale items. Therefore, coefficient alpha
Richardson formula (KR20). This method
may be artificially, and inappropriately,
uses the variance of scores of odd, even and
inflated by including several redundant scale
total items to work out the reliability. The
items 48 another coefficient that can be
coefficient alpha, or Cronbach’s alpha, is the
employed in conjunction with coefficient
average of all possible split-half coefficients
alpha is coefficient beta.
resulting from different ways of splitting the
scale items.47This coefficient varies from 0 Coefficient beta assists in determining
to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally whether the averaging process used in
indicates calculating coefficient alpha is masking any
. inconsistent items
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE

RELIABILITY OF TEST SCORES
(A) Intrinsic Factors:

The principal intrinsic factors (i.e. those reliability and vice-versa. Logically, the
factors which lie within the test itself) which more sample of items we take of a given
affect the reliability are: area of knowledge, skill and the like, the
(i) Length of the Test: more reliable the test will be. However, it is
difficult to ensure the maximum length of
Reliability has a definite relation with the
the test to ensure an appropriate value of
length of the test. The more the number of
reliability. The length of the tests in such
items the test contains, the greater will be its
case should not give rise to fatigue effects in
the testees, etc. Thus, it is advisable to use
longer tests rather than shorter tests. Shorter
tests are less reliable.
(II) HOMOGENEITY OF ITEMS: both the tests have a restricted spread of
scores.
Homogeneity of items has two aspects: item
reliability and the homogeneity of traits (IV) DISCRIMINATIVE VALUE:
measured from one item to another. If the
items measure different functions and the When items can discriminate well between
inter-correlations of items are ‘zero’ or near superior and inferior, the item total-
to it, then the reliability is ‘zero’ or very low correlation is high, the reliability is also
and vice-versa. likely to be high and vice-versa.
(III) DIFFICULTY VALUE OF ITEMS: (V) TEST INSTRUCTIONS:
The difficulty level and clarity of expression Clear and concise instructions increase
of a test item also affect the reliability of test reliability. Complicated and ambiguous
scores. If the test items are too easy or too directions give rise to difficulties in
difficult for the group members it will tend understanding the questions and the nature
to produce scores of low reliability. Because
of the response expected from the testee (VII) RELIABILITY OF THE SCORER:
ultimately leading to low reliability.
The reliability of the scorer also influences
(VI) ITEM SELECTION: reliability of the test. If he is moody,
fluctuating type, the scores will vary from
If there are too many interdependent items one situation to another. Mistake in him give
in a test, the reliability is found to be low. rises to mistake in the score and thus leads
to reliability.
(B) Extrinsic Factors: (III) ENVIRONMENTAL

The important extrinsic factors (i.e. the CONDITIONS: As far as practicable,
factors which remain outside the test itself) testing environment should be uniform.
influencing the reliability are: Arrangement should be such that light,
sound, and other comforts should be equal to
GROUP VARIABILITY: When the
all testees, otherwise it will affect the
group of pupils being tested is homogeneous
reliability of the test scores.
in ability, the reliability of the test scores is
likely to be lowered and vice-versa. (IV) MOMENTARY FLUCTUATIONS:
Momentary fluctuations may raise or lower
(II) GUESSING AND CHANCE
the reliability of the test scores. Broken
ERRORS: Guessing in test gives rise to
pencil, momentary distraction by sudden
increased error variance and as such reduces
sound of a train running outside, anxiety
reliability. For example, in two-alternative
regarding non-completion of home-work,
response options there is a 50% chance of
mistake in giving the answer and knowing
answering the items correctly in terms of
no way to change it are the factors which
guessing.
may affect the reliability of test score.
ERRORS IN RELIABILITY: SYSTEMATIC ERROR
At a time, scores are not consistent because Systematic error is caused due to
some other factors also affect reliability e.g. instruments, machines, and measuring tools.
It is not due to individuals.
Noise
Health VALIDITY:
Time
Validity is the extent to which a test measure
what it is supposed to measure. It is the most
There is always a chance of 5% error in
critical dimension of test development.
reliability which is acceptable.
Simply stated, validity is what a test
measure and how well it does this.
TYPES OF ERRORS
In 1954, the American Psychological
Random error Association (APA) defined four categories
Systematic error of validity including content, predictive,
concurrent, and construct. In 1966, the
association combined predictive and
RANDOM ERROR
concurrent validity into a single grouping
called criterion validity (American
Random error exists in every measurement
Psychological Association, 1966) which
and is often major source of uncertainty.
remains the current classification (American
These errors have no particular assignable
Educational Research Association,
cause. These errors can never be totally
American Psychological Association, &
eliminated or corrected. These are caused by
National Council on Measurement and
many uncontrollable variables that are
Education, 1985). These aspects of validity
inevitable part of every analysis made by
are often mistakenly considered as three
human being. These variables are impossible
types of validity rather than a concept
to identified, even if we identify some they
about how a score can be interpreted.
cannot be measured because most of them
are so small.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
Face validity estimates whether a test judge whether it actually measures for
measure what it claims to measure. It is what it is constructed.
the extent to which a test seems relevant,
important, and interesting. It is the least Content validity is the degree to which
rigorous measure of validity. It pertains a test matches a curriculum and
to the fact that whether test looks valid accurately measures the specific training
or not. For this, the proposed instrument objectives on which a program is based.
is to be sent to the experts in the related Typically, it uses expert judgment of
area and are requested to qualified experts to determine if a test is
accurate, appropriate, and fair.
Criterion-related validity measures

how well a test compares with an
external criterion. It reflects whether a the criterion variables (e.g. repeat

scale performs as expected in relation to purchasing) are collected at the
other selected variables (criterion same time. The scale being
variables) as meaningful criteria. If, for developed and the alternative
example, a scale is designed to measure means of encapsulating the
loyalty in customers, criterion validity criterion variables would be
might be determined by comparing the administered simultaneously and
results generated by this scale with the results compared.
results generated by observing the extent
of repeat purchasing. Based on the time 4. Construct validity addresses the question
period involved, criterion validity can of what construct or characteristic the
take two forms, concurrent validity and scale is, in fact, measuring. When
predictive validity. It includes: assessing construct validity, the
researcher attempts to answer theoretical
a. Predictive validity is the questions about why the scale works and
correlation between a predictor what deductions can be made concerning
and a criterion obtained at a later the underlying theory. Thus, construct
time (e.g., test score on a specific validity requires a sound theory of the
competence and caseworker nature of the construct being measured
performance of a job-related and how it relates to other constructs.
tasks). It is concerned with how Construct validity is the most
well a scale can forecast a future sophisticated and difficult type of
criterion. To assess predictive validity to establish. Construct validity
validity, the researcher collects includes convergent, discriminant and
data on the scale at one point in nomological validity.
time and data on the criterion
variables at a future time. For Convergent validity is the extent to
example, attitudes towards how which the scale correlates positively
loyal customers feel to a with other measurements of the same
particular brand could be used to construct. It is not necessary that all
predict future repeat purchases of these measurements be obtained by
that brand. The predicted and using conventional scaling techniques.
actual purchases are compared to Discriminant validity is the extent to
assess the predictive validity of which a measure does not correlate with
the attitudinal scale. other constructs from which it is
supposed to differ. It involves
demonstrating a lack of correlation
b. Concurrent validity is the
correlation between a predictor among differing constructs.
and a criterion at the same point Nomological validity is the extent to
in time (e.g., performance on a which the scale correlates in
cognitive test related to training theoretically predicted ways with
and scores on a Civil Service measures of different but related
examination). It is assessed when constructs. A theoretical model is
the data on the scale being formulated that leads to further
evaluated (e.g. loyalty scale) and deductions, tests and inferences.
An example of construct validity can be method is the total score on the test
evaluated in the following example. A itself. It verifies that a particular item
researcher seeks to provide evidence of or section measures the same
construct validity in a multi-item scale, characteristic individually that the
designed to measure the concept of ‘self- test as a whole measures. It can be
image’. These findings would be sought: determined in two ways. (a) By
High correlations with other scales comparing the performance of upper
designed to measure self-concepts and with criterion group with that of the lower
reported classifications by friends criterion group. Biserial correlation
(convergent validity) between ‘Pass-Fail’ on each item and
total test score is computed and items
Low correlations with unrelated constructs yielding significant item test
of brand loyalty and variety-seeking correlations are retained. (b) By
(discriminant validity) correlating sub-test scores with total
Brands that are congruent with the score. Any subtest having low
individual’s self-concept are more preferred, correlation is estimated. Internal
as postulated by the theory (nomological consistency correlation are
validity) essential as they help to characterize
A high level of reliability. the behavior domain or trait sampled
by the test.
This type of validity is concerned with what
qualities does a test measure. It is evaluated
by demonstrating that certain explanatory b. Factorial Validity
constructs account for some degree of
performance on the test. Construct validity Factor analysis is a refined statistical
can be estimated by following two methods. technique for analyzing
interrelationships of behavior data.
a. Internal Consistency The factorial validity of a test is the
Test falling under personality correlation between he test and the
domain are validated by this method. factor common to the test.
The essential character of this
HERE ARE SOME FACTORS WHICH History

AFFECT INTERNAL VALIDITY: Attrition
Maturation
INTERNAL VALIDITY is affected by Instrument/task sensitivity
flaws within the study itself such as not
controlling some of the major variables (a HERE ARE SEVEN IMPORTANT
design problem), or problems with the FACTORS AFFECT EXTERNAL
research instrument (a data collection VALIDITY:
problem).
EXTERNAL VALIDITY is the extent to
Subject variability which you can generalize your findings to a
 Size of subject population larger group or other contexts. If your
Time given for the data collection or research lacks external validity, the findings
experimental treatment cannot be applied to contexts other than the
one in which you carried out your research. Interaction of subject selection and
For example, if the subjects are all males  research
from one ethnic group, your findings might Descriptive explicitness of the
not apply to females or other ethnic groups.  independent variable
Or, if you conducted your research in a The effect of the research
highly controlled laboratory environment,  environment
your findings may not faithfully represent Researcher or experimenter effects
what might happen in the real world. Data collection methodology
The effect of time
Population characteristics (subjects)
RELIABILITY & VALIDITY GENERALIZABILITY

Generalizability refers to the extent to which
If a test is heterogeneous, ithas low
 reliability and high validity. one can generalize from the observations at
On the other hand, maximum validity hand to a universe of generalizations. The
 requires items differing in difficultyand set of all conditions of measurement over
low inter-correlation among items.
which the investigator wishes to generalize
 The validity of a test may not be higher
than the reliability index. is the universe of generalization. These
 Validity the proportion of common factor
is conditions may include items, interviewers,
variance.
A valid test is always reliable. If a test and situations of observation. A researcher
 truthfully measures what it purports  to may wish to generalize a scale developed for
measure is both valid and reliable. use in personal interviews to other modes of

A reliable test may not be Valid. A test
maybe reliable but poor on validity. data collection, such as mail and telephone
interviews. Likewise, one may wish to
generalize from a sample of items to the
universe of items, from a sample of times of
measurement to the universe of times of
NORMS: measurement, from a sample of observers to
A norm is the average or typical score on a a universe of observers, and so on.
particular test obtained by a set/group of
defined individuals. Norms of the test are The sample should be large enough to
 provide stable values
based on the distribution of scores obtained
by the people of the standardization group. Sample must be representative of the
population under consideration
To develop norms, a test is administered to a
large sample of individuals, and the For example, the mean intelligence test
distribution of scores obtained by those score for a group of 10-year olds. The raw
individuals represent the norms of the score, that is, the actual number of units or
test. points, obtained by an individual on a test
In the development and application of test does not in itself have much, if any,
norms, considerable attention should be significance. One test may yield a score of
given to the standardization sample: 43 and cannot be directly compared with a
score of 43 on another test.
The scores on a psychological test provide a
relative, rather than an absolute, measure of
a test taker’s performance. Scores on and thus permit an evaluation of his

psychological tests are most commonly performance in reference to others in
interpreted by reference to norms which the normative sample.
represent the test performance of the They provide comparable measures
standardization sample which permit a direct comparison of
performance on different tests.
Norms only provide a frame of
Norms serve a dual purpose: - reference to interpret scores on a test.
They indicate an individual’s relative
position in the normative sample,
TYPES AND METHODS OF of these types of norms are percentiles,

CALCULATING NORMS: deciles, standard scores and some variations
of standard scores
1. QUANTITATIVE NORMS:
Percentile norms
They allow us to evaluate an individual’s Deciles
performance in terms of the performance of Standard score
most nearly comparable standardization T-score and z-score
sample. They have a uniform and a clearly Stanine
defined quantitative meaning. The examples
A. PERCENTILE NORMS
A percentile rank is a type of converted score that expresses a student’s score relative to their
group in percentile points.

This indicates the percentage of students
 Easy to calculate.
 
tested who made scores equal to or lower Easy to understand and interpret.
than the specified score. If the percentile No assumption about the
characteristics of populations (not
norms is to be made meaningful, it should telling about how much have one
be a sample which is made homogenous scored  but how better has one
with respect to gender, age and other factors. scored).
Advantages of Percentile Ranks:
B. DECILE scores like z scores, T scores, Stanine scores

etc.
Deciles are points which divide the scale of
measurement into 10 equal parts. Range of Advantages:
deciles is from Decile 1 - Decile 9.  Allowcomparison of same person on different
tests. 
Have equal units of measurement.
There are Deciles scores and deciles ranks.
Deciles score1 indicates that 10 % of cases TRANSFORMATION
lie below you therefore Deciles rank 1 Raw scores can be converted into standard
indicates that you are among the lowest 10 scores by two methods-
% of the group.
i. Linear
Deciles are based on same principles as of Transformation
percentile instead of 1/100 it uses 1/10 parts ii. Normative
of the group. Transformation
Deciles score 1 = PR 10. Decile 1 (lowest)
and Decile 9 (highest). For Linear Transformation:
C. STANDARD SCORES 
All characteristics of original
distribution of raw score are retained
These are derived scores, which designates without any change in distribution.
 Example: z-scores (0 mean, 1 SD).
an individual’s position with respect to the
They can be compared only if both the
total range and distribution of scores. distributions are approximately same. If
Standard scores indicate, in terms of one is skewed and other is normally
standard deviation as to how far a particular distributed, then they cannot be
score is from the mean of the distribution. compared.
Mean is taken as zero point and therefore
stand scores can be minus or plus. As they
have fixed mean and standard deviation and
thus there are different types of standard
T – scores
Normalised
transformation
Stanine
Standard scores
Linear
z - score
transformation
A. AGE NORMS:
For Normative Transformation:
Here, the raw scores of skewed An age norm relates the level of
distributions are adjusted to produce performance to the age of the people taken
 aconverted  and
normal frequency distribution the test. It is the median score on a test
to a standard base.  obtained by persons of a given chronological
 Example: T-score and Stanine scores. age.

 While age norms tend to emphasize the
T-SCORE: Developed by McCall (1922) average level at a given age, it is important
T - Scores are standard scores to remember that there is considerable
which are based on: Mean of variability within the same age. It implies
50, Standard
 deviation of 10.
Range 20-80. that some children at one age will perform

on a test will perform similarly to children at
STANINE: Developed by US Air Force other ages.
 during World War II.
 It is a abbreviation for “standard nine”.
 Scores are expressed in digits ranging 1 to 9. B. GRADE NORMS:
 
1 (lowest) and 9 (highest) . 
Characteristics: Mean = 5, SD = 1.96 A grade norm is the median score on a test
obtained by students of a given grade level.
They are most popular when reporting
2. QUALITATIVE NORM: achievement levels of school children, and
are useful for teachers to understand as to
Developmental norms are developed for how well the students are progressing at a
psychological constructs which develop; for grade level.
example, intelligence, reasoning,
vocabulary, mathematical ability, etc. They
SHORTCOMINGS:
are supplemented by percentiles or standard
scores. They have considerable appeal for
Also, age and grade norms assume that
descriptive purposes, and for certain the growth in psycho-motor, cognitive,
research purpose. and affective domains is uniform over
 the entire rangeof age or grade. But that
Age norms is not the case.
Grade norms Therefore, these norms can be
misinterpreted to be implying that the
Gender Norms rate of increase in tested  abilities is
constant from year to year.
CONCEPTS OF SCALING AND resulting data. Second, numbers facilitate

MEASUREMENT: universal communication of measurement
rules and results. The most important aspect
Four primary scales of measurement: of measurement is the specification of rules
 nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
for assigning numbers to the characteristics.
 Scaling Techniques:
The assignment process must be isomorphic
Comparative scaling
i.e., there must be one-to-one
techniques, consisting of
correspondence between the numbers and
paired comparison, rank
the characteristics being measured.
order, constant sum and Q-
sort scaling Scaling may be considered an extension of
Non-comparative techniques measurement. Scaling involves creating a
are composed of continuous continuum upon which measured objects are
and itemized rating scales. located. To illustrate, consider a scale for
Popular itemized rating scales – the locating consumers according to the
Likert, semantic differential and characteristic ‘attitude towards banks’. Each
Stapel scales respondent is assigned a number indicating
an unfavorable attitude (measured as 1), a
Measurement means assigning numbers or neutral attitude (measured as 2) or a
other symbols to characteristics of objects favorable attitude (measured as
according to certain pre-specified rules. We 3).Measurement is the actual assignment of
measure not the object but some 1, 2 or 3 to each respondent. Scaling is the
characteristic of it. Thus, we do not measure process of placing the respondents on a
consumers, only their perceptions, attitudes, continuum with respect to their attitude
preferences or other relevant characteristics. towards banks. In our example, scaling is
In marketing research, numbers are usually the process by which respondents would be
assigned for one of two reasons. First, classified as having an unfavorable, neutral
numbers permit statistical analysis of the or positive attitude.
Scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
Although a larger number of scales exist and Ordinal,

can be created for measuring attributes of Interval and
people, objects, events, and so on, all scales Ratio.
belong to one of the four basic types:
These scales are actually four hierarchies of
1. Nominal, measurement procedures, the lowest in the
hierarchy being the Nominal Scale

For example, we might determine that
measurement and highest Ratio Scale
runners in a race finished in a particular
measurement. That is why the expression
order, and this order would provide us with
‘levels of measurement’ has been used by
useful information. Also, a lecturer might be
some scholars for scales of measurement.
asked to rank order their students in terms of
general ability at statistics. They could put
1. NOMINAL SCALE
each student into one of five categories:
excellent, good, average, poor, appallingly
The word “nominal” is derived from the
bad. Anjali might fall into the ‘excellent’
Latin word for “name”. Nominal
category and Shivani into the ‘good’
measurements are also called categorical
category. Anjali is better at statistics than
measurements as they reflect qualitative
Shivani, but what we do not know is just
differences rather than quantitative ones.
how much better Anjali is than Shivani. The
Common examples include categories such
rankings reflect more or less of something
as yes/no, pass/fail, male/female or
but not how much more or less.
Conservative/Liberal/ Labor. When setting
up a categorical measurement system the
An ordinal scale does not convey precise
only requirements are those of mutual
quantitative information. With an ordinal
exclusivity and exhaustiveness. Mutual
scale, we know the rank order, but we do not
exclusivity means that each observation
have any idea of the distance or interval
(person, case, score) cannot fall into more
between the rankings. As before, the
than one category; one cannot, for example,
assumptions of mutual exclusivity and
both pass and fail a test at the same time.
exhaustiveness apply and cases are still
Exhaustiveness simply means that your
assigned to categories. The big difference is
category system should have enough
that now the categories themselves can be
categories for all the observations. For
rank-ordered with reference to some
biological sex there should be no
external criterion. Thus, A Likert Scale is a
observations (in this case people) who are
type of ordinal scale and may also use
neither male nor female.
names with an order such as: "bad",
"medium", and "good"; or "very satisfied",
This scale, some valid operations are "satisfied", "neutral", "unsatisfied", "very
equivalence and set membership. Therefore, unsatisfied."
nominal measures offer names or labels for
certain characteristics and the variables
3. INTERVAL SCALE
assessed on a nominal scale are called
categorical variables.
In an Interval Scale, we can specify both the
order of events and the distance between
2. ORDINAL SCALE
events. The distance between any two
intervals on this type of scale is equal
An ordinal measurement describe order, but
throughout the scale. The central
not relative size or degree of difference
shortcoming of an interval scale is its lack of
between the items measured. In this scale
an absolute zero point. This type of scale
type, the numbers are assigned to the order,
often has an arbitrary zero point, sometimes
such as first, second, third, and so on. It is
called an anchor point.
the next level of measurement in terms of
complexity.
As, there is no fixed zero point with these measured, and increasing the value in
types of scales, thus, the result of no fixed successive equal units on the scale up to the
zero is best demonstrated through an desired limit.
example. Let’s say we want to measure
individuals’ “need for achievement” with a 4. RATIO SCALE
particular scale. With an interval level of
measurement, the scores can be interpreted Ratio scale measurement differs from
to mean that someone with a score of 15 is interval measurement only in that it implies
as different from someone with a score of the existence of a potential absolute zero
20, as someone with a score of 20 compared value. Good examples of ratio scales are
to someone with a score of 25. However, length, time and number of correct answers
there is no universally accepted level of on a test. It is possible to have zero (no)
“zero need for achievement.” Therefore, we length, for something to take no time, or for
cannot conclude that someone with a score someone to get no answers correct on a test.
of 20 has half the need for achievement as
does a person with a score of 40. In order to An important corollary of having an
make that claim, we would need to have an absolute zero is that, for example, if person
absolute zero point on the scale. A is six feet tall and person B is three feet
tall, it is true to say that person A is twice as
Though very few Interval Scales have been tall as person B. The ratio of scores to one
developed in the areas of social sciences, we another now carries some sensible meaning
can achieve interval measurement of which was not the case for the interval scale.
attributes such as (a) interest, attitude, Thus, a Ratio Scale has all the
personality, motivation, and so on, (b) characteristics of Nominal, Ordinal and
status, reading interests, and so on and (c) Interval Scales and,
recall, relevance or usefulness of in addition, an absolute or natural zero point
information for this purpose. We can design representing the absence of magnitude of a
numerical rating scales beginning from an variable/ attribute.
arbitrary zero point representing the total
absence of an attribute or quality being
PROBLEMS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL Absolute zero, in case of psychological
measurement, means a situation where the
MEASUREMENTS
property being measured does not exist. The
absolute zero is available in case of physical
1. INDIRECTNESS OF
quantities, like length, but is very difficult to
MEASUREMENT
decide in the case of psychological
attributes.
Various psychological attributes are
accessible to research and measurement only
WE MEASURE A SAMPLE OF
indirectly.
BEHAVIOUR NOT THE
For example, if a researcher is interested in
COMPLETE BEHAVIOUR
measuring the personality dimensions of a
subject, then it is something that is not
In psychological measurements, a complete
directly available for measurement as
set of behavioral dimensions is not possible
physical quantities- like length- are visible
and we take only a carefully chosen sample
and
of behavioral dimensions to assess the
concretely available for observation and
attributes in question.
assessment. The only way to measure it is to
Although the sample is chosen only after
assess the
fulfilling the various psychometric criteria,
person on a set of overt or covert responses
like randomness, representativeness, and so
(for example, by administering a
on, it is always questionable to reach at a
psychological test)
conclusion about an aspect of behavior, only
related to his personality or other
by measuring a small, though representative
psychological attributes of interest.
part of it.
2. LACK OF ABSOLUTE ZERO
4. UNCERTAINTY AND 5. VARIABILITY OF HUMAN

DESIRABILITY INVOLVED IN ATTRIBUTES OVER TIME
HUMAN RESPONSES
Various human attributes, like intelligence,
Test subjects often give uncertain and personality, attitude, and so on, are likely to
desirable responses which generally negates vary over a period of time, and sometimes
the entire purpose of the psychological even hours are sufficient to provide scope
measurement. Uncertainty may arise either for such variations. Psychological attributes
due to the negligence on part of the are highly dynamic and they continuously
researcher, or carelessness on part of the undergo organization and reorganization. To
subject(s), or due to uncontrolled extraneous capture these fluctuating attributes in terms
variables. of exact numbers is really an uphill task for
any researcher.
SCALING TECHNIQUES:
COMPARATIVE SCALING example, respondents may be asked whether

TECHNIQUES they prefer Coke or Pepsi. Comparative
scale data must be interpreted in relative
terms and have only ordinal or rank order
The scaling techniques commonly employed proper-ties. For this reason, comparative
in marketing research can be classified into scaling is also referred to as non-metric
comparative and non-comparative scales. scaling. Comparative scales include
Comparative scales involve the direct
comparison of stimulus objects. For
paired comparisons, rank order, constant Under the assumption of transitivity, it is

sum scales, Q-sort and other procedures. possible to convert paired comparison data
to a rank order. Transitivity of preference
implies that if brand A is preferred to B, and
The major benefit of comparative scaling is brand B is preferred to C, then brand A is
that small differences between stimulus preferred to C.
objects can be detected. As they compare the
stimulus objects, respondents are forced to
choose between them. In addition, Paired comparison scaling is useful when
respondents approach the rating task from the number of brands is limited, since it
the same known reference points. requires direct comparison and overt choice.
Consequently, comparative scales are easily With a large number of brands, however, the
understood and can be applied easily. Other number of comparisons becomes unwieldy.
advantages of these scales are that they Other disadvantages are that violations of
involve fewer theoretical assumptions, and the assumption of transitivity may occur,
they also tend to reduce halo or carryover and the order in which the objects are
effects from one judgement to another.6The presented may bias the results.13Paired
major disadvantages of comparative scales comparisons bear little resemblance to the
include the ordinal nature of the data and the market place situation, which involves
inability to generalize beyond the stimulus selection from multiple alternatives. Also
objects scaled. respondents may prefer one object over
certain others, but they may not like it in an
absolute sense.
 PAIRED COMPARISON
SCALING TECHNIQUE
RANK ORDER SCALING
As its name implies, in paired comparison
scaling a respondent is presented with two After paired comparisons, the most popular
objects and asked to select one according to comparative scaling technique is rank order
some criterion. The data obtained are scaling. In rank order scaling respondents
ordinal in nature. A respondent may state are presented with several objects
that he or she prefers Belgian chocolate to simultaneously and asked to order or rank
Swiss, likes Kellogg’s cereals better than them according to some criterion. For
supermarket home brands, or likes Adidas. example, respondents may be asked to rank
more than Nike. Paired comparison scales brands of cars according to overall
are frequently used when the stimulus preference. These rankings are typically
objects are physical products. Coca-Cola obtained by asking the respondents to assign
is reported to have conducted more than a rank of 1 to the most preferred brand, 2 to
190,000 paired comparisons before the second most preferred, and so on, until a
introducing New Coke. Paired comparison rank of ‘n’ is assigned to the least preferred
scaling is the most widely used comparative brand. Like paired comparison, this
scaling technique. approach is also comparative in nature, and
it is possible that the respondent may dislike
the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense.
In general, with ‘n’ brands, [n (n– 1)/2] Furthermore, rank order scaling also results
paired comparisons include all possible in ordinal data.
pairings of objects.
Rank order scaling is commonly used to CONSTANT SUM SCALE DATA ARE
measure attributes of products and serv-ices SOMETIMES TREATED AS METRIC.
as well as preferences for brands. Rank
order data are frequently obtained from Although this may be appropriate in the
respondents in conjoint analysis, since rank limited context of the stimuli scaled, these
order scaling forces the respondent to results are not generalizable to other stimuli
discriminate among the stimulus objects. not included in the study. Hence, strictly
Moreover, compared with paired speaking, the constant sum should be
comparisons, this type of scaling process considered an ordinal scale because of its
more closely resembles the shopping comparative nature and the resulting lack of
environment. It also takes less time and generalizability.
eliminates intransitive responses. The main advantage of the constant sum
If there are ‘n’ stimulus objects, only (n– scale is that it allows for fine discrimination
scaling decisions need be made in rank among stimulus objects without requiring
order scaling. too much time. It has two primary
disadvantages, however Respondents may
However, in paired comparison scaling, [n allocate more or fewer units than those
(n– 1)/2] decisions would be required. specified. For example, a respondent may
Another advantage is that most respondents allocate 108 or 94 points. The researcher
easily understand the instructions for must modify such data in some way or
ranking. The major disadvantage is that this eliminate this respondent from analysis.
technique produces only ordinal data. Another potential problem is rounding error
Finally, under the assumption of transitivity, if too few units are used. On the other hand,
rank order data can be converted to the use of a large number of units may be
equivalent paired comparison data, and vice too taxing on the respondent and cause
versa. confusion and fatigue.
CONSTANT SUM SCALING  Q-SORT AND OTHER

In constant sum scaling, respondents PROCEDURES
allocate a constant sum of units, such as Q-sort scaling was developed to
points or euros, among a set of stimulus discriminate among a relatively large
objects with respect to some criterion. The number of objects quickly. This technique
respondents may be asked to allocate 100 uses a rank order procedure in which objects
points to attributes of bottled beers in a way are sorted into piles based on similarity with
that reflects the importance they attach to respect to some criterion. For example,
each attribute. If an attribute is unimportant, respondents are given 100 attitude
the respondent assigns it zero points. If an statements on individual cards and asked to
attribute is twice as important as some other place them into 11piles, ranging from ‘most
attribute, it receives twice as many points. highly agreed with’ to ‘least highly agreed
The sum of all the points is 100. Hence the with’. The number of objects to be sorted
name of the scale. The attributes are scaled should not be less than 60 nor more than
by counting the points assigned to each one 140; a reasonable range is 60 to 90 objects.
by all the respondents and dividing by the The number of objects to be placed in each
number of respondents. These results are pile is pre-specified, often to result in a
presented for three groups, or segments, of
respondents.
roughly normal distribution of objects over aloud everything you are thinking.’
the whole set. Another comparative scaling Everything that the respondent says is tape
technique is magnitude estimation. In this recorded. This record of the respondent’s
technique, numbers are assigned to objects verbalized thought processes is referred to as
such that ratios between the assigned a protocol. Protocols have been used to
numbers reflect ratios on the specified measure consumers’ cognitive responses in
criterion. For example, respondents may be actual shopping trips as well as in simulated
asked to indicate whether they agree or shopping environments. An interviewer
disagree with each of a series of statements accompanies the respondent and holds a
measuring attitude towards banks. Then they microphone into which the respondent talks.
assign a number between 0 to 100 to each Protocols, thus collected, have been used to
statement to indicate the intensity of their determine the attributes and cues used in
agreement or disagreement. Providing this making purchase decisions, product usage
type of number imposes a cognitive burden behavior, and the impact of the shopping
on the respondents. environment on consumer decisions.
Another particularly useful procedure (that Protocol analysis has also been employed to
could be viewed as a very structured measure consumer response to advertising.
combination of observation and depth Immediately after seeing an ad, the
interviewing) for measuring cognitive respondent is asked to list all the thoughts
responses or thought processes consists of that came to mind while watching the ad.
verbal protocols. Respondents are asked to The respondent is given a limited amount of
‘think out loud’ and verbalize anything time to list the thoughts so as to minimize
going through their heads while making a the probability of collecting thoughts
decision or per-forming a task. The generated after, rather than during, the
researcher says ‘If you think anything, say it message. After the protocol has been
aloud, no matter how trivial the thought may collected, the individual’s thoughts or
be.’ Even with such an explicit instruction, cognitive responses can be coded into three
the respondent maybe silent. At these times, categories as illustrated:
the researcher will say ‘Remember to say
Protocols are, typically, incomplete. The cannot or will not verbalize. The researcher
respondent has many thoughts that she or he must take the incomplete record and infer
from it a measure of the underlying example, respondents may be asked to

cognitive response. evaluate Coke on a 1 to 6 preference scale (1
not at all preferred, 6 = greatly preferred).
Similar evaluations would be obtained for
Pepsi and Virgin Cola. As can be seen in
NON-COMPARATIVE SCALING Figure, non-comparative scales can be
TECHNIQUES continuous rating or itemized rating scales.
In non-comparative scales, also referred to The itemized rating scales can be further
as monadic or metric scales, each object is classified as Likert, semantic differential or
scaled independently of the others in the Stapel scales. Non-comparative scaling is
stimulus set. The resulting data are generally the most widely used scaling technique in
assumed to be interval or ratio scaled. For marketing research.
CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE The form of the continuous scale may vary
considerably. For example, the line may be
It is also referred to as a graphic rating vertical or horizontal; scale points, in the
scale, respondents rate the objects by form of numbers or brief descriptions, may
placing a mark at the appropriate position on be provided; and if provided, the scale
a line that runs from one extreme of the points may be few or many. Three versions
criterion variable to the other. Thus, the of a continuous rating scale.
respondents are not restricted to selecting
from marks previously set by the researcher.
Once the respondent has provided the LIKERT SCALE
ratings, the researcher divides the line into
as many categories as desired and assigns Named after its developer, Rensis Likert, the
scores based on the categories into which Likert scale is a widely used rating scale that
the ratings fall. requires the respondents to indicate a degree
of agreement or disagreement with each of a
The advantage of continuous scales is that series of statements about the stimulus
they are easy to construct; however, scoring objects. Typically, each scale item has five
is cumbersome and unreliable. Moreover, response categories, ranging from ‘strongly
continuous scales provide little new disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’.
information. Hence, their use in marketing
research has been limited. Recently, To conduct the analysis, each statement is
however, with the increased popularity of assigned a numerical score, ranging either
computer-assisted personal interviewing and from –2 to +2 or from 1 to 5. The analysis
other technologies, their use has become can be conducted on an item-by-item basis
more frequent. (profile analysis), or a total (summated)
score can be calculated for each respondent
by summing across items. The Likert scale
ITEMISED RATING SCALES is also referred to as a summated scale.
In an itemized rating scale, respondents are The Likert scale has several advantages. It is
provided with a scale that has a number or easy to construct and administer, and
brief description associated with each respondents readily understand how to use
category. The categories are ordered in the scale, making it suitable for Internet
terms of scale position; and the respondents surveys, mail, telephone or personal
are required to select the specified category interviews. The major disadvantage of the
that best describes the object being rated. Likert scale is that it takes longer to
Itemized rating scales are widely used in complete than other itemized rating scales
marketing research and form the basic because respondents have to read and fully
components of more complex scales, such as reflect upon each statement.
multi-item rating scales. We first describe
the commonly used itemized rating scales –
the Likert, semantic differential and Stapel
scales.
 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL In a typical application, respondents rate

SCALE objects on a number of itemized, seven-
The semantic differential is a seven- point rating scales bounded at each end by
point rating scale with end points one of two bipolar adjectives, such as ‘cold’
associated with bipolar labels that have and ‘warm’.
semantic meaning.
Individual items on a semantic differential several modifications of the basic scale have
scale may be scored either on a –3 to +3or on been proposed.
a 1 to 7 scale. The resulting data are STAPEL SCALE
commonly analyzed through profile analysis.
In profile analysis, means or median values on The Stapel scale, named after its developer,
each rating scale are calculated and compared Jan Stapel, is a unipolar rating scale with10
by plotting or statistical analysis. This helps categories numbered from –5 to +5, without
determine the overall differences and a neutral point (zero).30This scale is usually
similarities among the objects. To assess presented vertically. Respondents are asked
differences across segments of respondents, to indicate by selecting an appropriate
the researcher can compare mean responses of numerical response category how accurately
different segments. Although the mean is most or inaccurately each term describes the
often used as a summary statistic, there is object. The higher the number, the more
some controversy as to whether the data accurately the term describes the object, as
obtained should be treated as an interval scale. shown in Figure. In this example, Dresdner
On the other hand, in cases when the is perceived as not having high-quality
researcher requires an overall comparison of products and having somewhat poor service.
objects, such as to determine bank preference, The data obtained by using a Stapel scale
the individual item scores are summed to can be analyzed in the same way as semantic
arrive at a total score. Its versatility makes the differential data. The Stapel scale produces
semantic differential a popular rating scale in results similar to the semantic differential.
marketing research. It has been widely used in The Stapel scale’s advantages are that it
comparing brand, product and company does not require a pre-test of the adjectives
images. It has also been used to develop or phrases to ensure true bipolarity and that
advertising and promotion strategies and in it can be administered over the telephone.
new product development studies. Some researchers, however, believe the
Stapel scale is confusing and difficult to the Stapel scale issued least. Nonetheless,
apply. Of the three itemized rating scales this scale merits more attention than it has
considered, received.
ITEMISED RATING SCALE b. Balanced versus

DECISIONS unbalanced scale
(REFERENED CONTENT – OUT OF c. Odd or even number of
SYLLABUS BUT IS USEFUL) categories
d. Forced versus non-forced
As is evident from the discussion so far, choice
non-comparative itemized rating scales can e. The nature and degree of
take many different forms. The researcher the verbal description
must make six major decisions when con- f. The physical form of the
structing any of these scales: scale.
a. The number of scale
categories to use
BALANCED VERSUS UNBALANCED balanced. If the distribution of responses is
SCALE likely to be skewed, however, either
In a balanced scale, the number of favorable positively or negatively, an unbalanced scale
and unfavorable categories is equal; in an with more categories in the direction of
unbalanced scale, the categories are unequal. skewness may be appropriate. If an
Examples of balanced and unbalanced scales unbalanced scale is used, the nature and
are given in Figure. In general, in order to degree of imbalance in the scale should be
obtain objective data, the scale should be taken into account in data analysis.
FORCED VERSUS NON-FORCED mark the middle scale position. If a

CHOICE sufficient proportion of the respondents do
not have opinions on the topic, marking the
On forced rating scales the respondents are middle position will distort measures of
forced to express an opinion because a ‘no central tendency and variance. In situations
opinion’ option is not provided. In such a where the respondents are expected to have
case, respondents without an opinion may no opinion, as opposed to simply being
reluctant to disclose it, the accuracy of data
may be improved by a non-forced scale that each test taker gets, in essence, a different
includes a ‘no opinion’ category. test, one that is customized to his or her own
ability level. One valuable outcome of the
CAT process is that a computer adaptive test
COMPUTER-BASED is often shorter than a traditional test
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING because fewer items are needed to determine
Computers have had a large impact on how test taker ability level. Thus, computer
tests can be administered. An important adaptive tests also take less time to
contribution of the computer is called administer. The ability level of the test taker
computer adaptive testing (CAT). CAT is is often very precisely determined using
being widely adopted in tests of CAT because more items are presented at
achievement and aptitude. In a CAT the test taker’s individual capability level. In
situation, often a small set—perhaps two or a more traditional testing situation, the test
three—of midlevel difficulty locator items taker is presented with items that will be too
are given to all test takers. Depending on easy and too difficult. Developing such tests
whether the individual passes or fails the takes tremendous amounts of resources.
items, subsequent items are presented that Item characteristics must be determined, and
better match the test taker’s ability level. So, each item must be highly reliable to be
if I fail all of the first locator items, the next included in the test item bank. To carry out
item I get will be easier than the locator the item analyses properly, thousands of
items. If I pass them all, I will be presented cases are needed to have stable item
with a harder item. If I pass one and fail the parameter estimates. Therefore, it is not
others, I will be presented with an item at surprising that the large testing corporations
about the same difficulty as the locator are the ones most likely to develop CAT
items. Thus, whereas traditional tests present capacity in test delivery.
all test takers with the same items, in CAT,
AREAS OF TESTING: INTELLIGENCE, CREATIVITY, NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTS, APTITUDE, PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, INTEREST INVENTORIES
LIST OF INDIAN TESTS: the standard for evaluation and critical

http://www.ncert.nic.in/announcements/oth_ assessment of tests and, in 1981, the Oscar
announcements/pdf_files/nlept_catalogue.pd K. Buros Center was established to continue
f the tradition of publishing the MMY. The
most recent edition (Fifteenth Mental
Measurements Yearbook) was edited by
The Mental Measurements Yearbook
Plake, Impara, and Spies (2003). In addition,
(MMY) is one of the most utilized sources
a Web site is available where reviews of
of information about existing tests. The first
specific tests can be accessed for a price
edition was written in 1938 by Oscar Buros.
(www.unl.edu/buros).
Over the next 40 years, Buros published
seven additional such yearbooks. These set
The fastest way to locate a test and/or obtain Unpublished Experimental Measures
test reviews is through the World Wide (Goldman & Mitchell, 2002) provides
Web. Test locator services can be accessed another resource. The experimental
via www.unl.edu/buros, and www.ets.org, measures in this source are not
PsycINFO, PsycLIT, and ERIC searches commercially available but have been used
pull up tests used in all types of research. by researchers and are often available at low
The periodically updated Directory of or no cost.
SOME INTELLIGENCE TESTS experience than are others and that these
The term intelligence has caused much individuals have higher levels of general
controversy in the literature. However, it is mental ability. The reviews are confined to
generally agreed that tests purporting to two major commercially available
measure this construct assess general mental intelligence tests. Strong theoretical
ability. An assumption of all general frameworks have guided the development of
intelligence tests is that some individuals are these tests and given rise to the
better able to benefit and learn from administration and scoring procedures used.
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE 3 to 13 years. A final version of the scale

TESTS was created in 1911, with 54 tasks arranged
Alfred Binet was a psychologist who was in increasing order of difficulty for ages 3 to
contracted by the French government to adult. Based on the number of tasks the test
develop a tool to identify mentally retarded takers could complete, a “mental age” could
children in the Paris public school system. be calculated for them. For example, tasks
He believed that intelligence was manifested such as “shows right hand and left ear” is a
by performance on tasks. He also task that is age-appropriate for a 7-year-old.
emphasized reasoning, judgment, and Another example is that, by age 15, the
understanding in the development of test respondent is expected to be able to repeat
items. Because the context in which he was seven digits correctly in order. In 1916,
working was the school system, most of the Lewis Terman at Stanford University
items he developed for the test were translated and revised the 1911 version of
academic in nature. The term items is used the Simon-Binet tests; this version was
loosely insofar as the items he created were called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
tasks. Like the previous tests, tasks were specific
to an age level. The mental age of test takers
Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon,
was determined by how many of the tasks
created 30 tasks initially and, by 1908, had
they could complete. The intelligence
revised and added to the tasks so that they
quotient (IQ) was calculated by taking the
numbered 58. They arranged these from
mental age (MA) and dividing it by the
least to most difficult and grouped them into
individual’s chronological age (CA) and
age-level tasks with the levels ranging from
then multiplying by 100.
WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE individuals ranging in age from 16 years to

SCALES: 89 years and stratified based on age, sex,
The Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale educational level, and geographic region.
(Wechsler, 1939) was a response by David The items were updated to more appropriate
Wechsler to what he believed were several content for the era. Wechsler believed that
shortcomings of the Binet approach to intelligence was manifested by the
assessing intelligence. Wechsler argued that capability of acting purposefully and
the Binet tasks and items were adaptively to the environment. Although
inappropriate for use with adults, (b) the individual elements that made up
point system developed for scoring the intelligence could be assessed separately, the
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale was elements were interrelated. The sum of the
superior to age-scaling, (c) performance was capability on these elements would represent
an important aspect of intelligence, and (d) general intelligence. The WAIS-III scales
speeded assessment penalized older are grouped into two major categories:
individuals. For all these reasons, Wechsler verbal and performance. There are seven
embarked on the development of a new verbal subtests (e.g., vocabulary, arithmetic,
intelligence assessment tool specifically for comprehension) and seven performance
use with adults. subtests (e.g., picture completion, block
design, object assembly), although only 11
The first edition (Wechsler-Bellevue Form
are used in scoring (one fewer for the verbal
and the second (Form II), published in
and two fewer for the performance
1947, were not standardized on a proper
dimensions). The WAIS-III is an
sample and thus were revised in 1955 and
individually administered test but, like the
became known as the Wechsler Adult
group-administered tests, allows the test
Intelligence Scale—or WAIS (Wechsler,
taker to attempt as many items as possible
1955, 1958). It was revised again in 1981
and earn points for each one completed
(WAIS-R; Wechsler, 1981) to be used for
correctly. After a certain number of items
testing adult intelligence for those aged 16
for each test is failed, the testing is
years to 74 years. The current version,
completed. It takes about 75 minutes to
revised in 1997 (WAIS-III; Tulsky, Zhu, &
administer all the tests.
Ledbetter, 1997) was normed on 2,450
CREATIVITY notion of a process which combines

One of the most consensual definitions of different cognitive operations in order to
creativity describes it as the capacity to generate innovative productions. This
produce new meaningful ideas from current process includes two main concepts, such as
existing concepts, emphasizing the variety, previous experience and the skills to
quantity and relevance of the results integrate recent and preceding perceptions.
obtained (Guilford, 1987). It involves the Originality (linked to innovation), fluency
(regarded to a big amount of ideas), verbal, musical, dancing, etc. Moreover, the
flexibility (associated to constant change in skills to handle these ways of expression
the ideas which were generated), elaboration represent another aspect which determines a
(connected to beautifying basic ideas), person’s degree of creativity. Due to the fact
remote associations, interest, and cognitive that in Western culture verbal and graphic
styles, can be distinguished within the group creativity are socially valued over other
of skills required to integrate former and forms of expression, both them are the most
current perceptions. All these cognitive analyzed in education contexts.
operations get their expression through
different means, such as graphic,
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS Neuropsychological tests are typically
A neuropsychological evaluation typically administered to a single person working
includes an interview with a clinical with an examiner in a quiet office
neuropsychologist and assessment with a environment, free from distractions. As
series of neuropsychometric tests. such, it can be argued that
Neuropsychometric tests measure a wide neuropsychological tests at times offer an
range of abilities to determine an estimate of a person's peak level of cognitive
individual’s strengths and weaknesses. The performance. Neuropsychological tests are a
test results are compared to standardized core component of the process of conducting
norms and estimates of the person's pre- neuropsychological assessment.
injury abilities. A neuropsychological Most neuropsychological tests in current use
evaluation is often completed soon after an are based on traditional psychometric
individual has a traumatic brain injury or if theory. In this model, a person's raw score
an individual seems to be having difficulties on a test is compared to a large general
related to an undiagnosed brain injury from population normative sample, that should
the past. From the perspective of people ideally be drawn from a comparable
with brain injury and their significant others, population to the person being examined.
it is important to know what a Normative studies frequently provide data
neuropsychological evaluation is and how stratified by age, level of education, and/or
the results can be beneficial. ethnicity, where such factors have been
Neuropsychological tests are specifically shown by research to affect performance on
designed tasks used to measure a a particular test. This allows for a person's
psychological function known to be linked performance to be compared to a suitable
to a particular brain structure or pathway. control group, and thus provide a fair
They usually involve the systematic assessment of their current cognitive
administration of clearly defined procedures functioning.
in a formal environment.
LONDON OF TOWER TEST: two boards with pegs and several beads with
It is a test used in applied clinical different colors. The examiner (usually a
neuropsychology for the assessment of clinical psychologist or a neuropsychologist)
executive functioning specifically to detect uses the beads and the boards to present the
deficits in planning, which may occur due to examinee with problem-solving tasks.
a variety of medical and neuropsychiatric
conditions. It is related to the classic
problem-solving puzzle known as the Tower
of Hanoi. The test was developed by the
psychologist Tim Shallice and consists of
PACED AUDITORY SERIAL
ADDITION TEST (PASAT):
It is a neuropsychological test used to assess THE MINI-MENTAL STATE

capacity and rate of information processing EXAMINATION (MMSE):
and sustained and divided attention. Also called Folstein test is a 30-point
Originally the test was known as the Paced questionnaire that is used extensively in
Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT). clinical and research settings to measure
The subjects are given in the version used as cognitive impairment. It is commonly used
part of the Multiple Sclerosis Functional in medicine and allied health to screen for
Composite a number every 3 seconds and dementia. It is also used to estimate the
are asked to add the number they just heard severity and progression of cognitive
with the number they heard before. This is a impairment and to follow the course of
challenging task that involves working cognitive changes in an individual over
memory, attention and arithmetic time; thus making it an effective way to
capabilities. Versions with numbers document an individual's response to
presented every 2 seconds are also available. treatment. The MMSE's purpose has been
The original version presented the numbers not, on its own, to provide a diagnosis for
every 2.4 seconds with 0.4 decrements for any particular nosological entity.
subsequent trials. The PASAT was
Administration of the test takes between 5
originally developed for use in evaluating
and 10 minutes and examines functions
patients with head injury. The advantage in
including registration (repeating named
this population was supposed to be minimal
prompts), attention and calculation, recall,
practice effects. This test has been widely
language, ability to follow simple
used in other conditions besides traumatic
commands and orientation
brain injury.
Advantages to the MMSE include requiring
One common use is for diagnosis of
no specialized equipment or training for
executive impairment. The performance of
administration, and has both validity and
the examinee is compared to representative
reliability for the diagnosis and longitudinal
samples of individuals of the same age to
assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Due to
derive hypotheses about the person's
its short administration period and ease of
executive cognitive ability, especially as it
use, it is useful for cognitive assessment in
may relate to brain damage. A certain degree
the clinician's office space or at the bedside.
of controversy surrounds the test's construct
Disadvantages to the utilization of the
validity.
MMSE is that it is affected by demographic
It has become widely used in the testing of factors; age and education exert the greatest
patients with multiple sclerosis as patients effect. The most frequently noted
with this disease frequently have an disadvantage of the MMSE relates to its lack
impaired performance on this test. The of sensitivity to mild cognitive impairment
PASAT was included in the Multiple and its failure to adequately discriminate
Sclerosis Functional Composite as a patients with mild Alzheimer's disease from
cognitive measure. normal patients.
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT: instrument was first published by Harrison

Gough in 1968 and was designed to assess
Personality is usually defined as relatively
normal personality in adolescents and adults.
stable patterns of responding to
The scale was revised in 1987 (Gough,
environmental conditions that vary from
1987) and reduced to 462 items. Norms for
individual to individual. Structured
this version are based on more than 6,000
personality tests attempt to evaluate various
male and 7,000 female test takers. The
personality traits by asking respondents to
revised inventory added several new scales,
indicate the extent to which an item or
and some of the remaining items were
statement characterizes them. The interest in
updated. A third revision (Gough & Bradley,
measuring aspects of personality first
1996) reduced by 28 the number of items.
became an issue for society during World
Norms for this version were based on 3,000
War I, when suitability for being a soldier
males and 3,000 females.
became an important question. Because of
the huge numbers of recruits that needed to The CPI was intended to assess
be assessed, individual psychiatric screening interpersonal behavior and social
was not possible. Instead, self-report interaction. About half of the items on the
structured personality inventories were original version were taken directly from the
developed that primarily assessed emotional Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
well-being and adjustment to the military. Inventory (MMPI), which was designed to
Over the next 20 years, vast improvements differentiate individuals based on various
in structured personality testing were psychiatric disorders. The CPI was
developed. Various dimensions of developed emphasizing the empirical
personality were theoretically proposed, approach. Groups of individuals who had
giving rise to multiscale inventories. been identified as having a specific
Recognizing the problems inherent in self- personality trait (e.g., high dominant or low
reports, items were deliberately designed to dominant) would take the inventory. The
assess faking good, faking bad, items that the two groups scored
defensiveness, lying, and so forth. significantly differently on were used to
assess, for instance, the dominance trait.
Thirteen of the 20 scales were developed
CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL this way. One of the criticisms of the CPI is
INVENTORY: that some of the criterion groups used in
The California Psychological Inventory establishing the scales were identified by
(CPI) is one of the most widely used their friends as being high or low on the trait
structured personality inventories. It (for example, empathy or independent).
assesses 20 attributes of normal personality. Four of the scales (Social Presence, Self-
Some examples of these attributes are Acceptance, Self-Control, and Flexibility)
dominance, independence, well-being, and were developed by selecting items that
intellectual efficiency. The 480-item theoretically were designed to measure the
construct. Then these scales were refined by
assessing the intercorrelations among the items.
NEO PERSONALITY INVENTORY: complete. However, a short version of 60

The NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) items, the NEO-FFI (NEO Five Factor
(NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1992) Inventory), assesses only the five major
was designed to measure five primary constructs and takes about 15 minutes to
dimensions of personality (called the Big complete. Items on the scale are rated on a
Five) in normal adults ranging from 20 years five-point scale with the ends anchored with
to 80 years of age. The five personality strongly disagree and strongly agree. Forms
constructs assessed are Neuroticism (N), allow for self-report (Form S) or observer-
Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience report (such as spouse, colleague, friend;
(O), Agreeableness (A), and Form R). The response sheets can be hand-
Conscientiousness (C). There are six facets or machine-scored.
that underlie each of the major constructs. N
indicates the degree to which a person is INTEREST INVENTORIES:
anxious and insecure versus calm and self-
One of the oldest and most common uses to
confident; the six facets are anxiety,
which psychological tests are put is to assist
hostility, depression, self-consciousness,
individuals in making vocational and career
impulsiveness, and vulnerability. E indicates
choices. High school and college counselors
the degree to which a person is sociable and
who see individuals who are making initial
assertive versus quiet and reserved; the six
career choices use these instruments. As
facets are warmth, gregariousness,
career progression is more and more
assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking,
punctuated by change, middle-aged
and positive emotions. O indicates the
individuals are also seeking assistance with
degree to which a person is imaginative and
career choices. Interest inventories do just
curious versus concrete and narrow-minded;
that—they assess interests people have in
the six facets are fantasy, aesthetics, feeling,
various types of careers. They do not,
actions, ideas, and values. A indicates the
however, purport to assess skills and
degree to which a person is warm and
abilities in those areas. Career guidance
cooperative versus unpleasant and
instruments provide a somewhat more
disagreeable; the six facets are trust,
fulsome picture of an individual’s strengths,
modesty, compliance, altruism,
abilities, and interests.
straightforwardness, and tender-mindedness.
C indicates the degree to which a person is
persevering and responsible; the six facets STRONG INVENTORIES:
are competence, self-discipline, achievement An early career interest inventory appeared
striving, dutifulness, order, and deliberation. in 1927 with the Strong Vocational Interest
The full scale is 240 items (30 for each Blank (SVIB; Strong, 1927). The theoretical
facet) with three additional validity-check basis for the SVIB was that different
items, and it takes about 30 minutes to professional groups showed consistent
differences in the things they liked versus 1966 version of the SVIB included 399
things they did not like to do (e.g., work items that mapped onto 54 occupations for
with people, perform repetitive tasks, men.
engage in artistic work, etc.). Not only did A more recent version of the SVIB, called
this apply to work-related tasks but also to the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
school subjects, hobbies, books, (SCII) was published in 1974 (Campbell,
entertainment, and so forth. For years, 1974). The men’s and women’s forms were
Strong set out to differentiate men in one merged into a single form and a theoretical
profession from men in other professions basis for the interests was proposed. This
based on their likes and dislikes. Thus, the theoretical linkage was based on the work of
SVIB is primarily an empirically based John Holland (1959, 1971), whose Self-
scale. Items on the SVIB are activities and Directed Search will be discussed next. The
are responded to by the test taker with CSII was revised in 1977 (Campbell, 1977),
“like,” “dislike,” or “indifferent.” Strong in 1981 (Campbell & Hansen, 1981), and
used items for each scale (e.g., the dentistry again in 1985 (Hansen & Campbell, 1985).
scale) where the professional group The 1981 version attempted to use more up-
answered statistically differently from “men to-date samples for norming purposes. The
in general.” When someone takes the SVIB, 1985 version attempted to expand the
the interests that are most like certain number and types of occupations
professions form the basis of the career represented in the inventory. This included
counseling process. In 1933, Strong created adding nonprofessional vocations into the
a form of the SVIB that included professions inventory.
that were also populated by women. The
SELF-DIRECTED SEARCH: more similar than those across from one

While most interest inventories were another (e.g., R versus S, E versus I). The
developed to be administered, scored, and purpose of the SDS was to give the test taker
interpreted by a professional, John Holland an idea of his or her personality type and
developed the Self-Directed Search (SDS; then to match that with the type of work
1971, 1979) to be self-administered, self- environment that would be most congruent.
scored, and self-interpreted. The SDS is This approach required Holland not only to
based on Holland’s theory of career choice. define personality but also to define work
He defined personality types and work environments.
environments to be one of six: Realistic (R), Those who complete the SDS indicate their
Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), career aspirations, occupational interests,
Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C). skills, and abilities in the six different areas
These six types are placed on a hexagon in by responding to a series of questions. Test
the following order: R, I, A, S, E, C. takers then score their own sheets and
Holland hypothesized that the types adjacent calculate their scores on the six different
to one another (e.g., R and I, R and C) were areas. Let’s say that, based on my responses,
I score highest on the “E for enterprising” occupations, then, would most likely be
scale. In addition, I note that my next two compatible with my aspirations, interests,
highest scales are “A for artistic” and “S for and skills. Several revisions of the SDS
Social.” Then, going to the occupational occurred between 1971 and 1985. The 1994
finder, I can locate occupations that have revision (SDS Form R) was to make the
been defined as being “EAS.” These SDS more useful for counselors and clients.
APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING IN VARIOUS

SETTINGS: CLINICAL, ORGANIZATIONAL AND BUSINESS,
EDUCATION, COUNSELING, MILITARY; CAREER GUIDANCE.
APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL The ability to overpower people

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT IN THE 
physically and psychologically.
MILITARY The ability to live with the permanent
The utility of psychological testing and threat to be killed, injured or taken
assessment in the military is a “continuum”. 
prisoner.
It starts during selection for recruitment into The ability to obey unconditionally in
the military and spans till retirement from response to orders from above.
the active service in the military. In between
Also, the main purposes of utilizing
these periods, psychological testing and
psychological testing and assessment in
assessment are utilized in promotion,
the military include the following:
placement, special military mission,
diagnosis and treatment for officers with
psychopathology. However, testing and  To classify prospective applicants
assessment are commonly applied in according to their mental ability so that
military selection, training and placement further placement could be easy.
more than any other area. To provide the personnel officers with
Most military selection are large scaled and mental rating for each solider which will
are influenced by societal situation such as help in building and organization of the
special mission, peace or conflict periods. 
military arena.
Devriendt (2003) noted that the nature of To assist officers in charge of military
psychological tests and assessment utilized human resource development with
in the military are influenced by the targeted classification, grading, training, and
competencies or abilities a recruit or cadet 
ultimate assignment of soldiers.
must possess to do well in the military To Assist in discovering soldiers of
context and these competencies include superior mental ability who should be
selected for officers’ training camps, for
promotion, or for assignment to special
tasks.
To assist in discovering soldiers of superior nationality. This is conducted by military

mental ability who should be selected for administrative support personnel.
officers’ training camps, for promotion, or Medical and Physical Assessment: This
for assignment to special tasks. includes the fact that candidates for
recruits and cadets must meet criteria
However, military selection takes different with respect to physical conditions like
format and processes. The format may be heights, absence of colour blindness and
backbone problems etc. This is
categorized into three and they include:
conducted by medical doctors, and
physical trainers, but psychologist can
Uniform format: This is where all also help during neuropsychological and
candidate for military course take the  psychopathological screening.
same test batteries  Psychological Assessment: According to

Diversified format: This is where Devriendt (2013) psychological
candidates for different military course selection is broad and involves assessing
 the candidate’s abilities in relation to
are given different test battery according
mental, intellectual, social and

to the course. motivational criteria. It further assesses
Mixed format: This is where the entire the candidate’s ability to feel at ease
candidates are firstly given a uniform within the organizational climate or
test battery and then subsequently given military culture. As mentioned earlier,
specific test battery according to their the psychological assessments are
chosen course. conducted using various tools such as
psychological tests, interviews, case
The processes involved in the military study, observation, specially designed
selection include three steps and they are apparatus and measurement procedures
etc. The psychological assessment
 depending on the type may be conducted
 Administrative Assessment: This process by trained selection officers,
involved the fact that every candidate for psychologists, military specialists who
recruit or cadet course must meet certain have experience in certain jobs and high-
legal criteria, including minimum and ranking officers who often decide on
maximum age, educational qualification acceptance or rejection of applicants as
or level and members or chairperson of a selection
board. Most psychological assessments
are achieved using the mixed format
(that is uniform and diversified).
TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL unstructured and semi structured);
ASSESSMENT TOOLS USED IN biographical data; case study, the
MILITARY SELECTION. psychological tests are the most popular and
reliable, because of its psychometric
qualities. Types of psychological tests used
Among the many psychological assessment in selection of military personnel include,
technique available for military selections aptitude test, achievement tests, and
which include observation (participant and personality tests.
non-participant); interview (structured,
APTITUDE TESTS: Scores can be calculated separate per subtest

This is the most frequently used or scores can be grouped in a total score.
psychological testing tools. It is sometimes The performances in aptitude test batteries
called cognitive or mental ability or reflect a general level of cognitive
intelligence test. It is usually administered in functioning and ability to learn. Generally,
the uniform format and most psychological for most aptitude test used in military higher
aptitude tests used for military selection scores indicate superior and better level of
purposes have time limit by implication, cognitive functioning and ability to learn.
tests performance and speed are equally Examples of some standardized military
important. They also contain subtests which aptitude tests for selection into the military
give indications about cognitive qualities include, Army Alpha test and Beta test and
such as numerical reasoning, verbal the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
reasoning, spatial ability, mechanical Battery (ASVAB)
comprehension and general reasoning.
ARMY ALPHA TEST Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) This

This was created by a group of is an improvement on Alpha test. It is a
psychologists led by Robert Yerkes, to aid in cognitive aptitude battery measuring
segregating the mentally incompetent, domains such as General Science (GS),
classifying applicants according to their Arithmetic Reasoning (AR) , Word
mental capacity and assisting in selecting Knowledge (WK), Paragraph
competent applicants for responsible Comprehension (PC) Numerical Operations
positions. The Army Alpha tests measured (NO), Coding Speed (CS), Auto and shop
verbal ability, numerical ability, ability to Information (AS), Mathematics Knowledge
follow directions and knowledge of (MK), Mechanical Comprehension (MC)
information. The Army Alpha test is for and Electronics Information (EI). The most
literate applicants who can read and write. important aspect of the test involves
While Army beta test are for applicants who summing composites AR+ WK + PC + NO
cannot speak or understand the language of = Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT).
the test and illiterate. Armed Services
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS suited to get an impression of scholastic

knowledge. The most common type of
These can also be referred to as knowledge
achievement test is a standardized test
tests or skill test. They are traditional
developed to measure skills and knowledge
measures of cognitive ability and are better
learned in a given grade level, usually
through planned instruction, such as training achievement scores can indicate the need for
or classroom instruction. Achievement test remediation or repeating a course grade. In
scores are often used in an educational the military most achievement test are
system to determine what level of diversified and are used for placement or
instruction for which a student is prepared. promotion or selection for special mission. It
High achievement scores usually indicate a is usually based on the supposed experiences
mastery of grade-level material, and the on the joband can take different forms at
readiness for advanced instruction. Low different times.
PERSONALITY TESTS also have standardized norms or cutoff

The nature and personality structure of a scores which are either high, borderline, or
candidate is very useful in view of the low and whether an individual possesses
candidate’s adaptation skills to military desired or undesired personality depends on
training, military jobs and the prospective the test interpretation. The most common
behavior in operations. The main aim of personality tests include Objective and
personality selection is to make statements projective tests.
about the level of a candidate’s fit into the Minnesota multiphase Personality Inventory
military organization culture. It is also used (MMPI) and Sixteen Personality Factor
in diagnostic assessment for Questionnaire (or 16PF) are examples of
psychopathology among serving personnel. objective test, while Rorschach Inkblot Test
Most personality tests are standardized and is an example of projective test.
they have high psychometric validity. They
MINNESOTA MULTIPHASE Hysteria (Hy), Psychopathic Deviate (Pd),

PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI) Masculinity/Femininity (Mf), Paranoia (Pa),
The most common objective personality test Psych asthenia (Pt) Schizophrenia (Sc)
is the MMPI is the most common objective Hypomania (Ma), Social Introversion (Si). It
personality test; it contains 567 true/false does this by connecting an individual’s
test that is a good measure of dysfunction responses to dozens of questions scattered
within personality. It is less useful as a throughout the test that are positively or
measure of healthy or positive personality negatively correlated with a particular
traits, because its design was based on personality trait. Because the questions are
helping a professional to find a psychiatric not always obviously related to the trait to
diagnostic label that best suited an which they are correlated, it is difficult to
individual. It was originally developed in the “fake” this test. The MMPI is most often
1940s, and significantly revised in 1989 self-administered on a computer in a
(and had another minor revision in 2001). clinician’s office.
MMPI measures personality traits such as
Hypochondriasis (Hs), Depression (D),
SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR Sensitivity (Utilitarian vs. Sensitive; Factor
QUESTIONNAIRE (OR 16PF) I),Vigilance (Trusting vs. Vigilant; Factor
This is an ideal measure for people with L), Abstractedness (Grounded vs.
healthy personalities on like MMPI which is Abstracted; Factor M),Privateness
used mainly for assessment of (Forthright vs. Private; Factor N),
psychopathology. The 16PF measures 16 Apprehension (Self-Assured vs.
basic personality traits which contain 185 Apprehensive; Factor O), Openness to
items and can help a person better Change (Traditional vs. Open to Change;
understand where their personality falls Factor Q1), Self-Reliance (Group-Oriented
amongst those traits: Warmth (Reserved vs. vs. Self-Reliant; Factor Q2),Perfectionism
Warm; Factor A), Reasoning (Concrete vs. (Tolerates Disorder vs. Perfectionistic;
Abstract; Factor B) Emotional Stability Factor Q3),Tension (Relaxed vs. Tense;
(Reactive vs. Emotionally Stable; Factor Factor Q4). This type of assessment might
C),Dominance (Deferential vs. Dominant; be administered so that a person can better
Factor E), Liveliness (Serious vs. Lively; understand themselves, and it can also help a
Factor F), Rule-Consciousness (Expedient professional better understand what type of
vs. Rule-Conscious; Factor G), Social approach or strategy to employ in treatment
Boldness (Shy vs. Socially Bold; Factor H), to best help the person.
RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST Responses are scored based the location

The test is composed 5 black and white described in the inkblot, and its determinants
inkblot cards and 5 colored inkblot cards that (that is the things in the blot that prompted
an individual is shown and then asked to tell the person’s response).
the professional what they see. The most
popular scoring system for the Rorschach is
the Exner system, developed in the 1970s.
PLACEMENT, TRAINING AND for placement, on the job training and

PROMOTION promotion are achievement test and
As noted earlier, most psychological testing personality test. However, other forms of
and assessment for the purposes of psychological assessments such as interview
placement, or training or promotion are and observation are also utilized. The tests
diversified form. They depend on whether used for this purpose also target cognitive,
the officers are in Army, Navy or Air force mental and intellectual abilities and
or the subsections of the units conducting achievements in relation to the work.
the assessment. Specifically, each unit Generally, psychological tests such as MMPI,
design or adapt a special psychological test Executive Function test, 16PF, Thematic
to march the needs and skills required for Apperception Test and indeed many other
such unit. The common types of tests used cognitive, intelligent, personality
and special adapted achievement tests could be utilized.
TESTING & ASSESSMENT IN Wechsler tests are updated from time to

VARIOUS OTHER SETTINGS: time, with new revisions subjected to
The three main types of test to be considered thorough validation procedures. There are
here are tests of intelligence, tests of other individual tests of intelligence, some
achievement, and tests of personality. that are arguably more reliable and more
valid for certain purposes, but none that
would match the Stanford Binet or the
TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE Wechsler tests in terms of popularity. The
Modern intelligence tests can be classified second category consists of the group tests
into two categories. The first category of intelligence. These tests were first
contains what are called individual tests of developed to handle the very large number
intelligence. The best known of these are the of soldiers recruited into the US army during
Stanford Binet, now up to its fourth edition, the First World War. Results helped with
and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale placement and classification decisions. Most
(WAIS-III), the fourth version of which has group tests of intelligence now yield scores
just been released in Australia. Both of these on a broad range of abilities, such as
takes anything up to 2 hours to administer, vocabulary, numerical ability, spatial ability,
although the time taken is typically less. memory, reasoning, and many others.
Test items cover a range of abilities Testing has become a very commercialized
employing both verbal and non-verbal item enterprise and major test publishers offer a
types. Test takers may be asked to give the variety of group tests of intelligence.
meanings of words, to complete a series of Examples of some ones include the
numbers, to recall a list of numbers, and so Differential Aptitude Test (DAT: Bennett,
on. Both tests yield overall estimates of Seashore, & Wesman, 1989) and the
intelligence (IQ) and estimates of a range of Australian Council of Educational Research
specific abilities. Because they are (ACER) Advanced Tests AL-AQ and BL-
administered in an interview situation, both BQ (ACER, 1982). Such tests can be
tests are capable of yielding a lot of clinical administered to many people at the same
information as well. The Fourth Edition of time, scoring is generally easy, and norm
the Stanford Binet can be used with both tables can be compiled without any great
adults and children. The WAISIII is similar difficulty. For this reason, there tends to be
in format and style to the Stanford Binet but many more group tests than individual tests.
comes in different versions: a) an adult Some group tests of intelligence have also
version (WAIS-III); b) a children's version been developed for special populations, such
(WISC-III); and c) a preschool version as those with language difficulties or hearing
(WPPSI). Both the Stanford Binet and the or sight impairment.
APPLICATIONS OF TESTS OF ability, verbal comprehension, vocabulary,

INTELLIGENCE and abstract reasoning to predict educational
Intelligence tests, whether group or achievement. There is no doubt that tests
individual, have been in widespread use such as these give a fairly accurate
since the start of this century. They were indication of success in various subject
developed initially for use in educational areas. That is, they have good predictive
settings but quickly found their way into validity. Used in conjunction with measures
occupational and clinical settings. of actual academic performance, intelligence
tests can help guide people towards
appropriate career choices. Although not as
TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE IN popular as they were in the 1950's and
CLINICAL SETTINGS 1960's when most school children
Tests of intelligence are routinely used in underwent IQ testing, intelligence tests are
clinical settings. Level of intellectual still very much part of the educational
functioning provides insights into general environment. They are used as the basis for
level of health. The fact is that a lot of the awarding scholarships, for gaining entrance
problems that are referred to a psychologist to some prestigious courses (especially in
or psychiatrist either have their origins in the United States), and they are widely used
intellectual weaknesses or can be better for diagnostic assessment where learning
understood following a diagnosis of the difficulties are suspected.
individual's intellectual strengths and
weaknesses. Invariably, the tests used are
TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE IN
individual tests, such as the Stanford Binet
OCCUPATIONAL SETTINGS
or one of the Wechsler tests. A major use of
intelligence tests in clinical settings is in The role of intelligence testing in
neuropsychological assessment, where the occupational psychology was summarized in
aim is to assess possible brain damage as a a review by Hunter (1986) who pointed out
consequence of trauma, usually caused by a that although intelligence testing has not
car accident. been as successful in the occupational field
as the educational field, it nevertheless
predicts a reliable proportion of job
TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE IN performance, and it does so better than
EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS alternative measures, such as interviews or
Intelligence tests were originally developed personality assessment. The relationship
to measure learning potential, something between intelligence and job performance,
that they still do very well. The author has however, depends very much on the
for many years used measures of numerical individual's familiarity with the job. In the
early stages when there is a lot of learning
occurring, tests of intelligence predict
performance quite well, probably because
performance is closely linked with the
ability to learn rapidly. Once the individual completed by a machine. As this happens,
has settled into the job, however, the the job requirements are shifting from
strength of the relationship between physical strength and motor coordination to
intelligence and job performance starts to cognitive dexterity. In Reich's (1991) terms,
decrease. In jobs which impose variable we are moving from a world of doers to a
demands and where learning is constantly world of symbol analysts. The new
occurring, intelligence tests will prove more technologies devalue experience and
useful for predicting performance. increase the value of the ability to learn
Furthermore, there are many occupational (Hunt, 1995), precisely the sort of thing that
settings where the tasks are quite complex is predicted by tests of intelligence.
and in these situations intelligence tests can However, the trend is not completely in the
be useful. Indeed, with the increasing direction of greater complexity. Some jobs
complexity of modern day work situations, that formerly required cognitive skills no
it is possible that the predictive validity of longer do so because a machine (e.g., a
intelligence tests will increase in calculator) now takes care of the cognitive
occupational settings. The introduction of work. Time will tell whether intelligence
automation is a familiar scene everywhere in becomes more or less important in the
the workplace. Tasks that were once workforce of the future. For a thorough
performed by manual labour are now being analysis of this issue, see Hunt (1995).
TESTS OF ACHIEVEMENT example, should really be checked for inter-

For most people, the most commonly rater reliability to make sure that different
experienced tests are the ones that we sit as subject matter experts rate the answers in the
students in educational institutions or as same way. For reasons mentioned above,
adults seeking professional or trade this rarely happens. Multiple choice tests are
qualifications. These so-called achievement a different story: software is readily
tests are designed to measure the effects of a available to score these tests and at the same
specific programme of instruction or time give valuable feedback about questions
training (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). They that are unreliable and therefore decreasing
usually take the form of either free-response the reliability of the whole test. If a test is
questions such as essays, or objective unreliable, it cannot be valid. Unfortunately,
questions such as the popular multiple it is probable that many constructors of
choice format. A problem with many achievement tests do not even use test
achievement tests is that are never specifications when selecting questions for
standardized or validated in the manner inclusion. At the very least, the
suggested in this chapter. It is not hard to see specifications should take account of the
why: most people who construct objectives, the content areas covered, and
achievement tests have neither the time nor topic weightings. Having said this, there are
the expertise to undertake the necessary excellent examples of achievement tests that
analyses. Free-response format tests, for are properly standardized and validated. The
Progressive Achievement Tests (PAT) with other students throughout Australia.

published by ACER are widely used in Tests like this can be extremely helpful for
Australia to measure a student's level of designing curricula and making decisions
attainment in key academic areas such as about which students can be directed to
vocabulary, comprehension, and extension classes and which ones might
mathematics. Test norms are available, so it benefit from supplementary work.
is possible to see how a student compares
PERSONALITY TESTS
they tell. However, although projective
In terms of widespread usage, the techniques are powerful tools for personality
assessment of personality ranks second only assessment they are not used by many
to intelligence and achievement testing. practitioners. They take a lot of time to
There are two basic forms of personality administer and a lot of training before
testing: self-report measures and projective reaching a reasonable degree of proficiency.
techniques such as the Rorschach and the
Self-report methods of personality
Thematic Apperception Test. The assessment have proven to be much more
Rorschach, better known to most people as popular. As the term implies, self-report
the inkblot test, is one of the earliest forms tests rely upon the test-taker responding to a
of personality assessment, having first made set of standard statements by indicating
its appearance in 1921. The test presents a
whether they agree or disagree with the
series of 10 stimulus cards to the test taker,
statements (if the answer is a simple yes-no)
who is required to state what he or she can
or choosing a number to indicate the extent
see in the card. The theory upon which the
of their agreement or disagreement with the
test is based claims that the way a person
item. There are so many self-report forms
perceives and interprets the test material
around these days that it is extremely
reflects fundamental aspects of his or her
unlikely that the reader has not encountered
psychological functioning, including this form of test before. In the development
personality. The Thematic Apperception of self-report personality inventories, several
Test (TAT) also makes use of pictures, but approaches have been followed in
employs them in a different way. A series of formulating, assembling, selecting, and
19 pictures and one blank card is shown to grouping items. Among the major
the test taker who is asked to make up a procedures in current use are those based on
story about each picture. In the case of the
a) content validation, b) empirical
blank card, the task is to imagine a picture
criterion keying, and c) factor analysis.
on the card and then tell a story about it. The a) Content-related validation. These
rationale underlying the use of the TAT is personality inventories are generally formed
much the same as that for the Rorschach; from lists of known problems which the
there is an expectation that people will individual can then tick as affecting them or
project much of themselves into the stories not affecting them. This is the technique
used in the development of the Life stress for scores on the test. Factor analysis can be
Inventory described earlier in this chapter. used to help select items for inclusion in a
Empirical criterion keying. This personality test or to identify how many
method builds upon the previous method but dimensions underlie tests developed by
takes a more statistical approach, looking for either of the first two methods. Cattell's
items that separate "normal" from Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16
"abnormal" response patterns. In a purely PF) was developed using this method. The
hypothetical example, if it became known so-called Big Five Factor Model (Costa &
that schizophrenics showed a fear of clocks, McCrae, 1991), perhaps the dominant model
an item assessing attitude to clocks could be of personality in occupational testing
included in a test designed to detect settings, was also based on factor analysis.
schizophrenia. It is not important that we The big five personality factors are: 1.
have no idea why clocks might inspire fear Neuroticism (N): indicates an individual’s
in this group. The important thing is that level of emotional stability, ranging from
people with the disorder have the fear whilst calm and even-tempered up to
others don't, so empirical criterion keying maladjustment and emotional distress. 2.
would suggest that such an item could be Extraversion (E): indicates a person’s degree
included. The best known example of a of sociability and preference for interacting
personality test developed through the use of with people. 3. Openness (O): measures
empirical criterion keying is the Minnesota openness to experience, and is related to
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). divergent thinking and creativity. Low
The MMPI is a very large self-administered scorers tend to be conventional and
test, comprising numerous sub-scales. The conservative. 4. Agreeableness (A):
sub-scales were developed empirically by measures how a person views others. Low
criterion keying of items, the criterion being scorers tend to be competitive while high
traditional psychiatric diagnosis. The latest scorers favor cooperative interactions with
revision of the MMPI has resulted in it being others. 5. Conscientiousness (C): indicates a
separated into two forms, the MMPI-2 and person’s ability to control impulses and
the MMPI-A (for use with adolescents). The desires. High C is associated with strong
California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is will and high need for achievement, while
another very well-known instrument that low C is associated with a more
was based on the MMPI. It consists of 434 lackadaisical approach to life.
items to be answered true or false. Half of
these items came from the MMPI. The CPI
has been widely used in industry as well as APPLICATIONS OF PERSONALITY
in clinical practice. c) Factor analysis. As TESTING
mentioned earlier, factor analysis is a The two traditional areas for the application
technique for detecting patterns of of personality tests have been clinical
correlations among test scores that indicate settings and occupational settings. Recently,
underlying dimensions that are responsible personality tests have become popular in the
new field of sport psychology, where they against the wealth of other data collected in
are used to gain insights into factors that individualized testing.
affect performance.
PERSONALITY TESTING IN
PERSONALITY TESTING IN OCCUPATIONAL SETTINGS
CLINICAL SETTINGS Personality testing also has a very strong
Personality testing has a long history in tradition in job selection testing where the
clinical settings, where it has obvious 16 PF and more recently the Five Factor
relevance to the analysis of personality Inventory, a measure of the big five
disorders. Perhaps the most common use of personality factors (NEO-FFI: Costa &
personality tests stems from the profile that McCrae, 1991), have proved very popular.
can be obtained following their This popularity continues despite evidence
administration. A profile is a line linking an that personality tests do not predict job
individual's scores on various parts of a test. performance very well, even for sales
Figure 15.1 shows a profile on an ability positions (Hunter, 1986). Robertson and
test. Similar profiles can be constructed for Smith (1989) report a validity coefficient as
personality tests. The resulting pattern can low as .15 in personnel selection testing. In
be inspected for signs of abnormality. A contrast, the coefficient for ability tests
single high or low score on its own may not ranges between .25 and .45. The use of
indicate any problems but a combination of personality testing in occupational settings is
test scores may well be indicative of not confined to selection testing, it has also
particular syndromes, such as schizophrenia. proved very popular as an aid in training
These forms of profile analysis have not courses. The Myers Briggs Type Indicator
lived up to expectations for two main (MBTI) is one of the best-known personality
reasons. Firstly, variations among subtest tests because it is used so often in
scores could arise from a variety of workshops on career decision making, team
circumstances, only some of them building, conflict resolution, time
pathological. Secondly, the diagnostic management, relationship counselling, and a
categories that provided the criteria for number of other applications. The MBTI is
profile analysis are themselves subject to based on the theory of psychological types
debate. For example, what does it mean to proposed by Carl Jung. Psychological types
say that a particular pattern indicates represent combinations of two or more traits
schizophrenia when schizophrenia itself is or attributes that are stable and shape the
not a clearly defined condition? Profile way individuals think and behave. The
analysis may tell us something about group MBTI classifies people into 16 types and
characteristics but it is prone to error when one of the reasons for its success lies in the
applied to individual cases. A more fruitful fact that all types are seen as being valuable
approach is to treat the pattern information with each having particular strengths and
as a source of hypotheses that can be tested weaknesses. There are many clones of the
MBTI that also seek to describe people in
terms of types. They are frequently used in has included a graph which shows a quite
management courses. Such type indicators steady increase in the number of sports-
can be extremely valuable in workshop specific tests since 1975. The proportion is
settings where they serve as a basis for now close to 45%. As one might expect,
discussion of the different perspectives given the nature of sport, these new tests are
individuals may have on work situations, primarily in the areas of anxiety, motivation,
home life, and so on. For career selection mental skills, and specific sporting factors
purposes, there are as yet no data to support such as team cohesion (Fogarty, 1995).
claims that knowledge of type (or
personality) is a useful in predicting job
TESTS OF VOCATIONAL AND
performance.
CAREER INTERESTS
Another category of test that has proved to
PERSONALITY TESTING IN SPORT be very popular in educational and
SETTINGS occupational settings is the career interest
The latest field of psychology to embrace inventory. The best known of these are the
personality testing in a big way is sport tests based on Holland's model of career
psychology. Much of the testing centers on decision making. The Self-Directed Search
what is now known as "sport person ology" - (SDS) is the most popular of these tests and
the study of personality characteristics as has an Australian version which is in
determinants of sporting success. As in widespread use in this country. Holland
occupational testing, the findings so far have (1985) believed that the most productive
not been very promising. When the approach to career decision making involved
personality profiles of elite athletes are an investigation of the individual's
compared with those of novice athletes, personality type. He proposed a six-category
there are differences. Elite athletes are more typology: Realistic (R), Investigative (I),
aggressive, more focused, less anxious, and Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E),
so on, but individual differences on these and Conventional (C). He believed that this
traits do not predict who is going to be an six-category system could be used to not
elite athlete. That is to say, the tests of only describe the major types of people but
personality have concurrent validity but also to describe the work environments they
poor predictive validity. Talent are likely to encounter in Western society.
identification programme have grappled Holland's assumption was that people seek
unsuccessfully with this problem for years. environments that allow them to express
Perhaps more situation-specific personality their interests, and by knowing something
tests will help to improve the predictive about their general orientation we are in a
validity of personality tests in both better position to judge where they will be
occupational and sports settings. There is no happiest working. Holland's tests, or
doubt that serious attempts are now being derivatives of them, are widely used in
made to develop personality tests that are educational and occupational settings to
suited to sports situations. Ostrow (1990, p. assist with career decision making.
MISCELLANEOUS TESTS such as Anastasi and Urbina (1997), for an

There are many more test types than can be overview of virtually the whole testing
described here, some of them adapted to domain. For information on tests available
particular situations. Areas not covered in here in Australia, the best place to approach
this chapter include stress (e.g., Osipow and is the Australian Council for Educational
Spokane, 1987), values (e.g., Schwartz & Research (ACER), which has a number of
Bilsky, 1987), decision styles (e.g., Driver, test catalogues containing descriptions of
Brousseau, & Hunsaker, 1990), learning individual tests, including details of what
styles (Entwistle, 1983), and perhaps it is qualifications you need to administer the
better to stop here because the list could go tests and suitable areas of application.
on and on. The reader is referred to a text
devoted exclusively to psychological testing,
administration over conventional
COMPUTERIZED TESTING administration are well-documented in
several reviews (e.g., Bartram & Bayliss,
It would be a mistake to conclude this
1984). The move from paper-and-pencil
chapter leaving the reader with the
tests to computer-based formats, however,
impression that tests are available only in
represents a major shift in the way tests are
paper-and-pencil format. Testing was one of
administered and it is important that
the earliest areas within psychology to
research is conducted to check the
benefit from computer applications with
equivalence of the two methods. Work has
standardized, objective-type personality tests
already started in this area, especially on the
being particularly well-suited to automation
equivalence of paper-and-pencil versus
(Bartram & Bayliss, 1984). Initially, interest
computerized presentation. Reviews of these
focused on automated scoring but later
studies report conflicting findings, with
expanded to include the computerized
many uncontrolled variables influencing the
administration of existing pencil-and-paper
outcomes (e.g., Burke & Normand, 1987;
tests. Currently, almost every facet of
Webster & Campeau, 1996). The author's
personality testing has been computerized,
own experience with this form of testing is
from test design and development, through
that it does not appear to make a noticeable
item generation and analysis, to test
difference and that test manuals developed
interpretation and report generation. In a
on the basis of paper-and-pencil tests are
typical computerized test presentation,
still applicable to computerized versions of
individual questions or stimuli are presented
tests (Fogarty, 1998). One of the major
on a video display unit (VDU) attached to
benefits of computerized assessment is
the computer, a set of limited responses is
undoubtedly the increased efficiency of
offered, and test-takers record their selected
administration made possible by software
response via a keyboard or some other
that adapts the presentation of items for each
interface. The advantages of this form of
user. Thus, when assessing abilities there is
no need to present a whole lot of easy items algorithms built into the software can
to a very capable person. It is a waste of quickly estimate a person's level of
time. Similarly, there is no need to present a cognitive functioning on the ability being
lot of difficult items to a person who has no measured, rather than the person's total
chance of solving them. In a traditional score. Such an estimation is possible
paper-and-pencil test, everyone is given the because the difficulty level of each item is
same instructions, the same items, and the known beforehand and the test can draw
same time in which to complete the test. In upon a large bank of items covering all
an adaptive, computerized test situation, the possible ability levels.
If you can imagine that the higher items are simultaneously. In some cases, testing time
more difficult you can see that each time the is halved because fewer items have to be
person is correct, a more difficult item is presented. Adaptive computer testing can be
selected. When the item is incorrect, the used with other types of test (e.g.,
computer selects an item from an easier personality), but so far, their application has
level. In the oversimplified representation mostly been with intelligence and
shown in Figure 15.4, the person's ability achievement tests. Apart from test
level is somewhere near to the levels administration, computers are increasingly
assessed by items 3, 5, and 7. Above that being used to write test reports on the basis
level, the items are incorrect. Below that of scores collected during a computerized
level and the items are correct. In actual administration of the test or entered by the
practice, it is not quite this easy, but the test administrator.
principle is clear. At some point, There is a real question mark hanging over
performance will alternate between success the issue of the lack of flexibility of reports
and failure. The test is then ended and the written by a computer. Such reports are
level at which this occurred is reported as based on test scores only and omit the large
the ability estimate for that individual. amount of data that can be collected in a
Adaptive tests are not new in psychology face-to-face testing situation. When using
and education, many individually tests of maximal performance, for example,
administered tests are adaptive (e.g., the a clinician can report the amount of effort
Stanford Binet), but computers allow whole put into the test, a computer cannot. In
groups of people to be tested
personality testing, many signs of computer-generated reports. Certainly, they

abnormality may be evident in the person's should be supplemented by other reports
bearing and manner, things that are not from the training officer, psychologist, or
available to the computer that generates the whoever arranged the test.
report. It may be some time before there is
good research data on the validity of
*****
COMPLETE
COMPLIMENTARY CONTENT – Psychologists have divided the errors of

OUT OF SYLLABUS measurement in two types:
Systematic bias
Random error
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT:
Therefore: Total measurement error =
These are the discrepancies between the
systematic bias + random error both of these
observed value of your measurement and the
types of errors occur in any measurement.
‘true’ value. Every time a student takes a
Therefore, understanding how they occur
test there is a possibility that the raw score
and minimizing them as much as possible is
(observed score) obtained maybe less or
necessary to reduce total measurement error
more than the score the student should
actually have received (true score). The
difference between the observed score and Systematic Error
the true score is called the error score.
Systematic bias refers to ‘predictable errors
There is a simple formula to illustrate this: in measurement’ that occur in the same
Observed score = True score + Error. direction (under- or over-estimation) and
The true score of a person can be found by have the same magnitude. As these errors
taking the mean score that the person would are in a specific direction, they can produce
get on the same test if they had an infinite quite misleading results. These errors are a
number of testing sessions. Because it is not result of polluted thoughts, personal biases,
possible to obtain an infinite number of test improper morals, and so on, such as-
scores, T is a hypothetical, yet a central
aspect. Hence, True value is the value that Personal errors which arise from
would be gained under ideal situations when mistakes made by the tester during
using perfect measurement techniques. the test administration or lack of
Based on the above formula, subtracting the alertness on his part. These errors are
true value from the measured value would due to subjective element of an
produce the error component: individual. For example, errors made
in reading the thermometer, stop
Measured value – true value = Error watch or the test manual.
Such errors occur when in a haste, writes 0. 01, or instead of +ve

thetester starts or stops the stop (positive) he writes –ve (negative).
watch early or when the start or stop
of the stop watch is delayed due to STATISTICAL ERRORS
some reason. These errors can be Generally, statistical errors are divided
into two types:
 removed by comparing the results
obtained by several Errors of Descriptive Statistics:
testers/experimenters. Under these are included standard
errors and probable errors.

Inferential Errors: Under these are
The second type of biased errors
Type I and Type II errors.
arise from carelessness. These errors
are more evident when, for example,
the experimenter instead of writing
0.1 writes 1 or instead of writing 0.1
ERRORS OF DESCRIPTIVE the standard error of measurement. The

STATISTICS lower it is, the more tightly packed around
the true score the random errors will be.
There are two ways of calculating errors of Whenever the mean of a sample is
descriptive statistics. The first is the calculated, the obvious argument is whether
standard error and the second is the probable this mean is appropriate or not, that is, what
error. Standard errors get quite affected by may be the difference between the sample’s
extremes because standard errors are mean and the mean of population from
calculated using standard deviations. which the sample is drawn. The difference
between the two means can be expressed
Both standard error and probable error through standard error.
indicate the amount of error or expected
error in the data obtained. After calculating Standard error is, therefore, that value which
these errors, we can also know whether implies the amount of variation in the mean
these errors are due to chance factors or due and the standard deviation of a sample, and
to deviation in variables. If these are due to the mean and the standard deviation of the
chance factors, the degree would be less. population from which the sample is drawn.
But if these are due to differences in
variables, the degree of error would be high. PROBABLE ERRORS
The determination of error depends to a
great extent on the nature of research and If the difference in results of two
planning. observations on different occasions is less or
if the observations of two persons on a
STANDARD ERRORS problem are not very different, then it is not
considered true or reliable, but a small
The standard deviation of the distribution of deviation in two observations make it
random errors around the true score is called reliable. Thus, when we try to know the
truth through measures of variance, the
result is probable error.
INFERENTIAL ERRORS kept at 0.01, then there would be more

The following are two types of the chances of committing Type I error, and if
inferential errors: the significance level is kept at 0.05, then
the chances of committing Type I error
Type I error would be comparatively less.
Type II error
TYPE II ERROR
TYPE I ERROR
Such an error is committed when H0 is
This type of error is committed when a null accepted and, in fact, it is false. This error is
hypothesis (H0) is rejected and, in fact, it is denoted by (beta). Type II error has direct
true. This error is represented by (alpha). relation with the significance level. Higher
There exists an inverse relationship between the significance level, more are the chance
and the significance level. If the (beta) of being committed; for example,
significance level is high, (alpha) will be Type II error will be more when the
less, and if the significance level is low, significance level is 0.5 as compared to
Type I error will be more. For example, if when it is 0.1. This is important in
the significance level for any hypothesis is psychological experimentation.
Both the types of errors are related to each

other. It we try to reduce Type I error, we Error of measurement.
increase the Error of substitution.
chance of Type II error being committed Error of estimating observed scores.
and, similarly, if we wish to reduce Type II Error of estimating true scores.
error, we are taking a chance with Type I
error.
The two types of errors can be written as: ERROR OF MEASUREMENT
Type I error rejecting null hypothesis The error of measurement is nothing but the
(H0) when it is true, error committed while substituting the
Type II error accepting null hypothesis observed/obtained score for the
(H0) when it is false. corresponding true score. Suppose we are
interested in assigning every person a true
score, but instead of true score, we assign
The most often used measures of ‘test the observed score. Whatever be the
errors’ are the four types of errors, namely: difference between these two scores, it is
nothing but the error of measurement. Thus, those terms in reverse order. In a regression
the error of measurement is the error made analysis, X values are any values from
while substituting the observed score for the which you want to predict, and Y values are
true score. any values to which you want to predict.
Based on this theory, error of measurement Unfortunately, those predictions are never
is: perfect because prediction errors occur.
Such errors may be due to unreliable
E=X – t measurement in either the Y or X variable,
or due to unsystematic differences between
Where, E is the error score the two sets of numbers.
X is the observed score t
is the true score. When you are trying to predict Y values
from X values, it would be useful to know
ERROR OF SUBSTITUTION what the distribution of those prediction
errors is so you can interpret your
Error of substitution is the error made while predictions wisely. An example of such a
substituting a score on one test for a score situation might be a case where you use
on a parallel test. In other words, error of regression analysis to predict TOEFL scores
substitution is the difference between two from the PERFECT test at your institution.
observed scores on parallel tests. You must first conduct a study based on a
Mathematically, error of substitution is: large number of students who took both
d=x1 – x2 tests. Then using regression analysis, you
build a regression equation of the form Y =
Where, d is the difference a + b X. Based on your analysis, you will
x1 is the observed score on one test and know the values of a (the intercept) and b
x2 is the observed score on another test. (the slope), and can then plug in the X value
(or PERFECT test score) for a student who
The above definition of the error of has never taken the TOEFL. Solving for Y
substitution would be applicable in case we will then give you that student's predicted Y
are interested to find the differences between (or predicted TOEFL score). All of this is
the results obtained by one researcher beyond the scope of this explanation, but is
employing one psychological test and necessary in order to get even a basic
another researcher employing a parallel understanding of what the standard error of
form of the same psychological test.[ estimate is. We assume that any student's
Standard Error of Estimate Conceptually, predicted Y score is our best estimate of that
the standard error of estimate is related to score, but we recognize that there are
regression analysis in that it typically sampling errors around that estimate, just as
provides an estimate of the dispersion of the there were for estimating the population
prediction errors when you are trying to mean and true scores. Those sampling errors
predict Y values from X values in a are normally distributed and, in this case,
regression analysis. have a standard deviation called the standard
error of estimate.]
In order to understand the previous sentence,
you will first need to understand three bits of
jargon: prediction errors, Y values, and X
values. Again, I would like to deal with
 ERROR OF ESTIMATING ERROR IN ESTIMATING TRUE

OBSERVED SCORE SCORE
Error of estimating or predicting observed Error in estimating true score is the error
score is the error made while a regression made in predicting the true score from the
equation is used to estimate or predict the observed score while applying the best
scores on one test from scores on a parallel fitting regression equation or least square
test. In other words, it is the error made solutions. In other words, error of estimating
while predicating the score on one form of the true score is the error difference between
the test on the basis of the other form of the the true score and the predicated value of the
same test with the use of least square true score.
solutions, that is, regression equation.
SPEED vs. POWER TESTS difficulty, all of which are well within the
ability level of the persons for whom the test
A psychological test is "an objective and is designed; but the time limit is such that no
standardized measure of a sample of examinee can attempt all the items. Under
behavior". Psychological Tests can be such conditions, each person’s score reflects
classified on various dimensions. One only the speed with which he worked.
classification which is based on the rate of
performance distinguishes between Speed According to Gulliksen, a pure Speed Test
Test and Power Test. is a test composed of items so easy that the
subjects never give the wrong answer to any
SPEED TESTS: of them, that is, there would be no attempted
item that would be incorrect and,
Speed Tests are the ones in which individual consequently, the score for each person
differences depend entirely on the speed of would equal the number of items attempted.
performance. Items are of uniform
For example, a test in grade school where perfect score. Achievement examinations,
students are asked to complete as many for e.g., fall in this category.
multiplication facts as possible in two In a pure Power Test, all the items are
minutes is an example of a pure speeded attempted so that the score on the test
test. Pure speeded tests are not useful unless depends entirely upon the number of items
the underlying construct being measured is that are answered and answered correctly.
one where speed is important (e.g., a typing Therefore, in such tests, the items cannot be
task). of trivial difficulty because that would not
produce a desirable distribution of scores.
In speeded tests, the only way to get Power tests assess individual differences
variance on the test scores for a group of test without any effects of imposed time limits
takers on a speeded test is to control the changing scores. Power tests often are made
amount of time given to the test taker. up of items that vary in their level of
Variability of test scores is a strong difficulty. The power test designer should
determinant of a test’s reliability, so the time ensure that the test is long enough to cover
limit should be set to ensure maximum the content domain, but not so long that
variance in the test scores. there is not enough time available for most
people to complete the test.
Some speeded tests often take into account
the individual difference of age. It is a well- DIFFERENCES
established empirical finding that as
individuals age, their response times to A speed test is one in which each
stimuli slow. Older individuals simply take item is trivially easy but is
longer to complete tasks than do younger administered within such a strict
individuals. When administering a speeded time limit that it is impossible to
test, ensure that the test manual has answer all questions. For example,
addressed the issue of age. Usually this is the examinee might be given 60
done by adding a constant to scores of seconds for a 100-item test made up
individuals within certain age bands. For of questions. It is assumed that,
example, individuals between 30–39 years given enough time, the person could
of age taking the Wonderlic Personnel Test answer every item correctly.
(1999) add one point to their raw score. However, the strict time limit makes
Similar adjustments to raw scores are made it impossible to complete every item.
for each decade up to 60 years of age and Individual differences in test scores
over. are thus a function of the speed with
which the examinee responds to
individual items; the faster the
POWER TESTS: person works, the more items he or
she will complete. The test-retest
Power Tests, on the other hand, have time method is useful for assessing the
limits long enough to permit everyone to reliability of speed tests. In a speed
attempt all the items. But the difficulty of test, items are often trivial and fairly
items increases gradually and the test meaningless. It is precisely for this
includes certain items which are too difficult reason that the usual barrier to the
for anyone to solve, so that no one can get a use of the test-
For a pure Power Test, the odd–even

retest method-subjects' tendency to
method to find split-half reliability
remember their responses-tends not
should be employed. Whether a test
to be a problem with speed tests.
is sufficiently close to being a pure
When the test content is meaningful,
Power Test can be indicated by a
subjects are likely to remember their
criterion which would make one sure
responses to test items; when test
that the odd–even reliability will not
items involve trivial perceptual or
be spuriously high or low.
motor tasks, over time it becomes
more difficult to remember or
duplicate one's responses to a large EFFECTS OF UNATTEMPTED
number of test items. Thus, the test- QUESTION:
retest method might be quite useful
in assessing the reliability of a speed If a test is a Power Test, then it is possible to
test, particularly in settings where it employ the split-half reliability to estimate
is difficult to obtain scores on the extent of error of measurement. For a
separately timed half-tests. Power Test, error of measurement would be
greater if the subject is allowed to attempt
all the items in a test.
In contrast, a power test is one in which
speed in responding has no effect on
If a test is a Speed Test, then a test–retest of
the test score. For example, a 20-
an alternate form of reliability method
item introductory psychology exam
should be used to calculate the reliability of
administered with no time limit
the test.
would probably be considered a
power test. No matter how quickly
(or slowly) the examinee works, the In case a test is a speeded-up test, the retest
or alternate form is to be used to calculate
final score is determined by the
the reliability of the test. Such reliability will
person's knowledge of the material,
correctly represent the functioning reliability
together with his or her luck in
of the test.
guessing or having studied just the
right material.
Defining the audience: This involves
making a list of characteristics of the people
SCALE/ TEST CONSTRUCTION: who will take the test. E.g.: Race, Gender,
Socio economic Status.
STEPS FOLLOWED IN SCALE Purpose of the test: It explains how the test
CONSTRUCTION: users, can use the test scores
STEP 1: DEFINING THE TESTING
UNIVERSE, AUDIENCE AND STEP 2: DEVELOPING A TEST PLAN:
PURPOSE:
It involves defining the construct i.e.
Testing universe refers to defining the defining the behavior that are related to the
behaviors that the test aims to measure or construct. It also involves deciding upon the
the body of knowledge that the test length of the test. Choosing the test format is
represents. The developer prepares an another important consideration in this step.
operational definition of the construct that It refers to the type of questions that the test
the test will measure which mainly involves
rigorous review of literature.
will contain. The format of the test is The administration and instruction should
decided on the basis of the purpose of the include whether the test should be conducted
test. on individual or in group setting, specific
requirements should be mentioned
(stationary, setting etc) the time limit to
STEP 3: COMPOSING TEST ITEMS: complete the test should be mentioned, there
While composing test items it is preferred should be a proper script for administrator a
that two and a half times more items are good script encourages the testee to give
developed as we go further with the steps of accurate answers and also it should be
construction. In multiple choice mentioned if prior training is required. The
questionnaire format, a multiple choice item instructions should also have an example for
consists of a problem, known as the stem, the testee; this will make him/her more clear
and a list of suggested solutions, known as and have a better understanding.
alternatives. The alternatives consist of one
correct or best alternative, which is the STEP 5: PILOT TESTING:
answer, and incorrect or inferior Pilot testing is done in two phases. The
alternatives, known as distracters. The number of participants depends upon the
distracters shouldn’t be too easy or too size and complexity of target audience. The
difficult they should be realistic more the setting of the pilot test should mirror the
options lessen the chance of guessing the planned test setting. The questions that
right answers. In true and false that is should be asked after administration include,
dichotomous items format the effect of “Do you understand meaning of each
guessing is higher as only two options are item?”, “Do you understand test
available. Forced choice question format instructions?”, “Do you object to content of
which are usually used in scales, chances of any item? Why?”, “Do you think test
guessing is low. assesses your skills properly?” Then revise
Subjective answers like projective or drop certain items and collect the data.
techniques, there are chances of response
biases. Social desirability, there is tendency STEP 6: ITEM ANALYSIS:
to choose responses which are socially Item analysis is analyzing property of each
desirable it can be reduced by using item.
ipsative, a scale could also be used to see
social desirability. Acquiescence that is the Item difficulty is done only in test
tendency to agree with the idea presented construction and not in scale
which can be controlled by using reverse construction because in scale items are
scoring. Random responding or faking, not measuring success or failure in an
various tests like lie scales and acquiescence item but the degree to which a trait is
scale are developed also usually questions present.
are framed differently and randomly if the D= R/N
testee responds randomly to the similar Where, D is difficulty value; also
questions measuring the same thing that denotedby P.
means he/she is faking. R is number of people answered correctly
to an item.
STEP 4: WRITING DOWN THE N is total number of people answering an
ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS: item.
Item discrimination is the ability to The advantage to making a large item pool
discriminate people who have high becomes more apparent as test revision
ability and low ability in test and high proceeds. Poor items can be eliminated in
trait and low trait in scale. favor of those that were shown on the test
V= DU- DL tryout to be good items. Even when working
Where, V is item discrimination with a large item pool, the revising test
DU is difficulty value of upper developer must be aware of the domain the
group DL is difficulty value of test should sample.
lower group Having balanced all these concerns, the test
developer ends up coming with a better
Item reliability is inter- item revised test. The next step includes
correlation. Forced Nominal is found in administering this revised test under
scale and perfectly nominal in test. In standardized conditions to a second
scale, correlation is found by tetra- appropriate sample of examinees.
choleric/ rank order/ Pearson moment. When the item analysis of data derived
from a test administration indicates that the
Item validity is the correlation of an test is not yet in its finished form, the steps
item to the test scores. It is found by bi- of revision, tryout and item analysis are
serial/ point bi-serial/ Pearson product repeated until the test is satisfactory and
moment formula. standardization can occur.
Test Revision in the life cycle of an existing
STEP 7: REVISING THE TEST: test:
Test revision as a stage in developing a There are no hard and fast rules of revising
new test an existing test as such. Test are usually
revised due to the following conditions -
After the new test is conceptualized,
constructed, tried out and item analyzed The stimulus materials look dated and the
current test takers cannot relate to them.
(both quantitatively and qualitatively), what
remains is to mould the test into its final The verbal content of the test is not readily
understood by current test takers.
form. On the basis of the huge amount of
information that is generated at the item- The test norms are no longer adequate as a
analysis stage, some items from the original result of group membership changes in the
population of potential test takers.
item fool will be eliminated and others will
be re-written. The steps to revise an existing test parallel
those to create a brand new one. In test
There are several ways to approaching test conceptualizing phase, the test developer
revision: must think through the objectives of the
One is to characterize each item according revision and how they can best be met. In
to its strengths and weaknesses and balance the test construction phase, the proposed
them. changes are made. Test tryout, item
analysis and test revision follow.
CROSS -VALIDATION AND CO- - Alternate/Parallel form of reliability
VALIDATION:
Cross Validation: Revalidation of a test on STEP 9: ESTABLISHING VALIDITY:
a sample for test takers other than those on Test validity may be defined as the degree to
whom test performance was originally found which a test measures what it is intended to
to be a valid predictor of some criterion. Co measure. A test can be reliable without
Validation: Test validation process being valid, but not the other way round
conducted on 2/more tests using the same (Groth-Marnat 2003). For example, tests of
sample of test takers. processing speed that involve naming of
IRT (Item Response Theory) can be used to alphabets or digits are usually highly
build and revise tests as well. reliable, but they may actually measure
reading skills and not processing speed
(Roivainen 2011). Most psychological
STEP 8: ESTABLISHING constructs, such as processing speed,
RELIABILITY OF THE TEST: intelligence or personality are abstract by
Reliability refers to how consistently a test nature and cannot be directly observed.
measures a characteristic. More the They must be studied by indirect means.
consistency, greater the reliability. In other However, psychological theories and the
words, a test is reliable if it yields the same definition of psychological constructs
scores on being administered on the same change over time. Therefore, the first
set of people for the second (or more) time. concern of a test constructor is to 28
Factors such as test taker’s consider whether the test items they have
psychological/physical state, environmental selected are representative of the construct
conditions, test form, etc are sources of being measured. This aspect of validity is
chance or random measurement error in the usually referred to as content validity.
assessment process. If there were no random Content validity is subjective by nature, as it
errors of measurement, the individual would is based on the judgment of the test
get the same test score, the individual's developers. Criterion validity refers to the
"true" score, each time. The degree to which correlation between a test and an outside
test scores are unaffected by measurement measure. For example, IQ scores are highly
errors is an indication of the reliability of correlated with school grades. If
the test. The reliability of a test is indicated performance on a test item has zero
by the reliability coefficient. It is denoted by correlation with education, then that item is
the letter "r," and is expressed as a number probably a poor measure of intelligence.
ranging between 0 and 1.00, with r = 0 Predictive validity involves outside
indicating no reliability, and r = 1.00 measurements that are performed sometimes
indicating perfect reliability. It is normal to after the psychological test, for example, the
not find a test with perfect reliability. The correlation of school grades with IQ scores
larger the reliability coefficient, the more from a test taken a year earlier (Blacker &
reliable the test scores. Endicott 2000, Morgan et al. 2001)
The following are the types of reliability
estimates: - Validity is arguably the most important
Test retest reliability criteria for the quality of a test. The term
Inter-rater reliability validity refers to whether or not the test
Internal consistency reliability measures what it claims to measure. On a
test with high validity the items will be
closely linked to the test’s intended focus. case, there is no justification for using the
For many certification and licensure tests test results for their intended purpose. There
this means that the items will be highly are several ways to estimate the validity of a
related to a specific job or occupation. If a test including content validity, concurrent
test has poor validity, then it does not validity, and predictive validity. The face
measure the job-related content and validity of a test is sometimes also
competencies it ought to. When this is the mentioned.
TYPES OF VALIDITY 
CONTENT VALIDITY
While there are several types of validity, the either masters or non-masters on the content
most important type for most certification measured by the test are identified, and the
and licensure programs is probably that of test is administered to them under realistic
content validity. Content validity is a logical exam conditions. Once the tests have been
process where connections between the test scored, the relationship is estimated between
items and the job-related tasks are the Test Validity examinees’ known status
established. If a thorough test development as either masters or non-masters and their
process was followed, a job analysis was classification as masters or non-masters (i.e.,
properly conducted, an appropriate set of pass or fail) based on the test. This type of
test specifications were developed, and item validity provides evidence that the test is
writing guidelines were carefully followed, classifying examinees correctly. The
then the content validity of the test is likely stronger the correlation is, the greater the
to be very high. Content validity is typically concurrent validity of the test is. 
estimated by gathering a group of subject PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
matter experts (SMEs) together to review Another statistical approach to validity is
the test items. Specifically, these SMEs are predictive validity. This approach is similar
given the list of content areas specified in to concurrent validity, in that it measures the
the test blueprint, along with the test items relationship between examinees'
intended to be based on each content area. performances on the test and their actual
The SMEs are then asked to indicate status as masters or non-masters. However,
whether or not they agree that each item is with predictive validity, it is the relationship
appropriately matched to the content area of test scores to an examinee's future
indicated. Any items that the SMEs identify performance as a master or non-master that
as being inadequately matched to the test is estimated. In other words, predictive
blueprint or flawed in any other way, are validity considers the question, "How well
either revised or dropped from the test. does the test predict examinees' future status
 as masters or non-masters?" For this type of
CONCURRENT VALIDITY
validity, the correlation that is computed is
Another important method for investigating
between the examinees' classifications as
the validity of a test is concurrent validity.
Concurrent validity is a statistical method master or non-master based on the test and
using correlation, rather than a logical their later performance, perhaps on the job.
method. Examinees who are known to be This type of validity is especially useful for
test purposes such as selection or
admissions.

FACE VALIDITY
One additional type of validity that you may STEP 10: DEVELOPING NORMS:
hear mentioned is face validity. Like content Valid norms are an essential aspect of test
validity, face validity is determined by a validity. Test results are usually interpreted
review of the items and not through the use by comparing the performance of an
of statistical analyses. Unlike content individual to norms based on a
validity, face validity is not investigated representative sample of the population. The
through formal procedures and is not more closely the standardization sample
determined by subject matter experts. resembles the respondent in terms of age,
Instead, anyone who looks over the test, education, sex and health, the more reliable
including examinees and other stakeholders, the comparison is between test norms and
may develop an informal opinion as to the respondent’s test score. Sir Francis
whether or not the test is measuring what it Galton at the first time developed the logic
is supposed to measure. While it is clearly of for norm based testing in the 18th century.
some value to have the test appear to be Norms refers to information regarding the
valid, face validity alone is insufficient for group performance of a particular reference
establishing that the test is measuring what it on a particular measure for which a person
claims to measure. A well-developed exam can be compared to. Norms mean
program will include formal studies into standardized score. Scores on psychological
other, more substantive types of validity. test are most commonly interpreted by
The validity of a test is critical because, reference to norm that represents the test
without sufficient validity, test scores have performance on standardization sample.
no meaning. The evidence you collect and Norms always represent the best
document about the validity of your test is performance.
also your best legal defense should the exam Basically there are two purposes of norms:
program ever be challenged in a court of Norms indicate the individual’s relative
law. While there are several ways to standing in the normative sample and thus
estimate validity, for many certification and permit evaluation of his/her performance in
licensure exam programs the most important refer to other persons.
type of validity to establish is content Norms provide compared measures that
validity permitted a direct comparison of the
individual performance on difference test.
TYPES OF NORMS 
NATIONAL NORMS: educational level, age, sex, race, present or
The most general and most commonly used intended field of study, socioeconomic level
type of norms is the National Norms, of parents (educational, occupational, and
appropriate to the educational and age level economic determinations), and sometimes,
(or levels) for which the test is constructed. for achievement test norms.
One of the problems in defining the national Schrader has pointed out that national norms
norms group arises from the large number, have the distinct advantage of being simple,
variety, and communities, that are correlated definite and unique. National norms also have
with and relevant to the test scores. The the advantage that, to the extent that
variables that are associated with the publishers succeed in providing truly precise
characteristics of students include and unbiased national norms, it is possible to
achieve score comparability across the tests of
different publishers. On the other hand,
the availability of a single norms table tends 

to obscure the fact that a percentile rank is AGE AND GRADE
not unique but represents only one of many EQUIVALENTS:
possible evaluations of a test score. In general, there are two kinds of normative
Furthermore, national norms may frequently or reference group, comparisons (Lindquist
be too general to permit specific action. Hieronymus, 1964). One kind of
Clearly, the more specific and. Of course, comparison makes use of a single references
the more relevant the norms group, the group and describes the standing of an
easier it is to make appropriate decisions individual’s scores in relation to the
based on test scores. distribution of scores for that group. This
type of reference is exemplified by the
percentile distributions mentioned above and
 also by the normative scales. The second
LOCAL NORMS:
Although it is unquestionably the kind of comparison makes use of the mean
responsibility of the test publisher to make scores on a series of reference groups and
available the kinds of norms that are essentially identifies the group whose mean
appropriate for the uses he claims for his score is most nearly the score like the score
test, in many instances the most useful kind under consideration. This approach is
of norms are the local norms collected by exemplified by the grade equivalents,
the user itself and based on students enrolled which are appropriate for subject-matter
in his own institution. These norms have the achievement tests highly dependent on the
advantage of homogeneity, since the curriculum and on the grade in which the
students included in the norms all come subject is taught. It is also exemplified by
from the same educational and social milieu the age equivalents, which appear to be
and constitute a group with which the test more appropriate for such measure as
user has first-hand knowledge and general aptitude and intelligence which are
familiarity. less highly independent on the curriculum.
Local norms are especially valuable when The imperfect correlation between age or
they are collected in a way that will permit grade and test performance leads to a
the formation of particular decisions – for number of anomalies, ambiguities and
example, in the identification of students inconsistencies that impair the usefulness of
who would benefit from special instruction the age of grade equivalents. This is
or in separating a total class into unfortunate because except for these defects,
homogenous subgroups for whom the “equivalents” appear other wise to have the
instructional pace can be more clearly ideal characteristics of interpretive data-
defined. The data that help to make such clarity, definiteness, and direct meaning.
decisions are those that relate to one set of
scores to another, as in local studies of NORMS BY AGE AND GRADE:
growth; or those that relate aptitude test A kind of normative data that makes use of
the relationship between test performance
scores to achievement; or those that relate and age (or grade) but avoids many of the
test scores to individual or group problems  is
associated with the equivalents,
characteristics, as in the preparation of 
the age or grade norms. These data are
differentiated local norms, for example by essentially nationally representative
curriculum, by sex, or by intended major percentile rank distributions, differentiated
field of study. by age or grade. Instead of age or grade
equivalents, they yield the usual kind of provide the particular interpretive
percentile rank that describes the person’s information required at the time.
relative standing in relation to other
individuals who are of the same age or in the STEP 11: DEVELOPING THE
same grade. INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL:
It is important to note that the substitution of An ideal test manual is expected to include
age and grade norms for age and grade standard stimulus content, ways to
equivalents effectively separates the administer the test, way to score objectively,
function of norms from that of scales. Thus specific, local normative data and
it is possible to develop a metric for a standardized method of interpretation, with
system of test forms and, entirely established reliabilities and validities.
independently, to develop a collection of Publishers may, however, present
different kinds of norms – differentiated, for correlations of test scores with some other
example, by grade, by region, by sex, by criterion (perhaps another well-known
type of community, etc. – without achievement test) as evidence of the validity
committing the scale to any ne of these sets or usefulness of the new test. The test
of norms. The scale remains constant, so publisher will probably collect the pertinent
long as the test is appropriate and relevant to information and data into a manual for the
times. The norms on the other hand are free test.
to develop and change as necessary to
CONTENTS
What is Biopsychology? Divisions of Biopsychology.
Sensory systems: General and specific sensations, receptors and processes
Neurons: Structure, functions, types, neural impulse, synaptic transmission.

Neurotransmitters.
The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems – Structure and functions. Neuroplasticity.
Methods of Physiological Psychology: Invasive methods – Anatomical methods,

degeneration techniques, lesion techniques, chemical methods, microelectrode
studies. Non-invasive methods – EEG, Scanning methods.
Muscular and Glandular system: Types and functions Biological basis of Motivation: Hunger,
Thirst, Sleep and Sex. Biological basis of emotion: The Limbic system, Hormonal regulation
of behavior. Genetics and behavior: Chromosomal anomalies; Nature-Nurture
controversy [Twin studies and adoption studies]
PowerWithin One Stop Solution for Psychology
UNIT
4 Biological Basis
Of Behavior
NATURE AND SCOPE perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and

memories, might be produced by brain
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the activity. Hebb’s theory did much to
nervous system may prove to be the brains discredit the view that psychological
ultimate challenge. Neuroscience functioning is too complex to have its
comprises several related disciplines. The roots in the physiology and chemistry of
primary discipline being biopsychology. the brain. Hebb based his theory on
experiments involving both humans and
Biopsychology is a field devoted to our laboratory animals, on clinical case
understanding of the physiology/biology of studies, and on logical arguments
behavior. It is also known as physiological developed from his own insightful
psychology, psychobiology, observations of daily life. This eclectic
behavioral biology, or behavioral approach has become a hallmark of bio
neuroscience; but preferable term is psychological inquiry.
biopsychology because it denotes a
biological approach to the study of Bio-psychologists draw together
psychology rather than a psychological knowledge from the other neuroscientific
approach to the study of biology. disciplines and apply it to the study of
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior. The following are a few of the
behavior, the scientific study of all overt disciplines of neuroscience that are
activities of the organism as well as all the particularly relevant to biopsychology:
internal processes that are presumed to
underlie them (e.g., learning, memory, Neuroanatomical: The study of the
motivation, perception, and emotion). structure of the nervous system.
Neurochemistry: The study of the
The study of the biology of behavior has a chemical bases of neural activity.
long history, but biopsychology did not Neuroendocrinology: The study of
develop into a major neuroscientific interactions between the nervous
discipline until the 20th century. Although system and the endocrine system.
it is not possible to specify the exact date Neuropathology: The study of nervous
of biopsychology’s birth, the publication system disorders.
of The Organization of Behavior in 1949 Neuropharmacology: The study of the
by D. O. Hebb played a key role in its effects of drugs on neural activity.
emergence, Hebb developed the first Neurophysiology: The study of the
comprehensive theory of how complex functions and activities of the nervous
psychological phenomena, such as system.
DIVISIONS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY
Biopsychology has six major divisions:
Physiological Psychology
Psychopharmacology
Neuropsychology
Psychophysiology
Cognitive Neuroscience
Comparative Psychology
For simplicity, they are presented as distinct approaches; but there is much overlap
among them, and many bio psychologists regularly follow more than one approach.
subjects of physiological psychology

PHYSIOLOGICAL research are almost always laboratory
PSYCHOLOGY: animals, because the focus on direct
brain manipulation and controlled
It is the division of biopsychology that experiments precludes the use of
studies the neural mechanisms of human subjects in most instances.
behavior through the direct There is also a tradition of pure
manipulation of the brain in controlled research in physiological psychology;
experiments surgical and electrical the emphasis is usually on research that
methods of brain manipulation. The contributes to the development of
theories of the neural control of layer of the cerebral hemispheres, the

behavior rather than on research that is cerebral cortex is most likely to be
of immediate practical benefit. damaged by accident or surgery; this is
one reason why neuropsychology has
PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY: focused on this important part of the
human brain. Neuropsychology is the
Psychopharmacology is similar to most applied of the biopsychological
physiological psychology, except that subdisciplines.
it focuses on the manipulation of
neural activity and behavior with PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY:
drugs. In fact, many of the early
psychopharmacologists were simply Psychophysiology is the division of
physiological psychologists who biopsychology that studies the relation
moved into drug research, and many of between physiological activity and
today’s bio psychologists identify psychological processes in human
closely with both approaches. subjects. Because the subjects of
However, the study of the effects of psychophysiological research are
drugs on the brain and behavior has human, psychophysiological recording
become so specialized that procedures are typically noninvasive;
psychopharmacology is regarded as a that is, the physiological activity is
separate discipline. A substantial recorded from the surface of the body.
portion of psychopharmacological The usual measure of brain activity is
research is applied. Although drugs are the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG).
sometimes used by psych Other common psychophysiological
pharmacologists to study the basic measures are muscle tension, eye
principles of brain behavior movement, and several indicators of
interaction, the purpose of many autonomic nervous system activity
psychopharmacological experiments is (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, pupil
to develop therapeutic drugs or to dilation, and electrical conductance of
reduce drug abuse. the skin). The autonomic nervous
Psychopharmacologists study the system (ANS) is the division of the
effects of drugs on laboratory species nervous system that regulates the
and on humans, if the ethics of the body’s inner environment. Most
situation permits it. psychophysiological research focuses
on understanding the physiology of
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY: psychological processes, such as
attention, emotion, and information
Neuropsychology is the study of the processing, but there have also been a
psychological effects of brain damage numberofinterestingclinical
in human patients. Obviously, human applications of the
subjects cannot ethically be exposed to psychophysiological method. For
experimental treatments that endanger example, psychophysiological
normal brain function. Consequently, experiments have indicated that
neuropsychology deals almost schizophrenics have difficulty
exclusively with case studies and quasi smoothly tracking a moving object
experimental studies of patients with such as a pendulum (e.g., Chen et al.,
brain damage resulting from disease, 2008).
accident, or neurosurgery. The outer
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: genetics (the study of genetic
influences on behavior.
Cognitive neuroscience is the youngest
division of biopsychology, but it is
currently among the most active and SENSORY SYSTEMS:
exciting. Cognitive neuroscientists GENERAL AND SPECIFIC
study the neural bases of cognition, a SENSATIONS, RECEPTORS
term that generally refers to higher AND PROCESSES
intellectual processes such as thought,
Sensory receptors are specialized cells,
memory, attention, and complex
usually neurons, which detect and respond
perceptual processes. Because of its
to physical and chemical stimuli. Most are
focus on cognition, most cognitive
exquisitely sensitive to highly specific
neuroscience research involves human
inputs, or sensory modalities, such as
subjects; and because of its focus on
movement, odor chemicals or visible light
human subjects, its methods tend to be
photons. Detection of the physical stimulus
noninvasive, rather than involving
commonly occurs in a morphologically
penetration or direct manipulation of
and physiologically specialized cell region,
the brain. The major method of
while information about the stimulus is
cognitive neuroscience is functional
transmitted by action potentials along a
brain imaging (recording images of the
sensory axon to the animal's central
activity of the living human brain)
nervous system.
while a subject is engaged in a
particular cognitive activity.
Thus, a major role of sensory receptors is
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY: to help us learn about the environment
around us, or about the state of our
Comparative psychology is the internal environment. Stimuli from
division of biopsychology that deals varying sources, and of different types, are
generally with the biology of behavior, received and changed into the
rather than specifically with the neural electrochemical signals of the nervous
mechanisms of behavior. Comparative system. This occurs when a stimulus
psychologists compare the behavior of changes the cell membrane potential of a
different species in order to understand sensory neuron. The stimulus causes the
the evolution, genetics, and sensory cell to produce an action potential
adaptiveness of behavior. Some that is relayed into the central nervous
comparative psychologists study system (CNS), where it is integrated with
behavior in the laboratory; others other sensory information—or sometimes
engage in ethological research i.e. the higher cognitive functions—to become a
study of animal behavior in its natural conscious perception of that stimulus. The
environment. The two important areas central integration may then lead to a
of biopsychological research that also motor response. Describing sensory
employ comparative analysis are often function with the term sensation or
considered as part of comparative perception is a deliberate distinction.
psychology. One of these is Sensation is the activation of sensory
evolutionary psychology (a subfield receptor cells at the level of the stimulus.
that focuses on understanding behavior Perception is the central processing of
by considering its likely evolutionary sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern.
origins. The other is behavioral Perception is dependent on sensation,
but not all
sensations are perceived. Receptors are STRUCTURAL RECEPTOR TYPES

the cells or structures that detect The cells that interpret information about
sensations. A receptor cell is changed the environment can be either (1) a neuron
directly by a stimulus. A trans membrane that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites
protein receptor is a protein in the cell embedded in tissue that would receive a
membrane that mediates a physiological sensation; (2) a neuron that has an
change in a neuron, most often through the encapsulated ending in which the sensory
opening of ion channels or changes in the nerve endings are encapsulated in
cell signaling processes. Trans membrane connective tissue that enhances their
receptors are activated by chemicals called sensitivity; or (3) a specialized receptor
ligands. For example, a molecule in food cell, which has distinct structural
can serve as a ligand for taste receptors. components that interpret a specific type of
Other trans membrane proteins, which are stimulus. The pain and temperature
not accurately called receptors, are receptors in the dermis of the skin are
sensitive to mechanical or thermal examples of neurons that have free nerve
changes. Physical changes in these endings. Also located in the dermis of the
proteins increase ion flow across the skin are lamellate corpuscles, neurons with
membrane, and can generate an action encapsulated nerve endings that respond to
potential or a graded potential in the pressure and touch. The cells in the retina
sensory neurons. that respond to light stimuli are an
example of a specialized receptor, a
SENSORY RECEPTORS photoreceptor.
Stimuli in the environment activate Another way that receptors can be
specialized receptor cells in the peripheral classified is based on their location relative
nervous system. Different types of stimuli to the stimuli. An exteroceptor is a
are sensed by different types of receptor receptor that is located near a stimulus in
cells. Receptor cells can be classified into the external environment, such as the
types on the basis of three different somatosensory receptors that are located in
criteria: cell type, position, and function. the skin. An interceptor is one that
Receptors can be classified structurally on interprets stimuli from internal organs and
the basis of cell type and their position in tissues, such as the receptors that sense the
relation to stimuli they sense. They can increase in blood pressure in the aorta or
also be classified functionally on the basis carotid sinus. Finally, a proprioceptor is a
of the transduction of stimuli, or how the receptor located near a moving part of the
mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical body, such as a muscle, that interprets the
changed the cell membrane potential. positions of the tissues as they move.
FUNCTIONAL RECEPTOR TYPES nociceptor. Physical stimuli, such as
pressure and vibration, as well as the
A third classification of receptors is by sensation of sound and body position
how the receptor transduces stimuli into (balance), are interpreted through a
membrane potential changes. Stimuli are mechanoreceptor. Another physical
of three general types. Some stimuli are stimulus that has its own type of receptor
ions and macromolecules that affect is temperature, which is sensed through a
transmembrane receptor proteins when thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to
these chemicals diffuse across the cell temperatures above (heat) or below (cold)
membrane. Some stimuli are physical normal body temperature.
variations in the environment that affect
receptor cell membrane potentials. Other SENSORY MODALITIES
stimuli include the electromagnetic
radiation from visible light. For humans, Ask anyone what the senses are, and they
the only electromagnetic energy that is are likely to list the five major senses—
perceived by our eyes is visible light. taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight.
Some other organisms have receptors that However, these are not all of the senses.
humans lack, such as the heat sensors of The most obvious omission from this list is
snakes, the ultraviolet light sensors of balance. Also, what is referred to simply as
bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory touch can be further subdivided into
birds. pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-
follicle position, on the basis of the type of
Receptor cells can be further categorized mechanoreceptors that perceive these
on the basis of the type of stimuli they touch sensations. Other overlooked senses
transduce. Chemical stimuli can be include temperature perception by
interpreted by a chemoreceptor that thermoreceptors and pain perception by
interprets chemical stimuli, such as an nociceptors. Within the realm of
object’s taste or smell. Osmoreceptors physiology, senses can be classified as either
respond to solute concentrations of body general or specific.
fluids. Additionally, pain is primarily a
chemical sense that interprets the presence A GENERAL SENSE is one that is
of chemicals from tissue damage, or distributed throughout the body and has
similar intense stimuli, through a
receptor cells within the structures of other modality represents the sensation of a
organs. Mechanoreceptors in the skin, specific type of stimulus. For example, the
muscles, or the walls of blood vessels are general sense of touch, which is known as
examples of this type. General senses often somatosensation, can be separated into
contribute to the sense of touch, as light pressure, deep pressure, vibration,
described above, or to proprioception itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement.
(body movement and detect changes that
occur in muscles, tendons, ligaments and (EXTRA FOR REFERENCE –
joint tissues) and kinesthesia (body IMPORTANT FOR NET)
movement), or to a visceral sense, which AUDITION (HEARING)
is most important to autonomic functions
(i.e. detect changes that occur in internal Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of
organs). sound waves into a neural signal that is
made possible by the structures of the ear
A SPECIAL SENSE is one that has a (Figure 4). The large, fleshy structure on
the lateral aspect of the head is known as
specific organ devoted to it, namely the
eye, inner ear, tongue, or nose. The senses the auricle. Some sources will also refer to
this structure as the pinna, though that term
of taste and smell (detected by
chemoreceptors), hearing and equilibrium is more appropriate for a structure that can
be moved, such as the external ear of a cat.
(detected by mechanoreceptors), and vision
(detected by photoreceptors) are the The C-shaped curves of the auricle direct
sound waves toward the auditory canal.
(detected by photoreceptors) are the five
special senses. They require specialized The canal enters the skull through the
external auditory meatus of the temporal
sensory receptors within large, complex
sensory organs in the head region. bone. At the end of the auditory canal is
the tympanic membrane, or ear drum,
which vibrates after it is struck by sound
Each of the senses is referred to as a
waves. The auricle, ear canal, and
sensory modality. Modality refers to the
tympanic membrane are often referred to
way that information is encoded, which is
as the external ear. The middle ear consists
similar to the idea of transduction. The
of a space spanned by three small bones
main sensory modalities can be described
called the ossicles. The three ossicles are
on the basis of how each is transduced.
the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are
The chemical senses are taste and smell.
Latin names that roughly translate to
The general sense that is usually referred
hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The malleus is
to as touch includes chemical sensation in
attached to the tympanic membrane and
the form of nociception, or pain. Pressure,
articulates with the incus. The incus, in
vibration, muscle stretch, and the
turn, articulates with the stapes. The stapes
movement of hair by an external stimulus,
is then attached to the inner ear, where the
are all sensed by mechanoreceptors.
sound waves will be transduced into a
Hearing and balance are also sensed by
neural signal. The middle ear is connected
mechanoreceptors. Finally, vision involves
to the pharynx through the Eustachian
the activation of photoreceptors.
tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure
across the tympanic membrane. The tube
Listing all the different sensory modalities, is normally closed but will pop open when
which can number as many as 17, involves the muscles of the pharynx contract during
separating the five major senses into more swallowing or yawning.
specific categories, or submodalities, of
the larger sense. An individual sensory
The inner ear is often described as a bony scala vestibule extends from the oval
labyrinth, as it is composed of a series of window, travelling above the cochlear
canals embedded within the temporal duct, which is the central cavity of the
bone. It has two separate regions, the cochlea that contains the sound-
cochlea and the vestibule, which are transducing neurons.
responsible for hearing and balance,
respectively. The neural signals from these EQUILIBRIUM (BALANCE)
two regions are relayed to the brain stem
through separate fiber bundles. However, Along with audition, the inner ear is
these two distinct bundles travel together responsible for encoding information about
from the inner ear to the brain stem as the equilibrium, the sense of balance. A
vestibulocochlear nerve. Sound is similar mechanoreceptor—a hair cell with
transduced into neural signals within the stereocilia—senses head position, head
cochlear region of the inner ear, which movement, and whether our bodies are in
contains the sensory neurons of the spiral motion. These cells are located within the
ganglia. These ganglia are located within vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is
the spiral-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas
The cochlea is attached to the stapes head movement is sensed by the
through the oval window. semicircular canals. The neural signals
generated in the vestibular ganglion are
The oval window is located at the transmitted through the vestibulocochlear
beginning of a fluid-filled tube within the nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum.
cochlea called the scala vestibule. The
NEURONS: STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, TYPES, NEURAL IMPULSE,

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION. NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS system (brain and the spinal cord), and
OF NEURONS bring motor information from the central
nervous system to the motor organs
NEURONS (muscles and the glands).
The neuron or nerve cell is the BASIC STRUCTURE

information-processing and information-
transmitting element of the nervous Nearly 12 billion neurons are found in the
system. It is the basic unit of our nervous human nervous system. They are of many
system and are specialized cells, which types and vary in shapes, size, chemical
possess the unique property of converting composition, and function. Most neurons
various forms of stimuli into electrical have, in one form or another, the following
impulses. They are also specialized for four structures or regions:
reception, conduction and transmission of
information in the form of electrochemical Cell body (Soma)
signals. They receive information from Dendrites
sense organs or from other adjacent Axons
neurons, carry them to the central nervous Terminal buttons.
SOMA: The soma (cell body) contains the actively engaged during the cell
nucleus and much of the machinery that reproduction and protein synthesis. Its
provides for the life processes of the cell. shape varies considerably in different
The genetic material of the neuron is kinds of neurons.
stored inside the nucleus and it becomes
DENDRITES: Dendron is the Greek word for tree, and the dendrites of the neuron look very
much like tress. Dendrites are branch-like specialized structures emanating from the soma.
They are the receiving ends of a neuron. which become active when a signal arrives
Their function is to receive the incoming in electrochemical or biochemical form.
neural impulses from adjacent neurons or The received signals are passed on to soma
directly from the sense organs. On and then to axon so that the information is
dendrites are found specialized receptors, relayed to another neuron.
AXON: The axon is a long, slender tube, TERMINAL BUTTONS: The bud at the
often covered by myelin sheath, which is a end of a branch of an axon, forms synapses
fatty covering interrupted at the nodes of with another neuron, sends information to
ranvier. It carries information from the that neuron. Terminal buttons have a very
cell body to the terminal buttons. The special function: when an action potential
transferred excitation is focused by the traveling down the axon reaches them;
axon hillock on the axon and carried down they secrete a chemical called a
the axon to its terminal arborization at the neurotransmitter. This chemical either
next set of synapses. The basic message it excites or inhibits the receiving cell and
carries is called an action potential. When thus helps to determine whether an action
it reaches a point where the axon branches, potential occurs in its axon. An individual
it splits but does not diminish in size. Each neuron receives information from the
branch receives a full-strength action terminal buttons of axons of other neurons,
potential. and the terminal buttons form synapses
with other neurons.
.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
The membrane defines the boundary of the membrane are a variety of protein molecules
cell. It consists of a double layer of lipid that have special
(fatlike) molecules. Embedded in the
functions. Some proteins detect permitting some substances to enter but

substances outside the cell (such as barring others and some proteins act as
hormones) and pass information to the transporters, actively carrying certain
interior of the cell. Other proteins molecules into or out of the cell.
control access to the interior of the cell,
The cell is filled with cytoplasm, a SUPPORTING CELLS
jellylike substance that contains small Neurons constitute only about half the
specialized structures such as volume of the CNS. The rest consists of a
mitochondria, which break down variety of supporting cells. Neurons have a
nutrients such as glucose and provide the very high rate of metabolism but they have
cell with energy to perform its functions. no means of storing nutrients, they must
Mitochondria produce a chemical called constantly be supplied with nutrients and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can oxygen or they will quickly die. Thus,
be used throughout the cell as an energy supporting cells support and protect
source. neurons, which is very important to our
Mitochondria contain their own genetic existence.
information and multiply independently of GLIA or GLIAL CELLS
the cells in which they live. We inherit our The most important supporting cells of the
mitochondria from our mothers. The central nervous system are the neuroglia,
nucleus is present deep inside the cell and or “nerve glue”.
contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes
consist of long strands of deoxyribonucleic Glial cells surround neurons and hold
acid (DNA). The chromosomes contain the them in place, controlling their supply
recipes for making proteins. of nutrients and some of the chemicals
they need to exchange messages with
Proteins are important in cell functions. other neurons.
The cytoskeleton gives the neuron its
They insulate neurons from one
shape. It is made up of various kinds of
another so that neural messages do not
protein strands, linked to each other and
forming a cohesive mass. Besides get scrambled.
providing structure, proteins also serve as They even act as housekeepers,
enzymes, causing particular molecules to destroying and removing the carcasses
join together or split apart. Proteins are of neurons that are killed by disease or
also involved in transporting substances injury.
within the cell. For e.g., axoplasmic There are three most important types of
transport, is an active process that propels glial cells:
substances from one end of the axon to the
other. This transport is accomplished by 1. ASTROCYTE (or astroglia):
long protein strands called microtubules. Astrocyte means “star-shaped cell”.
Microtubules serve as railroad tracks,
guiding the progress of the substances It plays the following functions:
being transported. Movement from the Astrocytes provide physical support to
soma to the terminal buttons is called neurons. They serve as the matrix that
anterograde axoplasmic transport holds neurons in place. These cells also
(Antero- means “toward the front”). surround and isolate synapses, limiting
Retrograde axoplasmic transport carries the dispersion of neurotransmitters that
substances from the terminal buttons back are released by the terminal buttons.

to the soma. (Retro- means “toward the PHAGOCYTOSIS (PHAGEIN, “TO
back”). Energy for both forms of transport EAT”; KUTOS, “CELL”): When
is supplied by ATP, produced by the neurons die, certain kinds of astrocytes
mitochondria. take up the task of cleaning away the
debris. When these astrocytes contact a
piece of debris from a dead neuron,
they push themselves against it, finally small portion of uncoated axon between
engulfing and digesting it. This the segments. This bare portion of axon
process is called phagocytosis. If there is called a node of Ranvier, after its
is a considerable amount of injured discoverer. During the development of
tissue to be cleaned up, astrocytes will the CNS, oligodendrocytes form
divide and produce enough new cells processes shaped something like canoe
to do the task. Once the dead tissue is paddles. Each of these paddle-shaped
broken down, a framework of processes then wraps itself many times
astrocytes will be left to fill in the around a segment of an axon and thus,
vacant area, and a specialized kind of produces layers of myelin. Each paddle
astrocyte will form scar tissue, thus becomes a segment of an axon’s
walling off the area. myelin sheath.
They help to control the chemical
composition of the fluid surrounding MICROGLIA: They are the smallest
 neurons by actively taking up or of the glial cells. Like some types of
releasing substances whose astrocytes, they act as phagocytes,
concentrations must be kept within engulfing and breaking down dead and
critical levels. dying neurons. They importantly serve

They produce some chemicals that as one of the representatives of the
 neurons need to fulfill their functions. immune system in the brain, protecting
Finally, astrocytes are involved in the brain from invading
providing nourishment to neurons. microorganisms. They are primarily
Recent evidence suggests that responsible for the inflammatory
astrocytes receive nutrients from the reaction in response to brain damage.
capillaries, store them, and release
them to neurons when needed
SCHWANN CELLS
(Tsacopoulos and Magistretti, 1996;
Magistretti et al., 1999). Most axons in the PNS are myelinated. In
the peripheral nervous system, the
Schwann cells perform the same functions
as the oligodendrocytes in the CNS of
2. OLIGODENDROCYTES: The
supporting axons and producing myelin.
principal function of oligodendrocytes The myelin sheath occurs in segments, as
is to provide support to axons and to it does in the CNS; each segment consists
produce the myelin sheath, which of a single Schwann cell, wrapped many
insulates most axons from one another. times around the axon. In the PNS, a
Myelin, 80 percent lipid and 20 percent Schwann cell provides myelin for only one
protein, is produced by the axon, and the entire Schwann cell and not
oligodendrocytes in the form of a tube merely a part of it surrounds the axon.
surrounding the axon. This tube does
not form a continuous sheath rather it
consists of a series of segment with a
(Extra for References) FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD–BRAIN

THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER BARRIER
Blood-brain barrier is a semipermeable Transmission of messages from place to
barrier between the blood and the brain place in the brain depends on a delicate
produced by the cells in the walls of the balance between substances within
brain’s capillaries. neurons and in the extracellular fluid that
surrounds them. If the composition of the
Over one hundred years ago, Paul Ehrlich extracellular fluid is changed even slightly,
discovered that if a blue dye is injected the transmission of these messages will be
into an animal’s bloodstream, all tissues disrupted, which means that brain
except the brain and spinal will be tainted functions will be disrupted. The presence
blue. However, if the same dye is injected of the blood-brain barrier makes it easier
into the fluid-filled ventricles of the brain, to regulate the composition of this fluid.
the blue color will spread throughout the In addition, many of the foods that we eat
CNS (Bradbury, 1979). This experiment contain chemicals that would interfere
demonstrates that a barrier exists between with the transmission of information
the blood and the fluid that surrounds the between neurons. The blood-brain barrier
cells of the brain- the blood-brain barrier. prevents these chemicals from reaching the
Some substances can cross the blood-brain brain.
barrier; others cannot. Thus, it is In several places the barrier is relatively
selectively permeable. In most of the body, permeable, allowing substances that are
the cells that line the capillaries do not fit excluded elsewhere to cross freely. For
together absolutely tightly. Small gaps are example, the area postrema is a part of
found between them that permit the free the brain that controls vomiting. The
exchange of most substances between the blood-brain barrier is much weaker there,
blood plasma and the fluid outside the permitting neurons in this region to detect
capillaries that surrounds the cells of the the presence of toxic substances in the
body. In the central nervous system, the blood. A poison that enters the circulatory
capillaries lack these gaps; therefore, many system from the stomach can thus
substances cannot leave the blood. Thus, stimulate this area to initiate vomiting. If
the walls of the capillaries in the brain the organism is lucky, the poison can be
constitute the blood-brain barrier. Other expelled from the stomach before it causes
substances must be actively transported too much damage.
through the capillary walls by special
proteins. For example, glucose transporters
bring the brain its fuel, and other
transporters rid the brain of toxic waste
products. Neurons have four principal parts:
. soma (cell body), dendrites, axon, and
SUMMARY terminal buttons. They communicate
by means of synapses, located at the
Neurons are the most important cells of
 ends of the axons.
the nervous system. The central
nervous system (CNS) includes the When an action potential travels down
brain and spinal cord; the peripheral an axon, the terminal buttons secrete a
nervous system (PNS) includes nerves chemical that has either an excitatory
and some sensory organs. or an inhibitory effect on the neuron
with which it communicates. The
interactions of circuits of neurons, CNS, astrocytes provide the primary

with their excitatory and inhibitory support and also remove debris and
synapses, are responsible for all of our form scar tissue in the event of tissue
perceptions, memories, thoughts, and damage. Oligodendrocytes form
behavior. myelin, the substance that insulates
Neurons contain a quantity of clear axons, and also support unmyelinated
cytoplasm, enclosed in a membrane. axons. Microglia are phagocytes that
Embedded in the membrane are protein serve as the representatives of the
molecules that have special functions, immune system.
such as the transport of particular Within the PNS, support and myelin
 substances into and out of the cell. The  are provided by the Schwann cells.
nucleus contains the genetic In most organs, molecules freely move
information- the recipes for the all the between the blood within the
proteins that the body can make. capillaries that serve them and the
Microtubules and other protein extracellular fluid that bathes their
filaments compose the cytoskeleton cells. The molecules pass through gaps
and help to transport chemicals from between the cells that line the
place to place. Mitochondria serve as capillaries. The walls of the capillaries
the location for most of the chemical of the CNS lack these gaps and thus
reactions through which the cell form a barrier between the blood and
 extracts energy from nutrients. the brain. As a consequence, fewer
Neurons in the central nervous system substances can enter or leave the brain
are supported by glial cells. Within the across the blood-brain barrier.
TYPES, NEURAL IMPULSE, SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
TYPES OF NEURONS - SENSORY NEURONS

Neurons vary in structure, function, and Sensory neurons help you: taste, smell,
genetic makeup. Given the sheer number hear, see, and feel things around you.
of neurons, there are thousands of different
Sensory neurons are triggered by physical
types, much like there are thousands of
and chemical inputs from your
species of living organisms on Earth.
environment. Sound, touch, heat, and light
In terms of function, scientists classify are physical inputs. Smell and taste are
neurons into three broad types: sensory, chemical inputs.
motor, and interneurons.
For example, stepping on hot sand
activates sensory neurons in the soles of
your feet. Those neurons send a message
to your brain, which makes you aware of
the heat.
MOTOR NEURONS INTERNEURONS
Motor neurons play a role in movement, Interneurons are neural intermediaries

including voluntary and involuntary found in your brain and spinal cord.
movements. These neurons allow the brain They’re the most common type of neuron.
and spinal cord to communicate with They pass signals from sensory neurons
muscles, organs, and glands all over the and other interneurons to motor neurons
body. and other interneurons. Often, they form
complex circuits that help you to react to
There are two types of motor neurons:
external stimuli.
lower and upper. Lower motor neurons
carry signals from the spinal cord to the For instance, when you touch something
smooth muscles and the skeletal muscles. hot, sensory neurons in your fingertips
Upper motor neurons carry signals send a signal to interneurons in your spinal
between your brain and spinal cord. cord. Some interneurons pass the signal on
to motor neurons in your hand, which
When you eat, for instance, lower motor
allows you to move your hand away. Other
neurons in your spinal cord send signals to
interneurons send a signal to the pain
the smooth muscles in your esophagus,
center in your brain, and you experience
stomach, and intestines.These muscles
pain.
contract, which allows food to move
through your digestive tract.
NEURAL IMPULSES A neuron affects other neurons by
releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to
The central nervous system (CNS) goes chemical receptors. The effect upon the
through a three-step process when it postsynaptic (receiving) neuron is
functions: sensory input, neural determined not by the presynaptic
processing, and motor output. The sensory (sending) neuron or by the
input stage is when the neurons (or neurotransmitter itself, but by the type of
excitable nerve cells) of the sensory organs receptor that is activated. A
are excited electrically. Neural impulses neurotransmitter can be thought of as a
from sensory receptors are sent to the brain key, and a receptor as a lock: the key
and spinal cord for processing. After the unlocks a certain response in the
brain has processed the information, neural postsynaptic neuron, communicating a
impulses are then conducted from the brain particular signal. However, in order for a
and spinal cord to muscles and glands, presynaptic neuron to release a
which is the resulting motor output. neurotransmitter to the next neuron in the
chain, it must go through a series of
changes in electric potential from neuron
STAGES OF NEURAL IMPULSES to neuron. In order for a neuron to move
from resting potential to action potential—
” Resting potential” is the name for the a short-term electrical change that allows
electrical state when a neuron is not an electrical signal to be passed from one
actively being signaled. A neuron at neuron to another—the neuron must be
resting potential has a membrane with stimulated by pressure, electricity,
established amounts of sodium (Na+) and chemicals, or another form of stimuli. The
potassium (K+) ions on either side, leaving level of stimulation that a neuron must
the inside of the neuron negatively charged receive to reach action potential is known
relative to the outside. as the threshold of excitation, and until it
reaches that threshold, nothing will
The action potential is a rapid change in happen. Different neurons are sensitive to
polarity that moves along the nerve fiber different stimuli, although most can
register pain.
The action potential has several stages.

2. REPOLARIZATION: Once the
1. DEPOLARIZATION: A stimulus electric gradient has reached the
starts the depolarization of the threshold of excitement, the
membrane. Depolarization, also “downswing” of repolarization begins.
referred to as the “upswing,” is caused The channels that let the positive
when positively charged sodium ions sodium ion channels through close up,
rush into a nerve cell. As these positive while channels that allow positive
ions rush in, the membrane of the potassium ions open, resulting in the
stimulated cell reverses its polarity so release of positively charged potassium
that the outside of the membrane is ions from the neuron. This expulsion
negative relative to the inside. acts to restore the localized negative
membrane potential of the cell,
bringing it back to its normal voltage.
3. REFRACTORY PHASE: The potassium pump returns sodium ions to

refractory phase takes place over a the outside and potassium ions to the
short period of time after the inside. During the refractory phase this
depolarization stage. Shortly after the particular area of the nerve cell
sodium gates open, they close and go membrane cannot be depolarized.
into an inactive conformation. The Therefore, the neuron cannot reach
sodium gates cannot be opened again action potential during this “rest
until the membrane is repolarized to its period.”
normal resting potential. The sodium-
This process of depolarization, conditions. In unmyelinated axons

repolarization, and recovery moves (axons that are not covered by a myelin
along a nerve fiber from neuron to sheath), this happens in a continuous
neuron like a very fast wave. While an fashion because there are voltage-gated
action potential is in progress, another channels throughout the membrane. In
cannot be generated under the same myelinated axons (axons
covered by a myelin sheath), this process difference, as ions diffusing within the
is described as saltatory because voltage- cell have less resistance in a wider space.
gated channels are only found at the Damage to the myelin sheath from
nodes of Ranvier, and the electrical disease can cause severe impairment of
events seem to “jump” from one node to nerve-cell function. In addition, some
the next. Saltatory conduction is faster poisons and drugs interfere with nerve
than continuous conduction. The impulses by blocking sodium channels in
diameter of the axon also makes a nerves.
ALL-OR-NONE SIGNALS REUPTAKE
The amplitude of an action potential is Reuptake refers to the reabsorption of a

independent of the amount of current that neurotransmitter by a presynaptic
produced it. In other words, larger currents (sending) neuron after it has performed its
do not create larger action potentials. function of transmitting a neural impulse.
Therefore, action potentials are said to be Reuptake is necessary for normal synaptic
all-or-none signals, since either they occur physiology because it allows for the
fully or they do not occur at all. The recycling of neurotransmitters and
frequency of action potentials is correlated regulates the neurotransmitter level in the
with the intensity of a stimulus. This is in synapse, thereby controlling how long a
contrast to receptor potentials, whose signal resulting from neurotransmitter
amplitudes are dependent on the intensity release lasts.
of a stimulus.
SYNAPSES
Synapse is the junction where neurons at the synapse—chemical or electrical.
trade information. It is not a physical During a chemical reaction, a chemical
component of a cell but rather a name for called a neurotransmitter is released from
the gap between two cells: the presynaptic one cell into another. In an electrical
cell (giving the signal) and the reaction, the electrical charge of one cell is
postsynaptic cell (receiving the signal).
There are two types of possible reactions influenced by the charge an adjacent cell.
All synapses have a few common (Na+) suddenly rush through open
characteristics: sodium gates into a nerve cell. If the
membrane potential reaches -55 mV, it
Presynaptic cell: a specialized area has reached the threshold of excitation.
within the axon of the giving cell Additional sodium rushes in, and the
that transmits information to the membrane of the stimulated cell
 dendrite of the receiving cell. actually reverses its polarity so that the
 Synaptic cleft: the small space at outside of the membrane is negative
the synapse that receives relative to the inside. The change in
 neurotransmitters. voltage stimulates the opening of
G-protein coupled receptors: receptors additional sodium channels (called a
that sense molecules outside the voltage-gated ion channel), providing
cell and thereby activate signals what is known as a positive feedback
 within it. loop. Eventually, the cell potential
Ligand-gated ion channels: receptors reaches +40 mV, or the action
that are opened or closed in potential.
response to the binding of a 3. REPOLARIZATION. The
 chemical messenger. “downswing” of repolarization is
Postsynaptic cell: a specialized area caused by the closing of sodium ion
within the dendrite of the receiving channels and the opening of potassium
cell that contains receptors ion channels, resulting in the release of
designed to process positively charged potassium ions (K+)
neurotransmitters. from the nerve cell. This expulsion acts
to restore the localized negative
THE ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE membrane potential of the cell.
4. REFRACTORY PHASE. The
The stages of an electrical reaction at a refractory phase is a short period of
synapse are as follows: time after the repolarization stage.
Shortly after the sodium gates open,
1. RESTING POTENTIAL. The they close and go into an inactive
membrane of a neuron is normally at conformation where the cell’s
rest with established concentrations of membrane potential is actually even
sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions lower than its baseline -70 mV. The
(K+) on either side. The membrane sodium gates cannot be opened again
potential (or, voltage across the until the membrane has completely
membrane) at this state is -70 mV, with repolarized to its normal resting
the inside being negative relative to the potential, -70 mV. The sodium-
outside. potassium pump returns sodium ions to
DEPOLARIZATION. the outside and potassium ions to the
A stimulus begins the depolarization of inside. During the refractory phase this
the membrane. Depolarization, also particular area of the nerve cell
referred to as the “upswing,” occurs membrane cannot be depolarized; the
when positively charged sodium ions cell cannot be excited.
THE CHEMICAL SYNAPSE

from an electrical reaction. Chemical
The process of a chemical reaction at the synapses are much more complex than
synapse has some important differences electrical synapses, which makes them
slower, but also allows them to generate
different results. Like electrical reactions, membrane, but chemical reactions also
chemical reactions involve electrical require chemical messengers, such as
modifications at the postsynaptic neurotransmitters, to operate.
A basic chemical reaction at the synapse neurotransmitter contents into the

undergoes a few additional steps: synaptic cleft, the narrow space
between the membranes of the pre- and
The action potential (which occurs as postsynaptic cells.
described above) travels along the The neurotransmitter diffuses within
membrane of the presynaptic cell until the cleft. Some of it escapes, but the
it reaches the synapse. The electrical rest of it binds to chemical receptor
depolarization of the membrane at the molecules located on the membrane of
synapse causes channels to open that the postsynaptic cell.
are selectively permeable, meaning The binding of neurotransmitter causes
they specifically only allow the entry the receptor molecule to be activated in
of positive sodium ions (Na+). some way. Several types of activation
The ions flow through the presynaptic are possible, depending on what kind
membrane, rapidly increasing their of neurotransmitter was released. In
concentration in the interior. any case, this is the key step by which
The high concentration activates a set of the synaptic process affects the
ion-sensitive proteins attached to behavior of the postsynaptic cell.
vesicles, which are small membrane Due to thermal shaking,
compartments that contain a neurotransmitter molecules eventually
neurotransmitter chemical. break loose from the receptors and drift
These proteins change shape, causing the away.
membranes of some “docked” vesicles The neurotransmitter is either
to fuse with the membrane of the reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell or
presynaptic cell. This opens the repackaged for future release, or else it
vesicles, which releases their is broken down metabolically.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN The response is always the same sign
ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL as the source. For example,
SYNAPSES depolarization of the presynaptic
membrane will always induce a
Electrical synapses are faster than depolarization in the postsynaptic
chemical synapses because the membrane, and vice versa for
receptors do not need to recognize  hyperpolarization.
chemical messengers. The synaptic The response in the postsynaptic
delay for a chemical synapse is neuron is generally smaller in
typically about 2 milliseconds, while amplitude than the source. The amount
the synaptic delay for an electrical of attenuation of the signal is due to the

synapse may be about 0.2 membrane resistance of the presynaptic
milliseconds.  and postsynaptic neurons.

Because electrical synapses do not Long-term changes can be seen in
involve neurotransmitters, electrical electrical synapses. For example,
neurotransmission is less modifiable changes in electrical synapses in the
than chemical neurotransmission. retina are seen during light and dark
adaptations of the retina.
SYNAPTICS TRANSMISSION When the electrical impulse (action
Synaptic transmission is the process by potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles,
which one neuron communicates with they release their contents of
another. Information is passed down the neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then
axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse carry the signal across the synaptic gap.
known as action potential. Once the action They bind to receptor sites on the post-
potential reaches the end of the axon it synaptic cell, thereby completing the
needs to be transferred to another neuron process of synaptic transmission.
or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic Chemical synapses enable the transmission
gap between the presynaptic neuron and of information (action potentials) from one
post-synaptic neuron. At the end of the neuron to another. These synapses require
neuron (in the axon terminal) are the chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
synaptic vesicles, which contain chemical
The process of synaptic transmission
messengers, known as neurotransmitters.
involves four steps:
I. SYNTHESIS AND STORAGE Unlike the small-molecule

Neurotransmitters are divided into two neurotransmitters, the synthesis of
categories: (1) small-molecule neuropeptides requires more effort and is
neurotransmitters and (2) neuropeptides. likened to that of the synthesis of an
Small-molecule neurotransmitters are ordinary secretory protein. The first step in
processed within the axon terminal. An neuropeptide synthesis is DNA
example of this is acetylcholine (Ach), transcription, followed by messenger RNA
which is particularly known as an or mRNA construction and travel, and then
excitatory neurotransmitter. On the other translation. After the synthesis of
hand, neuropeptides are larger than small- neurotransmitters, they are stored in
molecule neurotransmitters and act as vesicles located at the axon terminal.
messengers. Because of their large size, While in storage, they await the arrival of
they are made inside the neuronal cell an action potential, which is the triggering
body. factor for their release.
II. NEUROTRANSMITTER zones, places found at the pre-synaptic
RELEASE membrane. Once an action potential
The terminal of a neuron serves as the arrives at the presynaptic neuron terminal,
storage of vesicles containing there would be a considerable influx of
neurotransmitter when at rest. These calcium ions, causing the neurotransmitter
vesicles are strategically located in active to be released from the vesicles.
III. NEUROTRANSMITTER neurotransmitters must be recognized by

POSTSYNAPTIC RECEPTORS postsynaptic receptors first. As a result,
Neurotransmitters released into the membrane ionic channels open, and
synaptic cleft go into an interaction at the another action potential is initiated. In turn,
postsynaptic cell together with receptor this leads to depolarization.
proteins. In order to interact, these
IV. INACTIVATION OF transfer these neurotransmitters back to the

NEUROTRANSMITTERS pre-synaptic cells. Then, they undergo re-
Some neurotransmitters are sent back to packaging and re-storage in a vesicle until
the synaptic cleft once they have been it is needed once again for chemical
identified by the appropriate post-synaptic signaling. Other neurotransmitters simply
receptors. Special transporter proteins diffuse away
.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS postsynaptic cell membrane open up to
receive neurotransmitters from vesicles in
the presynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
transmit signals from a neuron across a
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
synapse to a target cell. Neurotransmitters
hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell
are chemicals that transmit signals from a
neuron to a target cell across a synapse. (that is, decreasing the voltage gradient of
When called upon to deliver messages, the cell, thus bringing it further away from
they are released from their synaptic an action potential), while excitatory
vesicles on the presynaptic (giving) side of neurotransmitters cause depolarization
the synapse, diffuse across the synaptic (bringing it closer to an action potential).
cleft, and bind to receptors in the Neurotransmitters match up with receptors
membrane on the postsynaptic (receiving) like a key in a lock. A neurotransmitter
side. binds to its receptor and will not bind to
receptors for other neurotransmitters,
An action potential is necessary for making the binding a specific chemical
neurotransmitters to be released, which event.
means that neurons must reach a certain
threshold of electric stimulation in order to There are several systems of
complete the reaction. A neuron has a neurotransmitters found at various
negative charge inside the cell membrane synapses in the nervous system. The
relative to the outside of the cell following groups refer to the specific
membrane; when stimulation occurs and chemicals, and within the groups are
the neuron reaches the threshold of specific systems, some of which block
excitement this polarity is reversed. This other chemicals from entering the cell and
allows the signal to pass through the some of which permit the entrance of
neuron. When the chemical message chemicals that were blocked before.
reaches the axon terminal, channels in the
CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM acetylcholine receptor, which is known as

the muscarinic receptor. Both of these
The cholinergic system is a receptors are named for chemicals that
neurotransmitter system of its own, and is interact with the receptor in addition to the
based on the neurotransmitter neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotine,
acetylcholine (ACh). This system is found the chemical in tobacco, binds to the
in the autonomic nervous system, as well nicotinic receptor and activates it similarly
as distributed throughout the brain. to acetylcholine. Muscarine, a chemical
product of certain mushrooms, binds to the
The cholinergic system has two types of muscarinic receptor. However, they cannot
receptors: the nicotinic receptor and the bind to each other’s’ receptors.
AMINO ACIDS chemical structures. Glutamate is one of

the 20 amino acids used to make proteins.
Another group of neurotransmitters are Each amino acid neurotransmitter is its
amino acids, including glutamate (Glu), own system, namely the glutamatergic,
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid, a GABAergic, and glycinergic systems.
derivative of glutamate), and glycine They each have their own receptors and do
(Gly). These amino acids have an amino not interact with each other. Amino acid
group and a carboxyl group in their neurotransmitters are eliminated from the
synapse by reuptake. A pump in the cell the amino acid from the synaptic cleft so
membrane of the presynaptic element, or that it can be recycled, repackaged in
sometimes a neighboring glial cell, clears vesicles, and released again.
BIOGENIC AMINES
Another class of neurotransmitter is the groups in them, but do not have carboxyl
biogenic amine, a group of groups and are therefore no longer
neurotransmitters made enzymatically classified as amino acids.
from amino acids. They have amino
NEUROPEPTIDES DOPAMINE
A neuropeptide is a neurotransmitter Dopamine is the best-known
molecule made up of chains of amino neurotransmitter of the catecholamine
acids connected by peptide bonds, group. The brain includes several distinct
similar to proteins. However, proteins are dopamine systems, one of which plays a
long molecules while some neuropeptides major role in reward-motivated behavior.
are quite short. Neuropeptides are often Most types of reward increase the level
released at synapses in combination with of dopamine in the brain, and a variety of
another neurotransmitter. addictive drugs increase dopamine
neuronal activity. Other brain dopamine
systems are involved in motor control and
in controlling the release of several other
important hormones.
EFFECT ON THE SYNAPSE effect. Glutamate is considered an
excitatory amino acid because Glu
The effect of a neurotransmitter on the receptors in the adult cause depolarization
postsynaptic element is entirely dependent of the postsynaptic cell. Glycine and
on the receptor protein. If there is no GABA are considered inhibitory amino
receptor protein in the membrane of the acids, again because their receptors cause
postsynaptic element, then the hyperpolarization, making the receiving
neurotransmitter has no effect. The cell less likely to reach an action potential.
depolarizing (more likely to reach an
action potential) or hyperpolarizing (less THE RIGHT DOSE
likely to reach an action potential) effect is
also dependent on the receptor. When Sometimes too little or too much of a
acetylcholine binds to the nicotinic neurotransmitter may affect an organism’s
receptor, the postsynaptic cell is behavior or health. The underlying cause
depolarized. However, when acetylcholine of some neurodegenerative diseases, such
binds to the muscarinic receptor, it might as Parkinson’s, appears to be related to
cause depolarization or hyperpolarization overaccumulation of proteins, which under
of the target cell. normal circumstances would be regulated
by the presence of dopamine. On the other
The amino acid neurotransmitters hand, when an excess of the
(glutamate, glycine, and GABA) are neurotransmitter dopamine blocks
almost exclusively associated with just one glutamate receptors, disorders like
schizophrenia can occur.
(EXTRA FOR REFERENCES)
KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
ACTION POTENTIAL: change in end bulb of a neuron to cause a change in

voltage of a cell membrane in response to the target cell
a stimulus those results in transmission of PRECENTRAL GYRUS OF THE
an electrical signal; unique to neurons and FRONTAL CORTEX: region of the
muscle fibers. cerebral cortex responsible for generating
CEREBRAL CORTEX: outermost layer motor commands, where the upper motor
of gray matter in the brain, where neuron cell body is located
conscious perception takes place. PROPAGATION: movement of an action
GRADED POTENTIAL: change in the potential along the length of an axon
membrane potential that varies in size, THALAMUS: region of the central
depending on the size of the stimulus that nervous system that acts as a relay for
elicits it sensory pathways
LOWER MOTOR NEURON: second THERMORECEPTOR: type of sensory
neuron in the motor command pathway receptor capable of transducing
that is directly connected to the skeletal temperature stimuli into neural action
muscle potentials
NEUROTRANSMITTER: chemical THRESHOLD: membrane voltage at
signal that is released from the synaptic which an action potential is initiated
UPPER MOTOR NEURON: first neuron synapses on the lower motor neuron in
in the motor command pathway with its the spinal cord
cell body in the cerebral cortex that
THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL nervous system is so named because it is

NERVOUS SYSTEMS – STRUCTURE on the periphery—meaning beyond the
AND FUNCTIONS. brain and spinal cord. Depending on
different aspects of the nervous system, the
dividing line between central and
The nervous system controls bodily peripheral is not necessarily universal.
function by gathering sensory input,
integrating that information internally, and
The nervous system is the body’s main
communicating proper motor output.
communication system; it gathers,
The nervous system can be divided into synthesizes, and uses data from the
two major regions: the central and  environment.
peripheral nervous systems. The central The most basic unit of the nervous
nervous system (CNS) is the brain and system is the neuron, which serves
spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous as both a sensor and communicator
system (PNS) is everything else. The brain  of internal and external stimuli.
is contained within the cranial cavity of the The nervous system can be broken
skull, and the spinal cord is contained down into two major parts—the
within the vertebral cavity of the vertebral central nervous system and the
column. It is a bit of an oversimplification  peripheral nervous system.
to say that the CNS is what is inside these The central nervous system, the main
two cavities and the peripheral nervous data center of the body, includes
system is outside of them, but that is one  the brain and spinal cord.
way to start to think about it. In actuality, The peripheral nervous system
there are some elements of the peripheral includes all of the neurons that
nervous system that are within the cranial sense and communicate data to the
or vertebral cavities. The peripheral central nervous system.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ACTIVITY OF THE CNS
(CNS) The nervous system has three main
The central nervous system is made up of functions: gathering sensory information
the brain and spinal cord, which process from external stimuli, synthesizing that
sensory input and provide instructions to information, and responding to those
the body. stimuli. The CNS is mainly devoted to the
The CNS includes the brain and spinal “information synthesizing” function.
cord, which together comprise the body’s During this step in the process, the brain
main control center. Together with the and spinal cord decide on appropriate
peripheral nervous system (PNS), the CNS motor output, which is computed based on
performs fundamental functions that the type of sensory input. The CNS
contribute to an organism’s life and regulates everything from organ function
behavior. to high-level thought to purposeful body
movement. Thus, the CNS is commonly
thought of as the control center of the
body.
STRUCTURE OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
rest of the body. The pons houses the
The CNS is comprised of the brain, brain
control centers for respiration and
stem, and spinal cord.
inhibitory functions. The medulla also
helps regulate respiration, as well as
- BRAIN cardiovascular and digestive functioning.
The brain is found in the cranial cavity and
consists of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It - SPINAL CORD
houses the nerve centers responsible for
coordinating sensory and motor systems in The spinal cord is a tail-like structure
the body. The cerebrum, or the top portion embedded in the vertebral canal of the
for the brain, is the seat of higher-level spine. The adult spinal cord is about 40 cm
thought. It is comprised of two long and weighs approximately 30 g. The
hemispheres, each controlling the opposite spinal cord is attached to the underside of
side of the body. the medulla oblongata, and is organized to
serve four distinct tasks:
The cerebellum is located underneath the
- to convey (mainly sensory)
backside of the cerebrum, and governs
balance and fine motor movements. Its information to the brain;
main function is maintaining coordination to carry information generated in the
throughout the body. brain to peripheral targets like skeletal
(Discussed in detail ahead) muscles;
to control nearby organs via the
autonomic nervous system;
- BRAIN STEM to enable
The brain stem is connected to the sensorimotor
underside of the brain. It consists of the functions to
midbrain, pons, and medulla. The midbrain control
is found in between the hindbrain and the posture and
forebrain. It regulates motor function and other
allows motor and sensory information to
fundamental
pass from the brain to the
movements.
The spinal cord connects the brain and brain, where they are processed and
brain stem to all of the major nerves in the synthesized into instructions for the rest of
body. Spinal nerves originate from the the body. This data is then sent back
spinal cord and control the functions of the through the spinal cord to muscles and
rest of the body. Impulses are sent from glands for motor output
receptors through the spinal cord to the
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF processes and behavior on a systemic

THE BRAIN level. Therefore, the field of psychology is
The human brain is one of the most tightly intertwined with the study of the
complex systems on earth. Every brain.
component of the brain must work together
in order to keep its body functioning. The THE STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
brain and the spinal cord make up the
central nervous system, which alongside The developing brain goes through many
the peripheral nervous system is stages. In the embryos of vertebrates, the
responsible for regulating all bodily predecessor to the brain and spinal cord is
functions. the neural tube. As the fetus develops, the
grooves and folds in the neural tube
Psychology seeks to explain the mental deepen, giving rise to different layers of
processes and behavior of individuals by the brain. The human brain is split up into
studying the interaction between mental three major layers: the hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain.
HINDBRAIN forebrain and the spinal cord passes

through the midbrain, making it a relay
The hindbrain is the well-protected central station for the central nervous system.
core of the brain. It includes the
cerebellum, reticular formation, and brain FOREBRAIN
stem, which are responsible for some of
the most basic autonomic functions of life, The forebrain is the most anterior division
such as breathing and movement. The of the developing vertebrate brain,
brain stem contains the pons and medulla containing the most complex networks in
oblongata. Evolutionarily speaking, the the central nervous system. The forebrain
hindbrain contains the oldest parts of the has two major divisions: the diencephalon
brain, which all vertebrates possess, and the telencephalon. The diencephalon is
though they may look different from lower, containing the thalamus and
species to species. hypothalamus (which together form the
limbic system); the telencephalon is on top
MIDBRAIN of the diencephalon and contains the
cerebrum, the home of the highest-level
The midbrain makes up part of the brain cognitive processing in the brain. It is the
stem. It is located between the hindbrain large and complicated forebrain that
and forebrain. All sensory and motor distinguishes the human brain from other
information that travels between the vertebrate brains.
LOWER-LEVEL STRUCTURES: THE HINDBRAIN
The brain’s lower-level structures consist The hindbrain, which includes the medulla
of the brain stem, the spinal cord, and the oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, is
cerebellum. responsible some of the oldest and most
primitive body functions. Each of these
The brain’s lower-level structures consist structures is described below.
of the brain stem and spinal cord, along
with the cerebellum. With the exception of
the spinal cord, these structures are largely MEDULLA OBLONGATA
located within the hindbrain, diencephalon The medulla oblongata sits at the transition
(or interbrain), and midbrain. These lower zone between the brain and the spinal cord.
dorsal structures are the oldest parts of the It is the first region that formally belongs
brain, having existed for much of its to the brain (rather than the spinal cord). It
evolutionary history. As such they are is the control center for respiratory,
geared more toward basic bodily processes cardiovascular, and digestive functions.
necessary to survival. It is the more recent
layers of the brain (the forebrain) which
are responsible for the higher-level
cognitive functioning (language,
reasoning) not strictly necessary to keep a
body alive.
PONS
The pons connects the medulla oblongata muscle coordination. However, it is also
with the midbrain region, and also relays responsible for balance and posture, and it
signals from the forebrain to the assists us when we are learning a new
cerebellum. It houses the control centers motor skill, such as playing a sport or
for respiration and inhibitory functions. musical instrument. Recent research shows
The cerebellum is attached to the dorsal that apart from motor functions the
side of the pons. cerebellum also has some role in emotional
sensitivity.
CEREBELLUM THE MIDBRAIN

The cerebellum is a separate region of the The midbrain is located between the
brain located behind the medulla oblongata hindbrain and forebrain, but it is actually
and pons. It is attached to the rest of the part of the brain stem. It displays the same
brain by three stalks (called pedunculi), basic functional composition found in the
and coordinates skeletal muscles to spinal cord and the hindbrain. Ventral
produce smooth, graceful motions. The areas control motor function and convey
cerebellum receives information from our motor information from the cerebral
eyes, ears, muscles, and joints about the cortex. Dorsal regions of the midbrain are
body’s current positioning (referred to as involved in sensory information circuits.
proprioception). It also receives output The substantia nigra, a part of the brain
from the cerebral cortex about where these that plays a role in reward, addiction, and
body parts should be. After processing this movement (due to its high levels of
information, the cerebellum sends motor dopaminergic neurons) is located in the
impulses from the brain stem to the midbrain.
skeletal muscles so that they can move.
The main function of the cerebellum is this
In Parkinson’s disease, which is characterized by a deficit of dopamine, death of

the substantia nigra is evident.
THE DIENCEPHALON THALAMUS

(“INTERBRAIN”) The thalamus is part of the limbic system.
The diencephalon is the region of the It consists of two lobes of grey matter
embryonic vertebrate neural tube that along the bottom of the cerebral cortex.
gives rise to posterior forebrain structures. Because nearly all sensory information
In adults, the diencephalon appears at the passes through the thalamus it is
upper end of the brain stem, situated considered the sensory “way station” of
between the cerebrum and the brain stem. the brain, passing information on to the
It is home to the limbic system, which is cerebral cortex (which is in the forebrain).
considered the seat of emotion in the Lesions of, or stimulation to, the thalamus
human brain. The diencephalon is made up are associated with changes in emotional
of four distinct components: the thalamus, reactivity. However, the importance of this
the subthalamus, the hypothalamus, and structure on the regulation of emotional
the epithalamus. behavior is not due to the activity of the
thalamus itself, but to the connections
between the thalamus and other limbic-
system structures.
HYPOTHALAMUS physical actions occur. The cerebral cortex
The hypothalamus is a small part of the is considered the ultimate control and
brain located just below the thalamus. information-processing center in the brain.
Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere with
motivated behaviors like sexuality, The cortex is made of layers of neurons
combativeness, and hunger. The with many inputs; these cortical neurons
hypothalamus also plays a role in emotion: function like mini microprocessors or logic
parts of the hypothalamus seem to be gates. It contains glial cells, which guide
involved in pleasure and rage, while the neural connections, provide nutrients and
central part is linked to aversion, myelin to neurons, and absorb extra ions
displeasure, and a tendency towards and neurotransmitters. The cortex is
uncontrollable and loud laughing. When divided into four different lobes (the
external stimuli are presented (for parietal, occipital, temporal, and frontal
example, a dangerous stimuli), the lobes), each with a different specific
hypothalamus sends signals to other limbic function.
areas to trigger feeling states in response to
the stimuli (in this case, fear). The cortex is wrinkly in appearance.
Evolutionary constraints on skull size
brought about this development; it allowed
CEREBRAL CORTEX for the cortex to become larger without our
The cerebral cortex is the outermost brains (and therefore craniums) becoming
layered structure of the brain and controls disadvantageously large. At times it has
higher brain functions such as information been theorized that brain size correlated
processing. The cerebral cortex, the largest positively with intelligence; it has also
part of the mammalian brain, is the been suggested that surface area of cortex
wrinkly gray outer covering of the (basically, “wrinkles” of the brain) rather
cerebrum. While the cortex is less than than brain size that correlates most directly
1/4″ thick, it is here that all sensation, with intelligence. Current research
perception, memory, association, thought, suggests that both of these may be at least
and voluntary. The “valleys” of the partially true, but the degree to which they
wrinkles are called sulci (or sometimes, correlate is not clear.
fissures); the “peaks” between wrinkles are
called gyri. While there are variations from
person to person in their sulci and gyri, the
brain has been studied enough to identify
patterns. One notable sulcus is the central
sulcus, or the wrinkle dividing the parietal
lobe from the frontal lobe.
CEREBRUM to dominate the functions of speech,
Beneath the cerebral cortex is the language processing and comprehension,
cerebrum, which serves as the main and logical reasoning, while the right is
thought and control center of the brain. It more dominant in spatial tasks like vision-
is the seat of higher-level thought like independent object recognition (such as
emotions and decision making (as opposed identifying an object by touch or another
to lower-level thought like balance, nonvisual sense). However, it is easy to
movement, and reflexes). exaggerate the differences between the
functions of the left and right hemispheres;
The cerebrum is composed of gray and both hemispheres are involved with most
white matter. Gray matter is the mass of all processes. Additionally, neuroplasticity
the cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses of (the ability of a brain to adapt to
neurons interlaced with one another, while experience) enables the brain to
white matter consists of the long, myelin- compensate for damage to one hemisphere
coated axons of those neurons connecting by taking on extra functions in the other
masses of gray matter to each other. half, especially in young brains.
(Discussed more in referenced section)
CORPUS CALLOSUM
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES AND
LOBES OF THE BRAIN The two hemispheres communicate with
one another through the corpus callosum.
The brain is divided into two hemispheres The corpus callosum is a wide, flat bundle
and four lobes, each of which specializes of neural fibers beneath the cortex that
in a different function. connects the left and right cerebral
hemispheres and facilitates
BRAIN LATERALIZATION interhemispheric communication. The
corpus callosum is sometimes implicated
The brain is divided into two halves, called
in the cause of seizures; patients with
hemispheres. There is evidence that each
epilepsy sometimes undergo a corpus
brain hemisphere has its own distinct
functions, a phenomenon referred to as colostomy, or the removal of the corpus

lateralization. The left hemisphere appears callosum.
THE LOBES OF THE BRAIN

The brain is separated into four lobes: the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.
THE FRONTAL LOBE role in the formation of emotion-laden,

The frontal lobe is associated with long-term memories based on emotional
executive functions and motor input from the amygdala. The left temporal
performance. Executive functions are lobe holds the primary auditory cortex,
some of the highest-order cognitive which is important for processing the
processes that humans have. Examples semantics of speech.
include: One specific portion of the temporal lobe,
-planning and engaging in goal- Wernicke’s area, plays a key role in
directed behavior; speech comprehension. Another portion,
Broca’s area, underlies the ability to
-recognizing future consequences of
produce (rather than understand) speech.
current actions;
Patients with damage to Wernicke’s area
-choosing between good and bad can speak clearly but the words make no
actions; sense, while patients with damage to
-overriding and suppressing socially Broca’s area will fail to form words
unacceptable responses; properly and speech will be halting and
-determining similarities and slurred. These disorders are known as
differences between objects or Wernicke’s and Broca’s aphasia
situations. respectively; aphasia is an inability to
speak.
The frontal lobe is considered to be the
moral center of the brain because it is
responsible for advanced decision-making THE OCCIPITAL LOBE
processes. It also plays an important role in The occipital lobe contains most of the
retaining emotional memories derived visual cortex and is the visual processing
from the limbic system, and modifying center of the brain. Cells on the posterior
those emotions to fit socially accepted side of the occipital lobe are arranged as a
norms. spatial map of the retinal field. The visual
cortex receives raw sensory information
through sensors in the retina of the eyes,
THE TEMPORAL LOBE
which is then conveyed through the optic
The temporal lobe is associated with the tracts to the visual cortex. Other areas of
retention of short- and long-term the occipital lobe are specialized for
memories. It processes sensory input different visual tasks, such as visuospatial
including auditory information, language processing, color discrimination, and
comprehension, and naming. It also creates motion perception. Damage to the primary
emotional responses and controls visual cortex (located on the surface of the
biological drives such as aggression and posterior occipital lobe) can cause
sexuality. blindness, due to the holes in the visual
The temporal lobe contains the map on the surface of the cortex caused by
hippocampus, which is the memory center the lesions.
of the brain. The hippocampus plays a key
THE PARIETAL LOBE to another. The CNS includes the brain,
The parietal lobe is associated with brain stem, and spinal cord, while the PNS
sensory skills. It integrates different types includes all other sensory neurons, clusters
of sensory information and is particularly of neurons called ganglia, and connector
useful in spatial processing and navigation. neurons that attach to the CNS and other
The parietal lobe plays an important role in neurons.
integrating sensory information from
various parts of the body, understanding The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
numbers and their relations, and provides the connection between
manipulating objects. It also processes internal or external stimuli and the
information related to the sense of touch. central nervous system to allow the
 body to respond to its environment.
The parietal lobe is comprised of the
The PNS is made up of different kinds
somatosensory cortex and part of the of neurons, or nerve cells, which
visual system. The somatosensory cortex communicate with each other
consists of a “map” of the body that through electric signaling and
processes sensory information from neurotransmitters.
specific areas of the body. Several portions 
The PNS can be broken down into two
of the parietal lobe are important to
systems: the autonomic nervous
language and visuospatial processing; the
system, which regulates
left parietal lobe is involved in symbolic
involuntary actions such as
functions in language and mathematics,
breathing and digestion, and the
while the right parietal lobe is specialized
somatic nervous system, which
to process images and interpretation of governs voluntary action and body
maps (i.e., spatial relationships). reflexes.

The autonomic nervous system has two
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS complementary parts: the
SYSTEM (PNS) sympathetic nervous system, which
The peripheral nervous system connects activates the “fight-or-flight-or-
freeze” stress response, and the
the central nervous system to
parasympathetic nervous system,
environmental stimuli to gather sensory
which reacts with the “rest-and-
input and create motor output.
 digest” response after stress.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is The somatic nervous system
one of the two major components of the coordinates voluntary physical
body’s nervous system. In conjunction action. It is also responsible for our
with the central nervous system (CNS), the reflexes, which do not require brain
PNS coordinates action and responses by input.
sending signals from one part of the body
DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL breathing rate. Together, these two
NERVOUS SYSTEM systems maintain homeostasis within the
The PNS can also be divided into two body: one priming the body for action, and
separate systems: the autonomic nervous the other repairing the body afterward.
system and the somatic nervous system.
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The somatic nervous system keeps the
The autonomic nervous system regulates body adept and coordinated, both through
involuntary and unconscious actions, such reflexes and voluntary action. The somatic
as internal-organ function, breathing, nervous system controls systems in areas
digestion, and heartbeat. This system as diverse as the skin, bones, joints, and
consists of two complementary parts: the skeletal muscles. Afferent fibers, or nerves
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. that receive information from external
Both divisions work without conscious stimuli, carry sensory information through
effort and have similar nerve pathways, pathways that connect the skin and skeletal
but they generally have opposite effects on muscles to the CNS for processing. The
target tissues. information is then sent back via efferent
nerves, or nerves that carry instructions
The sympathetic nervous system activates from the CNS, back through the somatic
the “fight or flight” response under system. These instructions go to
sudden or stressful circumstances, such as neuromuscular junctions—the interfaces
taking an exam or seeing a bear. It between neurons and muscles—for motor
increases physical arousal levels, raising output.
the heart and breathing rates and dilating
the pupils, as it prepares the body to run or The somatic system also provides us with
confront danger. These are not the only reflexes, which are automatic and do not
two options; “fight or flight” is perhaps require input or integration from the brain
better phrased as “fight or flight or freeze,” to perform. Reflexes can be categorized as
where in the third option the body stiffens either monosynaptic or polysynaptic based
and action cannot be taken. This is an on the reflex arc used to perform the
autonomic response that occurs in animals function. Monosynaptic reflex arcs, such
and humans; it is a survival mechanism as the knee-jerk reflex, have only a single
thought to be related to playing dead when synapse between the sensory neuron that
attacked by a predator. Post-traumatic receives the information and the motor
stress disorder (PTSD) can result when a neuron that responds. Polysynaptic reflex
human experience this “fight or flight or arcs, by contrast, have at least one
freeze” mode with great intensity or for interneuron between the sensory neuron
large amounts of time. and the motor neuron. An example of a
polysynaptic reflex arc is seen when a
The parasympathetic nervous system person steps on a tack—in response, their
activates a “rest and digest” or “feed and body must pull that foot up while
breed” response after these stressful simultaneously transferring balance to the
events, which conserves energy and other leg.
replenishes the system. It reduces bodily
arousal, slowing the heartbeat and
For References (This will help you as white (“fatty”) material, much like the
connect the dots and know the concept fat on a raw piece of chicken or beef.
in detail) Actually, gray matter may have that color
ascribed to it because next to the white
matter, it is just darker—hence, gray.
Nervous tissue, present in both the CNS
and PNS, contains two basic types of cells:
neurons and glial cells. (Discussed above)
Looking at nervous tissue, there are
regions that predominantly contain cell
bodies and regions that are largely
composed of just axons. These two regions
within nervous system structures are often
referred to as gray matter (the regions
with many cell bodies and dendrites) or
white matter (the regions with many
axons). The colors ascribed to these
regions are what would be seen in “fresh,”
or unstained, nervous tissue. Gray matter is
not necessarily gray. It can be pinkish
because of blood content, or even slightly
tan, depending on how long the tissue has
been preserved. But white matter is white
because axons are insulated by a lipid-rich
substance called myelin. Lipids can appear
.
visual stimuli, which takes place in the
FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS OF cerebral cortex, or for the reflexive
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM responses of smooth muscle tissue that are
processed through the hypothalamus.
The nervous system can also be divided on
the basis of its functions, but anatomical There are two ways to consider how the
divisions and functional divisions are nervous system is divided functionally.
different. The CNS and the PNS both First, the basic functions of the nervous
contribute to the same functions, but those system are sensation, integration, and
functions can be attributed to different response. Secondly, control of the body
regions of the brain (such as the cerebral can be somatic or autonomic—divisions
cortex or the hypothalamus) or to different that are largely defined by the structures
ganglia in the periphery. The problem with that are involved in the response. There is
trying to fit functional differences into also a region of the peripheral nervous
anatomical divisions is that sometimes the system that is called the enteric nervous
same structure can be part of several system that is responsible for a specific set
functions. For example, the optic nerve of the functions within the realm of
carries signals from the retina that are autonomic control related to
either used for the conscious perception of gastrointestinal functions.
BASIC FUNCTIONS of touch. There are actually more senses
than just those, but that list represents the
The nervous system is involved in major senses. Those five are all senses that
receiving information about the receive stimuli from the outside world, and
environment around us (sensation) and of which there is conscious perception.
generating responses to that information Additional sensory stimuli might be from
(motor responses). The nervous system can the internal environment (inside the body),
be divided into regions that are responsible such as the stretch of an organ wall or the
for sensation (sensory functions) and for concentration of certain ions in the blood.
the response (motor functions). But there
is a third function that needs to be RESPONSE
included. Sensory input needs to be
integrated with other sensations, as well as The nervous system produces a response
with memories, emotional state, or on the basis of the stimuli perceived by
learning (cognition). Some regions of the sensory structures. An obvious response
nervous system are termed integration or would be the movement of muscles, such
association areas. The process of as withdrawing a hand from a hot stove,
integration combines sensory perceptions but there are broader uses of the term. The
and higher cognitive functions such as nervous system can cause the contraction
memories, learning, and emotion to of all three types of muscle tissue. For
produce a response. example, skeletal muscle contracts to
move the skeleton, cardiac muscle is
SENSATION influenced as heart rate increases during
exercise, and smooth muscle contracts as
The first major function of the nervous the digestive system moves food along the
system is sensation—receiving information digestive tract. Responses also include the
about the environment to gain input about neural control of glands in the body as
what is happening outside the body (or, well, such as the production and secretion
sometimes, within the body). The sensory of sweat by the eccrine and merocrine
functions of the nervous system register sweat glands found in the skin to lower
the presence of a change from homeostasis body temperature.
or a particular event in the environment,
known as a stimulus. The senses we think Responses can be divided into those that
of most are the “big five”: taste, smell, are voluntary or conscious (contraction of
touch, sight, and hearing. The stimuli for skeletal muscle) and those that are
taste and smell are both chemical involuntary (contraction of smooth
substances (molecules, compounds, ions, muscles, regulation of cardiac muscle, and
etc.), touch is physical or mechanical activation of glands). Voluntary responses
stimuli that interact with the skin, sight is are governed by the somatic nervous
light stimuli, and hearing is the perception system and involuntary responses are
of sound, which is a physical stimulus governed by the autonomic nervous
similar to some aspects system, which are discussed in the next
section.
INTEGRATION processed. This is called integration.

Stimuli are compared with, or integrated
Stimuli that are received by sensory with, other stimuli, memories of previous
structures are communicated to the stimuli, or the state of a person at a
nervous system where that information is particular time. This leads to the specific
response that will be generated. Seeing a three balls and one strike, and the batter
baseball pitched to a batter will not wants to let this pitch go by in the hope of
automatically cause the batter to swing. getting a walk to first base. Or maybe the
The trajectory of the ball and its speed will batter’s team is so far ahead; it would be
need to be considered. Maybe the count is fun to just swing away.
CONTROLLING THE BODY external or internal environmental stimuli.

The motor output extends to smooth and
The nervous system can be divided into cardiac muscle as well as glandular tissue.
two parts mostly on the basis of a The role of the autonomic system is to
functional difference in responses. The regulate the organ systems of the body,
somatic nervous system (SNS) is which usually means to control
responsible for conscious perception and homeostasis. Sweat glands, for example,
voluntary motor responses. Voluntary are controlled by the autonomic system.
motor response means the contraction of When you are hot, sweating helps cool
skeletal muscle, but those contractions are your body down. That is a homeostatic
not always voluntary in the sense that you mechanism. But when you are nervous,
have to want to perform them. Some you might start sweating also. That is not
somatic motor responses are reflexes, and homeostatic; it is the physiological
often happen without a conscious decision response to an emotional state.
to perform them. If your friend jumps out
from behind a corner and yells “Boo!” you There is another division of the nervous
will be startled and you might scream or system that describes functional responses.
leap back. You didn’t decide to do that, The enteric nervous system (ENS) is
and you may not have wanted to give your responsible for controlling the smooth
friend a reason to laugh at your expense, muscle and glandular tissue in your
but it is a reflex involving skeletal muscle digestive system. It is a large part of the
contractions. Other motor responses PNS, and is not dependent on the CNS. It
become automatic (in other words, is sometimes valid, however, to consider
unconscious) as a person learns motor the enteric system to be a part of the
skills (referred to as “habit learning” or autonomic system because the neural
“procedural memory”). structures that make up the enteric system
are a component of the autonomic output
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is that regulates digestion. There are some
responsible for involuntary control of the differences between the two, but for our
body, usually for the sake of homeostasis purposes here there will be a good bit of
(regulation of the internal environment). overlap. See Figure 5 for examples of
Sensory input for autonomic functions can where these divisions of the nervous
be from sensory structures tuned to system can be found.
HOW MUCH OF YOUR BRAIN
DO YOU USE? An easy way to see how much of the brain
a person uses is to take measurements of
brain activity while performing a task. An
Have you ever heard the claim that example of this kind of measurement is
humans only use 10 percent of their functional magnetic resonance imaging
brains? Maybe you have seen an (fMRI), which generates a map of the most
advertisement on a website saying that active areas and can be generated and
there is a secret to unlocking the full presented in three dimensions. This
potential of your mind—as if there were procedure is different from the standard
90 percent of your brain sitting idle, just MRI technique because it is measuring
waiting for you to use it. If you see an changes in the tissue in time with an
ad like that, don’t click. It isn’t true. experimental condition or event.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
NEUROPLASTICITY cells leads to pronounced increase in
synaptic strength between those cells, a
theory that is widely accepted today. Cell
(NOTE: Topic is covered in detail, not assembly, or Hebbian theory, asserts that
required to go into this much detail. “cells that fire together wire together,”
Details are given so as to give you a meaning neural networks can be created
comprehensive idea of the concept and its through associative experience and
practicality) learning. Since Hebb’s discovery,
neuroscientists have continued to find
HEBBIAN THEORY evidence of plasticity and modification
within neural networks.
In 1949, neuroscientist Donald Hebb
proposed that simultaneous activation of
The brain is constantly adapting synapses that result from changes in

throughout a lifetime, though sometimes behavior, environmental and neural
over critical, genetically determined processes, and changes resulting from
periods of time. Neuroplasticity is the bodily injury. Neuroplasticity has replaced
brain’s ability to create new neural the formerly held theory that the brain is a
pathways based on new experiences. It physiologically static organ, and explores
refers to changes in neural pathways and how the brain changes throughout life.
Neuroplasticity occurs on a variety of levels, rats illustrate how the brain changes in
ranging from minute cellular changes response to experience: rats that lived in
resulting from learning to large-scale cortical more enriched environments had larger
remapping in response to injury. The role of neurons, more DNA and RNA, heavier
neuroplasticity is widely recognized in cerebral cortices, and larger synapses
healthy development, learning, memory, and compared to rats that lived in sparse
recovery from brain damage. During most of environments.
the 20th century, the consensus among
neuroscientists was that brain structure is A surprising consequence of
relatively immutable after a critical period neuroplasticity is that the brain activity
during early childhood. It is true that the associated with a given function can move
brain is especially “plastic” during to a different location; this can result from
childhood’s critical period, with new neural normal experience, and also occurs in the
connections forming constantly. However, process of recovery from brain injury. In
recent findings show that many aspects of fact, neuroplasticity is the basis of goal-
the brain remain plastic even into adulthood. directed experiential therapeutic programs
in rehabilitation after brain injury. For
Plasticity can be demonstrated over the example, after a person is blinded in one
course of virtually any form of learning. eye, the part of the brain associated with
For one to remember an experience, the processing input from that eye doesn’t
circuitry of the brain must change. simply sit idle; it takes on new functions,
Learning takes place when there is either a perhaps processing visual input from the
change in the internal structure of neurons remaining eye or doing something else
or a heightened number of synapses entirely. This is because while certain parts
between neurons. Studies conducted using of the brain have a typical function, the
brain can be “rewired”—all because of
plasticity.
SYNAPTIC PRUNING
“Synaptic (or neuronal or axon) pruning” replaced by more intricately

refers to neurological regulatory processes interconnected structures.
that facilitate changes in neural structure
by reducing the overall number of neurons Pruning removes axons from synaptic
and synapses, leaving more efficient connections that are not functionally
synaptic configurations. At birth, there are appropriate. This process strengthens
approximately 2,500 synapses in the important connections and eliminates
cerebral cortex of a human baby. By three weaker ones, creating more effective
years old, the cerebral cortex has about neural communication. Generally, the
15,000 synapses. Since the infant brain has number of neurons in the cerebral cortex
such a large capacity for growth, it must increases until adolescence. Apoptosis
eventually be pruned down to remove occurs during early childhood and
unnecessary neuronal structures from the adolescence, after which there is a
brain. This process of pruning is referred decrease in the number of synapses.
to as apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Approximately 50% of neurons present at
As the human brain develops, the need for birth do not survive until adulthood. The
more complex neuronal associations selection of the pruned neurons follows the
becomes much more pertinent, and simpler “use it or lose it” principle, meaning that
associations formed at childhood are synapses that are frequently used have
strong connections, while the rarely used
synapses are eliminated.
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (Read only if you find Neuroplasticity interesting and want
to know more about it)
1. NEUROGENESIS IN ADULT embraced by a generation of

MAMMALS: neuroscientists who had been trained to
think of the adult brain as fixed, but
Prior to the early 1980s, brain acceptance grew as confirmatory reports
development after the early developmental accumulated. Particularly influential
period was seen as a downhill slope: were reports that new neurons are added
Neurons continually die throughout a to the hippocampus of primates,
person’s life, and it was assumed that the including humans (Erikkson et al., 1998),
lost cells are never replaced by new ones. and that the number of new neurons
Although researchers began to chip away added to the adult hippocampus is
at this misconception in the early 1980s, it substantial, an estimated 2,000 per hour.
persisted until the turn of the century as
one of the central principles of New olfactory bulb neurons and new
neurodevelopment. hippocampal neurons come from different
places (Hagg, 2006). New olfactory bulb
The first serious challenge to the neurons are created from adult neural stem
assumption that neurogenesis is restricted cells at certain sites in the subventricular
to early stages of development came with zone of the lateral ventricles and then
the discovery of the growth of new migrate to the olfactory bulbs. In contrast,
neurons in the brains of adult birds. new hippocampal cells are created near
Nottebohm and colleagues (e.g., Goldman their final location in the dentate gyrus of
Nottebohm, 1983) found that brain the hippocampus.
structures involved in singing begin to
grow in songbirds just before each mating Since the hippocampus is involved in some
season and that this growth results from an kinds of memory, perhaps exercise can be
increase in the number of neurons. This used as a treatment for memory problems.
finding stimulated the re-examination of Indeed, aerobic exercise has been shown to
earlier unconfirmed claims that new improve cognitive function in older adults.
neurons are created in the adult rat It is now established that neurons
hippocampus. Then, in the 1990s, generated during adulthood survive,
researchers, armed with newly developed become integrated into neural circuits, and
immunohistochemical markers that have a begin to conduct neural signals. Adult-
selective affinity for recently created generated olfactory neurons become
neurons, convincingly showed that adult interneurons, and adult-generated
neurogenesis does indeed occur in the rat hippocampal neurons become granule cells
hippocampus. And shortly thereafter, it in the dentate gyrus. However, although
was discovered that new neurons are also there has been some progress in
continually added to adult rat olfactory understanding the anatomy and
bulbs. Subsequently, it was reported that physiological functions of adult-generated
new neurons are added to the cortex, but neurons, understanding of their behavioral
apparently this report was erroneous. functions has proven to be elusive.
In adult mammals, substantial neurogenesis

seems to be restricted to the olfactory bulbs
and hippocampus. At first, reports of adult
neurogenesis were not
EFFECTS OF EXPERIENCE ON somatosensory cortex; Thus, once the
THE REORGANIZATION OF THE brain has adapted to abnormal
ADULT CORTEX environmental conditions, it acquires the
ability to adapt more effectively if it
The second line of research on adult encounters the same conditions again.
neuroplasticity deals with the effects of Although the cellular mechanisms
experience on the reorganization of adult underlying changes to adult sensory cortex
cortex. Experience in adulthood can lead are unknown, there are numerous
to reorganization of sensory and motor possibilities. Experience has been shown
cortical maps. For example, Mühlnickel to increase, decrease, or otherwise modify
and colleagues (1998) found that tinnitus cortical synapses, buttons, and dendritic
(ringing in the ears) produces a major spines.
reorganization of primary auditory cortex;
The discovery of adult neuroplasticity is
Elbert and colleagues (1995) showed that
changing the way that we humans think
adult musicians who play stringed
about ourselves. More importantly for
instruments that are fingered with the left
those with brain damage, it has suggested
hand (e.g., the violin) have an enlarged
some promising new treatment options.
hand representation area in their right
Neuroplastic Responses to Nervous Degeneration.

System Damage: Degeneration, Regeneration.
Regeneration, Reorganization, and Reorganization.
Recovery Recovery of function.
There are four major neuroplastic
responses of the brain to damage:
1. NEURAL DEGENERATION: separates the distal segment of the axon

from the cell body, which is the metabolic
Neural degeneration (neural deterioration) center of the neuron. The entire distal
is a common component of both brain segment becomes badly swollen within a
development and disease. A widely used few hours, and it breaks into fragments
method for the controlled study of neural within a few days.
degeneration is to cut the axons of
neurons. Two kinds of neural degeneration The course of retrograde degeneration is
ensue: anterograde degeneration and different; it progresses gradually back
retrograde degeneration. Anterograde from the cut to the cell body. In about 2 or
degeneration is the degeneration of the 3 days, major changes become apparent in
distal segment the segment of a cut axon the cell bodies of most axotomized
between the cut and the synaptic neurons. These early cell body changes are
terminals. Retrograde degeneration is either degenerative or regenerative in
the degeneration of the proximal nature. Early degenerative changes to the
segment the segment of a cut axon cell body (e.g., a decrease in size) suggest
between the cut and the cell body. that the neuron will ultimately die usually
by apoptosis but sometimes by necrosis or
Anterograde degeneration occurs quickly a combination of both.
following axotomy, because the cut
Early regenerative changes (e.g., an linked to them by synapses; this is called
increase in size) indicate that the cell body Trans neuronal degeneration. In some
is involved in a massive synthesis of the cases, transneuronal degeneration spreads
proteins that will be used to replace the from damaged neurons to the neurons on
degenerated axon. But early regenerative which they synapse; this is called
changes in the cell body do not guarantee anterograde transneuronal
the long-term survival of the neuron; if the degeneration. And in some cases, it
regenerating axon does not manage to spreads from damaged neurons to the
make synaptic contact with an appropriate neurons that synapse on them; this is
target, the neuron eventually dies. called retrograde transneuronal
Sometimes, degeneration spreads from degeneration.
damaged neurons to neurons that are
2. NEURAL REGENERATION: The capacity for accurate axonal growth,

which higher vertebrates possess during
Neural regeneration- the regrowth of their early development, is lost once they
damaged neurons does not proceed as reach maturity. Regeneration is virtually
successfully in mammals and other higher nonexistent in the CNS of adult mammals,
vertebrates as it does in most invertebrates and is at best a hit-or-miss affair in the
and lower vertebrates. PNS. In the mammalian PNS, regrowth
from the proximal stump of a damaged
nerve usually begins 2 or 3 days after axonal damage.
There are three possibilities. First, if the PNS by producing both neurotrophic
original Schwann cell myelin sheaths factors and cell-adhesion molecules
remain intact, the regenerating peripheral (CAMs). The neurotrophic factors released
axons grow through them to their original by Schwann cells stimulate the growth of
targets at a rate of a few millimeters per new axons, and the cell-adhesion
day. Second, if the peripheral nerve is molecules on the cell membranes of
severed and the cut ends become separated Schwann cells mark the paths along which
by a few millimeters, regenerating axon regenerating PNS axons grow. In contrast,
tips often grow into incorrect sheaths and oligodendroglia, which myelinate CNS
are guided by them to incorrect axons, do not clear debris or stimulate or
destinations; that is why it is often difficult guide regeneration; indeed, they release
to regain the coordinated use of a limb factors that actively block regeneration.
affected by nerve damage even if there has Furthermore, oligodendroglia tends to
been substantial regeneration. And third, if survive for long periods of time (e.g.,
the cut ends of a severed mammalian months) after nerve damage, thus
peripheral nerve become widely separated chronically inhibiting regeneration of the
or if a lengthy section of the nerve is axons.
damaged, there may be no meaningful If the factors that promote accurate
regeneration at all; regenerating axon tips regeneration in lower vertebrates can be
grow in a tangled mass around the identified and applied to the human brain,
proximal stump, and the neurons it might be possible to cure currently
ultimately die. untreatable brain injuries. Remarkably,
Some CNS neurons are capable of when invertebrates lose an entire limb, the
regeneration if they are transplanted to the regenerating axons release a factor that
PNS, whereas some PNS neurons are not promotes regeneration of that limb.
capable of regeneration if they are
transplanted to the CNS. Clearly, there is
something about the environment of the
PNS that promotes regeneration and
something about the environment of the
CNS that does not. Schwann cells, which
myelinate PNS axons, clear the debris
resulting from neural degeneration and
promote regeneration in the mammalian
3. NEURAL REORGANIZATION: imaging technology to study the cortices of
blind individuals. The findings are
Adult mammalian brains have the ability consistent with the hypothesis that there is
to reorganize themselves in response to continuous competition for cortical space
experience. by functional circuits. Without visual input
Most studies of neural reorganization to the cortex, there is an expansion of
following damage have focused on the auditory and somatosensory cortex, and
sensory and motor cortex of laboratory auditory and somatosensory input is
animals. Sensory and motor cortex are processed in formerly visual areas. There
ideally suited to the study of neural seems to be a functional consequence to
reorganization because of their this reorganization: Blind volunteers have
topographic layout. The damage-induced demonstrated skills superior to those of
reorganization of the primary sensory and sighted controls on a variety of auditory
motor cortex has been studied under two and somatosensory tasks.
conditions: following damage to peripheral
nerves and following damage to the
cortical areas themselves. MECHANISMS OF NEURAL
REORGANIZATION:
The following studies have been
particularly influential: Two kinds of mechanisms have been
proposed to account for the reorganization
Kaas and colleagues (1990) assessed of neural circuits: a strengthening of
the effect of making a small lesion in existing connections, possibly through
one retina and removing the other. release from inhibition, and the
Several months after the retinal lesion establishment of new connections by
was made, primary visual cortex collateral sprouting.
neurons that originally had receptive Indirect support for the first mechanism
fields in the lesioned area of the retina comes from two observations:
were found to have receptive fields in Reorganization often occurs too quickly to
the area of the retina next to the lesion; be explained by neural growth, and rapid
remarkably, this change began within reorganization never involves changes of
minutes of the lesion. more than 2 millimeters of cortical surface.
 Indirect support for the second mechanism
Sanes, Suner, and Donoghue (1990) comes from the observation that the
transected the motor neurons that magnitude of long-term reorganization can
controlled the muscles of rat’s be too great to be explained by changes in
vibrissae (whiskers). A few weeks existing connections. Although sprouting
later, stimulation of the area of motor and release from inhibition are considered
cortex that had previously elicited to be the likely mechanisms of cortical
vibrissae movement now activated reorganization following damage, these are
other muscles of the face. not the only possibilities.
CORTICAL REORGANIZATION
FOLLOWING DAMAGE IN
HUMANS:
Demonstrations of cortical reorganization
in controlled experiments on nonhumans
provided an incentive to search for similar
effects in human clinical populations. One
such line of research has used brain-
4. RECOVERY OF FUNCTION biographical study of doctors and
AFTER BRAIN DAMAGE: neuroscientists with brain damage, and he
observed a surprising degree of what
Recovery of function in humans after appeared to be cognitive recovery. His
nervous system damage is a poorly results suggested, however, that the
understood phenomenon. Nevertheless, observed improvement did not occur
there is a general consensus that recovery because these patients had actually
of function is most likely when lesions are recovered lost brain function but because
small and the patient is young. their cognitive reserve allowed them to
Neuroplastic phenomena are presumed to accomplish tasks in alternative ways.
underlie recovery of function. However, it Cognitive reserve has also been used to
has proven difficult to provide strong explain why educated people are less
evidence for this assumption. Recovery of susceptible to the effects of aging-related
function after nervous system damage is brain deterioration.
difficult to study because there are other Several recent experiments in laboratory
compensatory changes that can easily be animals have shown that various
confused with it. treatments are maximally effective only if
Cognitive reserve (roughly equivalent to initiated within a few days of the brain
education and intelligence) is thought to damage. This finding has a potentially
play a role in the improvements observed vital implication: It suggests that
after brain damage that do not result from rehabilitation of human patients with brain
true recovery of brain function. Let me damage should begin as soon as possible
explain. Kapur (1997) conducted a after the damage occurs.
NEUROPLASTICITY AND THE patients. The following four subsections

TREATMENT OF NERVOUS describe research on some major new
SYSTEM DAMAGE: treatment approaches. Most of this
The dream of recent discoveries about research has focused on animal models,
neuroplasticity can be applied to the but some of it has progressed to clinical
treatment of brain damage in human . trials with human patients
REDUCING BRAIN DAMAGE The hippocampuses of rats in the

BY BLOCKING experimental group were treated with
NEURODEGENERATION: viruses genetically engineered to release
apoptosis inhibitor protein. Amazingly, the
Several studies in animals have shown that apoptosis inhibitor protein reduced both
it may be possible to reduce brain damage the loss of hippocampal neurons and the
by blocking neural degeneration in human deficits in Morris water maze performance.
patients. For example, in one study, Xu In addition to apoptosis
and colleagues (1999) induced cerebral inhibitor protein, several other
ischemia in rats by limiting blood flow to neurochemicals have been shown to block
the brain. This had two major effects on the degeneration of damaged neurons. The
rats in the control group: It produced most widely studied of these is nerve
damage to the hippocampus, a structure growth factor. Estrogens have a similar
that is particularly susceptible to ischemic effect. Estrogens are a class of steroid
damage, and it produced deficits in the hormones that are released in large
rat’s performance in the Morris water amounts by the ovaries (the female
maze.
gonads). These hormones have several models. These neuroprotective effects of

important effects on the maturation of the estrogens may explain why several brain
female body. They also have been shown disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease) are
to limit or delay neuron death in animal more prevalent in males than in females.
PROMOTING RECOVERY FROM then transplanted sections of myelinated

CNS DAMAGE BY PROMOTING peripheral nerve across the transection. As
REGENERATION: a result, spinal cord neurons regenerated
through the implanted Schwann cell
Although regeneration does not normally myelin sheaths, and the regeneration
occur in the mammalian CNS, several allowed the rats to regain use of their
studies in laboratory animals have shown hindquarters.
that it can be induced. The following two
studies are particularly promising because
they have shown that such regeneration
can be associated with functional recovery.
Cheng, Cao, and Olson (1996) transected
the spinal cords of rats, thus rendering
them paraplegic (paralyzed in the posterior
portion of their bodies). The researchers
PROMOTING RECOVERY FROM patients improved. The results of these

CNS DAMAGE BY case studies triggered a large-scale double-
NEUROTRANSPLANTATION: blind evaluation study of patients suffering
from advanced Parkinson’s disease. The
Efforts to treat CNS damage by study was extremely thorough; it even
neurotransplantation have taken two included placebo controls patients who
different approaches. The first is to received surgery but no implants.
transplant fetal tissue into the damaged
Unfortunately, however, about 15% of
area; the second is to transplant cultures of
these patients started to display a variety of
stem cells.
uncontrollable writhing and chewing
TRANSPLANTING FETAL TISSUE: movements about a year after the surgery.
The first approach to neurotransplantation The incidence of adverse motor side
was to replace a damaged structure with effects is likely to stifle further attempts to
fetal tissue that would develop into the develop neurotransplantation as a
same structure. This approach focused on treatment for Parkinson’s disease.
Parkinson’s disease. Early signs were However, many still believe that this is an
positive. Bilateral transplantation of fetal extremely promising therapeutic approach,
substantia nigra cells was successful in but that the large-scale clinical trial was
treating the MPTP monkey model of premature. Researchers do not yet know
Parkinson’s disease (Bankiewicz et al., how to maximize the survival and growth
1990; Sladek et al., 1987). of neurotransplants and how to minimize
Soon after the favorable effects of their side effects.
neurotransplants in the MPTP monkey Investigators are trying to develop
model were reported, neurotransplantation procedures for repairing brain damage by
was offered as a treatment for Parkinson’s injecting embryonic stem cells into the
disease at major research hospitals. The damaged site. Once injected, the stem cells
results of the first case studies were could develop and replace the damaged
promising. More importantly, some of the
neurons or myelin, under guidance from be done (Li et al., 2008). First, techniques
surrounding tissue. for promoting the survival, maturation, and
Many studies triggered a frenzy of the establishment of correct connections
research activity. Effective treatment for with surviving cells need to be identified.
severe CNS damage appeared to be within Second, methods for encouraging
reach. However, it quickly became functional recovery have to be developed.
apparent that much research still needs to
PROMOTING RECOVERY FROM beneficial neurological outcomes in human

CNS DAMAGE BY patients. Individuals who are cognitively
REHABILITATIVE TRAINING: and physically active are less likely to
contract neurological disorders; and if they
Several demonstrations of the important do, their symptoms tend to be less severe
role of experience in the organization of and their recovery better. However, in such
the developing and adult brain kindled a correlational studies, there are always
renewed interest in the use of rehabilitative problems of causal interpretation.
training to promote recovery from CNS
damage. Physical exercise has also been shown to
have a variety of beneficial effects on the
One of the principles that have emerged rodent brain. For example, Van Praag and
from the study of neurodevelopment is that colleagues found that wheel running can
neurons seem to be in a competitive increase adult neurogenesis in the
situation: They compete with other hippocampus (2002), reduce age-related
neurons for synaptic sites and declines in the number of neurons in the
neurotrophins, and the losers die. Weiller hippocampus (2005), and improve
and Rijntjes (1999) designed a performance on tests of memory and
rehabilitative program based on this navigation, two abilities that have been
principle. Their procedure, called linked to the hippocampus.
constraint-induced therapy, was to tie
down the functioning arm for 2 weeks
while the affected arm received intensive PHANTOM LIMBS: NEUROPLASTIC
training. Performance with the affected PHENOMENA
arm improved markedly over the 2 weeks, Most amputees continue to experience the
and there was an increase in the area of limbs that have been amputated a
motor cortex controlling that arm. condition referred to as phantom limb.
In one approach to treating spinal injuries, Phantom limbs are the product of
patients who were incapable of walking neuroplasticity. The most striking feature
were supported by a harness over a of phantom limbs is their reality. Their
moving treadmill. With most of their existence is so compelling that a patient
weight supported and the treadmill may try to jump out of bed onto a
providing feedback, the patients gradually nonexistent leg or to lift a cup with a
learned to make walking movements. nonexistent hand. In most cases, the
Then, as they improved, the amount of amputated limb behaves like a normal
support was gradually reduced. limb; for example, as an amputee walks, a
phantom arm seems to swing back and
forth in perfect coordination with the intact
BENEFITS OF COGNITIVE AND arm. About 50% of amputee’s experience
PHYSICAL EXERCISE chronic severe pain in their phantom
There are numerous studies linking limbs. A typical complaint is that an
cognitive and physical activity to amputated hand is clenched so tightly that
the fingernails are digging into the palm of involved cutting off the stump or various
the hand. parts of the neural pathway between the
Based on the premise that phantom limb stump and the cortex. Unfortunately, these
pain results from irritation at the stump, treatments haven’t worked.
surgical efforts to control it have often
METHODS OF An enormous array of research methods is

PHYSIOLOGICAL available to the investigator. One of the
most important research methods used to
PSYCHOLOGY investigate brain functions is:
AN OVERVIEW
EXPERIMENTAL ABLATION EXPERIMENTAL ABLATION: From

Evaluating the Behavioral Effects the Latin word ablatus, a “carrying away”.
of Brain Damage. The removal or destruction of a portion of
Producing Brain Lesions. the brain of a laboratory animal;
Stereotaxic Surgery presumably, the functions that can no
Histological Methods longer be performed are the ones the
Tracing Neural Connections region previously controlled. It is the
oldest method used in neuroscience, and it
NON-INVASIVE METHODS remains one of the most important ones
Studying the Structure of the today.
Living Human Brain
EVALUATING THE BEHAVIORAL lesions. For example, how do we ascertain

EFFECTS OF BRAIN DAMAGE: that the lesioned animal is blind? Does it
bump into objects, or fail to run through a
A lesion is a wound or injury, and a maze toward a light that signals the
researcher who destroys part of the brain location of food, or no longer constrict its
usually refers to the damage as a brain pupils to light? An animal could bump into
lesion. Experiments in which part of the objects because of deficits in motor
brain is damaged and the animal’s coordination, it could have lost its appetite
behavior is subsequently observed are for food (and thus its motivation to run
called lesion studies. The rationale for through the maze), or it could see quite
lesion studies is that the function of an area well but could have lost its visual reflexes.
of the brain can be inferred from the Researchers can often be fooled.
behaviors that the animal can no longer
perform after the area is damaged. For The distinction between brain function and
example, if, after part of the brain is behavior is an important one. Circuits
destroyed, an animal can no longer within the brain perform functions, not
perform tasks that require vision, we can behaviors. No one brain region or neural
conclude that the animal is blind- and that circuit is solely responsible for a behavior;
the damaged area plays some role in each region performs a function (or set of
vision. The most difficult task in such functions) that contributes to performance
studies is interpreting the effects of brain of the behavior.
PRODUCING BRAIN LESIONS: brain lesions employs an excitatory
amino acid such as kainic acid, which
It is easy to destroy parts of the brain kills neurons by stimulating them to death.
immediately beneath the skull; we Lesions produced this way are referred to
anesthetize the animal, cut open its scalp, as excitotoxic lesions. When an excitatory
remove part of its skull, and cut through amino acid is injected through a cannula
the dura mater, bringing the cortex into into a region of the brain, the chemical
view. Then we can use a suction device to destroys neural cell bodies in the vicinity
aspirate the brain tissue. To accomplish but spares axons that belong to different
this tissue removal, we place a glass neurons that happen to pass nearby. This
pipette on the surface of the brain and suck selectivity permits the investigator to
away brain tissue with a vacuum pump determine whether the behavioral effects
attached to the pipette. Brain lesions of of destroying a particular brain structure
subcortical regions (regions located are caused by the death of neurons located
beneath the cortex) are usually there or by the destruction of axons that
produced by passing electrical current pass nearby. When we produce subcortical
through a stainless steel wire that is coated lesions by passing RF current through an
with an insulating varnish except for the electrode or infusing a chemical through a
very tip. We guide the wire stereotaxically cannula, we always cause additional
so that its end reaches the appropriate damage to the brain. Therefore, we cannot
location. (Stereotaxic surgery: Brain simply compare the behavior of brain-
surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to lesioned animals with that of unoperated
position an electrode or cannula in a control animals; the incidental damage to
specified position of the brain). Then we the brain regions above the lesion may
turn on a lesion-making device, which actually be responsible for some of the
produces radio frequency (RF) current- behavioral deficits we see. What we do is
alternating current of a very high operate on a group of animals and
frequency. The passage of the current produce sham lesions- a “placebo”
through the brain tissue produces heat that procedure that duplicates all the steps of
kills cells in the region surrounding the tip producing a brain lesion except turn on the
of the electrode. Lesions produced by lesion maker or start the infusion. This
these means destroy everything in the group of animals serves as a control group;
vicinity of the electrode tip, including if the behavior of the animals with brain
neural cell bodies and the axons of neurons lesions is different from that of the sham-
that pass through the region. A more operated control animals, we can conclude
selective method of producing that the lesions caused the behavioral
deficits.
Most of the time, investigators produce from entering or leaving that region, thus
permanent brain lesions, but sometimes it effectively producing a temporary lesion
is advantageous to disrupt the activity of a (usually called a reversible brain lesion).
particular region of the brain temporarily. Muscimol is a drug that stimulates
The easiest way to do so is to inject a local GABA receptors, inactivates a region of
anesthetic or a drug called Muscimol into the brain by inhibiting the neurons located
the appropriate part of the brain. The there. (GABA is the most important
anesthetic blocks action potentials in axons inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.)
STEREOTAXIC SURGERY
fixes the animal’s head in a standard
Stereotaxis literally means “solid position and a carrier that moves an
arrangement”; more specifically, it refers electrode or a cannula through measured
to the ability to locate objects in space. A distances in all three axes of space. To
stereotaxic apparatus contains a holder that perform stereotaxic surgery, one must first
study a stereotaxic atlas.
STEREOTAXIC ATLAS
junction is called bregma, from the Greek
A collection of drawings of sections of the word meaning “front of head.” Bregma in
brain of a particular animal with a rat’s skull serves as a convenient
measurements that provide coordinates for reference point. If the animal’s skull is
stereotaxic surgery. oriented in a specific way, a particular
region of the brain is found in a fairly
No two brains of animals of a given constant position, relative to bregma. A
species are completely identical, but there stereotaxic atlas contains photographs
is enough similarity among individuals to or drawings that correspond to frontal
predict the location of particular brain sections taken at various distances
structures relative to external features of rostral and caudal to bregma.
the head. For instance, a subcortical
nucleus of a rat might be so many Thus, by finding a neural structure (which
millimeters ventral, anterior, and lateral to we cannot see in our animal) on one of the
a point formed by the junction of several pages of a stereotaxic atlas, we can
bones of the skull. determine the structure’s location relative
to bregma (which we can see). Because of
The skull is composed of several bones variations in different strains and ages of
that grow together and form sutures animals, the atlas gives only an
(seams). The heads of newborn babies approximate location. We always have to
contain a soft spot at the junction of the try out a new set of coordinates, slice and
coronal and sagittal sutures called the stain the animal’s brain, see the actual
fontanelle. Once this gap closes, the location of the lesion, correct the numbers,
and try again.
STEREOTAXIC APPARATUS distances along the three axes: anterior–
A stereotaxic apparatus operates on simple posterior, dorsal–ventral, and lateral–
principles. The device includes a head medial. Once we obtain the coordinates
holder, which maintains the animal’s skull from a stereotaxic atlas, we anesthetize the
in the proper orientation, a holder for the animal, place it in the apparatus, and cut
electrode, and a calibrated mechanism that the scalp open. We locate bregma, dial in
moves the electrode holder in measured
the appropriate numbers on the stereotaxic and the animal is taken out of the
apparatus, drill a hole through the skull, stereotaxic apparatus and allowed to
and lower the device into the brain by the recover from the anesthetic. Stereotaxic
correct amount. In all cases, once surgery apparatuses can also be made for humans.
is complete, the wound is sewn together,
HISTOLOGICAL METHODS mark, so we have to verify the precise

location of the brain damage after
After producing a brain lesion and testing the animal behaviorally. To do
observing its effects on an animal’s so, we must fix, slice, stain, and examine
behavior, we must slice and stain the brain the brain. Together, these procedures are
so that we can observe it under the referred to as histological methods. (The
microscope and see the location of the prefix histo- refers to body tissue.)
lesion. Brain lesions often miss the
FIXATION AND SECTIONING
If we hope to study the tissue in the form it and stain various cellular structures to see
had at the time of the organism’s death, we anatomical details. Slicing is done with a
must destroy the autolytic enzymes microtome (literally, “that which slices
(autolytic means “self-dissolving”), small”). Slices of brain tissue are usually
which will otherwise turn the tissue into referred to as sections. After the tissue is
mush. The tissue must also be preserved to cut, we attach the slices to glass
prevent its decomposition by bacteria or microscope slides. We can then stain the
molds. To achieve both of these objectives, tissue by putting the entire slide into
we place the neural tissue in a fixative. various chemical solutions. Finally, we
The most commonly used fixative is cover the stained sections with a small
formalin, an aqueous solution of amount of a transparent liquid known as a
formaldehyde, a gas. Formalin halts mounting medium and place a very thin
autolysis, hardens the very soft and fragile glass coverslip over the sections. The
brain, and kills any microorganisms that mounting medium keeps the coverslip in
might destroy it. Once the brain has been position.
fixed, we must slice it into thin sections
STAINING
If we looked at an unstained section of Incidentally, the dyes were not developed

brain tissue under a microscope, no fine specifically for histological purposes but
details would be revealed. For this reason, were originally formulated for use in
the study of microscopic neuroanatomy dyeing cloth. The discovery of cell-body
requires special histological stains. stains made it possible to identify nuclear
Researchers have developed many masses in the brain. Cresyl violet is one
different stains to identify specific such stain. The stain is not selective for
substances within and outside of cells. For neural cell bodies; all cells are stained,
verifying the location of a brain lesion, we neurons and glia alike. It is up to the
will use one of the simplest: a cell-body investigator to determine which is which-
stain. In the late nineteenth century Franz by size, shape, and location.
Nissl, a German neurologist, discovered
that a dye known as methylene blue would
stain the cell bodies of brain tissue.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
The light microscope is limited in its photographic film, which is exposed by the
ability to resolve extremely small details. electrons. Electron photomicrographs
A beam of electrons is passed through the produced in this way can provide
tissue to be examined. A shadow of the information about structural details on the
tissue is then cast onto a sheet of order of a few tens of nanometers.
TRACING NEURAL CONNECTIONS terminal buttons. Over the years’

neuroscientists have developed several
The next step in a research program often different methods for tracing the pathways
requires the investigator to discover the followed by efferent axons. Cell biologists
afferent and efferent connections of the have discovered that a family of proteins
region of interest with the rest of the brain. produced by plants bind with specific
Efferent connections (those that carry complex molecules present in cells of the
information from the region in question to immune system. These proteins, called
other parts of the brain) are revealed with lectins, have also found a use in tracing
anterograde tracing methods, such as the neural pathways. A particular lectin
one that uses PHA-L. Afferent connections produced by the kidney bean, PHA-L is
(those that bring information to the region used to identify efferent axons. To
in question from other parts of the brain) discover the destination of the efferent
are revealed with retrograde tracing axons of neurons located within the region,
methods, such as the one that uses we inject a minute quantity of PHA-L into
fluorogold (A dye that serves as a that nucleus by using a stereotaxic
retrograde label; taken up by terminal apparatus. The molecules of PHA-L are
buttons and carried back to the cell taken up by dendrites and are transported
bodies).To identify axons leaving a through the soma to the axon, where they
particular region and the terminal buttons travel by means of fast axoplasmic
of these axons, we use anterograde tracing transport to the terminal buttons. Within a
method, such as PHA-L. In recent years, few days the cells are filled in their
researchers have developed very precise entirety with molecules of PHA-L:
methods that make specific neurons stand dendrites, soma, axons and all their
out from all of the others. branches, and terminal buttons. Then we
kill the animal, slice the brain, and mount
TRACING EFFERENT AXONS the sections on microscope slides. A
special immunocytochemical method is
To trace the efferent axons of any used to make the molecules of PHA-L
structure, we use an anterograde labeling visible, and the slides are examined under
method (Anterograde means “moving a microscope.
forward”). Anterograde labeling methods Eventually, we will discover the relevant
employ chemicals that are taken up by pathways from the region to the motor
dendrites or cell bodies and are then neurons whose activity is necessary for
transported through the axons toward the copulatory behavior.
TRACING AFFERENT AXONS histological method that labels cell bodies
that give rise to the terminal buttons that
To find the afferent connections to the form synapses with cells in a particular
region, we employ a retrograde labeling region) identify a single link in a chain of
method. Retrograde means “moving neurons- neurons whose axons enter or
backward”. Retrograde labeling methods leave a particular brain region.
employ chemicals that are taken up by
terminal buttons and carried back through Transneuronal tracing methods identify a
the axons toward the cell bodies. The series of two, three, or more neurons that
method for identifying the afferent inputs form serial synaptic connections with each
to a particular region of the brain is similar other. The most effective transneuronal
to the method used for identifying its tracing method uses a pseudorabies virus-a
efferent. First, we inject a small quantity of weakened form of a pig herpes virus used
a chemical called fluorogold into the for retrograde transneuronal tracing, which
region. The chemical is taken up by labels a series of neurons that are
terminal buttons and is transported back by interconnected synaptically.
means of retrograde axoplasmic transport
to the cell bodies. A few days later we kill Together, anterograde and retrograde
the animal, slice its brain, and examine the labeling methods—including transneuronal
tissue under light of the appropriate methods—enable us to discover circuits of
wavelength.The anterograde and interconnected neurons. Thus, these
retrograde labeling methods (retrograde methods help to provide us with a “wiring
labeling method is a diagram” of the brain.
RECORDING AND STIMULATING
NEURAL ACTIVITY
Recording Neural Activity
Recording the Brain’s Metabolic and
Synaptic Activity
Stimulating Neural Activity
INTERIM SUMMARY activity of large groups of neurons. In

rare cases macroelectrodes are placed in
When circuits of neurons participate in the depths of the human brain, but most
their normal functions, their electrical often they are placed on the scalp and their
activity, metabolic activity, and chemical activity is recorded on a polygraph.
secretions increase. Thus, by observing Metabolic activity can be measured by
these processes as an animal perceives giving an animal an injection of
various stimuli or engages in various radioactive 2-DG, which accumulates in
behaviors, we can make some inferences metabolically active neurons. The presence
about the functions performed by various of the radioactivity is revealed through
regions of the brain. Microelectrodes can autoradiography: Slices of the brain are
be used to record the electrical activity placed on microscope slides, and after a
of individual neurons. Chronic recordings while developed like photographic
require that the electrode be attached to an negatives. When neurons are stimulated,
electrical socket, which is fastened to the they synthesize the nuclear protein Fos (A
skull with a plastic adhesive. protein produced in the nucleus of a
Macroelectrodes record the neuron in response to synaptic
stimulation).
The presence of Fos, revealed by a special after the animal has recovered from the
staining method, provides another way to surgery, they insert a smaller cannula and
discover active regions of the brain. The inject a weak solution of an excitatory
metabolic activity of various regions of the amino acid into the brain. The advantage
living human brain can be revealed by the of this procedure is that only neurons
2-DG method, but a PET scanner is used whose cell bodies are located nearby will
to detect the active regions. be stimulated; axons passing through
the region will not be affected.
Another noninvasive method of measuring Transcranial magnetic stimulation induces
regional brain activity is provided by electrical activity in the human cerebral
functional MRI, which detects localized cortex, which temporarily disrupts the
changes in oxygen level. The secretions of functioning of neural circuits located there.
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators can
be measured by implanting the tip of a Recording and Stimulating neural activity
micro dialysis probe in a particular region involves studying the brain by recording or
of the brain. A PET scanner can be used to stimulating the activity of particular
perform similar observations of the human regions. Brain functions involve activity of
brain. Researchers can stimulate various circuits of neurons; thus, different
regions of the brain by implanting a perceptions and behavioral responses
macroelectrode and applying mild involve different patterns of activity in the
electrical stimulation. Alternatively, they brain. Researchers have devised methods
can implant a guide cannula in the brain; to record these patterns of activity or to
artificially produce them.
RECORDING NEURAL ACTIVITY behaviors. For example, recordings can be
made during stimulus presentations,
Axons produce action potentials, and decision making, or motor activities.
terminal buttons elicit postsynaptic Recordings can be made chronically, over
potentials in the membrane of the cells an extended period of time after the animal
with which they form synapses. These recovers from surgery, or acutely, for a
electrical events can be recorded, and relatively short period of time during
changes in the electrical activity of a which the animal is kept anesthetized.
particular region can be used to determine
whether that region plays a role in various
RECORDINGS WITH in unanesthetized animals, we want more

MICROELECTRODES durable electrodes so we can use arrays of
very fine wires, gathered together in a
Microelectrodes have a very fine tip, small bundle. The wires are insulated with a
enough to record the electrical activity of special varnish so that only their tips are
individual neurons. This technique is bare. The wires are flexible enough that
usually called single-unit recording (a they can follow movements of the brain
unit refers to an individual neuron). tissue caused by movements of the
Because we want to record the activity of animal’s head. As a result, they are less
single neurons over a long period of time likely to damage the neurons whose
signals they are receiving. In addition, we rode. These electrodes can consist of
can record the activity of several unsharpened wires inserted into the brain,
individual neurons in a particular region of screws attached to the skull, or even metal
the brain. We implant the electrodes in the disks attached to the human scalp with a
brains of animals through stereotaxic special paste that conducts electricity.
surgery. Then, after recovery from surgery, Occasionally, neurosurgeons implant
the animal can be “plugged in” to the macroelectrodes directly into the human
recording system. Laboratory animals brain. The reason for doing so is to
pay no heed to the electrical sockets on detect the source of abnormal electrical
their skulls and behave quite normally. activity that is giving rise to frequent
Researchers often attach rather complex seizures. Once the source is determined,
devices to the animals’ skulls when they the surgeon can open the skull and
implant microelectrodes so that they can remove the source of the seizures—
record from several different parts of the usually scar tissue caused by brain
brain during the course of their damage that occurred earlier in life.
observations. The electrical signals Most often, the electrical activity of a
detected by microelectrodes are quite human brain is recorded through
small and must be amplified using electrodes attached to the scalp and
amplifiers for converting the weak signals displayed on an ink-writing oscillograph,
recorded at the brain into stronger ones. commonly called a polygraph. A
These signals can be stored in the memory polygraph contains a mechanism that
of a computer for analysis at a later time. moves a very long strip of paper past a
series of pens. Such records are called
Recordings with Macroelectrodes: At electroencephalograms (EEGs), or
times we may need to record the activity of “writings of electricity from the head.”
a region of the brain as a whole, not the They can be used to diagnose epilepsy or
activity of individual neurons located brain tumors or to study the stages of sleep
there. Hence, we use macroelectrodes. and wakefulness, which are associated
Macroelectrodes do not detect the activity with characteristic patterns of electrical
of individual neurons; rather, the records activity. Another use of the EEG is to
that are obtained with these devices monitor the condition of the brain during
represent the postsynaptic potentials of procedures that could potentially damage
many thousands—or millions—of cells in it.
the
area
of
the
elect
MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY somatic membrane of a neuron, magnetic

fields are also produced. These fields are
When electrical current flows through a exceedingly small, but engineers have
conductor, it induces a magnetic field. This developed superconducting detectors
means that as action potentials pass down (called superconducting quantum
axons or as postsynaptic potentials pass interference devices, or SQUIDs), that
down dendrites or sweep across the can detect magnetic fields that are
approximately one-billionth of the size of calculate the source of particular signals in

the earth’s magnetic field. the brain. These devices can be used
Magnetoencephalography is performed clinically—for example, to find the
with devices that contain an array of sources of seizures so that they can be
several SQUIDs, oriented so that a removed surgically.
computer can examine their output and
RECORDING THE BRAIN’S this radioactivity in the form of dark spots

METABOLIC AND SYNAPTIC in the developed emulsion. Another
ACTIVITY method of identifying active regions of the
brain capitalizes on the fact that when
Electrical signals are not the only signs of neurons are activated (for example, by the
neural activity. If the neural activity of a terminal buttons that form synapses with
particular region of the brain increases, them), particular genes in the nucleus
the metabolic rate of this region called immediate early genes are turned
increases, too, largely as a result of on and particular proteins are
increased operation of ion pumps in the produced. These proteins then bind with
membrane of the cells. This increased the chromosomes in the nucleus. The
metabolic rate can be measured. The presence of these nuclear proteins
experimenter injects radioactive 2- indicates that the neuron has just been
deoxyglucose (2-DG) into the animal’s activated. One of the nuclear proteins
bloodstream. Because this chemical produced during neural activation is called
FOS.
resembles glucose (the principal food for
the brain), it is taken into cells. Thus, the
most active cells, which use glucose at the The metabolic activity of specific brain
highest rate, will take up the highest regions can be measured in human
concentrations of radioactive 2-DG. But brains, too, using a method known as
unlike normal glucose, 2-DG cannot be positron emission tomography (PET).
metabolized, so it stays in the cell. The First, the patient receives an injection of
experimenter then kills the animal, radioactive 2-DG. The person’s head is
removes the brain, slices it, and prepares it placed in a machine similar to a CT
for autoradiography. Autoradiography scanner. When the radioactive molecules
can be translated roughly as “writing of 2-DG decay, they emit subatomic
with one’s own radiation.” Sections of particles called positrons, which are
the brain are mounted on microscope detected by the scanner. The computer
slides. The slides are then taken into a determines which regions of the brain have
darkroom, where they are coated with a taken up the radioactive substance, and it
photographic emulsion (the substance produces a picture of a slice of the brain,
found on photographic film). Several showing the activity level of various
weeks later, the slides, with their coatings regions in that slice. One of the
of emulsion, are developed, just like disadvantages of PET scanners is their
photographic film. The molecules of operating cost. The most recent
radioactive 2-DG show themselves as development in brain imaging is
spots of silver grains in the developed functional MRI (fMRI). Engineers have
emulsion because the radioactivity exposes devised modifications to existing MRI
the emulsion, just as X-rays or light will scanners that acquire images very rapidly
do.The most active regions of the brain and permit the measurement of regional
contain the most radioactivities, showing metabolism by detecting levels
of oxygen in the brain’s blood vessels. be acquired much faster. Thus, they reveal
Functional MRI scans have a higher more detailed information about the
resolution than PET scans do, and they can activity of particular brain regions.
MEASURING THE BRAIN’S section of dialysis tubing. We use

SECRETIONS: stereotaxic surgery to place a microdialysis
probe in a rat’s brain so that the tip of the
Sometimes we are interested not in the probe is located in the region we are
general metabolic activity of particular interested in. The microdialysis procedure
regions of the brain, but in the secretion of has been applied to study of the human
specific neurotransmitters or brain, but ethical reasons prevent us from
neuromodulators in these regions. Say, to doing so for research purposes.
Fortunately, there is a noninvasive way to
measure the secretion of acetylcholine in
a region of the medulla, we use measure neurochemicals in the human
microdialysis. Dialysisis a process in brain. Although PET scanners are
expensive machines, they are also
which substances are separated by means
versatile. They can be used to localize any
of an artificial membrane that is permeable
radioactive substance that emits positrons.
to some molecules but not others. A
microdialysis probe consists of a small
metal tube that introduces a solution into a
Structural imaging, which deals with

BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES
the structure of the brain and the
Recent advances in X-ray techniques and diagnosis of large-scale intracranial
computers have led to the development of disease (such as a tumor), as well
several methods for studying the anatomy as injury.
of the living brain. These advances permit Functional imaging, which is used to
researchers to study the location and extent diagnose metabolic diseases and
of brain damage while the patient is still lesions on a finer scale (such as
living. All this is provided by the processes Alzheimer’s disease), and also for
called MRI and CT. neurological and cognitive-
psychology research. Functional
Neuroimaging, or brain scanning, includes imaging allows the brain’s
the use of various techniques to directly or information processing to be
indirectly image the structure, function, or visualized directly, because activity
pharmacology of the brain. It is a in the involved area of the brain
relatively new discipline within medicine, increases metabolism and “lights
neuroscience, and psychology. up” on the scan.
Physicians who specialize in the
performance and interpretation of Four of the most common types of brain
neuroimaging in the clinical setting are scans are EEG, PET, MRI, and fMRI.
known as neuroradiologists. They scan the brain through a variety of
Neuroimaging falls into two broad methods and have varying degrees of
categories: specificity and invasiveness.
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY bones. Because of this, it is sometimes
(EEG) unclear exactly which region of the brain
is emitting a signal.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is used to
show brain activity in certain POSITRON EMISSION
psychological states, such as alertness or TOMOGRAPHY (PET)
drowsiness. It is useful in the diagnosis of
seizures and other medical problems that Positron emission tomography (PET) scans
involve an overabundance or lack of measure levels of the sugar glucose in the
activity in certain parts of the brain. brain in order to illustrate where neural
firing is taking place. This works because
To prepare for an EEG, electrodes are active neurons use glucose as fuel. As part
placed on the face and scalp. After placing of the scan, a tracer substance attached to
each electrode in the right position, the radioactive isotopes is injected into the
electrical potential of each electrode can be blood. When parts of the brain become
measured. According to a person’s state active, blood (which contains the tracer) is
(waking, sleeping, etc.), both the sent to deliver oxygen. This creates visible
frequency and the form of the EEG signal spots, which are then picked up by
differ. Patients who suffer from epilepsy detectors and used to create a video image
show an increase of the amplitude of firing of the brain while performing a particular
visible on the EEG record. The task. However, with PET scans, we can
disadvantage of EEG is that the electric only locate generalized areas of brain
conductivity —and therefore the measured activity and not specific locations. In
electrical potentials—may vary widely addition, PET scans are costly and
from person to person and also over time, invasive, making their use limited.
due to the natural conductivities of other However, they can be used in some forms
tissues such as brain matter, blood, and of medical diagnosis, including for
Alzheimer’s.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE signal generated as the nuclei return to
IMAGING (MRI) their baseline status. Through this process,
an MRI creates an image of the brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and structure. MRI scans are noninvasive, pose
functional magnetic resonance imaging little health risk, and can be used on
(fMRI) scans are the form of neural infants and in utero, providing a consistent
imaging most directly useful to the field of mode of imaging across the development
psychology. It is a technique whereby the spectrum. One disadvantage is that the
interior of the body can be accurately patient has to hold still for long periods of
imaged; involves the interaction between time in a noisy, cramped space while the
radio waves and a strong magnetic field. imaging is performed. The fMRI is a series
MRI passes an extremely strong magnetic of MRIs that measures both the structure
field through the patient’s head. The and the functional activity of the brain
scanners can use this information to through computer adaptation of multiple
prepare pictures of slices of the brain. images. Specifically, the fMRI measures
signal changes in the brain that are due to
An MRI uses strong magnetic fields to changing neural activity. In an fMRI, a
align spinning atomic nuclei (usually patient can perform mental tasks and the
hydrogen protons) within body tissues, area of action can be detected through
then disturbs the axis of rotation of these blood flow from one part of the brain to
nuclei and observes the radio frequency
another by taking pictures less than a have been used to study a wide range of
second apart and showing where the brain psychological phenomena, including (but
“lights up.” For example, when a person by no means limited to) the neural activity
processes visual information, blood rushes of telling a lie, the differences between
to the back of the brain, which is where the novices and experts when playing a
occipital lobe is located. FMRIs make it musical instrument, and what happens
possible to show when things happen, how inside our heads when we dream.
brain areas change with experience, and
which brain areas work together. They
(For References)
Computerized Tomography (CT) is the use of a device that employs a computer to
analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional
picture of a “slice” through the body.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF be directly observed. Instead, motivation

MOTIVATION: HUNGER, THIRST, can only be inferred by noting a person’s
SLEEP AND SEX. behavior. Researchers have proposed
theories that try to explain human
A motive is an impulse that causes a motivation. These theories include drive
person to act. Motivation is an internal reduction theories and Maslow’s
process that makes a person move toward hierarchy of needs theory.
a goal. Motivation, like intelligence, can’t
DRIVE REDUCTION THEORIES People sometimes aren’t motivated by

internal needs.
Drive reduction theories of motivation
suggest that people act in order to reduce Example: Some people fast for long
needs and maintain a constant periods for political causes, despite feeling
physiological state. For example, people extreme hunger. Sometimes, people
eat in order to reduce their need for food. continue being motivated even when they
The idea of homeostasis is central to drive have satisfied internal needs.
reduction theories. Homeostasis is the
maintenance of a state of physiological Example: People sometimes eat even
equilibrium. Drive reduction theories fail when they don’t feel hungry.
to explain several aspects of motivation:
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER There are a number of physiological

mechanisms that serve as the basis for
hunger. When our stomachs are empty,
Hunger is a complicated motivation; they contract, causing both hunger pangs
people don’t eat only because they need and the secretion of chemical messages
food. Many factors, both biological and that travel to the brain to serve as a signal
environmental, influence hunger. These to initiate feeding behavior.When our
factors interact with one another in many blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas
ways. and liver generate a number of chemical
signals that induce hunger (Konturek et al.,
2003; Novin, Robinson, Culbreth, & behavior.

Tordoff, 1985) and thus initiate feeding
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS in hunger. The brain, the digestive system,

Researchers believe certain genetic and hormones are all involved in
differences among individuals play a role influencing hunger at the biological level.
Once again, he returns to his set point.

GENETIC DIFFERENCES AMONG
The set point is maintained not only by
INDIVIDUALS food intake and energy expenditure but
Researchers theorize that people have also by the body’s basal metabolic rate,
a genetically influenced set point for another genetically influenced variable.
body weight. If a person’s weight rises Basal metabolic rate is the rate at
too far above his set point, his appetite which a person at complete rest uses
decreases, or energy. Some researchers disagree
about set points and believe that
he uses up more energy. His weight then people can reset their normal weight if they
returns to its set point. If, on the other add or lose pounds slowly. They also point
hand, his weight falls too far below his out that people usually gain weight when
set point, his appetite increases, or he they have easy access to rich foods.
uses less energy.
THE BRAIN
Researchers believe three areas in the The ventromedial nucleus of the

hypothalamus play a key role in regulating hypothalamus is involved in
hunger: recognizing satiety or fullness. In rats,
damage to the ventromedial nucleus
The lateral hypothalamus is involved in results in excessive eating and weight
recognizing hunger. In rats, damage to the gain. The paraventricular nucleus of
lateral hypothalamus results in loss of the hypothalamus is also involved in
interest in eating. hunger regulation. When the
paraventricular nucleus of a rat is
damaged, the rat will eat a very large

quantity of food at each meal. HORMONES
The hormone insulin also plays an
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM important role in regulating hunger.
The digestive system influences hunger in Insulin allows cells to access glucose in
several ways. For instance, after a meal, the blood. When the pancreas secretes
the stomach and intestines send nerve insulin, hunger increases. Diabetes is a
impulses to the brain to help people condition caused by a deficiency of
recognize that they are full. insulin. People who have diabetes take
injections of insulin. Without these
The body converts food to glucose, a injections, their cells would be unable to
simple sugar that acts as an energy source use the glucose in their blood.
for cells. The level of glucose in the blood Another hormone involved in hunger
affects hunger. Low blood glucose regulation is leptin. Fat cells in the body
secrete leptin and release it into the blood.
increases hunger; high blood glucose
When the leptin level in the blood is high,
decreases hunger.
hunger decreases.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SEX
Many environmental factors influence
hunger, including the availability of rich Unlike hunger, sexual drive does not
foods, taste preferences, habits, memory, motivate people to fulfill a basic
stress, and cultural attitudes. biological need. A lack of food leads to
death; a lack of sex, on the other hand,
does not. Both biological and
psychological factors strongly influence
sexual drive.
KINSEY’S STUDIES
One of the first researchers to give a bore little relation to actual sexual
modern account of human sexuality was practices. Kinsey provided statistics
Alfred Kinsey. In the 1940s, he and his showing that sexual practices varied
colleagues interviewed more than 18,000 widely and that even in the 1940s there
U.S. men and women about their sexual was a high prevalence of masturbation and
behavior and attitudes. In his premarital sex. These statistics shocked
comprehensive reports about human many people of his day.
sexuality, Kinsey denounced the repressive
social attitudes of his time, which he said
Critics of Kinsey’s research maintained his colleagues used questionable methods

three arguments: to gather their data, especially asking
Kinsey’s
 sample was not random. leading questions when interviewing
Instead, it consisted largely of well- subjects.Kinsey may have let his own
educated, white city dwellers.Kinsey and beliefs influence his results
MASTERS AND JOHNSON’S may secrete a small amount of fluid
STUDIES from the penis.
Orgasm phase: Physiological arousal
Other pioneers of sexual research were peaks. Men ejaculate seminal fluid.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson. Both men and women experience
In the 1960s, they studied several hundred muscular contractions in the pelvic
male and female volunteers who agreed to area, along with a sensation of
either masturbate or have intercourse in a pleasure.
laboratory. Masters and Johnson hooked Resolution phase: Physiological
up the volunteers to instruments that responses return to normal levels. Men
measured various physiological indicators then go through a refractory period that
during sexual activity. Using the results of can vary in length, during which they
these studies, they described the sexual are not responsive to stimulation. The
response cycle. refractory period tends to get longer as
men age.
THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
Critics of Masters and Johnson’s
Masters and Johnson divided the human research maintained two arguments:
sexual response cycle into four phases:
Masters and Johnson studied a biased
1. Excitement phase: Physiological sample of people. The sample
arousal increases quickly. Muscle included only people who were
tension, heart rate, blood pressure, and both willing and able to perform
breathing rate increase. In men, the  sexual acts in a laboratory setting.
penis gets erect and the testes swell. In Masters and Johnson didn’t pay
women, the clitoris hardens and swells,  attention to individual differences.
the vaginal lips open, and the vagina In reality, people’s sexual
lubricates. responses vary according to factors
Plateau phase: Physiological arousal  such as age, amount of sexual
continues. In women, the clitoris experience, and cultural
retracts under the clitoral hood. Men 
background.

THE ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE EROTIC STIMULI: Both men and
women can become sexually aroused
Sexual drive is related to testosterone level by external and internal erotic stimuli.
in both men and women, but the External erotic stimuli include sexually
relationship is a complex one. Sexual exciting material that is read, heard, or
activity increases testosterone levels, and seen. Internal erotic stimuli include
testosterone levels increase sex drive. thoughts, fantasies, and memories of
Psychological Factors in Sexual past sexual experiences. What is
Motivation:Hormones alone cannot cause considered erotic varies according to
sexual arousal. Psychological factors are the individual, historical period, and
also highly influential. cultural context.
DESIRES: People have an infinite when deciding whether they should
number of desires that influence the initiate sexual activity or wait to
motivation for sex, including to receive a partner’s advances.
procreate, to express love, to have
physical enjoyment, to cope with A culture’s social and economic structure
difficult situations and emotions, to determines the gender roles that men and
validate one’s desirability, and to do women adopt. These gender roles in turn
 what peers do. determine people’s attitude toward sexual
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Having a activity. In some cultures, for instance,
strong influence on sexual behavior, women need marriage to get access to
cultures inform people about sexual status and wealth. In such cultures, a
scripts, or implicit rules that allow a woman is less likely to be interested in sex
person to judge the appropriate sexual for its own sake, since casual sex can
behavior for a given situation. For damage her reputation and reduce her
example, people follow sexual scripts chances of marriage.
SEX AND THE BRAIN GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL

BEHAVIOR AND PARTNER CHOICE
Psychological influences are clearly Many researchers have found that some
powerful motivators for sex, and the brain differences exist between men and women
is highly involved in sexual arousal. in sexual behavior and partner choice,
People who have lost all sensation in their though all men and all women do not
genitals because of spinal injuries, for behave the same way or feel the same
example, are still capable of sexual desire. things.
Men Women
More interested in sex; initiate and think about
Less interested in sex
sex more often
Want sex with more partners Not as interested in sex with many partners
Desire sex without emotional commitment Desire sex with emotional commitment
Focus on youth and physical attractiveness Focus on social and economic status when
when choosing a sex partner choosing a sex partner
Feel more jealous when partner is physically Feel more jealous when partner is
unfaithful emotionally unfaithful
EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS standpoint, men invest no more than the

energy required for intercourse. Women,
Some theorists use evolutionary theory to on the other hand, invest time and energy
explain these gender differences. Their in pregnancy and breast feeding. Because
explanations are generally based on Robert of these biological differences, females can
Trivers’s idea that men and women make produce only a limited number of
different parental investments in order to offspring, whereas males can potentially
produce offspring. From a biological produce virtually unlimited offspring.
Males can increase their reproductive PROBLEMS WITH EVOLUTIONARY

success by producing as many offspring as EXPLANATIONS
possible. Evolutionary theory predicts that
men tend to choose attractive, youthful Many people criticize the use of
partners because these qualities imply evolutionary explanations of gender
good health and an ability to reproduce differences in sexual behavior. Some
successfully. Females increase their critics argue that alternative explanations
reproductive success by being highly can account equally well for the observed
discriminating when choosing mates. They gender differences. For example, women’s
try to select males who have the most history of social and economic
access to material resources, because such subservience may have taught them to
males can contribute the most to caring for place a high value on their partners’ access
offspring.Furthermore, men must contend to material resources. Men’s preferences
with paternity uncertainty—they can never and behaviors may likewise be a product
be certain that they are the fathers of their of socialization. See page 43 for more
partners’ offspring. Evolutionary theorists information on problems with evolutionary
predict that men would therefore tend to explanations.
have concerns about their partners’ sexual
infidelity. Women, on the other hand, can SEXUAL ORIENTATION
be certain that their offspring are their
own, though they cannot be certain that Sexual orientation is such a controversial
their partners will provide for their subject that people cannot even agree
offspring. Therefore, they are more likely about how the term sexual orientation
to be concerned about the emotional should be defined. Some people argue over
fidelity of their partners. whether it refers to sexual behavior, sexual
attraction, emotional attraction, or all
POSSIBLE BIOLOGICAL FACTORS three. Researchers define sexual
orientation in a variety of ways, which
Researchers have many ideas about the means there is no clear idea about what
possible biological factors of proportion of the population is
homosexuality: homosexual. Researchers also have many
different opinions regarding how many
HORMONES: Some researchers have biological and environmental factors
suggested that homosexuals and contribute to sexual orientation.
heterosexuals have different levels of
GENES: Others have proposed that there
various hormones in the blood.
is a genetic basis for predisposition to
However, research in this area has
homosexuality. To investigate the
failed consistently to find hormonal
possibility of a genetic basis, researchers
variations that could account for
have studied the sexual orientations of the
differences in sexual orientation.
identical, fraternal, and adoptive siblings
of homosexual people. This research has
shown that the identical twins of
homosexuals are much more likely to be
homosexual than the fraternal twins of
homosexuals. In turn, the fraternal twins of
homosexuals are more likely to be
homosexual than the adoptive siblings of
homosexuals.
 PRENATAL FACTORS:Some prenatal Androgens became

researchers have focused on prenatal homosexual and that many
environment. These researchers homosexual women were not exposed
believe that the level of hormones to androgens prenatally.
present during a critical period in  BRAIN DIFFERENCES: One
prenatal development can affect the researcher, Simon LeVay, examined
organization of the brain, which in turn anatomical differences in the brains of
can influence sexual orientation. homosexual and heterosexual men. He
Research shows that women who were found that a specific area of the
exposed to high prenatal levels of hypothalamus tended to be smaller in
androgens are more likely to be homosexual men and in heterosexual
homosexual. Critics point out that not women than in heterosexual men.
all women who were exposed to
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS  Many of these Proposals

lack empirical support.
Many researchers believe biological
At this time, no one knows exactly what
factors alone can’t explain the origin of
determines sexual orientation. Possibly,
homosexuality. For example, there is only
men and women develop homosexual
about a 50 percent chance that the identical
orientations through various pathways. It is
twins of homosexual men will also be
also possible that the cause of homosexual
homosexual. Therefore, some other factor
orientation differs from individual to
must make the other 50 percent
individual.
heterosexual. Although this other factor
remains unknown, researchers have
proposed a number of environmental SEXUAL ORIENTATION IN THE
situations that might influence sexual ANIMAL WORLD
orientation: Humans are not the only species to engage
in homosexual or bisexual activity.
 An ineffectual, distant father and
Biologists have documented that animals
an overly close, domineering
belonging to hundreds of different species
 mother
engage in homosexual or bisexual
 Seduction in childhood by a
behavior. Many both male and female
homosexual adult
form exclusive, long-term homosexual
 Same-sex sexual play as children
pairs.
(EXTRA FOR REFERENCE – IMPORTANT FOR NET)
EATING DISORDERS many adverse health consequences (Mayo

Clinic, 2012a, 2012b). People suffering
While nearly two out of three US adults from bulimia nervosa engage in binge
struggle with issues related to being eating behavior that is followed by an
overweight, a smaller, but significant, attempt to compensate for the large
portion of the population has eating amount of food consumed. Purging the
disorders that typically result in being food by inducing vomiting or through the
normal weight or underweight. Often, use of laxatives are two common
these individuals are fearful of gaining compensatory behaviors. Some affected
weight. Individuals who suffer from individuals engage in excessive
bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa face
amounts of exercise to compensate for body weight well below average through
their binges. Bulimia is associated with starvation and/or excessive exercise.
many adverse health consequences that Individuals suffering from anorexia
can include kidney failure, heart failure, nervosa often have a distorted body image,
and tooth decay. In addition, these referenced in literature as a type of body
individuals often suffer from anxiety and dysmorphia, meaning that they view
depression, and they are at an increased themselves as overweight even though
risk for substance abuse (Mayo Clinic, they are not. Like bulimia nervosa,
2012b). The lifetime prevalence rate for anorexia nervosa is associated with a
bulimia nervosa is estimated at around 1% number of significant negative health
for women and less than 0.5% for men outcomes: bone loss, heart failure, kidney
(Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012). failure, amenorrhea (cessation of the
menstrual period), reduced function of the
As of the 2013 release of the Diagnostic gonads, and in extreme cases, death.
and Statistical Manual, fifth edition, Binge Furthermore, there is an increased risk for
eating disorder is a disorder recognized by a number of psychological problems,
the American Psychiatric Association which include anxiety disorders, mood
(APA). Unlike with bulimia, eating binges disorders, and substance abuse (Mayo
are not followed by inappropriate Clinic, 2012a). Estimates of the prevalence
behavior, such as purging, but they are of anorexia nervosa vary from study to
followed by distress, including feelings of study but generally range from just under
guilt and embarrassment. The resulting one percent to just over four percent in
psychological distress distinguishes binge women. Generally, prevalence rates are
eating disorder from overeating (American considerably lower for men (Smink et al.,
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). 2012).
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder

characterized by the maintenance of a
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EMOTION: THE LIMBIC SYSTEM,

HORMONAL REGULATION OF BEHAVIOR.
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM also our higher mental functions, such as

The limbic system combines higher mental learning and formation of memories. The
functions and primitive emotion into one limbic system is the reason that some
system. physical things such as eating seem so
pleasurable to us, and the reason why some
The limbic system is a complex set of medical conditions, such as high blood
structures found on the central underside pressure, are caused by mental stress.
of the cerebrum, comprising inner sections There are several important structures
of the temporal lobes and the bottom of the within the limbic system: the
frontal lobe. It combines higher mental
amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus,
functions and primitive emotion into a
hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate
single system often referred to as the gyrus.
emotional nervous system. It is not only
responsible for our emotional lives but
THE AMYGDALA seahorse. It consists of two horns curving
The amygdala is a small almond-shaped back from the amygdala. Psychologists
structure; there is one located in each of and neuroscientists dispute the precise role
the left and right temporal lobes. Known as of the hippocampus, but generally agree
the emotional center of the brain, the that it plays an essential role in the
amygdala is involved in evaluating the formation of new memories about past
emotional valence of situations (e.g., experiences. Some researchers consider
happy, sad, scary). It helps the brain the hippocampus to be responsible for
recognize potential threats and helps general declarative memory (memories
prepare the body for fight-or-flight that can be explicitly verbalized, such as
reactions by increasing heart and breathing memory of facts and episodic memory).
rate. The amygdala is also responsible for Damage to the hippocampus usually
learning on the basis of reward or results in profound difficulties in forming
punishment. new memories (anterograde amnesia), and
Due to its close proximity to the may also affect access to memories formed
hippocampus, the amygdala is involved in prior to the damage (retrograde amnesia).
the modulation of memory consolidation, Although the retrograde effect normally
particularly emotionally-laden memories. extends some years prior to the brain
Emotional arousal following a learning damage, in some cases older memories
event influences the strength of the remain intact; this leads to the idea that
subsequent memory of that event, so that over time the hippocampus becomes less
greater emotional arousal following a important in the storage of memory.
learning event enhances a person’s
retention of that memory. In fact, THE THALAMUS AND
experiments have shown that HYPOTHALAMUS
administering stress hormones to
individuals immediately after they learn Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are
something enhances their retention when associated with changes in emotional
they are tested two weeks later. reactivity. The thalamus, which is a
sensory “way-station” for the rest of the
brain, is primarily important due to its
THE HIPPOCAMPUS connections with other limbic-system
The hippocampus is found deep in the structures. The hypothalamus is a small
temporal lobe, and is shaped like a part of the brain located just below the
thalamus on both sides of the third THE CINGULATE GYRUS

ventricle. Lesions of the hypothalamus The cingulate gyrus is located in the
interfere with several unconscious medial side of the brain next to the corpus
functions (such as respiration and callosum. There is still much to be learned
metabolism) and some so-called motivated about this gyrus, but it is known that its
behaviors like sexuality, combativeness, frontal part links smells and sights with
and hunger. The lateral parts of the pleasant memories of previous emotions.
hypothalamus seem to be involved with This region also participates in our
pleasure and rage, while the medial part is emotional reaction to pain and in the
linked to aversion, displeasure, and a regulation of aggressive behavior.
tendency for uncontrollable and loud
laughter.
THE BASAL GANGLIA rule-based habit learning (e.g.,

initiating, stopping, monitoring,
The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei
lying deep in the subcortical white matter temporal sequencing, and maintaining
of the frontal lobes that organizes motor the appropriate movement);
behavior. The caudate, putamen, and inhibiting undesired movements and
globus pallidus are major components of permitting desired ones;
the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia choosing from potential actions;
appears to serve as a gating mechanism for motor planning;
physical movements, inhibiting potential sequencing;
movements until they are fully appropriate predictive control;
for the circumstances in which they are to working memory;
be executed. The basal ganglia are also attention.
involved with:
EARLY LANDMARKS IN THE BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF

EMOTION:
There are six major early landmarks in the skull and measuring it precisely, paying
biopsychological investigation of emotion. particular attention to the position of the
entry and exit holes. From these
measurements, they reconstructed the
THE CASE OF PHINEAS GAGE accident and determined the likely region
(1848): of Gages brain damage. It was apparent
In 1994, Damasio and her colleagues that the damage to Gages brain affected
brought the power of computerized both medial prefrontal lobes, which are
reconstruction to bear on Gages classic involved in planning and emotion.
case. They began by taking an X-ray of the
CASE STUDY: PHINEAS GAGE religious man who was well liked by his
friends and fellow workers. Once
recovered, he appeared to be as able-
In 1848, Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old bodied and intellectually capable as before,
construction foreman for the Rutland and but his personality and emotional life had
Burlington Railroad, was the victim of a totally changed. He became irreverent and
tragic accident. In order to lay new tracks, impulsive. He became so unreliable and
the terrain had to be leveled, and Gage was undependable that he soon lost his job, and
in charge of the blasting. His task involved was never again able to hold a responsible
drilling holes in the rock, pouring some position. Gage became itinerant, roaming
gun powder into each hole, covering it the country for a dozen years until his
with sand, and tamping the material down death in San Francisco.
with a large tamping iron before
detonating it with a fuse. On the fateful Five years later, neurologist John Harlow
day, the gunpowder exploded while Gage was granted permission from Gages family
was tamping it, launching the 3-cm-thick, to exhume the body and tamping iron to
90-cm-long tamping iron through his face, study them. Since then, Gages skull and
skull, and brain and out the other side. the tamping iron have been on display in
Amazingly, Gage survived his accident, the Warren Anatomical Medical Museum
but he survived it a changed man. Before at Harvard University.
the accident, Gage had been a responsible,
intelligent, socially well-adapted person,
DARWIN’S THEORY OF THE evolution of emotional expression that was
EVOLUTION OF EMOTION: composed of three main ideas:
The first major event in the study of the Expressions of emotion evolve from
biopsychology of emotion was the behaviors that indicate what an
publication in 1872 of Darwin’s book:  animal is likely to do next.
The Expression of Emotions in Man and If the signals provided by such
Animals. In it, Darwin argued, largely on behaviors benefit the animal that
the basis of anecdotal evidence that  displays them, they will evolve in
particular emotional responses, such as ways that enhance their
human facial expressions, tend to communicative function, and their
accompany the same emotional states in all  original function may be lost.
members of a species. Darwin believed Opposite messages are often signaled
that expressions of emotion, like other by opposite movements and
behaviors, are products of evolution; he postures, an idea called the
therefore tried to understand them by principle of antithesis.
comparing them in different species.
From such interspecies comparisons,
Darwin developed a theory of the
JAMES-LANGE AND
CANNON-BARD THEORIES:
The first physiological theory of emotion
was proposed independently by James and
Lange in 1884. According to the James-
Lange theory, emotion-inducing sensory
stimuli are received and interpreted by
the cortex, which triggers changes in the
visceral organs via the autonomic
nervous system and in the skeletal
muscles via the somatic nervous system.
Then, the autonomic and somatic
responses trigger the experience of
emotion in the brain.
Four ways of thinking about the relations

among the perception of emotion
inducing stimuli, the autonomic and
somatic responses to the stimuli, and the
emotional experience.
James and Lange argued that the nervous system activity; according to the
autonomic activity and behavior that are Cannon-Bard theory, emotional experience
triggered by the emotional event (e.g., is totally independent of such feedback.
rapid heartbeat and running away) produce Both extreme positions have proved to be
the feeling of emotion, not vice versa. incorrect. On the one hand, it seems that
the autonomic and somatic feedback is
Around 1915, Cannon proposed an
not necessary for the experience of
alternative to the James-Lange theory of
emotion: Human patients whose
emotion, and it was subsequently extended
autonomic and somatic feedback has
and promoted by Bard. According to the
been largely eliminated by a broken
Cannon-Bard theory, emotional stimuli neck are capable of a full range of
have two independent excitatory effects: emotional experiences (e.g., Lowe &
They excite both the feeling of emotion Carroll, 1985).
in the brain and the expression of
emotion in the autonomic and somatic Failure to find unqualified support for
nervous systems. That is, the Cannon- either the James-Lange or the Cannon-
Bard theory, in contrast to the James- Bard theory led to the modern
Lange theory, views emotional experience biopsychological view. According to this
and emotional expression as parallel view, each of the three principal factors in
processes that have no direct causal an emotional response the perception of
relation.According to the James-Lange the emotion-inducing stimulus, the
theory, emotional experience depends autonomic and somatic responses to the
entirely on feedback from autonomic and stimulus and the experience of the emotion
somatic. can influence the other two.
4. SHAM RAGE:
In the late 1920s, Bard (1929) discovered decorticates animals as sham rage. Sham
that decorticate cats whose cortex has rage can be elicited in cats, whose cerebral
been removed respond aggressively to the hemispheres have been removed down to,
slightest provocation i.e., after a light but not including, the hypothalamus; but it
touch, they arch their backs, erect their cannot be elicited if the hypothalamus is
hair, growl, hiss, and expose their teeth. also removed. On the basis of this
The aggressive responses of decorticate observation, Bard concluded that the
animals are abnormal in two respects: they hypothalamus is critical for the
are inappropriately severe, and they are expression of aggressive responses and
not directed at particular targets. Bard that the function of the cortex is to
referred to the exaggerated, poorly inhibit and direct these responses.
directed aggressive responses of
5. LIMBIC SYSTEM AND Papez proposed that emotional states are

EMOTION: expressed through the action of the other
structures of the circuit on the
In 1937, Papez (pronounced Payps) hypothalamus and that they are
proposed that emotional expression is experienced through their action on the
controlled by several interconnected nuclei cortex. Papez’s theory of emotion was
and tracts that ring the thalamus. revised and expanded by Paul MacLean in
The figure illustrates some of the key 1952 and became the influential limbic
structures in this circuit, now known as system theory of emotion.
the limbic system (limbic means
border): the amygdala, mammillary
6. KLUVER-BUCY SYNDROME:
body, hippocampus, and fornix, cortex
of the cingulate gyrus, septum, olfactory In 1939, Kluver and Bucy observed a
bulb, and hypothalamus. striking syndrome (pattern of behavior)
in monkeys whose anterior temporal
lobes had been removed. This syndrome,
which is commonly referred to as the
Kluver-Bucy syndrome, includes the
following behaviors: the consumption of
almost anything that is edible, increased
sexual activity often directed at
inappropriate.
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (TRY TAKING OUT TIME TO ATLEAST

GO THROUGH THIS SECTION)
EMOTIONS AND THE AUTONOMIC EMOTIONAL SPECIFICITY OF THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Research on the role of the autonomic The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard
nervous system (ANS) in emotion has theories differ in their views of the
focused on two issues: the degree to which emotional specificity of the autonomic
specific patterns of ANS activity are nervous system. The James-Lange theory
associated with specific emotions and the says that different emotional stimuli
effectiveness of ANS measures in induce different patterns of ANS activity
polygraphs (lie detection). and that these different patterns produce
different emotional experiences.
There is ample evidence that not all crime that would be known only to the
emotions are associated with the same guilty person. Rather than attempting to
pattern of ANS activity. However, there is catch the suspect in a lie, the polygrapher
insufficient evidence to make a strong case simply assesses the suspects reaction to a
for the view that each emotion is list of actual and contrived details of the
characterized by a different pattern of ANS crime. Innocent suspects, because they
activity. have no knowledge of the crime, react to
all such details in the same way; the guilty
react differentially.
POLYGRAPHY:
It is a method of interrogation that
employs autonomic nervous system EMOTIONS AND FACIAL
indexes of emotion to infer the EXPRESSION:
truthfulness of the subject’s responses. Ekman and his colleagues have been
Polygraph tests administered by skilled preeminent in the study of facial
examiners can be useful additions to expression. They began in the 1960s by
normal interrogation procedures, but they analyzing hundreds of films and
are far from infallible. The main problem photographs of people experiencing
in evaluating the effectiveness of various real emotions. From these, they
polygraphy is that it is rarely possible in compiled an atlas of the facial expressions
real-life situations to know for certain that are normally associated with different
whether a suspect is guilty or innocent. emotions (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). For
The usual interrogation method is the example, to produce the facial expression
control-question technique, in which the for surprise, models were instructed to pull
physiological response to the target their brows upward so as to wrinkle their
question (e.g., did you steal that purse?) is forehead, to open their eyes wide so as to
compared with the physiological responses reveal white above the iris, to slacken the
to control questions whose answers are muscles around their mouth, and to drop
known (e.g., Have you ever been in jail their jaw.
before?). Universality of Facial Expression:
The assumption is that lying will be Several studies have found that people of
associated with greater sympathetic different cultures make similar facial
activation. The average success rate in expressions in similar situations and that
various mock-crime studies using the they can correctly identify the emotional
control-question technique is about 80%. significance of facial expressions
Despite being commonly referred to as displayed by people from cultures other
lie detection, polygraphy detects than their own.
emotions, not lies. Consequently, it is less Remarkably, human facial expressions are
likely to successfully identify lies in real similar in many respects to those of our
life than in experiments. In real-life primate relatives. Ekman and Friesen
situations, questions such as did you concluded that the facial expressions of
steal that purse? Are likely to elicit a the following six emotions are primary:
reaction from all suspects, regardless of surprise, anger, sadness, disgust, fear,
their guilt or innocence, making it and happiness. They further concluded
difficult to detect deception. that all other facial expressions of genuine
The guilty-knowledge technique emotion are composed of predictable
circumvents this problem. In order to use mixtures of these six primaries.
this technique, the polygrapher must have
a piece of information concerning the
FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS:

expression was first described by the
Is there any truth to the old idea that French anatomist Duchenne in 1862.
putting on a happy face can make you feel Duchenne said that the smile of enjoyment
better? Research suggests that there is. could be distinguished from deliberately
The hypothesis that our facial produced smiles by consideration of the
expressions influence our emotional two facial muscles that are contracted
experience is called the facial feedback during genuine smiles: orbicularis oculi,
hypothesis. In a test of the facial feedback which encircles the eye and pulls the skin
hypothesis, Rutledge and Hupka (1985) from the cheeks and forehead toward the
instructed subjects to assume one of two eyeball, and zygomaticus major, which
patterns of facial contractions while they pulls the lip corners up.
viewed a series of slides; the patterns
corresponded to happy or angry faces,
although the subjects were unaware of
that. The subjects reported that the slides
made them feel more happy and less angry
when they were making happy faces, and
less happy and more angry when they were
making angry faces.
VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF
FACIAL EXPRESSION:
Because we can exert voluntary control
over our facial muscles, it is possible to
inhibit true facial expressions and to
substitute false ones. There are many
reasons for choosing to put on a false
facial expression. Some of them are
positive (e.g., putting on a false smile to
reassure a worried friend), and some are
negative (e.g., putting on a false smile to According to Duchenne, the zygomaticus
disguise a lie). In either case, it is difficult major can be controlled voluntarily,
to fool an expert. whereas the orbicularis oculi is normally
There are two ways of distinguishing true contracted only by genuine pleasure. Thus,
expressions from false ones (Ekman, inertia of the orbicularis oculi in smiling
1985). unmasks a false friend a fact you would do
First, micro-expressions (brief facial well to remember. Ekman named the
expressions) of the real emotion often genuine smile the Duchenne smile (see
break through the false one. Such micro- Ekman & Davidson, 1993).
expressions last only about 0.05 second, Facial Expressions: Current
but with practice they can be detected Perspectives
without the aid of slow-motion
photography. Ekman’s work on facial expression began
before video recording became
Second, there are often subtle differences commonplace. Now, video recordings
between genuine facial expressions and provide almost unlimited access to natural
false ones that can be detected by skilled facial expressions made in response to
observers. real-life situations. As a result, it is now
The most widely studied difference clear that Ekman’s six primary facial
between a genuine and a false facial
expressions of emotion rarely occur in share the same facial expression. The
pure form they are ideals with many subtle research on pride by Tracy and Robins
variations. Also, the existence of other (2004) argues against this view. The
primary emotions has been recognized. For expression of pride is readily identified by
example, Ekman (1992) agrees that there individuals of various cultures, cannot be
is evidence for adding contempt and created from a mixture of other primary
embarrassment to his original six. Have expressions, and involves postural as well
you noticed that only one of the eight as facial components. Pride is expressed
primary emotions, happiness, has a through a small smile, with the head tilted
positive emotional valence? (Emotional back slightly and the hands on the hips,
valence refers to the general positive or raised above the head, or clenched in fists
negative character of an emotion). with the arms crossed on the chest.
This imbalance has led some to
hypothesize that all positive emotions may
BRAIN MECHANISMS OF HUMAN EMOTION
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF These three fundamental findings are

EMOTION: influencing how researchers are thinking
Cognitive Neuroscience is currently the about the neural mechanisms of emotion.
dominant approach being used to study the For example, the activity observed in
brain mechanisms of human emotion. sensory and motor cortex during the
There have been many functional brain experience of human emotions is now
imaging studies of people experiencing or believed to be an important part of the
imagining emotions or watching others mechanism by which the emotions are
experiencing them. These studies have experienced. The re-experiencing of
established three points that have advanced related patterns of motor, autonomic,
our understanding of the brain mechanisms and sensory neural activity during
of emotion in fundamental ways Brain emotional experiences is generally
activity associated with each human referred to as the embodiment of
emotion is diffuse there is not a center for emotions. These three fundamental
each emotion. Think mosaic, not center, findings may also help explain the
for locations of brain mechanisms of remarkable ability of humans to grasp the
emotion. There is virtually always activity emotional states of others.
in motor and sensory cortices when a Mirror neurons, which have been
person experiences an emotion or identified in nonhuman primates, are
empathizes with a person experiencing an neurons that fire when a specific response
emotion.Very similar patterns of brain is performed by a subject or the subject
activity tend to be recorded when a person watches the response being performed.
experiences an emotion, imagines that The discovery that certain patterns of brain
emotion, or sees somebody else experience activity are observed on fMRI scans when
that emotion. individuals experience an emotion or
watch somebody else experience the same
emotion suggests that a mirror-like
system might be the basis for human
empathy.
AMYGDALA AND HUMAN the same system. The medial portions of
EMOTION: the prefrontal lobes (including the medial
Amygdala plays an important role in fear portions of the orbitofrontal cortex and
conditioning in rats. Numerous functional cingulate cortex) are the sites of emotion-
brain-imaging studies have found the cognition interaction that have received the
amygdala to be involved in human most attention. Functional brain-imaging
emotions particularly in fear and other studies have found evidence of activity in
negative emotions. Furthermore, the the medial prefrontal lobes when
amygdala appears to be involved in only emotional reactions are being cognitively
some aspects of human fear. It seems to be suppressed or re-evaluated. Most of the
more involved in the perception of fear in studies of medial prefrontal lobe activity
others than in its experience. employ suppression paradigms or
reappraisal paradigms. In studies that
Although recent research has focused on use suppression paradigms, participants
the role of the amygdala in the recognition are directed to inhibit their emotional
of negative facial expressions, patients reactions to unpleasant films or pictures; in
with Urbach-Wiethe disease sometimes studies that use reappraisal paradigms,
have difficulty recognizing the negative participants are instructed to reinterpret a
expressions and other complex visual picture to change their emotional reaction
stimuli. to it. The medial prefrontal lobes are active
when both of these paradigms are used,
MEDIAL PREFRONTAL LOBES AND and they seem to exert their cognitive
HUMAN EMOTION: control of emotion by interacting with the
amygdala. The medial prefrontal lobes are
Emotion and cognition are often studied
large and complex, and they likely perform
independently, but it is now believed that
many functions.
they are better studied as components of
LATERALIZATION OF EMOTION: Most studies of the cerebral lateralization
There is considerable evidence that of emotion have employed functional
emotional functions are lateralized, that is, brain-imaging methods, and the results
that the left and right cerebral hemispheres have been complex and variable. Overall
are specialized to perform different comparisons made in many studies
emotional functions. This evidence has led between left and right hemispheres
to several theories of the cerebral
revealed no interhemispheric differences
lateralization of emotion; the following are
the two most prominent: in either the amount of emotional
processing or the valence of the emotions
The right-hemisphere model of the
being processed. However, when the
cerebral lateralization of emotion
comparisons were conducted on a
holds that the right hemisphere is
specialized for all aspects of emotional structure-by-structure basis, they revealed
processing: perception, expression, and substantial evidence of lateralization of
experience of emotion. emotional processing. Some kinds of
The valence model proposes that the emotional processing were lateralized to
right hemisphere is specialized for the left hemisphere in certain structures
processing negative emotion and the and to the right in others.
left hemisphere is specialized for Clearly, neither the right-hemisphere
processing positive emotion. model nor the valence model of the
lateralization of emotion is supported by
the evidence. The models are too general.
Another approach to studying the
lateralization of emotions is based on
observing the asymmetry of facial
expressions. In most people, each facial
expression begins on the left side of the
face and, when fully expressed, is more
pronounced there which implies right-
hemisphere dominance for facial
expressions.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE participants who scored high on

NEURAL MECHANISMS OF extraversion with those of healthy
EMOTION: participants who scored high on
neuroticism. These personality dimensions
In general, more complex brain functions were selected because of their relation to
tend to show more individual differences emotion people high on the extraversion
in cerebral localization. The cortical scale have a tendency toward positive
localization of language processes varies emotional reaction; people high on the
substantially from person to person. neuroticism scale have a tendency toward
Nevertheless, few studies of the neural negative emotional reaction. Although all
mechanisms of emotion have focused on the participants displayed increased
individual differences. activity in the amygdala when viewing
Let’s consider this study by Canli and fearful faces, only the extraverts displayed
colleagues (2002) that used functional increased amygdalae activity when
MRIs to compare the reactions of healthy viewing happy faces. The following case
study reveals that the brain mechanisms of emotion differ from person to person.
GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR: CHROMOSOMAL ANOMALIES;

NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY [TWIN STUDIES AND
ADOPTION STUDIES]
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
Chromosomes contain genetic material proteins. Research dating back to the

that can determine a person’s 1800s shows that every living creature has
characteristics. a specific set of chromosomes in the
Chromosomes are structures in the nucleus nucleus of each of its cells.
of a cell containing DNA, histone protein,
and other structural proteins. Human chromosomes are divided into
Chromosomes also contain genes, most of two types—autosomes and sex
which are made up of DNA and RNA. chromosomes. Some genetic traits are
linked to a person’s sex and therefore
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, passed on by the sex chromosomes. The
determines whether our eyes are blue or autosomes contain the remainder of a
brown, how tall we will be, and even our person’s genetic information. All human
preference for certain types of behavior. beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes by
Known as our “genetic code,” it is shaped which genetic material is developed and
like a double helix, made of sequences of characteristically demonstrated; 22 of
nucleic acids attached to a sugar phosphate these are autosomes, while the remaining
backbone. Genes are subsections of DNA pair (either XX, female, or XY, male)
molecules linked together that create a represents a person’s sex chromosomes.
particular characteristic. These 23 pairs of chromosomes work
together to create the person we ultimately
Each chromosome is made up of a single become.
DNA molecule coiled around histone
Chromosomal abnormalities can occur impacts on mental processes; for example,

during fetal development if something Down syndrome can cause mild to
goes wrong during the replication of the moderate intellectual disabilities.
cells. Common abnormalities include
Down syndrome (caused by an extra As science advances, the ability to
chromosome #21), Klinefelter syndrome manipulate chromosomes is becoming
(caused by an extra X chromosome), and more realized. Cloning is an example of
Turner syndrome (caused by a missing X taking chromosomal and genetic material
chromosome). Genetic counseling is and creating a new animal, and was first
available for families in order to determine successfully achieved in the famous
if any abnormalities exist that may be example of Dolly the sheep. There is much
passed along to offspring. Many controversy surrounding the manipulation
chromosomal abnormalities are of of chromosomes in human beings, with
psychological importance, with substantial many people believing it to be unethical.
NATURE VS NURTURE
Genetic expression can be influenced
by various social factors, as well as
environmental factors, from light and
temperature to exposure to chemicals.
Our genetic destiny is not necessarily genes nor environment work alone; rather,
written in stone; it can be influenced by the two work in tandem to create the
several factors, such as social factors, as people we ultimately become.
well as environmental influences among
which we live, including anything from Environmental elements like light and
light and temperature to exposure to temperature have been shown to induce
chemicals. The environment in which a certain changes in genetic expression;
person is raised can trigger the expression additionally, exposure to drugs and
of behavior for which a person is chemicals can significantly affect how
genetically predisposed, while the same genes are expressed. People often inherit
person raised in a different environment sensitivity to the effects of various
may exhibit different behavior. environmental risk factors, and different
individuals may be differently affected by
Long-standing debates have taken place exposure to the same environment in
over the idea of which factor is more medically significant ways. For example,
important, genes or environment. Is a sunlight exposure has a much stronger
person destined to have a particular influence on skin cancer risk in fair-
outcome in life because of his or her skinned humans than in individuals with
genetic makeup, or can the environment an inherited tendency for darker skin. The
(and the people in it) work to change what color of a person’s skin is largely genetic,
might be considered “bad” genes? Today, but the influence of the environment will
it is generally agreed upon that neither affect these genes in different ways.
(EXTRA FOR REFERENCES)
Gene-environment correlations, can be the person’s environment, particularly in

explained in 3 particular ways—passive, the case of children, is largely determined
evocative, or active. by the parent’s genetic characteristics.
Parents create a home environment that is
PASSIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT influenced by their own heritable
CORRELATIONS characteristics. When the children’s own
In passive gene-environment correlation, genotype influences their behavior or
an association exists between a person’s cognitive outcomes, the result can be a
genetic makeup and the environment in misleading relationship between
which he or she is raised. In other words, environment and outcome. For example,
an intelligent parent is likely to create a ADOPTION AND TWIN STUDIES IN

home environment rich in educational THE NATURE VS. NURTURE
materials and experience. Since DEBATE
intelligence is moderately heritable, it can Adoption and twin studies can help make
be argued that intelligence in the child is sense of the influence of genes and the
inherited rather than a factor of the home environment. Studies of adult twins are
environment created by the parents. It is used to investigate which traits are
relatively unclear whether the genetic or heritable. Identical twins share the same
environmental factors had more to do with genotype, meaning their genetic makeup is
the child’s development. the same. Twins raised apart tend to be
similar in intelligence and, in some cases,
EVOCATIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT life events and circumstance, when studied
CORRELATIONS years later, even when raised separately.
Evocative gene-environment correlation
happens when an individual’s (heritable) However, researchers have discovered that
behavior evokes an environmental the phenotype (or the observable
response. For example, the association expression of a gene) of identical twins
between marital conflict and depression grows apart as they age. In adoption
may reflect the tensions that arise when studies, identical twins raised by different
engaging with a depressed spouse rather families can give insight into the nature-
than a causal effect of marital conflict on versus-nurture debate. Since the child is
risk for depression. being raised by parents who are genetically
different from his or her biological parents,
ACTIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT the influence of the environment shows in
CORRELATIONS how similar the child is to his or her
In active gene-environment correlation, the adoptive parents or siblings. Adoption
person’s genetic makeup may lead them to studies make a strong case for the
select particular environments. For influence of environment, whereas twin
example, a shy person is likely to choose studies make a strong case for genetic
quiet activities and less boisterous influence.
environments than an extroverted
individual. He or she may be more likely
to spend time at the library than at a dance
club.
TWIN STUDIES: diagnosis of a particular mental disorder. If

both twins have been diagnosed with this
A powerful method for estimating the disorder, they are said to be concordant.
influence of heredity on a particular trait is If only one has received this diagnosis, the
to compare the concordance rate for this twins are said to be discordant. Thus, if a
trait in pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic disorder has a genetic basis, the percentage
twins. Monozygotic twins (identical twins) of monozygotic twins who are concordant
have identical genotypes—that is, their for the diagnosis will be higher than the
chromosomes, and the genes they contain, percentage of dizygotic twins. For e.g., he
are identical. In contrast, the genetic concordance rate for schizophrenia in
similarity between dizygotic twins twins is at least four times higher for
(fraternal twins) is, on the average, 50 monozygotic twins than for dizygotic
percent. Investigators study records to twins, a finding that provides strong
identify pairs of twins in which at least one evidence that schizophrenia is a heritable
member has the trait—for example, a trait. Twin studies have found that many
individual characteristics, including environmental factors will be associated

personality traits, prevalence of obesity, with the adoptive parents, the genetic
incidence of alcoholism, and a wide factors will be associated with the
variety of mental disorders, are influenced biological parents, and the prenatal
by genetic factors. environmental factors will be associated
with the biological mother.
ADOPTION STUDIES:
Adoption studies require that the
Another method for estimating the investigator know the identity of the
heritability of a particular behavioral trait parents of the people being studied and be
is to compare people who were adopted able to measure the behavioral trait in the
early in life with their biological and biological and adoptive parents. If the
adoptive parents. All behavioral traits are people being studied strongly resemble
affected to some degree by hereditary their biological parents, we conclude that
factors, environmental factors, and an the trait is probably influenced by genetic
interaction between hereditary and factors. To be certain, we will have to rule
environmental factors. Environmental out possible differences in the prenatal
factors are both social and biological in environment of the adopted children. If,
nature. For example, the mother’s health, instead, the people resemble their adoptive
nutrition, and drug-taking behavior during parents, we conclude that the trait is
pregnancy are prenatal environmental influenced by environmental factors. Of
factors, and the child’s diet, medical care, course, it is possible that both hereditary
and social environment (both inside and and environmental factors play a role, in
outside the home) are postnatal which case the people being studied will
environmental factors. If a child is adopted resemble both their biological and
soon after birth, most of the postnatal adoptive parents.
(EXTRA FOR REFERENCE)
TARGETED MUTATIONS: reaction. For example, the lack of a

particular enzyme interferes with learning.
A recently developed method has put a This result suggests that the enzyme is
powerful tool in the hands of partly responsible for changes in the
neuroscientists. Targeted mutations are structure of synapses required for learning
mutated genes produced in the laboratory to occur. In other cases, the target of the
and inserted into the chromosomes of mutation is a protein that itself serves
mice. These mutated genes (also called useful functions in the cell. For example, a
knockout genes) are defective—they fail particular type of opiate receptor is
to produce a functional protein. In many involved in the reinforcing and analgesic
cases, the target of the mutation is an effects of opiates.
enzyme that controls a particular chemical
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (IMPORTANT FOR NET-JRF)
SPEECH PRODUCTION studies by Opitz and Friederici (2003,

Both perceptions of current events and 2007) found that Broca’s area was
memories of events that occurred in the activated when people were taught an
past involve brain mechanisms in the artificial grammar, which supports the
posterior part of the cerebral hemispheres conclusion that this region is involved in
(the occipital, temporal, and parietal learning grammatical rules—especially
lobes). Thus, this region is largely complex ones.
responsible for our having something to Patients mispronounce words, often
say. Damage to a region of the inferior left altering the sequence of sounds. For
frontal lobe (Broca’s area) disrupts the example, lipstick might be pronounced
ability to speak: “likstip.” People with Broca’s aphasia
recognize that their pronunciation is
erroneous, and they usually try to correct
It causes Broca’s aphasia. This disorder is it.
characterized by slow, laborious, and
nonfluent speech. When trying to talk with Prosody includes changes in intonation,
patients who have Broca’s aphasia, most rhythm, and stress that add meaning,
people find it hard to resist supplying the especially emotional meaning, to the
words the patients are obviously groping sentences that we speak. The neural
for. People with Broca’s aphasia find it mechanisms that control the prosodic
easier to say some types of words than elements of speech appear to be in the
others. They have great difficulty saying right hemisphere.
the little words with grammatical meaning, Stuttering is not a result of abnormalities
such as a, the, some, in, or about. These in the neural circuits that contain the motor
words are called function words, because programs for speech. For example,
they have important grammatical stuttering is reduced or eliminated when a
functions. The words that they do manage person reads aloud with another speaker,
to say are almost entirely content words— sings, or reads in cadence with a rhythmic
words that convey meaning, including stimulus. The problem appears to lie more
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, such in the neural mechanisms that are involved
as apple, house, throw, or heavy. in planning and initiation of speech.
Functional imaging indicates deficient
auditory feedback produced by the
One of the usual symptoms of Broca’s stutterer’s own voice. Delayed auditory
aphasia is agrammatism; a difficulty in feedback, which impairs the speech of
comprehending or properly employing most fluent speakers, often facilitates the
grammatical devices, such as verb endings speech of stutterers.
and word order. Functional-imaging
SPEECH COMPREHENSION: important in the comprehension of words

Comprehension of speech obviously and the production of meaningful speech.
begins in the auditory system, which WERNICKLE’S APHASIA:
detects and analyzes sounds. But The primary characteristics of Wernicke’s
recognizing words is one thing; aphasia are poor speech comprehension
comprehending them— understanding and production of meaningless speech.
their meaning—is another. Recognizing a Unlike Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s
spoken word is a complex perceptual task aphasia is fluent and unlabored; the person
that relies on memories of sequences of does not strain to articulate words and does
sounds. not appear to be searching for them. The
Wernicke’s area is a region on the left patient maintains a melodic line, with the
temporal lobe of humans, which is voice rising and falling normally.
When you listen to the speech of a person unaware of their deficit. That is, they do
with Wernicke’s aphasia, it appears to be not appear to recognize that their speech is
grammatical. faulty, nor do they recognize that they
The abilities that are disrupted include cannot understand the speech of others.
recognition of spoken words, Damage restricted to Wernicke’s area
comprehension of the meaning of words, causes pure word deafness—loss of the
and the ability to convert thoughts into ability to understand speech but intact
words. Let us consider each of these speech production, reading, and writing.
abilities in turn. The left hemisphere is involved in analysis
However, the person uses few content of rapid changes in sounds, which is
words, and the words that he or she strings consistent with its role in the analysis of
together just do not make sense. In the speech sounds, which are characterized by
extreme, speech deteriorates into a such changes. Wernicke’s aphasia, caused
meaningless jumble, illustrated by the by damage to Wernicke’s area and the
following quotation: posterior language area, consists of poor
speech comprehension, poor repetition,
and production of fluent, meaningless
Examiner: What kind of work did you do speech. Transcortical sensory aphasia,
before you came into the hospital? caused by damage to the posterior speech
Patient: Never, now mista oyge I wanna area, consists of poor speech
tell you this happened when happened comprehension and production, but the
when he rent. His—his kell come down patients can repeat what they hear. Thus,
here and is—he got ren something. It the symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia
happened. In these ropier were with him consist of those of transcortical sensory
for hi—is friend—like was. And it just aphasia plus those of pure word deafness.
happened so I don’t know; he did not bring (WA = TSA + PWD.) Feedback from
around anything. mirror neurons that are activated when
people hear the speech of other people
A remarkable fact about people with
may facilitate speech recognition
Wernicke’s aphasia is that they often seem
.
***
CONTENTS
ATTENTION: Forms of attention, Models of attention
PERCEPTION: Approaches to the Study of Perception: Gestalt and physiological

approaches Perceptual Organization: Gestalt, Figure and Ground, Law of Organization
Perceptual Constancy: Size, Shape, and Color; Illusions
Perception of Form, Depth and Movement Role of
motivation and learning in perception
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY:Assumptions and applications Subliminal perception

and related factors, information processing approach to perception, culture and perception,
perceptual styles, Pattern recognition, Ecological perspective on perception.
LEARNING PROCESS: Fundamental theories: Thorndike, Guthrie, Hull

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Procedure, phenomena and related issues Instrumental
learning: Phenomena, Paradigms and theoretical issues; Reinforcement: Basic variables and
schedules; Behaviour modification and its applications
COGNITIVE APPROACHES IN LEARNING: Latent learning, observational learning.
Verbal learning and Discrimination learning Recent trends in learning: Neurophysiology of
learning
MEMORY AND FORGETTING MEMORY PROCESSES: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Stages of memory: Sensory memory, Short-term memory (Working memory), Long-term
Memory (Declarative – Episodic and Semantic; Procedural)
THEORIES OF FORGETTING: Interference, Retrieval Failure, Decay, Motivated
forgetting
www.powerwithineducation.co
UNIT
ATTENTION, PERCEPTION,
5 LEARNING, MEMORY And
FORGETTING
ATTENTION carefully listening to what someone is

Attention is defined as the mental process saying while ignoring other conversations
of concentrating effort on a stimulus or in a room (the cocktail effect) or listening
mental event the limited mental energy or to a cell phone conversation while driving
resource that powers the mental system. a car. Attention has been classified in a
Attention. Attention has also been referred number of ways. A process-oriented view
to as the allocation of processing divides it into two types, namely selective
resources. Therefore, the process through and sustained- Selective attention is
which certain stimuli are selected from concerned mainly with the selection of a
a group of others is generally referred limited number of stimuli or objects from a
to as attention. It can also be defined as large number of stimuli. While selective
the cognitive process of selectively attention is mainly concerned with the
concentrating on one aspect of the selection of stimuli, sustained attention is
environment while ignoring other things. concerned with concentration. It refers to
Attention is the term used or given to the our ability to maintain attention on an
perceptual processes that select certain object or event for longer durations. It is
inputs for inclusion in our conscious also known as “vigilance”.
experience, or awareness at any given Sometimes we can also attend to two
time. It is the process involving the act of different things at the same time. When
listening, and concentrating on a topic, this happens, it is called divided attention.
object or event for the attainment of
desired ends.
Attention has a focus as well as a fringe.

When the field of awareness is centered on
a particular object or event, it is called
focus or the focal point of attention. On the
contrary, when the objects or events are
away from the centre of awareness and one
is only vaguely aware of them, they are

said to be at the fringe of attention. Let’s
understand it with an example that include
MODELS OF ATTENTION There

are many theories of attention
Among them are among them is the
Attenuation theory, Filter theory, Capacity
model
, Deutsch and Deutsch model,

Multimode theory and the Schema theories
of attention. But here, we would only
BROADBENT'S FILTER MODEL

Broadbent (1958) proposed that physical focus on few of the models that are
characteristics of messages are used to relevant to the exams.
select one message for further processing
and that all others are lost. Information Because we have only a limited capacity to
from all of the stimuli presented at any process information, this filter is designed
given time enters an unlimited capacity to prevent the information-processing
sensory buffer. One of the inputs is then system from becoming overloaded.
selected on the basis of its physical The inputs not initially selected by the
characteristics for further processing by filter remain briefly in the sensory buffer
being allowed to pass through a filter. store, and if they are not processed, they
decay rapidly. Broadbent assumed that the
TREISMAN'S ATTENUATION filter rejected the unattended message at an
MODEL early stage of processing.
Filter-attenuation theory was developed by Broadbent’s theory. Treisman (1964)
Treisman (1962) by modifying aggress with Broadbent’s theory of an
early bottleneck filter.
However, the difference is that Treisman's unattended material.

filter attenuates rather than eliminates the
This theory proposes that the stimuli not processing. It is indicated that personally
getting access to the selective filter at a relevant stimuli (e.g., one’s name in a
given moment of time are not completely collective dinner) can be noticed even at a
blocked. The filter only attenuates very low level of sound. Such stimuli,
(weakens) their strength. Thus, some even though fairly weak, may also
stimuli manage to escape through the generate response occasionally by
selective filter to reach higher levels of slipping through the selective filter
In her experiments, Treisman unattended message, indicating that they
demonstrated that participants were still were able to process the meaning of both
able to identify the contents of an the attended and unattended messages.
MULTIMODE THEORY: stage three the sensory and semantic

Multimode theory was developed by representations enter the consciousness. It
Johnston and Heinz (1978). This theory is also suggested that more processing
believes that attention is a flexible system requires more mental effort. When the
that allows selection of a stimulus over messages are selected on the basis of stage
others at three stages. At stage one the one processing (early selection), less
sensory representations (e.g., visual mental effort is required than when the
images) of stimuli are constructed; at stage selection is based on stage three processing
two the semantic representations (e.g., (late selection).
names of objects) are constructed; and at
PERCEPTION Recognizing a stimulus implies that we

Sensation is the stimulus detection process have a perceptual schema—a mental
by which our sense organs respond to and representation or image containing the
translate environmental stimuli into nerve critical and distinctive features of a person,
impulses that are sent to the brain. object, event, or other perceptual
The scientific area of psychophysics, phenomenon. Schemas provide mental
studies relations between the physical templates that allow us to classify and
characteristics of stimuli and sensory identify sensory input in a top down
capabilities. fashion.
Perception—making “sense” of what our To create our perceptions, the brain carries
senses tell us—is the active process of out two different kinds of processing
organizing this stimulus input and giving it functions: In bottom-up processing, the
meaning (Mather, 2006; May, 2007). system takes in individual elements of the
Perception is influenced by perceptual sets: stimulus and then combines them into a
a readiness to perceive stimuli in a unified perception.
particular way. In top-down processing, sensory
information is interpreted in light of
existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and
expectations.
GESTALT APPROACHES more striking in our perceptions and

The Gestalt psychologists indicate that our memory than the background. We perceive
cerebral processes are always oriented borders or contours wherever there is a
towards the perception of a good figure or distinct change in the color or brightness
pragnanz. That is the reason why we of a visual scene, but we interpret these
perceive everything in an organised form. contours as part of the figure rather than
The most primitive organisation takes background. Likewise, we tend to hear
place in the form of figure- ground instrumental music as a melody (figure)
segregation. The Gestalt theorists surrounded by other chords or harmonies
emphasized the importance of figure- (ground).
ground relations, our tendency to organize Four Gestalt laws of perceptual
stimuli into a central or foreground figure organization namely: similarity,
and a background. proximity, closure, and continuity have
In vision, the central figure is usually in been suggested according to which people
front of or on top of what we perceive as group and interpret stimuli.
background. It has a distinct shape and is
GESTALT LAW OF SIMILARITY: When parts of a configuration are perceived

similar, they will be perceived as belonging together.
THE LAW OF PROXIMITY: Elements that are near each other are
likely to be perceived as part of the Same configuration.
THE LAW OF
CLOSURE: edges of a figure or fill
People tend to close the gaps in an incomplete
open so that their figure, the form
identification of (in this there.
case, a circle) is more
complete than what is
actually
THE LAW OF a continuous line or

CONTINUITY holds that pattern that makes sense.
people link individual
elements together so
they form
allows us to recognize
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES:
people and other objects
They allow us to recognize familiar from many different angles.
stimuli under varying conditions.
SIZE CONSTANCY: It is the
Without these, we would have to
perception that the size of
literally rediscover what something is
objects remains relatively
each time it appeared under different
constant even though images
conditions. The various types of
on our retina change in size
perceptual constancies are:
with variations in distance.
BRIGHTNESS CONSTANCY:
The relative brightness of
objects remains the same under
different conditions of
illumination, such as full
sunlight and shade. Brightness
constancy occurs because the
Thus, a man who is judged
ratio of light intensity between
to be 6 feet tall when
an object and its surroundings
standing 5 feet away is not
is constant. The actual
perceived to be 3 feet tall at
brightness of the light that
a distance of 10 feet, even
illuminates an object does not
though the size of his image
matter, as long as the same
on the retina is reduced to
light intensity illuminates both
half its original size.
the object and its surroundings.
SHAPE CONSTANCY: It
PERCEPTION OF DEPTH AND width), but the brain translates

DISTANCE: these cues into three-dimensional
perceptions. It does this by using
A very intriguing aspect of visual both monocular depth cues,
perception is our ability to perceive depth. which require only one eye, and
binocular depth cues, which
The retina receives information in require both eyes.
only two dimensions (length and
MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES: 8 to angle toward one another with
Monocular cues have been recognized. increased distance, and we use this
One suchcue is patterns of light and as a depth cue. The same occurs
shadow.
 with the edges of a highway.
Another cue, linear perspective,  Another cue for perception of
refers to the perception that depth and distance is
parallel lines converge, or angle
Interposition, in which objects
toward one another, as they recede
closer to us may cut off part of

into the distance. Thus, if we look
our view of more distant objects
down railroad tracks, they appear
An object’s height in the horizontal two objects that we know to be of

plane provides another source of
similar size, then the one that
information. For example, a ship 5
miles offshore appears in a higher looks smaller will be judged to be
plane and closer to the horizon than farther away.
does  one that is only 1 mile from
It is important to remember 

shore. that none of these monocular
cues mentioned above
Texture is a fifth cue, because the
texture or grain of an object appears involve movement of the
 finer as distance increases. object(s).
Likewise, clarity can be an However, a final monocular
important cue for judging cue, motion parallax, tells us
distance; we can see nearby hills that if we are moving,
more clearly than ones that are
far nearby objects appear to
 away, especially on hazydays. move faster in the opposite
Relative size is yet another basis   than do faraway
direction
for distance judgments. If we see ones.
BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: depth-sensitive neurons are

These require the use of both eyes. integrated to produce our
perception of depth
 (Goldstein,2002).
The principle of binocular
disparity, in which each eye sees a A second binocular distance cue,
slightly different image is a convergence, is produced by
binocular depth cue. Within the feedback from the muscles that
brain, the visual input from the two turn your eyes inward to view a
eyes is analyzed by feature close object. An example of this
detectors that are attuned to depth can be by holding a finger about 1
(Howard, 2002; Livingstone& foot in front of your face and then
Hubel, 1994). Some of the feature moving it slowly toward you.
detectors respond only to stimuli Messages sent to our brain by the
that are either in front of or behind eye muscles provide it with a depth
the point on which we are fixing cue.
our gaze. The responses of these
It has been recognized that the STROBOSCOPIC-

 primary cue for perceiving motion MOVEMENT is also the principle
is the movement of the stimulus behind motion pictures, which
across the retina. Gestalt consist of a series of still
psychologist Max Wertheimer photographs, or frames, that are
 (1912) demonstrated this in his projected on a screen in rapid
studies of stroboscopic succession with dark intervals in
between. The rate at which the
movement (termed the “phi
frames are projected is critical to
phenomenon” by Wertheimer), our perception of smooth
an illusory movement produced movement. Early movies, such as
when a light is briefly flashed in the silent films of the 1920s,
darkness and then, a few projected the stills at only 16
milliseconds later, another light is frames per second, and the
movements appeared fast and
flashed nearby. If the timing is
jerky. Today the usual speed is 24
just right, the first light seems to frames per second, which more
move from one place to the other perfectly produces an illusion of
in a manner indistinguishable smooth movement. Television 
from real movement. presents at 30 images persecond.

ILLUSIONS
Illusions are compelling but incorrect
perceptions. Most visual illusions
can be attributed to
perceptual constancies that ordinarily
help us perceive more accurately
(Frisby, 1980).
Sometime we fail to interpret the

sensory information correctly. This
results in a mismatch between the
physical stimuli and its perception.
These misperceptions resulting from received by our sensory organs are

misinterpretation of information generally known as illusions.
individuals. For example, the rail
These are experienced more or less tracks appear to be converging to all
by all of us. They result from an of us. These illusions are called
external stimulus situation and
universal illusions or permanent
generate the same kind of experience
illusions as they do not change with
in each individual. That is why
experience or practice. Some other
illusions are also called “primitive illusions seem to vary from
organisations. Some perceptual individual to individual; these are
illusions are universal and found in
called personalillusions.
all
HERING'SOPTICAL ILLUSIONS:
The slanted lines cause the illusion that

the blue lines (straight lines) are not parallel.
In fact, they are!
EHRENSTEIN'S OPTICAL ILLUSIONS:

Slanted lines make the blue square seem distorted.
MÜLLER-LYER'S OPTICAL 1889.Although your eyes tell you that the

ILLUSIONS: Probably the most famous left horizontal line is longer than the right
and most studied illusion was created by one, they are equal in length.
German psychiatrist Franz Müller-Lyerin
POGGENDORF'S OPTICAL joins with the lower of the pair, not the
ILLUSIONS: The single line if continued top.
MEYER'S OPTICAL ILLUSIONS:

The center shape is in fact a circle.
ZÖLLNER'S OPTICAL ILLUSIONS: EXPLANATION: the brain is attempting

Parallel lines intersected by a pattern of to interpret this image as if it were part of
short diagonal lines appear to diverge. a three- dimensional scenes.
Now let’s see a variant of Zöllner's illusion depends on the pattern,

optical illusion based on parallel especially on the slope of the
bars. Note that the strength of the diagonal pattern lines.
MÜNSTERBERG ILLUSION
PONZO'S OPTICAL ILLUSIONS: The framed by the diagonally converging line

two slanted lines arranged like an inverted V segments, are perceived to differ in length
evoke the impression of perspective. Thus, the from the twin objects beneath.
upper objects (line, circle, barrel), which are
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY when no external stimuli are

present. This is called internal
Signal detection theory is neural ‘noise.’ The level of neural
concerned with the factors that noise fluctuates constantly.
influence sensory judgments. It
Whenafaint(external)stimuluscalleda‘si
is based on 3 assumptions:
 gnal’occurs,itcreatesaneuralresponse
which adds to internal noise
Neurons are constantly sending  The brain must decide whether the
information to the brain, even
neural activity it is getting reflects also a signal.

noise alone, or whether there was
SENSORY RECEPTORS-These are person will be able to detect more

of two types: intense sounds or lights more
easily than less intense stimuli.
EXTEROCEPTORS: sensory Further, a more sensitive person
receptors that respond to light,
requires less stimulus intensity

sound, smell, touch, pain, etc.,
 to create conscious sensation. than a less sensitive person would.
Finally, when a person is quite
PROPRIOCEPTORS: sensory uncertain as to whether the
receptors that respond to joint
movement (kinesthesia) and stimulus was present, the
individual will decide based on
 position
joint position (joint
sense), but do not what kind of mistake in judgment
typically contribute to is worse: to say that no stimulus
 conscious sensation. was present when there actually
was one or to say that there was a
The theory involves treating stimulus when, in reality, there
detection of the stimulus as a
decision-making process, part of was none. Signal-detection
which is determined by the nature research shows us that perception
of the stimulus, by how sensitive a is, in part, a decision. Thus,
person is to the stimulus, and by decision criterion, a standard of
cognitive factors. In other words, a how certain individuals must be
that a stimulus is present before
they will say they detect it
becomes significant.
CULTURE AND PERCEPTION PERCEPTUAL STYLES

This concept suggests that the habits of Perceptual Style acts as a filter
perception are learnt differently in between sensation and understanding.
different cultural settings. Different It is at the core of who we are, and it
experiences and learning opportunities
impacts our values, our beliefs and our
available to people in different cultural
settings also influence their perception. feelings. They are also known as
People coming from a picture less cognitive style. Cognitive style refers
environment fail to recognize objects in to a consistent way of dealing with our
pictures. environment. It significantly affects
Example: Hudson studied the perception the way we perceive the environment.
of pictures by African subjects, and noted There are several cognitive styles that
several difficulties. Many of them were people use in perceiving their
unable to identify objects depicted in environment. One most extensively
pictures (e.g., antelope, spear). They also
used in studies is the “field dependent
failed to perceive distance in pictures,
and interpreted pictures incorrectly. and field independent” cognitive style.
Another example is that of Eskimos who Field dependent people perceive the
have been found to make fine distinction
external world in its totality, i.e. in a
among a variety of snow that we may be
unable to notice. global or holistic manner. On the other
hand, field independent people
perceive the external world by
breaking it into smaller units, i.e. in an
analytic or differentiated manner.
Some of the perceptual styles proposed Adjustments Perceptual Style see the
by researchers are: world as an objective reality that can
be known if they take the time to
ACTIVITY: People with the Activity
gather complete information about its
Perceptual Style jump into life with
intricacies and complexities. They
both feet. They fully engage with the
pursue the acquisition and application
confidence that the details will sort
of knowledge as the basis for their life
themselves out. Direction, ideas, and
experience. They enjoy sharing their
pursuits emerge as the result of
knowledge with others and gathering
constant action and involvement with
new information from research or
others and their surroundings. They
conversation. They have a strong
engage until some new possibility or
sense of diplomacy and project a calm
interest emerges to capture their
certainty.
attention. They cultivate extensive
networks of friends and associates. FLOW: People with the Flow
ADJUSTMENTS: People with the Perceptual Style are instinctive
advocates for the natural rhythms of singular experience, a journey toward

life. They see the complex the future. They face the realities of a
connectivity among seemingly situation with serious intent, an
unrelated people, environments, and optimistic perspective that a solution
situations. They intuitively integrate will be found, and confidence that if
and harmonize their actions within a one is not, there are always other
broadly defined community that alternatives to explore. They intuitively
provides them and others with a sense see new directions, and actions are
of belonging. They honor the taken or dropped opportunistically
continuity between past, present, and based on a sense of future possibilities
future. and potential. They are highly
persuasive and easily convince others
GOALS: People with the Goals to follow their vision.
Perceptual Style stride through life
focused on the accomplishment of All six Perceptual Styles provide
specific results and well-defined distinctly different experiences of the
objectives. They experience a sense world. These differences result in a
of urgency and clarity of purpose. profound psychological and perceptual
They believe achievement is primary diversity that is the most important
and method or process secondary – diversity there is because it helps
the end justifies the means. They explain the differences between people.
evaluate all activities based on
possible contribution towards the PATTERN RECOGNITION:
achievement of the results they Human pattern recognition can be
expect. They thrive on competition considered as a typical perception
and believe that life is a constant process which depends on knowledge
competition with winners and losers. and experience people already have.
Generally, pattern recognition refers
METHODS: People with the to a process of inputting stimulating
Methods Perceptual Style approach (pattern) information and matching
life in a practical, matter- of- fact with the information in long-term
manner. They focus on how things memory, then recognizing the
need to be done. They believe that category which the stimulation
ordered processes, properly followed, belongs to. Therefore, pattern
will produce the desired results. They recognition depends on people’s
will discern the best process or knowledge and experience. Without
technique to apply to any specific involving individual’s knowledge and
situation in order to produce reliable, experience, people cannot understand
repeatable outcomes. They impose the meanings of the stimulating
order and they believe that everyone information pattern inputted, then
prefers to use well known and proven neither possible to recognizethe
methods. patterns, which means to recognize the
objects. The process by which a
VISION: People with the Vision
person distinguishes a pattern he
Perceptual Style approach life as a
percepts with others and identifies

what it is refers to pattern
recognition.
ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
ON PERCEPTION
Has been proposed by Gibson.
According to him, the concept of the
world can be analyzed at different
levels. Gibson is mainly concerned
with the world at the level of
ecology, in which animal and
environment form an integrated
system of mutual constraint. To draw
this distinction, Gibson offers a
structural analysis of the
environment. This amounts to an
explanatory scheme based on
principles of self-organization. This
analysis leads Gibson to formulate
the concepts of the meaningful
environment and the perceiver-
environment coupling he calls
reciprocity.
Pag www.powerwithineducation.co
LEARNING:
Learning refers to the process by which LAWS OF LEARNING

experience produces a relatively enduring Based on his experiments, Thorndike came
change up with three laws of learning.
in an organism’s behavior or capabilities.
LAW OF EFFECT
There have been three major theories Law of effect states that in a given
proposed to explain the concept of situation, a response followed by a
learning. These are: satisfying consequence will become
more likely to occur and a response
THORNDIKE’S LEARNING
followed by an annoying consequence
THEORY:
will become less likely to occur.
Thorndike’s theory of learning is The law of effect states that an action
also known as connectionism. He followed by a pleasurable
acknowledged the existence of consequence is more likely to be
thought, which he called mental repeated and one followed by an
units. A mental unit was anything annoying or painful consequence is
sensed or perceived or the sensing, less likely to be repeated. This
perceiving bit of consciousness. A basically implies that the strength of
physical unit was a stimulus or a connection is influenced
response (observable behaviour). byconsequences of a response. Put
Thorndike proposed that learning was a simply, actions that are rewarded
matter of making four kinds of tend to be strengthened and repeated,
connections: those that are punished tend to be
weakened and not repeated.
mental and physicalunits, An important finding by Thorndike was

 that pleasure was more potent for
physical units withmental, stamping out response than pain. For
 instance, if someone wants a negative
mental units with other mental units,and
behaviour to go away, it is more effective

physical units with other physicalunits. to reward a conflicting positive behaviour
 than to simply punish the negative
His experiments looked for those things behaviour such as providing rewards to
that strengthened these connections. students for doing positive things that
Based on the experiments he conducted, would make it impossible for them to do
Thorndike came up with three laws of the negativethings.
learning which form a prominent part of
his theory: LAW OF EXERCISE
The law of exercise states that the
connections between a stimulus and
response becomes strengthened with
practice and weakened when practice is actively works to maintain a certain state
discontinued. of balance or equilibrium. In his theory,
Hull used the term drive to refer to the
The more a stimulus-induced response is
state of tension or arousal caused by
repeated the longer it will be retained. The
biological or physiological needs. Thirst,
more often the cat is put in the puzzle box
hunger, and the need for warmth are all
to make the connection between lever and
examples of drives. A drive creates an
gate opening, the longer this behaviour
unpleasant state, a tension that needs to be
will be retained. However, if the cat was
reduced.
only put in the puzzle box once every
other week, the learning it had gained In order to reduce this state of tension,
would quickly recede. That is, the number humans and animals seek out ways to
of tries and the amount of time it took to fulfill these biological needs. We get a
press the level would increase. drink when we are thirsty. We eat when
we are hungry. We turn up the thermostat
LAW OF READINESS
when we are cold. He suggested that
humans and animals will then repeat any
Law of readiness states that in situations
behaviour that reduces thesedrives.
when an individual is ready to act, it is
reinforcing for them to do so and The reduction of the drive acts as a
annoying for them not to do so. On the reinforcement for that behaviour. This
other hand, when a human is not ready to reinforcement increases the likelihood that
act, forcing them to do so is annoying. the same behaviour will occur again in the
future when the same need arises. In order
HULL’S DRIVE REDUCTION to survive in its environment, an organism
THEORY OF MOTIVATION: must behave in ways that meet these
survival needs. In a stimulus-response (S-
In his theory, Hull tried to explain relationship, when the stimulus and
behaviour and learning through the means response are followed by a reduction in
of drive reduction. He proposed that the need, it increases the likelihood of that
learned connections existed directly behaviour occurring again.
between the neural impulses from
activated sensory receptors and certain GUTHRIE’S CONTIGUITY
muscular reactions- the term Hull used THEORY:
was ‘receptor-effector connections.’
Guthrie suggested that contiguity (i.e.
Hull adopted the term ‘reinforcement’ in the sequential occurrence or proximity
his theory for an event which strengthened of stimulus and response, causing their
stimulus- response connections, and thus association in the mind) alone, without
Thorndike’s Law of Effect became the reward, was sufficient for learning.
Law of Primary Reinforcement. For instance, hanging up the hat and
coat must be associated with coming
Hull based his theory on the concept of in the door (contiguous in time and
homeostasis, the idea that the body space).
GUTHRIE’S VIEW OF REWARD: BEFORE CONDITIONING:

Reward didn’t strengthen the association Unconditioned Stimulus(UCS)(Food) --------
but it was important. In Guthrie’s view, Unconditioned Response(UCR)
reward changes the stimulus context. A (Salivation)
context can be internal or external. NeutralStimulus(Bell) -------
When the stimulus is changed, further Orientation but nosalivation
conditioning to another response is
During conditioning:
prevented. Reward must be immediate.
UCS (Food) paired with
GUTHRIE’S VIEW OF
Neutralstimulus(bell) ---------------
PUNISHMENT: Punishment only UCR (Salivation)
works when the response it elicits is
different than the response being AFTER CONDITIONING:
punished. For instance, the act of
punishing a child by spanking him for Conditioned Stimulus(CS) (Bell) -----------
hitting others may not work Conditioned Response (CR)(salivation)
according to Guthrie. The reason is
that punishment elicits aggression PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
which is compatible with hitting – so CONDITIONING:
hitting will not be eliminated that
way. ACQUISITION:Occurs when the
Conditioned stimulus (bell) after
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: repeated pairings with the
unconditioned stimulus (food)
In this, an organism learns to comes to evoke the conditioned
associate two stimuli (e.g., a song response (saliva).

and a pleasant event), such that one EXTINCTION; Occurs when after
stimulus (the song) comes to elicit a conditioning, CS ceases to produceCR.
response (feeling happy) that 
originally was elicited only by the SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY:
other stimulus (the pleasant event). It  Refers to the reappearance of the
was proposed by Pavlov. CR after a rest period
followingextinction.
FAMOUS EXPERIMENT OF 
PAVLOV: Ivan Pavlov while doing STIMULUS
a study on dogs noticed that they GENERALISATION:Refers to
tend to salivate to food. Gradually the tendency to respond not only to
upon repeatedly pairing food with a the original CS but also to stimuli
neutral stimulus(one that did not lead that are similar to it in the
to salivation) the presence of the samemanner.
neutral stimulus itself led to the dogs 
 STIMULUS
salivating (even when food was not
DISCRIMINATION:Refers to the
presented with it).
ability to differentiate between a
conditioned stimulus and other similar

stimuli that have not been paired with fear hierarchy, starting at the least
the UCS. So, the animal responds to unpleasant stimuli and practising
the CS but not to similarstimuli. their relaxation technique as they
go. When they feel comfortable
APPLICATIONS: with this (they are no longer
afraid) they move on to the next
TREATMENT OF
stage in the hierarchy. If the client
DISORDERS: Classical
becomes upset, they can return to
Conditioning techniques are
an earlier stage and regain their
useful in the treatment of phobias
relaxed state.The client repeatedly
or anxietyproblems.
imagines (or is confronted by) this
COUNTER-CONDITIONING: situation until it fails to evoke any
Involves pairing the stimulus that anxiety at all, indicating that the
elicits fear (CS) with a stimulus therapy has been successful. This
(UCS) that elicits positive process is repeated while working
emotion(UCR). through all of the situations in the
 anxiety hierarchy until the most
AVERSION THERAPY: This anxiety- provoking.
helps to remove an undesired
behaviour by associating it with FLOODING: In this, the
unpleasant feelings. individual is exposed to the phobic

SYSTEMATIC object until the fear fades away.
This technique is based on the
DESENSITIZATION: It is a
principle ofextinction.
learning-based treatment for anxiety
disorders. Has been developed by
COGNITION IN CLASSICAL
Joseph Wolpe. This therapy aims to CONDITIONING:
remove the fear response of a phobia,
Cognitive learning theorists believe
and substitute a relaxation response to
that classical conditioning forms a
the conditional stimulus gradually
CS-UCS link. In cognitive
using counter conditioning. There are
terminology, the link is an
three phases to the treatment:
 expectancy that the CS will be
First, the individual is taught a followed by the UCS. This
deep muscle relaxation technique expectancy model states that the
and breathing exercises. Then the most important factor in classical
individual creates a fear hierarchy conditioning is not how often the
starting at stimuli that create the CS and the UCS are paired, but how
least anxiety (fear) and building up well the CS predicts (i.e., signals)
in stages to the most fear the appearance of the UCS
provoking images. The list is (Lovibond, 2006; Rescorla &
crucial as it provides a structure Wagner, 1972).
for the therapy. Third, the
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
individual works their way up the Operant conditioning is a
type of learning in which a particular response will now produce

behaviour is influenced by certain consequences. Discriminative
the consequences that follow stimuli set the occasion for operant
it (Skinner, 1938, 1953). It responses. The sight of the teacher
was proposed by B.F. raising chalk to the blackboard was—
Skinner. in operant conditioning terms—a
discriminative stimulus signalling it
Skinner designed what has come to be was time for the students to put their
known as a Skinner box, a special fingers in their ears. Discriminative
chamber used to study operant stimuli guide much of our everyday
conditioning experimentally. A lever behaviour. Food on our plate,
on one wall is positioned above a small classroom bells, the words people
cup. When the lever is depressed, a speak to us, and the sight of a friend’s
food pellet automatically drops into the face are all discriminative stimuli that
cup. A hungry rat is put into the set the occasion for us to make
chamber and, as it moves about, it certainresponses.
accidentally presses the lever. A food
pellet clinks into the cup, and the rat Shaping (also called the method of
eats it. The rat’s behaviour is recorded successive approximations), involves
on a cumulative recorder, which shows reinforcing successive
that the rat presses the bar more approximations toward a final
frequently over time. response. Using a shaping procedure
similar to the one just described,
The important principles of operant researchers took little time to get
conditioning:
Mark playing on the monkey bars
REINFORCEMENT- A response is Chaining, is used to develop a
strengthened by an outcome that follows it.
sequence (chain) of responses by
PUNISHMENT- Occurs when a response reinforcing each response with
is weakened by outcomes that follow it.
the opportunity to perform the
next response.
Discriminative stimulus, a signal that
Fig: Components of Operant Conditioning
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT:
Schedules of reinforcement patterns of the responses of a particular type

stimulus- response behaviours which are reinforced.
have strong and predictable effects on
On a fixed schedule, reinforcement
learning, extinction, and performance
always occurs after a fixed number of
(Ferster& Skinner, 1957; Soto et al.,
responses or after a fixed time
2006). The most basic distinction is
interval. On a variable schedule, the
between continuous and partial required number of responses or the
reinforcement. time interval between them varies at
random around anaverage.
With continuous reinforcement,
every response of a particular type The schedules of reinforcement have
primarily been classified into four types:
is reinforced. Every press of the
lever results in foodpellets.
On a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule,

With partial (intermittent) reinforcement is given after a fixed
reinforcement, only a portion of number of responses. For example,
FR-3 means that reinforcement occurs
after every third response, regardless
of how long it takes for those
responses to occur.
On a variable-ratio (VR) stars) that are later turned in for tangible

schedule, reinforcement is rewards (e.g., prizes, recreation time), have
given after a variable number of been used to enhance academic and
responses, all centered around
jobperformance.
an average. A VR-3 schedule  MODIFYING PROBLEM
means that, on average, 3 BEHAVIOURS: Operant conditioning
responses are required for research gave rise to a field called
reinforcement. For example, for applied behaviour analysis, which

the first 12 responses, combines a behavioural approach with
the scientific method to solve individual
reinforcement might occur after
and societal problems (Johnston et al.,
responses 2, 3, 6, and11. 2006; Kazdin,1975).

On a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, Analysts design and implement a
the first response that occurs after a program to change behaviour, and
fixed time interval isreinforced they measure its effectiveness
 objectively by gathering data before
On a variable-interval (VI)
and after the program is in place.
schedule, reinforcement is given
The procedures (e.g., reinforcement,
for the first response that occurs
after a variable time interval, shaping) that are used to change
centred around anaverage. behaviour are collectively known as
behaviour modification. Applied

behaviour analysis has reduced an
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING: incredible range of behaviour
 problems, from chronic hair pulling
 to drivers’ failure to use seat belts
EDUCATION AND THE
WORKPLACE: Token economies, in (Byrd et al., 2002). It has improved
which desirable behaviours are quickly students’ academic performance and
reinforced with tokens (e.g., points, gold socialskills.
COGNITION IN OPERANT INSIGHT LEARNING

CONDITIONING:
Köhler exposed chimpanzees to
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: novel learning tasks and concluded
Has been proposed by Seligman in that they were able to learn by insight,
1975. Refers to the tendency to fail the sudden perception of a useful
to act to escape from an aversive relationship that helps to solve a
situation because of the history of problem. One of his apes solved the
repeated failures in the past even problem of how to retrieve bananas
where escape is possible. The that were dangling beyond reach.
organism learns to be helpless i.e. Köhler emphasized that the apes often
becomepassive. spent time staring at the bananas and
available tools, as if they were
contemplating the problem, after
COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO
LEARNING which the solution suddenly
appeared. Behaviourists however,
have argued that insight actually
These approaches demonstrate the
represents the combining of
importance of cognition in learning.
previously learned responses
Some learning theorists challenged
(Epstein et al.,1984).
the S-R model, arguing that in
between stimulus and response LATENT LEARNING
there is something else: the Another cognitive pioneer,
organism’s (O) cognitive American learning theorist Edward
representation of the world. This Tolman, studied spatial learning in
came to be known as the S-O-R, or rats. He developed a maze at the
cognitive model of learning. end of which was a box containing
food. He found that rat runs to an experiment as thebasis.

open circular table, continues
across, and follows the only path Bandura’s social-cognitive theory,
available to a goal box containing also known by its former name
food. After 12 trials, the rat easily social-learning theory, emphasizes
negotiates the maze. Next, the that people learn by observing the
maze is changed. The rat runs its behaviour of models and acquiring
usual route and reaches a deadend. the belief that they can produce
behaviours to influence events in
Tolman found that when confronted their lives (Bandura, 1969, 2006b).
with this situation, rats returned to the
The Modeling Process and Self-Efficacy
table, briefly explored most of the 18
new paths for just a few inches, and
Bandura views modelling as a four-step
then chose one. By far, the largest
process that includes several cognitive
number—36 percent—chose the factors:
fourth path to the right of their
original route, which took them ATTENTION: First, we must pay
closest to where the goal box had attention to the model’sbehaviour.
been. In short, the rats behaved as 
though they had a map. RETENTION: Second, we must
retain that information in memory
Tolman (1948) argued that so that it can be recalled
reinforcement theory could not whenneeded.
explain this behaviour but that he 
could: The rats had developed a REPRODUCTION: Third, we must be
physically capable of reproducing
cognitive map, a mental representation
 themodel’s
of the spatial layout. The concept of
behaviour or something similar to it.
cognitive maps supported Tolman’s

belief that learning does not merely MOTIVATION: Fourth, we must be
“stamp in” stimulus response motivated to display thebehaviour.
connections. Rather, 
learning provides knowledge, According to Bandura, self-efficacy,
andbasedon their knowledge, which represents people’s belief that
organisms develop an expectancy, a they have the capability to perform
cognitive representation, of“what behaviours that will produce a
leads to what.” desired outcome, is a key
motivational factor in observational
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING learning.
Observational learning is that

which occurs by observing the VERBAL LEARNING
behaviour of a model. It was Verbal learning refers to the
proposed by Albert Bandura acquisition and retention of
keeping his famous Bobo Doll
verbal information. It is typically more of a likelihood of being

associated with the memorization interfered with from earlier and later
and retention of lists of words, in items, while the initial and terminal
order to describe basic elements of items do not have to face as much
associative learning. interference.
It is the process of actively An important component of serial

memorizing new material using mental learning is the concept of Serial
pictures, associations, and other Position Effect-- lower recall error
activities. rates for the first (primacy effect)
and last few (recency effect) items
Verbal learning was first studied by on the list, with higher recall error
Hermann Ebbinghaus, who used rates for items appearing in the
lists of nonsense syllables to test middle of the list.
recall. Later, Frederic Bartlett refuted
Ebbinghaus' beliefs that nonsense PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING
syllables had an advantage over using
words when testing verbal learning This refers learning to make a verbal
because the use of words adds the response when a specific stimulus is
element of making a meaningful presented (for example, learning
connection between words. foreign language vocabulary: stimulus
foreign word, response = English
Ebbinghaus’s book, On Memory word).Paired Associate (PA) learning
involves having 2 items (a Stimulus
(1885), showed how experimental
and Response item) paired as stimuli
methods could be used to measure the (e.g.,BOAT-CHAIR).
learning and retention of verbal items
arranged in lists. Each pair of items is presented in a 2-
step procedure. In the first step, the
TYPES OF VERBAL LEARNING stimulus is presented alone, and the
METHODS subject tries to state the response that
goes with it. In the second step, the
SERIAL LEARNING:
stimulus and response items appear
together. This gives the subject
Serial learning is memorizing a list of
feedback and another opportunity to
words in a particular order. Serial
learn theassociation.
Learning involves having subjects
learn a list of items according to the There are two kinds of trials. On a
order in which the items appear in the study trial, the subject sees each
list. Each item that appears provides complete pair of items. Then there is
feedback on the previous response a test trial in which the subject is
and acts as a cue for saying the next presented the first item of each pair
response. In this, starting and ending and is asked to state the item that
points may possess some type of goes withit. When the items
distinctiveness to set them apart from pairs are
the rest of the list. Middle items have
committed to memory, the this kind of learning, participants

presentation of the first word (the notice features such as whether two
stimulus word) should evoke the or more words rhyme, start with
second word (the response word). identical letters, have same vowels,
So presenting BOAT should elicit etc. Thus, verbal learning is both
response of CHAIR. Pre- intentional as well as incidental.
existing associations between the
stimulus and response items can NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
either help or hinder the OF LEARNING
associationprocess.
FREE RECALL: INFORMATION PROCESSING

SYSTEM
Free Recall is a fairly unstructured
method; one can recall words in any The brain’s reticular activating
order they would like. This procedure system filters incoming
resembles serial learning. A person is information to focus on what’s

given a list of words and immediately important, excluding anything
afterwards they try to recall them. But trivial which leads to meaningful
it can be in any order. It doesn’t have perception (Wolfe, 2001 as cited
to be the original order like in serial by Schunk, 2012). This process is
learning. It’s like remembering a adaptive and perceived importance
shopping list: cereal, apples, milk, is based on factors such as novelty,
bread, cookies. When we get to the intensity, and movement. In terms
store, it doesn’t matter what order we of its application in the
remember them in as long as we classroom, these aspects can be
remember them all. used to maintain student’s
attention and educators can find
Verbal learning is usually ways to build these factors into
intentional but a person may learn their lesson and student activities.
some features of the words Stangor, C. (2010). Memory duration
unintentionally or incidentally. In
specifically, sensory inputs are pausing to understand a passage).

processed in the sensory memories
NEURAL CONNECTIONS IN
area of the brain and the ones that
MEMORY NETWORKS
are retained move to the working
memory where it primarily resides From a cognitive neuroscience
in the prefrontal cortex of the frontal perspective, learning involves
lobe. The cortex and medial forming and strengthening neural
temporal lobe are involved in connections and networks. Hebb’s
memory and information theory elaborates on this by
processing. The LTM is located in explaining the role of two cortical
the frontal and temporal cortex. The structures: cell assemblies and
parts of the brain responsible for phase sequences. Cell assemblies
long term memory differ based on are structures with cells in the cortex
the type of information whether it is and subcortical centers. It is the
declarative memory (facts, neural counterpart of a simple
definitions, events), or procedural association that is developed through
memory (procedures, strategies). repeated stimulations.
According to Bandura (1986), Phase sequence is a series of cell
cognitive neuroscience supports the assemblies which form an organized
idea that learning occurs through pattern. Hebb believed that when a
observation. Nonmotor procedures cell assembly was activated that it
(i.e. decoding words) involve the use would in turn activate the neural and
of the visual cortex. Yet, repetition motor responses. For example, if we
can change the neural structure of the repeatedly see a friend’s face then
visual cortex. These changes allow multiple cell assemblies are activated
us to quickly recognize visual stimuli enabling us to meaningfully perceive
(i.e. words, numbers) without who it is. Thus, Hebb’s theory can be
consciously having to process their summarized best by this statement
meaning. Conversely, conscious “cells that fire together, wire
processing is involved when it together” as it describes associative
requires extended activity (i.e.
learning. Hebb’s theory is still relationship since The

relevant today as it is linked with “neuroplasticity” of the brain or its
recent research on how learning capacity to change its structure and
occurs and memories are formed. For function is a result of An
instance, several studies have shown individual’sexperience.
that enriched environments are key to Tha
Recent research indicates t
leading to improved learning
memory is not formed at the time
outcomes (van Praag et al.,2000). initial learning occurs. Memory
Generally, people are born with a forms as a continuous process called
large quantity of neural connections consolidation where stabilizing and
and our experiences work on this strengthening of neuralConnections
system so that our connections are occur in the hippocampus. The brain
selected or ignored, strengthened or An
plays an active role in storing d
lost. According to the National
retrieving information. Instruction
Research Council (2000), the process
also plays an important role In
of forming and strengthening
helping impose a desired structure on
synaptic connections, essentially
learning.
learning, changes the physical
structure of the brain and alters its
organization. Although we tend to Table : Illustrates instructional applications
think that the brain determines to help improve memory
learning, it is a reciprocal
Factors that
improve Instructional applications
consolidation(memory)
Organization  Creating timelines, labelling, use of visualorganizers
Practicing for a play, repeating vocabulary words, using
Rehearsal
lists,essays
Surveying students to gauge their interests, relating
Elaboration concepts, encouraging students to elaborate on their
questions/answers
LANGUAGE LEARNING aspects of reading. For educators it is

important to know how the brain
The brain’s cerebral cortex is
develops since developmental changes
responsible for reading and the posterior
need to be considered in planning
cortical association areas of the left
instruction to help students learnbest.
hemisphere are important for
The table illustrates the brain structures
understanding language and normal
associated with reading
reading. There are several brain
structures involved in the following
Brain Structures Aspects of Reading

Orthographic- refers to letters or
 Primary visualarea charactersprocessing
 
Superior temporallobe Phonological- phonemes orsyllables
 
Broca’s area in the frontal lobeand 

medial temporal lobe  Semantic- meanings
 Broca’s area in the frontallobe Syntactic-sentencestructure processing
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Educational implications for teaching and learning vary depending on the level of brain development.
Factors influencing brain development are illustrated below.
The table below Illustrates how factors influence brain development
Factors influencing brain

How it occurs
development
Human brains have a similar genetic structure but they differ in
size and structure. Genetic instructions
 Genetics
determinethesize,structure,andneuralconnectivityof
the brain.
Brain development requires experiences from the environment.
Environmental
These experiences develop neural circuitry that can receive and
stimulation
process stimuli andexperiences.
Lack of good nutrition can have major effects on brain
th th
development. Crucial period is between the 4 and 7 month
 Nutrition
ofgestation when most brain cellsare
produced.
Hormones can affect brain development. Excess stress hormones
 Steroids
can lead to the death ofneurons.
Foreign substances (i.e. alcohol, viruses) can cause abnormalities in the
developing embryo or fetus. Teratogens can have effects on the development
Teratogens
and interconnections of neurons and glial cells and can cause birth defects.
CRITICAL DEVELOPMENTAL PHASES
At birth, the human brain has over a million connections which represent about 60% of the peak
number of synapses that will develop over a lifetime. Brain connections that are not used or needed
disappear.

KEY HIGHLIGHTS INCLUDE:

2 years old- a child will have as many synapses reasoning and problem solving mature and the
 as anadult parietal lobes increase in size. The prefrontal
3 years old- a child will have billions more than cortex which controls judgments and impulses

anadult matures slowly. There are also changes in
5yearsold a child’s brain neurotransmitters especially dopamine that can
has acquired a language leave the brain more sensitive to the effects of
and developed drugs and alcohol. There is a thickening of the
sensorymotorskills and brain cells and massive reorganization of

other competencies. synapses which makes it a key time forlearning.
Teenage years- major structural changes occur
in the brain. The frontal lobes which handle
Table: Four aspects of crucial brain development
TypeofBrain
Why it is important
Development
Systems associated with vision, hearing and motor movements develop
 Sensorymotor
extensively through experiences during the first 2 years oflife.
development
By age 6 months children can distinguish between most sounds in their
environment. In the first two years children’s auditory systems mature
in terms of range of sounds heard and ability to discriminate among
 Auditory
sounds. Problems in auditory development can lead to problems
development
Learninglanguage
as it is dependent on hearing the speech of others.
Vision Develops in the first year of life especially after 4 months. Proper visual
development requires a visually rich environment where infants can
explore objects and movements.
Children who are normally developing show extensive bilateral and

anterior cortical activation and left-sided activation in language and
speech areas. Reading development is based on anterior activation on
both sides of the brain. A critical period of language development is
Language from birth to age 5.During this time, a child’s brain develops most
of their language capabilities. There is a rapid increase in
vocabulary between age 19-31 months. Development of language is
enhanced when children are in language-rich environmentswhere
parents and others talk with children.
INSTRUCTIONAL APPLICATIONS Using magnetic number lines students put the

magnetic bar on the appropriate number
Instruction can help facilitate language
development by stressing perceptual, motor, and line. Next converting the numbers to a
language functions. Teachers can work with common denominator to place in the
students of all ages to help develop their language
correct order.
skills by coordinating the components of 
language- seeing, hearing, thinking and speaking. For learning historical events, have students
Some examplesinclude:
engage in role-playing activities where
Helping students learn phonemes using cards they read documents as
and practicing writing/reading it in
historicalcharacters
sentences 
 Using case studies
Using picture and word cards for names
andspellings

MEMORY your brain processes. This processing can be of

two types:
Memory refers to the processes that allow Effortful processing, encoding that is initiated
us to record, store, and later retrieve intentionally and requires conscious attention
experiences and information. (Adam et al., 2005; Hasher & Zacks, 1979).
When we rehearse information, make lists, and
Encoding refers to getting information into the take notes, we are engaging in
system by translating it into a neural code that effortfulprocessing.
Automatic processing on the other hand, refers & Mendez, 2001).According to the concept of
to encoding that occurs without intention and levels of processing, the more deeply we process
requires minimal attention. Information about information, the better we will remember it
the frequency, spatial location, and sequence of (Craik & Lockhart,1972).
events is often encoded automatically (Jimenez
REHEARSAL AND EXPOSURE:
Rehearsal goes beyond mere exposure. When The techniques actors use are examples of
we rehearse information, we are thinking about elaborative rehearsal, which involves
it. This rehearsal can be of varied types: One focusing on the meaning of information or
approach, called maintenance rehearsal, expanding (i.e., elaborating) on it in some way.
involves simple, rote repetition, and some According to Craik and Lockhart (1972),
students rely on it to learn their course material. elaborative rehearsal involves deeper
Maintenance rehearsal keeps information active processing than maintenance rehearsal, and
in working memory, as when someone tells us a experiments show that it is more effective in
phone number and we repeat it to ourselves as transferring information into long-term
we place the call. memory (Benjamin & Bjork, 2000).
DUAL CODING THEORY: that at least one of the codes will be available
later to support recall. Memory experts
Allan Paivio(1969, 2006) has proposed that recommend using imagery to dual-code
information is stored in long-term memory in information. The ancient Greeks developed the
two forms: verbal codes and visual codes. method of loci (loci are Latin for “places”), a
According to his dual coding theory, encoding memory aid that associates information with
information using both verbal and visual codes mental images of physicallocations.
enhances memory because the odds improve
Mnemonic Devices mnemonic devices are chunking, method of

loci and soon.
The term mnemonics refers to the art of
improving memory, and a mnemonic device is STORAGE involves retaining information over
a memory aid. Mnemonic devices reorganize time. Memory is enhanced by forming associations
information into more meaningful units and between new information and other items already in
provide extra cues to help retrieve information memory.
from long-term memory. A few examples of
ASSOCIATIVE NETWORKS refers to the activation of one concept (or one

unit of information) by another. For instance,
One group of theories proposes that long-term listening to the word “fire engine” primes the
memory can be represented as an associative node for “red,” making it more likely that our
network, a massive network of associated memory for this colour will be accessed
ideas and concepts (Collins &Loftus, 1975, (Chwilla&Kolk,2002).
Hekkanen&McEvoy, 2005). The term priming
In neural network (connectionist) models, other nodes. In this manner, certain nodes
each memory is represented by a unique pattern prime other nodes, and concepts and
of interconnected and simultaneously activated information are retrieved. For this reason,
nodes. neural network (connectionist) models are
often called parallel distributed processing
As we look across the entire neural network, (PDP) models (Rumelhart et al., 1986).
various nodes distributed throughout the
network fire in parallel at each instant and
simultaneously spread their activation to
RETRIEVAL refers to processes that access that make up the stories of our lives (Schaefer
stored information form the long term memory. &Philippot, 2005). When people are asked to
A retrieval cue is a stimulus, whether internal record their unique daily experiences in a diary
or external, that activates information stored in and rate the emotional pleasantness and intensity
long-term memory. Distinctive events stand a of each event (e.g., say, on a 7-point scale
greater chance of etching long-term memories ranging from “extremely unpleasant” to
that seem vivid and clear. “extremely pleasant”), it typically is the more
intense events that they recall most vividly when
EMOTION AND AROUSAL: tested days, months, or yearslater.
Researchers have found that emotional arousal
enhances autobiographical memories,
recollections of personally experienced events
THREE STAGE MODEL OF MEMORY experiment to assess how long it holds

information.
Developed by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin (1968) and subsequently SHORT-TERM MEMORY
modified, it depicts memory as having three
major components: sensory memory, working It is a memory store that temporarily holds a
limited amount of information. Once information
(short- term) memory, and long-term
leaves sensory memory, it must be represented by
memory. some type of code if it is to be retained in short-
term memory. Memory codes are mental
SENSORY MEMORY
representations of some type of information or
stimulus, and they can take various forms. We
Sensory memory briefly holds incoming may try to form mental images (visual codes),
sensory information. It comprises different code something by sound (phonological codes), or
subsystems, called sensory registers, which are focus on the meaning of a stimulus (semantic
the initial information processors. Our visual codes). For physical actions, such as learning
sports or playing musical instruments, we code
sensory register is called the iconic store, and
patterns of movement (motorcodes).
in 1960 George Sperling conducted a classic
Short-term memory can hold only a limited subsystems can be integrated, manipulated,
amount of information at a time. The limit on and made available for conscious awareness.
short-term storage capacity concerns the The episodic buffer also comes into play
number of meaningful units that can be when you chunk information.
recalled, and the 20 letters have been
The fourth component of working memory,
combined into 6 meaningful units (words). called the central executive, directs the overall
Combining individual items into larger units of action.
meaning is called chunking, which aids recall. When solving arithmetic problems, for
example, the central executive doesn’t store
Working memory is a limited-capacity the numbers or rules of addition. Instead, it
system that temporarily stores and plans and controls the sequence of actions that
processes information (Baddeley, need to be performed, divides and allocates
2007).Has primarily three components: attention to the other subsystems, and
integrates information within the episodic
One component, the phonological loop, buffer. It also may monitor the progress as
briefly stores mental representations of interim steps are completed (DeStefano &
sounds. The phonological loop is active when LeFevre,2004).
you listen to a spoken word or when you
sound out a word to yourself as youread. A LONG-TERM MEMORY: Long-term
second component, the visuospatial memory is our vast library of more durable
sketchpad, briefly stores visual and spatial stored memories. It can store limitless
information, as occurs when you form a information and it becomes easier to add
mental image of someone’s face or of the new information - encoding based on
spatial layout of yourbedroom. A third meaning. Forming and using long-term
component, called the episodic buffer memories is an active, creative, highly
provides a temporary storage space where personalprocess
information from long-term memory and
from the phonological and/or visuospatial
Fig: Types of Long- Term Memory (Source: semantic memories are called declarative
Queensland Brain Institute) because to demonstrate our knowledge, we
 it: We tell other
typically have to declare
 people what weknow.
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY:
Procedural (non-declarative) memory is
DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL reflected in skills and actions (Cohen et al.,
MEMORY 2005). One component of procedural memory
consists of skills that are expressed by doing
Declarative memory involves factual knowledge things in particular situations, such as typing
Includes two sub-categories.
 or riding a bicycle.
Episodic memory is our store of knowledge Explicit memory involves conscious or
concerning personal experiences: when, intentional memory retrieval, as when
where, and what happened in the episodes of you consciously recognize or recall
our lives. Your recollections of childhood
a favourite movie, and what you  something. Recognition requires us to
 friends, ate
this morning represent episodicmemories.  decide whether a stimulus is familiar,
Semantic memory represents general factual
knowledge about the world and language, Implicit memory occurs when memory
including memory for words and concepts. influences our behavior without conscious
You know that Mount Everest is the world’s awareness.
tallest peak and that e=mc2. Episodic and
Fig: Various types of memory (Source: Peak Decay theory proposed that with time and
performance center)
disuse the long-term physical memory trace
in the nervous system fades away. Decay
MEASUREMENT OF MEMORY theory soon fell into disfavor because
scientists could not locate physical memory
TIP OF TONGUE: Feeling that memory is
available but notretrievable traces nor measure physical decay.
 Unfortunately, decay theory’s prediction— the
RECALL:Tosupplyorreproducememorizedinfor
longer the time interval of disuse between
mationwithaminimumofexternal cues.
 learning and recall, the less should be
RECOGNITION: An ability to correctly identify recalled— has been found to be problematic.
previously learnedinformation Some professional actors display perfect
 memory for words they had last spoken on
RELEARNING: Learning again something stage 2 years earlier—this despite having
that was previously learned. Used to measure moved on to new acting roles and scripts
memory of prior learning – measured by (Noice&Noice, 2002). Moreover, when
saving score (amount of time saved in
research participants learn a list of words or a
relearning).
 set of visual patterns and are retested at two
PRIMING: Facilitating the retrieval of an different times, they sometimes recall material
implicit memory by using cues to activate during the second testing that they could not
hiddenmemories
CONSOLIDATION. : Process by remember during the first. This phenomenon,
which relatively permanent memoriesconsolidatre called reminiscence, seems inconsistent with
damagedfornewmemories)inbraindevelo.Hipspoc the concept that a memory trace decays over
anterogradempusactsas switchingamnesia
time (Greene,1992).
station(inabilityb/w STMto & LTM.
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE
FORGETTING:
According to interference theory, we forget
THEORIES OF FORGETTING:
information because other items in long-term
memory impair our ability to retrieve it
ENCODING FAILURE
Many memory failures result not from forgetting (Postman & Underwood, 1973; Feredoes et
information that we once knew, but from failing al., 2006)
to encode the information into long-term memory
in the first place. Even when we notice – Proactive interference occurs when material
information, we may fail to encode it deeply learned in the past interferes with recall of
because we turn our attention to somethingelse.
DECAY OF THE MEMORYTRACE
newermaterial. the same environment in which it was

originallyencoded.
– Retroactive interference occurs when newly
acquired information interferes with the State-dependent memory proposes that our
ability to recall information learned at an ability to retrieve information is greater when
earliertime. our internal state at the time of retrieval
matches our original state during learning
Proposed reasons for interference to occur:
It takes time for the brain to convert short- MOTIVATED FORGETTING:
term memories into long-term memories, and
some researchers propose that when new Psychodynamic and other psychologists
information is entered into the system, it can propose that, at times, people are consciously
disrupt (i.e., retroactively interfere with) the or unconsciously motivated to forget. They
conversion of older information into long- have proposed the concept of repression
term memories (Wixted, 2005). Others which refers to a motivational process that
believethatoncelong- protects us by blocking the conscious recall of
termmemoriesareformed,retroactiveandproact anxiety- arousing memories.
iveinterference are caused by competition
The concept of repression, however, is
among retrieval cues (Anderson & Neely,
controversial. Some evidence supports it, and
1996).
other evidence does not (Karon, 2002). People
certainly do forget unpleasant events— even
RETRIEVAL FAILURE THEORY: traumatic ones—yet they also forget very
Retrieval failure occurs when the pleasant events. Overall, it has been difficult to
information is present in the long-term demonstrate experimentally that a special
memory but cannot be accessed due to the process akin to repression is the cause of
absence of adequate retrieval cues. memory loss for anxiety-arousing events
(Holmes,1990).
Retrieval cues can be: FORGETTING TO DO THINGS:

External: context dependent/ in theenvironment
Internal: state dependent/ inside ofus Prospective Memory concerns remembering to
perform an activity in the future.
Context-dependent memory proposes that it
is typically easier to remember something in
Amnesia: The term amnesia commonly Anterograde amnesia refers to memory

refers to memory loss due to special loss for events that occur after the initial
conditions, such as brain injury, illness, or onset of amnesia.
psychological trauma. Amnesia takes several 
forms. Dementia: Dementia refers to impaired
memory and other cognitive deficits that
Retrograde amnesia represents memory loss
accompany brain degeneration and
for events that took place sometime in life
before the onset ofamnesia. interfere with normal functioning.

Alzheimer’sDisease:Alzheimer’sdisease(AD)isa
progressivebraindisorderthatistheMostcommonca
useofdementia amongadultsovertheageof65.
CONTENTS
Theoretical perspectives on thought processes: Associationism, Gestalt, Information

processing, Feature integration model
Concept formation: Rules, Types, and Strategies; Role of concepts in thinking Types of
Reasoning Language and thought
Problem solving: Type, Strategies, and Obstacles
Decision-making: Types and models
Metacognition: Metacognitive knowledge and Metacognitive regulation
Intelligence: Spearman; Thurstone; Jensen; Cattell; Gardner; Stenberg; Goleman; Das, Kar & Parrila
Creativity: Torrance, Getzels & Jackson, Guilford, Wallach
& Kogan Relationship between Intelligence and Creativity
UNIT Unit 6: Thinking, Intelligence

6 and Creativity
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
ASSOCIATIONISM GESTALT
Our mental processing is based on our The term “Gestalt,” comes from a German
senses, conceptions and perceptions.
These elements are stored as varied word that roughly means pattern or form. The
associations that help us relate and main tenet of the Gestalt theory is that the
understand new things generally through whole is greater than the sum of its parts;
what we have already experienced, or
learning is more than just invoking mechanical
gained knowledge about, through other
mediums. Aristotle (350 B.C.E) the responses from learners. As with other learning
Greek scientist, who studied in Plato's theories, the Gestalt theory has laws of
academy in Athens, came up with four
organization by which it must function. These
laws of associationism
organizational laws already exist in the make-
Law of Similarity: When we are
up of the human mind and how perceptions are
reminded of, or recall one thing from the
past experiences, similar instances will structured. Gestalt theorists propose that the
also be recalled. experiences and perceptions of learners have a
Law of Contrast: When we are significant impact on the way that they learn.
reminded of, or recall things from the One aspect of Gestalt is phenomenology,
past experiences, instances exactly which is the study of how people organize
opposite to them, will also be recalled.
learning by looking at their lived experiences
Law of Contiguity: When we are and consciousness. Learning happens best
reminded of, or recall things from the
past experiences, we also recall actions when the instruction is related to their real life
or other associations with that object experiences. The human brain has the ability to
that were originally experienced along make a map of the stimuli caused by these life
with that entity.
experiences. This process of mapping is called
Law of Frequency: If a series of events “isomorphism.”
keep occurring frequently, the
probability of recalling similar
associated instances will increase.
Whenever the brain sees only part of a Just as the computer has an input device,
picture, the brain automatically attempts a processing unit, a storage unit, and an
to create a complete picture. This is the output device, so does the human mind
first organizational law, called the have equivalent structures.
“factor of closure,” and it does not only
apply to images, but it also applies to In a computer, information is entered by
thoughts, feelings and sounds. means of input devices like a keyboard
or scanner. In the human mind, the input
Based upon Gestalt theory, the human device is called the Sensory Register,
brain maps elements of learning that are composed of sensory organs like the
presented close to each other as a whole,
eyes and the ears through which we
instead of separate parts. This
organizational law is called the “factor receive information about our
of proximity,” and is usually seen in surroundings.
learning areas such as reading and
music, where letters and words or As information is received by a
musical notes make no sense when computer, it is processed in the Central
standing alone, but become a whole Processing Unit, which is equivalent to
story or song when mapped together by the Working Memory or Short-Term
the human brain. Memory. In the human mind, this is
INFORMATION PROCESSING where information is temporarily held so
that it may be used, discarded, or
The Information Processing Model is a transferred into long-term memory.
framework used by cognitive
psychologists to explain and describe In a computer, information is stored in a
mental processes. The model likens the hard disk, which is equivalent to the
thinking process to how a computer long-term memory. This is where we
works. keep information that is not currently
being used. Information stored in the
Just like a computer, the human mind Long-Term Memory may be kept for an
takes in information, organizes and indefinite period of time.
stores it to be retrieved at a later time.
When a computer processes information,
it displays the results by means of an
output device like a computer screen or
a printout. In humans, the result of
information processing is exhibited
through behaviour or actions - a facial
expression, a reply to a question, or
body movement.
FEATURE INTEGRATION THEORY attention would be required to spot the

nickel.
Feature Integration Theory is a
perceptual and attentional theory that
explains how an individual combines CONCEPT
pieces of observable information about
an object in order to form a complete A concept is a mental representation
perception of the object. This theory was that is used for a variety of cognitive
developed by Gelade and Treisman functions, including memory, reasoning,
and focuses on the visual search and using and understanding language
component of stimuli perception. During (Solomon et al., 1999). Thus, when you
a visual search a person uses cues like think about cats, you are drawing on
colors, shape, and size to distinguish your concept, or mental representation,
objects from one another. There are two of cats, which includes information
stages that comprise this theory. about what cats are, what they usually
look like, how they behave, and so on.
The first is the pre-attention stage in Concepts are mental groupings of
which the individual focuses on one similar objects, events, or people.
distinguishing attribute of the object. Concepts enable us to organize complex
The pre-attention phase is an automatic phenomena into cognitive categories that
process which happens unconsciously. are easier to understand and remember.
The second stage is focused attention in By far the most commonly studied
function of concepts is categorization,
which an individual take all of the
which is the process by which things are
observed features and combines them to
placed into groups called categories. For
make a complete perception. example, when you see vehicles in the
street you can place them into categories
This second stage process occurs if the such as cars, SUVs, Chevrolets, Fords,
object doesn't stand out immediately. American cars, and foreign cars.
For example, if you were looking for a
penny in a handful of quarters it would
be easy to spot and only require pre- THE DEFINING-ATTRIBUTE VIEW
attention focus. If you were looking for
This view, elaborated by the logician
a nickel in a handful of quarters it would
Gottlob Frege (1952), maintains that a
be more difficult to spot because of the concept can be characterised by a set of
same colors and similar size- focused defining attributes.
THE PROTOTYPE VIEW

In some theories, the prototype is a set
of characteristic attributes; there are no
defining attributes but rather only
characteristic attributes of differential
importance within the concept. An
object is a member of the concept if
there is a good match between its
attributes and those of the prototype. In
other prototype theories, the prototype is
captured by a specific instance of the
category, the best example of the
concept (e.g., Rosch, 1978).
THE EXEMPLAR-BASED VIEW
LEARNING NEW CONCEPTS divided into two types: deductive and

inductive reasoning
There is an experiment containing
cards, each of which contains one of DEDUCTIVE REASONING
three shapes, one of three colors, and Deductive reasoning is the process of
one of three borders.Participants reasoning from one or more general
were given an instances (such as statements regarding what is known to
“black circles”), without the concept reach a logically certain conclusion. It
itself.They then had to pick often involves reasoning from one or
additional cards which they thought more general statements regarding what
might be instances of the same is known to a specific application of the
concept. They received feedback on general statement. Deductive reasoning
is based on logical propositions. A
their guesses.
proposition is basically an assertion,
Strategy for learning new concepts Examples are “Cognitive psychology
LEARNING STRATEGIES students are brilliant,”

They might use a conscious, strategic, or
unconscious strategy. When the task is CONDITIONAL REASONING
simple (few objects and categories), One of the primary types of deductive
conscious learning is the way to go. reasoning is conditional reasoning, in
Learning a language is more complex, so which the reasoner must draw a
an unconscious approach would be better conclusion based on an if-then
in that situation. proposition. The conditional if-then
proposition states that if antecedent
Simultaneous scanning: testing condition p is met, then consequent
multiple hypotheses at the same time event q follows. For example, “If
(such as “white circles”). This has heavy students study hard, then they score high
demands on working memory. on their exams.”
Successive scanning: testing one
hypothesis at a time (such as “black
figures”). This is inefficient but has low
demands on working memory.
Conservative focusing: choosing
cards that vary in only one respect from
a positive instance (known as the “focus
card”). This is both efficient and easy.
REASONING
Reasoning is the process of drawing
conclusions from principles and from
information. In reasoning, we move
from what is already known to infer a
new conclusion or to evaluate a
proposed conclusion. Reasoning is often
Laird, 2000). The key feature

distinguishing inductive from deductive
reasoning is that, in inductive reasoning,
SYLLOGISTIC REASONING:
we never can reach a logically certain
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS conclusion. We only can reach a
In addition to conditional reasoning, the particularly well-founded or probable
other key type of deductive reasoning is conclusion.
syllogistic reasoning, which is based on
the use of syllogisms. Syllogisms are
deductive arguments that involve LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
drawing conclusions from two
premises (Maxwell, 2005; Rips, 1994,
1999). All syllogisms comprise a major JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF
premise, a minor premise, and a RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
conclusion. In the case of the categorical LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
syllogism, the premises state something
about the category memberships of the
terms. Jean Piaget’s theory claims that “Thought
determines Language”.
He says that because a child has
An example of a categorical syllogism would be
some thought, they learn the
as follows:
language. Imitating other’s is a
P1: All cognitive psychologists are pianists.
proof that a child is thinking.
P2: All pianists are athletes.
Thinking is the basic need and
C: Therefore, all cognitive psychologists are necessity to learn a language.
athletes.
INDUCTIVE REASONING BENJAMIN LEE WHORF’S THEORY OF

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
Inductive reasoning is the process of LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
reasoning from specific facts or
observations to reach a likely conclusion Benjamin Lee Whorf’s theory claims that
that may explain the facts. The inductive “Language determines Thought”.
reasoner then may use that probable In this theory, he claims that
conclusion to attempt to predict language determines the contents
future specific instances (Johnson- of thought which is also known
One Stop Solution for Psychology Aspirants
as linguistic relativity hypothesis. Language in an innate
For example: In India, we have proposition. We are all born with
names for every relationship such the LAD which has a set of
as kaka, chachaa, mausi etc but language learning tools such as
in western languages, they do not Universal Grammar rules
have the same. They mostly have based on which a child learns a
uncle and aunt which does not language. This is the Natives
determine any specific theory. He mentions that, there is
relationship. Due to this a critical period in every child’s
difference, Indian children may life when learning must occur
havebetterclarityin successfully to learn a language.
relationships than western If it doesn’t then after the critical
children. In short, he wants to say period it becomes very difficult
that the words we use to express for the child to learn a language.
ourselves in our mother That is why adults find more
tongue or any language difficulty learning a new
determine how we think. language than a child.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S T THEORY OF WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT In the late 1970’s, John Flavell
originally coined the word
“metacognition.” He defined the word as
Lev Vygotsky’s theory claims that
“cognition about cognitive
“Language and Thought are
phenomenon”, or basically thinking
Independent processes until the
about thinking. Subsequent studies on
child is 2 years.”
metacognition described the term
He argued that thoughts and comparative to Flavell’s meaning. Cross
language are interdependent and and Paris (1988) defined it as “the
develop in a child separately knowledge and control children have
until about two years of age. over their own thinking and learning
Crying when uncomfortable is activities.” For Hennessey (1999), it is
simply an automatic reflex than the “awareness of one’s own thinking,
thought or language based. Only awareness of the content of one’s
around 2 years of age a child is conception, as active monitoring of
able to express thought verbally one’s cognitive processes, an attempt to
and her/his speech reflects regulate one’s cognitive.
rationality.
NOAM CHOMSKY’S THEORY OF COMPONENTS OF METACOGNITION

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT Metacognition is classified as having three
components –
Noam Chomsky’s theory claims that
Metacognitive knowledge,
“Language and Thought are Innate
Proposition.” Metacognitive regulation, and
Also known as Nativist Theory.
Noam Chomsky claims that we Metacognitive experiences.
actually do have a device in our
brain. The device is Language Metacognitive knowledge refers to the
Acquisition Device (LAD). In awareness individuals possess about
the argument of Language Vs themselves and other people as
Thought, Chomsky suggests that
cognitive processors. Metacognitive automatically through a variety of

regulation, on the other hand, has to do strategies.
with people’s control over cognition and
learning experiences through a set of (3) Conditional knowledge: Conditional
methods that help people regulate their knowledge, on the other hand, refers to
learning while metacognitive the knowledge about when to use a
experiences involve cognitive efforts procedure, skill, or strategy or when not
that are currently taking place. to, information as to why a procedure
works and under what conditions it
works, in addition to why one procedure
TYPES OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE
is better than another. Such knowledge
Aside from these three components, affords the individual a chance to assign
metacognition also has three different resources when using strategies.

types of metacognitive knowledge –
(1) Declarative knowledge: Declarative SKILLS IN METACOGNITIVE REGULATION
knowledge refers to the factual
information that one knows, and can There are three important skills in metacognitive
both be spoken or written. This is also regulation –
the knowledge about oneself as a learner (1) Planning: Planning involves suitable
and about what factors can influence selection of strategies and the right
one’s performance assignment of resources.
(2) Monitoring: Monitoring includes awareness of
(2) Procedural knowledge: Procedural understanding and task performance
knowledge comprises information on (3) Evaluating: Evaluating refers to the
how to do something or how to perform assessment of the final result of a task
the procedural steps that make up a task. and the efficiency carried out during
A high degree of procedural knowledge task performance.
allows individuals to perform tasks more
PROBLEM SOLVING
Syllabus: Problem solving: Type, Strategies, and

Obstacles Contents
Problem solving cycle
Types of problems
Well defined
Solving well defined problems (heuristics)
Ill-defined
Solving ill defined problems(insights)
Obstacles
Mental sets
Positive and negative transfer
Analogies
Incubation
Knowledge experts and novices
Automaticity
TYPES OF PROBLEMS
structured problems (Greeno, 1974;
Problems can be categorized according
Simon & Reed, 1976; Thomas, 1974).
to whether they have clear paths to a
These errors are:
solution (Davidson & Sternberg, 1984).
(1) Inadvertently moving backward:
Well-structured problems have clear
They revert to a state that is further from
paths to solutions. These problems also
the end goal, for instance, moving all of
are termed well-defined problems. An
the “orcs” and “hobbits” back to the
example would be, “How do you find
first side of the river.
the area of a parallelogram?”
(2) Making illegal moves: They make an
Ill-structured problems lack clear
illegal move—that is, a move that is not
paths to solutions (Shin et al., 2003).
permitted according to the terms of the
These problems are also termed ill-
problem. For example, a move that
defined problems. An example is shown
resulted in having more than two
in Figure 11.1: “How do you tie together
individuals in the boat would be illegal.
two suspended strings, when neither
string is long enough to allow you to (3) Not realizing the nature of the next
reach the other string while holding legal move: They become “stuck”—
they do not know what to do next, given
either of the strings?” the current stage of the problem. An
example would be realizing that you
must bring one “orc” or “hobbit” back
People seem to make three main kinds across the river to its starting point
of ERRORS when trying to solve well- before you can move any of the
remaining characters.
A problem space is the universe of all solving a problem, given any constraints
possible actions that can be applied to that apply to the solution of the problem.
Algorithms are sequences of operations forward, working backward, and

(in a problem space) that may be generate and test.
repeated over and over again and that, in
theory, guarantee the solution to a ISOMORPHIC PROBLEMS
problem (Hunt, 1975; Sternberg, 2000).
Sometimes, two problems are
Generally, an algorithm continues until
it satisfies a condition determined by a isomorphic; that is, their formal
program. structure is the same,and only their
content differs.
Newell and Simon recognized these

limits and observed that humans must
use mental shortcuts for solving
problems. These mental shortcuts are
termed heuristics—informal, intuitive,
speculative strategies that sometimes
lead to an effective solution and
sometimes do not when problem solvers
are confronted with a problem for which
they cannot immediately see an answer,
effective problem solvers use the
heuristic of means–ends analysis . In
this strategy, the problem solver
continually compares the current state
and the goal state and takes steps to
minimize the differences between the
two states. Various other problem-
solving heuristics include working
ILL-STRUCTURED PROBLEMS AND Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer

THE ROLE OF INSIGHT (1945/1959) wrote about productive
thinking, which involves insights that
The following problems illustrate some go beyond the bounds of existing
of the difficulties created by the associations. He distinguished it from
representation of ill-structured problems reproductive thinking, which is based
(after Sternberg, 1986). Be sure to try on existing associations involving what
all three problems before you read is already known. According to
about their solutions. Wertheimer, insightful (productive)
thinking differs fundamentally from
Haughty Harry has been asked to build reproductive thinking. It involves
a hat rack with a few given materials thinking that differs from normal, linear
information processing.
(see Figure 11.8). Can you help him
construct the hat rack?
THE NEO-GESTALTIST VIEW
A woman who lived in a small town
married 20 different men in that same Some researchers have found that
town. All of them are still living, and she insightful problem solving can be
never divorced any of them. Yet she distinguished from non-insightful
broke no laws. How could she do this? problem solving in two ways (Metcalfe,
1986; Metcalfe & Wiebe, 1987). For one
You have loose black and brown socks thing, when given routine problems to
in a drawer, mixed in a ratio of five solve, problem solvers show remarkable
black socks for every brown one. How accuracy in their ability to predict their
many socks do you have to take out of own success in solving a problem prior
that drawer to be assured of having a to any attempt to solve it. In contrast,
pair of the same colour? when given insight problems, problem
solvers show poor ability to predict their
Both the two-string problem and each of own success prior to trying to solve the
the three preceding problems are ill- problems. Not only were successful
structured problems. There are no clear, problem solvers pessimistic about their
readily available paths to solution. By ability to solve insight problems, but
definition, ill-structured problems do unsuccessful problem solvers were often
not have well-defined problem spaces. optimistic about their ability to solve
them.
Insight is a distinctive and sometimes
seemingly sudden understanding of a
problem or of a strategy that aids in OBSTACLES AND AIDS TO PROBLEM
solving the problem. Often, an insight SOLVING
involves reconceptualizing a problem or
a strategy in a totally new way. Insight Several factors can hinder or enhance
often involves detecting and combining problem solving. Among them are
relevant old and new information to gain mental sets as well as positive and
a novel view of the problem or of its negative transfer. Incubation plays a
solution. Although insights may feel as
though they are sudden, they are often role in problem solving as well. In the
the result of much prior thought and next sections, we will explore these
hard work. factors in more detail.One factor that can
hinder problem solving is mental set—a
frame of mind involving an existing
EARLY GESTALTIST VIEWS model for representing a problem, a
problem
context, or a procedure for problem That is, sometimes the transfer of a mental set
solving. Another term for mental set is can be an aid to problem solving.
entrenchment. When problem solvers
have an entrenched mental set, they
TRANSFER OF ANALOGIES
fixate on a strategy that normally works
well in solving many problems but that
They found that when the domains or the
does not work well in solving this
contexts for the two problems were more
particular problem.
similar, participants were more likely to
see and apply the analogy (see Holyoak,
Another type of mental set involves
1990). Perhaps the most crucial aspect of
fixation on a particular use (function)
these studies is that people have trouble
for an object. Specifically, functional
noticing analogies unless they explicitly
fixedness is the inability to realize that
are told to look for them. Positive
something known to have a particular
transfer from solved examples to
use may also be used for performing
unsolved problems was more likely
other functions (German & Barrett,
among students who specifically tried to
2005; Rakoczy et al., 2009). Functional
understand why particular examples
fixedness prevents us from solving new
were solved as they were, as compared
problems by using old tools in novel
with students who sought only to
ways
understand how particular problems
were solved as they were (Chi et al.,
Another type of mental set is considered
1989). Based on these findings, we
an aspect of social cognition.
generally need to be looking for
Stereotypes are beliefs that members of analogies to find them.The opposite
a social group tend more or less phenomenon is transparency, in which
uniformly to have particular types of people see analogies where they do not
characteristics. We observe a particular exist because of similarity of content. In
instance or set of instances of some making analogies, we need to be sure we
pattern. We then may overgeneralize are focusing on the relationships
from those limited observations. We between the two terms being compared,
may assume that all future instances not just their surface content attributes.
similarly will demonstrate that pattern.
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE TRANSFER INCUBATION

Transfer is any carryover of Incubation—putting the problem aside
knowledge or skills from one problem for a while without consciously thinking
situation to another (Detterman & about it—offers one way in which to
Sternberg, 1993; Gentile, 2000). minimize negative transfer. It involves
Transfer can be either negative or taking a pause from the stages of
positive. problem solving.
Negative transfer occurs when solving Knowledge Experts and novices differ
an earlier problem makes it harder to in how they classify various problems,
solve a later one. Sometimes an early describe the essential nature of
problem gets an individual on a wrong problems, and how they determine and
track. describe solutions (Chi, Glaser, & Rees,
1982; Larkin et al., 1980).Another
Positive transfer occurs when the solution of difference between experts and novices
can be observed by asking
an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a
new problem.
problem solvers to report aloud what Often, novices use means–ends analysis
they are thinking as they are attempting (see Hunt, 1994). Thus, novices often
to solve various problems (Bilalic, 2008; consider more possible strategies than
Dew et al., 2009). Statements made by experts consider (see Holyoak, 1990).
problem solvers are called verbal
protocols. An interesting effect of
AUTOMATIC EXPERT PROCESSES
verbal protocols is that they can lead to
increased problem-solving ability. Through practice in applying strategies,
experts may automatize various
In another study, problem- solving
operations. They can retrieve and
ability was enhanced when participants
execute these operations easily while
wrote a description of their problem-
working forward (see VanLehn, 1989).
solving strategy as compared with when
They use two important processes: One
they spoke about their strategy (Pugalee, is schematization, which involves
2004). Thus, it seems that, for novice developing rich, highly organized
problem solvers, communicating schemas; the other is automatization,
problem-solving strategies improves which involves consolidating sequences
performance. of steps into unified routines that require
little or no conscious control.
Another difference between expert and
novice problem solvers is the time spent Automaticity can be seen in
on various aspects of problems, and the mathematics, for example, where low-
relationship between problem-solving
level skills, such as counting and adding,
strategies and the solutions reached.
become automatic (Tronsky, 2005).
Experts appear to spend
These skills reduce the working-memory
proportionately more time load and allow for higher-level
determining how to represent a mathematical procedures to be complete.
problem than do novices (Lesgold,
1988; Lesgold et al., 1988), but they
spend much less time than do novices
actually implementing the strategy for
solution.
Experts also involve more procedural
knowledge about strategies relevant to
that domain. Perhaps because of their
better grasp of the strategies required,
experts more accurately predict the
difficulty of solving problems than do
novices. Experts also monitor their
problem-solving strategies more
carefully than do novices (Schoenfeld,
1981).
Novices seem to spend relatively little

time trying to represent the problem.
Instead, they choose to work
backward from the unknown
information to the given information.
That is, they go from asking what they
need to find out to asking what
information is offered and what
strategies do they know that can help
them find the missing information.
DECISION MAKING
SYLLABUS: DECISION-MAKING: TYPES AND MODELS
Classical Decision theory

The Model of Economic Man and Woman o Subjective Expected Utility Theory
Naturalistic decision making
Group decision making
Heuristics
Biases
Fallacy
CLASSICAL DECISION THEORY

rather than on objective criteria. The second is
The earliest models of how people make subjective probability, which is a calculation
decisions are referred to as classical based on the individual’s estimates of likelihood,
rather than on objective statistical computations.
decision theory. Most of these models The difference between
were devised by economists, this model and the former
statisticians, and philosophers, not by one is that here the ratings
psychologists. Hence, they reflect the and weights are
strengths of an economic perspective. subjective, whereas in the
former model they are
supposedly objective.
THE MODEL OF ECONOMIC MAN AND NATURALISTIC DECISION MAKING
WOMAN
Among the early models of decision Many researchers contend that decision
making crafted in the 20th century was making is a complex process that cannot
that of economic man and woman. This be reproduced adequately in the
model assumed three things: laboratory because real decisions are
Decision makers are fully informed frequently made in situations where
regarding all possible options for their there are high stakes. These situations
decisions and of all possible share a number of features, including
outcomes of their decision options.
They are infinitely sensitive to the subtle
distinctions among decision options.
They are fully rational in regard to
their choice of challenges of
options (Edwards, 1954; see
also Slovic, 1990).
 ill-structured problems,
changing situations, high risk, time
pressure, and sometimes, a team
environment (Orasanu & Connolly,
The assumption of infinite sensitivity 1993).
means that people can evaluate the
difference between two outcomes, no A number of models are used to explain
matter how subtle the distinctions among performance in these high-stakes
options may be. The assumption of situations. These models allow for the
rationality means that people make their consideration of cognitive, emotional,
choices to maximize something of value, and situational factors of skilled
whatever that something may be. decision makers; they also provide a
framework for advising future decision
makers
SUBJECTIVE EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY (Klein, 1997; Lipshitz et al.,
2001). For instance, Orasanu (2005)
An alternative model makes greater
developed recommendations for training
allowance for the psychological makeup
astronauts to be successful decision
of each individual decision maker. makers by evaluating what makes
According to subjective expected utility current astronauts successful, such as
theory, the goal of human action is to developing team cohesion and managing
seek pleasure and avoid pain. According stress. Naturalistic decision making can
to this theory, in making decisions, be applied to a broad range of behaviors
people will seek to maximize pleasure and environments. These applications
(referred to as positive utility) and to can include individuals as diverse as
minimize pain (referred to as negative badminton players, railroad controllers,
utility). In doing so, however, each of us and NASA astronauts.
uses calculations of two things.
One is subjective utility, which is a GROUP DECISION MAKING
calculation based on the individual’s Groups form decisions differently than
judged weightings of utility (value), individuals. Often, there are benefits to
making decisions in groups. However, a it has open communication;

phenomenon called “groupthink” can members share a common mind-set;
occur that seriously impairs the quality members identify with the group; and
of decisions made. By forming decision- members agree on acceptable group
making teams, the group benefits from behaviour (Shelton, 2006).
the expertise of each of the members.
There is also an increase in resources
Groupthink is a phenomenon
and ideas (Salas, Burke, & Cannon-
characterized by premature decision
Bowers, 2000). Another benefit of group
making that is generally the result of
decision making is improved group
group members attempting to avoid
memory over individual memory
conflict (Janis, 1971). Groupthink
(Hinsz, 1990).
frequently results in suboptimal decision
making that avoids non-traditional ideas
Groups that are successful in decision (Esser, 1998).
making exhibit a number of similar
characteristics, including the following:
the group is small;
HEURISTICS Sun, 2003). Satisficing is also used in
The mental shortcuts of heuristics and industrial contexts in which too much
biases lighten the cognitive load of information can impair the quality of
making decisions, but they also allow decisions, as in the selection of suppliers
for a much greater chance of error. in electronic marketplaces
(Chamodrakas, et al., 2010).
SATISFICING
We humans are not necessarily ELIMINATION BY ASPECTS
irrational. Rather, we show bounded in which we eliminate alternatives by
rationality—we are rational, but within focusing on aspects of each alternative,
limits (Simon, 1957). In satisficing, we one at a time. If you are trying to decide
consider options one by one, and then which college to attend, the process of
we select an option as soon as we find elimination by aspects might look like
one that is satisfactory or just good this:
enough to meet our minimum level of
acceptability. When there are limited
working-memory resources available,
the use of satisficing for making focus on one aspect (attribute) of the
decisions may be increased (Chen & various options (the cost of
going to college); continue using a sequential process
form a minimum of elimination of options by
criterion for that aspect considering a series of aspects until a
(tuition must be under single option remains (Dawes, 2000).
$20,000 per year);
eliminate all options that do not One of the key ways in which we use
meet that criterion (e.g., Stanford mental shortcuts centres on our
University is more than $30,000 and estimations of probability. Consider
would be eliminated); some of the strategies used by
for the remaining options, select a statisticians when calculating
second aspect for which we set a probability. Another kind of probability
minimum criterion by which to eliminate is conditional probability, which is the
additional options (the college must be on likelihood of one event, given another.
the West Coast); and
REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC price is given as $2,991 (Janiszewski &

Uy, 2008).
In representativeness, we judge the probability
of an uncertain event according to:
FRAMING
how obviously it is similar
to or representative of the Another consideration in decision theory
population from which it is is the influence of framing effects, in
derived; and which the way that the options are
the degree to which it reflects the presented influences the selection of an
salient features of the process by option (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981).
which it is generated (such as For instance, we tend to choose options
randomness) (see also Fischhoff, 1999; that demonstrate risk aversion when we
Johnson-Laird, 2000, 2004). are faced with an option involving
potential gains.
For example, suppose we have not heard
a weather report prior to stepping Biases
outside. We informally judge the In the next section, we discuss several
probability that it will rain. We base our biases that frequently occur when people
judgment on how well the characteristics make decisions: illusory correlation,
of this day (e.g., the month of the year, overconfidence, and hindsight bias.
the area in which we live, and the
presence or absence of clouds in the sky) ILLUSORY CORRELATION
represent the characteristics of days on We are predisposed to see particular
which it rains. events or attributes and categories as
going together, even when they do not.
AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC This phenomenon is called illusory
Most of us at least occasionally use the correlation (Hamilton & Lickel, 2000).
availability heuristic, in which we make In the case of events, we may see
judgments on the basis of how easily we spurious cause-effect relationships. In
can call to mind what we perceive as the case of attributes, we may use
relevant instances of a phenomenon personal prejudices to form and use
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1973; see also stereotypes (perhaps as a result of using
Fischhoff, 1999; Sternberg, 2000). For the representativeness heuristic). For
example, consider the letter R. Are there example, suppose we expect people of a
given political party to show particular
more words in the English language that
intellectual or moral characteristics.
begin with the letter R or that have R as
The instances in which people show
their third letter? Most respondents say
those characteristics are more likely to
that there are more words beginning be available in memory and recalled
with the letter R (Tversky & Kahneman, more easily
1973).Why? Because generating
words beginning with the letter R is easier than
OVERCONFIDENCE
generating words having R as the third letter.
In fact, there are more English-language words Another common error is
with R as their third letter. overconfidence—an individual’s
overvaluation of her or his own skills,
knowledge, or judgment. For example,
Anchoring A heuristic related to people answered 200 two-alternative
availability is the anchoring-and- statements, such as “Absinthe is (a) a
adjustment heuristic, liqueur, (b) a precious stone.” (Absinthe
is a licorice-flavored liqueur.) People
by which people adjust their evaluations
were asked to choose the correct answer
of things by means of certain reference
and to state the probability that their
points called end-anchors. For example,
answer was correct (Fischhoff, Slovic, &
when the price of a TV set is given as
$3,000, people adjust their estimate of its
production costs more than when the
Lichtenstein, 1977). People were It refers to a belief that a certain course

overconfident. For example, when of events will continue. Apparently, both
people were 100% confident in their professional and amateur basketball
answers, they were right only 80% of the players, as well as their fans, believe that
time. a player’s chances of making a basket
are greater after making a previous shot
HINDSIGHT BIAS than after missing one.
Finally, a bias that can affect all of us is
hindsight bias—when we look at a SUNK-COST FALLACY
situation retrospectively, we believe we An error in judgment that is quite
easily can see all the signs and events common in people’s thinking is the
leading up to a particular outcome sunk-cost fallacy (Dupuy, 1998, 1999;
(Fischhoff, 1982; Wasserman, Lempert, Strough et al., 2008). This fallacy
Hastie, 1991). For example, suppose represents the decision to continue to
people are asked to predict the outcomes invest in something simply because one
of psychological experiments in advance has invested in it before and one hopes
of the experiments. People rarely are to recover one’s investment. For
example, suppose you have bought a
able to predict the outcomes at better-
car. It is a lemon. You already have
than-chance levels. However, when
invested thousands of dollars in getting
people are told of the outcomes of
it fixed. Now you have another major
psychological experiments, they repair on it confronting you. You have
frequently comment that these outcomes no reason to believe that this additional
were obvious and could easily have been repair really will be the last in the string
predicted in advance. The outcomes of of repairs. You think about how much
psychological experiments, they money you have spent on repairs and
frequently comment that these outcomes reason that you need to do the additional
were obvious and could easily have been repair to justify past amounts already
predicted in advance spent. So you do the repair rather than
buy a new car. You have just committed
GAMBLER’S FALLACY AND THE HOT the sunk-cost fallacy.
HAND
Gambler’s fallacy is a mistaken belief THE CONJUNCTION FALLACY
that the probability of a given random This intuitive feeling is an example of a
event, such as winning or losing at a
fallacy—erroneous reasoning—in
game of chance, is influenced by
previous random events. For example, a judgment and reasoning. The
gambler who loses five successive bets `Conjunction Fallacy’ is a fallacy or
error in decision making where people
may believe that a win is therefore more
judge that a conjunction of two possible
likely the sixth time. A tendency
events is more likely than one or both of
opposite to that of gambler’s fallacy is
the conjuncts.
called the “hot hand” effect.
INTELLIGENCE
SYLLABUS : Intelligence: Spearman; Thurstone; Jensen; Cattell; Gardner;

Stenberg; Goleman; Das, Kar & Parrila
THEORIES
Galton- father of individual differences -
Binet – father of iq testing -
William stern – IQ formula -
Terman – Stanford binet revision -
Yerkes – group testing -
Spearman – 2 factor theory
Weschler – wis, wisc, wais
Thurstone – group factor theory, primary mental abilities
Cattell – fluid & crystallised intelligence
Guilford – si model
Vernon & carroll – hierarchical approach
Vernon –
levels o Burt
model
o Carroll – 3 stratum model
Gardner – multiple intelligences
Sternberg – triarchic theory
Hebb’s theory
Zajonc’s theory of confluence -
Thomson’s model – sampling theory
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? – achieve success in your life. So I

DEFINING INTELLIGENCE define it as your skill in
achieving whatever it is you
“Individuals differ from one another want to attain in your life within
in their ability to understand your sociocultural context —
complex ideas, to meaning that
adapt effectively to the
environment, to learn from 5 people have different goals for
experience, to engage in various themselves, and for some it’s to
forms of reasoning, to overcome get very good grades in school
obstacles by taking thought.” and to do well on tests, and for
American Psychological others it might be to become a
Association very good basketball player or
actress or musician.” R. J.
“It seems to us that in Sternberg
intelligencethereisa
“Intelligence, considered as a
fundamental faculty, the
mental trait, is the capacity to
alteration or the lack of which, is make impulses focal at their
of the utmost importance for early, unfinished stage of
practical life. This faculty is formation. Intelligence is
judgement, otherwise called therefore the capacity for
good sense, practical sense, abstraction, which is an
initiative, the faculty of adapting inhibitory process.” L. L.
ones self to circumstances.” A. Thurstone
Binet “A global concept that involves an
“. . . the ability to plan and structure one’s individual’s ability to act
behavior with an end in view.” J. P. Das purposefully, think rationally,
“Intelligence A: the biological substrate of and deal effectively with the
mental ability, the brains’ neuroanatomy and environment.” D. Wechsler
physiology; Intelligence B: the
manifestation of intelligence A, and
everything that influences Sir Francis Galton is a key figure in
its expression in real life modern intelligence testing. As the first
behavior; Intelligence C: the cousin of Charles Darwin, he attempted
level of performance on to apply Darwin’s evolutionary theory to
psychometric tests of cognitive the study of human abilities. He
ability.” H. J. Eysenck. postulate that intelligence was
“An intelligence is the ability to quantifiable and normally distributed. In
solve problems, or to create other words, he believed that we could
products, that are valued within assign a score to intelligence where the
one or more cultural settings.” majority of people fall in the average
Gardner
range and the percentage of the
“. . . performing an operation on a specific population decreases the farther from the
type of content to produce a particular
middle their score gets.
product.”
P. Guilford The first workable intelligence test was
“Intelligence is a general factor that runs developed by French psychologist
through all types of performance.” A. Alfred Binet. He and his partner,
Jensen Theodore Simon, were commissioned
“. . . I prefer to refer to it as by the French government to improve
‘successful intelligence.’ And the the teaching methods for
reason is that the emphasis is on developmentally disabled children. They
the use of your intelligence to believed that intelligence was the key to
effective teaching, and developed a German psychologist William Stern

strategy whereby a mental age (MA) was formulated the basic definition of IQ in
determined and divided by the child’s 1912 when he defined intelligence
chronological age (CA). This formula, quotient as a ratio of an estimated
stated as “MA/CA X 100.” "mental age" and "actual chronological
age":
In 1915, Yerkes helped to create the to this theory, mind is made up of

Yerkes-Bridges Point Scale of different faculties like reasoning,
Intelligence. In 1917, he served as memory, discrimination, imagination,
president of the American Psychological etc. These faculties are independent of
Association (APA), which under his each other and can be developed by
leadership, began several programs vigorous training. Faculty Theory had
devoted to the war effort in World War been under criticism by experimental
I. As chairman of the Committee on the psychologists who disproved the
Psychological Examination of Recruits, existence of independent faculties in the
Yerkes developed the Army's Alpha brain.
and Beta Intelligence Tests, given to
over 1 million United States soldiers
during the war.
Two factor
One factor theory theory
32 33
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. FACULTY THEORY
It is the oldest theory regarding the

nature of intelligence and flourished
during 18th and 19th century. According
2. STERN : UNI-FACTOR THEORY 4. THOMSON SAMPLING THEORY

Around 1911, Wilhelm Stern introduced In 1916 G. H. Thomson first proposed
his uni-factor theory of intelligence his sampling theory which he refined in
which has also been known as the 1935 and still later in 1948. By the
general capacity theory. throwing of dice and the random
selection of cards, that is, by the study of
purely chance selection, Thomson
indicated that any given mental test may
sample a number of independent,
abilities.
Stern considered that all persons are

endowed with G, though in unequal
amounts. It is applied to any problem
solving situation, the efficiency of which
depends solely upon the environment.
Thus, Stern's uni-factor theory is the
simplest one.
3. SPEARMAN TWO-FACTOR THEORY
It was developed in 1904 by an English

Psychologist, Charles Spearman, who
proposed that intellectual abilities were
comprised of two factors: one general
ability or common ability known as ‘G’
factor and the other a group of specific
abilities known as ‘S’ factor. ‘G’ factor
is universal inborn ability. Greater ‘G’
in an individual lead to greater success
in life. ‘S’ factor is acquired from the
environment. It varies from activity to
activity in the same individual.
interpretation of Spearman and others

led them to the conclusion that
‘certain’ mental operations have in
common a ‘primary’ factor that gives
them psychological and functional
unity and that differentiates them from
other mental operations. These mental
operations then constitute a group. A
second group of mental operation has
its own unifying primary factor, and so
on. In other words, there are a number
of groups of mental abilities, each of
which has its own primary factor,
giving the group a functional unity and
cohesiveness. Each of these primary
factors is said to be relatively
Notes: the controversy between two - Independent of the others.
factor theory and sampling theory has
been reduced as Spearman later on
accepted the existence of group factors.
5. THORNDIKE MULTI-FACTOR
THEORY
Thorndike believed that there was
nothing like General Ability. Each
mental activity requires an aggregate.
of
different set of abilities. He
distinguished the following four
attributes of intelligence:
(a) Level—refers to the level of difficulty of a
task that can be solved.
means the total number of situations

at each level to which the individual
is able to respond.
Speed—is the rapidity with which we can
respond to the items.
THURSTONE MULTIPLE-FACTOR
THEORY(GROUP FACTOR THEORY)
Guilford (1967, 1985, 1988)
This theory states that Intelligent Based on these factors Thurstone
Activities are not an expression of constructed a new test of intelligence
innumerable highly specific factors, as known as ‘‘Test of Primary Mental
Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the Abilities (PMA).’’ proposed a
expression primarily of a general factor three-dimensional structure of
that pervades all mental activities. It is intellect model. According to
the essence of intelligence, as Spearman Guilford every intellectual task
held. Instead, the analysis can be classified according to
it’s
GUILFORD’S MODEL OF
STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
content,the mental operation involved and categories, namely, Cognition, Memory

the product resulting from the operation. retention, Memory recording, Divergent
production, Convergent production and
He further classified content into five evaluation. He classified products into
categories, namely, Visual, Auditory, six categories, namely, Units, Classes,
Symbolic, Semantic and Behavioural. Relations, Systems, Transformations and
He classified operations into five Implications.
Vernon’ description of different levels of

.
intelligence may fill the gaps between
two extreme theories, the two-factor
theory of Spearman, which did not allow
for the existence of group factors, and
the multiple-factor theory of Thurstone,
which did not allow a ‘‘g’’ factor.
Intelligence can be described as
comprising abilities at varying levels of
generality :
VERNON’S HIERARCHICAL THEORY

1. The highest level : ‘‘g’’ (general intelligence) factor with the largest
source of variance between individuals. (Spearman)
2. The next level : major group factors such as verbal-numerical-educational (v.ed) and
practical-mechanical-spatial-physical (k.m.) ability.
3. The next level : minor group factors are divided from major group factors.
4. The bottom level : ‘‘s’’(specific) factor. (Spearmen)
Beginning in 1969, Vernon became recognizing group and specific

increasingly involved in studying the factor, he does not deny the 'g' factor"
contributions of environmental and
genetic factors to intellectual CATTELL’S FLUID AND
development. Vernon continued to CRYSTALLIZED THEORY
analyze the effects of genes and the
environment on both individual and The fluid aspect of this theory says
group difference in intelligence. He that intelligence is a basic capacity
concludes that individual difference in due to genetic potentiality. While
intelligence are approximately 60 this is affected by the past and new
percent attributable to genetic factors, experiences, the crystallized
and that there is some evidence theory is a capacity resultant of
implicating genes in racial group experiences, learning and
differences in average levels of mental environment.
ability.
GARDENER’S THEORY OF
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE :
BURT’S HIERARCHICAL GROUP
FACTOR THEORY The multiple intelligence theory
is that people possess eight
According to this theory, abilities are types of intelligence : linguistic,
classified into three types: logical, spatial, musical, motor
ability, interpersonal,
General Ability entering into every test intrapersonal and naturalistic
belonging to a certain broad genesis. intelligence.
Special Abilities, each limited to certain group,
and STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY
3.Individual Abilities, peculiar to a particular test.
Psychologist Robert Sternberg
Burt's says that "The set of factors (1985) has constructed a three—
can be arranged in a hierarchical pronged, or triarchic theory of
order as shown in the schemes. While intelligence. The Three types are :
Analytical Intelligence—is what we assumptions about computational cost

generally think of as academic ability. It (in terms of a ‘general’ architecture
enables us to solve problems and to mechanism), and produces the optimal
acquire new knowledge. Problem— behavioral function. This function then
solving skill include encoding of course can be tested empirically and
information, combining and comparing assumptions modified if it proves
pieces of information and generating a inaccurate. A contrasting point of view
solution. to this is espoused by Simon, and is
centered around the claim that, in a
Creative Intelligence—is defined by rational analysis, the assumptions about
the abilities to cope with novel situations the architecture actually do most of the
and to profit from experience. The work.
ability to quickly relate novel situations
to familiar situations (that is, to perceive EYSENCK’S STRUCTURAL THEORY
similarities and differences) fosters
adaptation. Moreover, as a result of Eysenck discovered the neurological
experience, we also become able to correlates of intelligence. He identified
solve problems more rapidly. three correlates of intelligence i.e.
reaction time, inspection time and
Practical Intelligence—or ‘‘street average evoked potential. First two are
smarts’’, enable people to adapt to the observed behavior. Third behavior, is
demands of their environment. For description of mental waves. Brighter
example, keeping a job by adapting individual progressively takes less time
one’s behavior to the employer’s in responding. They show less
requirements is adaptive. But if the variability in reaction time. Their
employer is making unreasonable inspection time is also less as compared
demands, reshaping the environment (by to less intelligent. Average evoked
changing the employer’s attitudes) or potential is often measured by the
selecting an alternate environment (by wavelength in electroencephalogram and
finding a more suitable job) is also complexities of waveform. He found
adaptive. that the waves of intelligent individuals
are complex.
CECI’S BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Ceci (1990) proposes that there are

ANDERSON’S THEORY : multiple cognitive potentials. These
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT multiple intelligence’s are biologically
based and place limits on mental
processes. These are closely linked to
Anderson proposes that human cognitive the challenges and opportunities in the
architectures will have adapted optimally individual’s environment. In his view,
to the problems posed in their context is essential to the demonstration
environment. Therefore, discovering the of cognitive abilities. By context, he
optimal solution to the problem posed by means domain of knowledge and other
the environment, independent of the factors such as personalities, motivation
architecture, is equivalent to discovering and education. Context can be mental,
the mechanism used by the architecture. social or physical.
A ‘Rational Analysis’, as it is called, HEBB’S THEORY
takes into account the available “Intelligence A is the basic potentiality
information in the enviornment, the of the organism, whether animal or
goals of the agent, some basic human, to learn and to adapt to its
environment…Intelligence A is field, originally through the operation

determined by the genes of fluid ability, but not [sic] longer
but is mediated mainly by the requiring insightful perception for
complexity and plasticity of the central their successful operation.
nervous system…Intelligence B is the
level of ability that a person actually Intelligence tests test at all ages the
shows in behaviour—cleverness, the combined resultants of fluid
efficiency and complexity of and crystallized ability, but in
perceptions, learning, thinking , and childhood the first is
problem solving. This is not predominant whereas in adult
genetic…Rather, it is the product of the life, owing to the recession of
interplay between genetic potentiality fluid ability, the peaks of
and environmental stimulation…I have performance are determined by
suggested that we should a third usage to the crystallized abilities
Hebb’s Intelligence A and B, namely (Cattell, 1943, p. 178).
Intelligence C, which stands for the
score or IQ obtained from a particular
test”
CATTELL’S CRYSTALIZED AND 18. JENSEN THEORY
FLUID INTELLIGENCE
Jensen (1969) proposed two level-
Cattell introduced the concepts of
theories of mental abilities. In other
fluid and crystallized intelligence,
word intelligence consists of two levels
how they differed in children and
of abilities. The Level I ability is
adults and how they were influenced
associative learning, which consists of
by brain injury. His description of
Short-Term Memory (STM), rote
these concepts is as follows:
learning, attention and simple
Adult mental capacity is of two associative skills. The Level
kinds, the chief is called cognitive learning, which
characteristics of which may consists of abstract thinking, symbolic
be best connoted by the use thought, conceptual learning, and use
of the terms “fluid” and of language in problem solving.
“crystallized.”
He argued that Level I ability, i.e.
Fluid ability has the character of a associative learning is equally
purely general ability to distributed across all racial and national
discriminate and perceive groups but on the contrary, Level II, i.e.,
relations between any cognitive learning is concentrated more
fundaments, new or old. It the middle class Anglo-American
increases until adolescence and populations than in the lower class black
then slowly declines. It is populations.
associated with the action of the
whole cortex. It is responsible According to him, genetic differences in
for the intercorrelations, or intelligence exist among people coming
general factor, found among from different races, nationalities, and
children's tests and among the social classes. Jensen conducted studies
speeded or adaptation-requiring of intelligence comparing identical
tests of adults. fraternal twins. Identical twins have
identical genetic dispositions for that
Crystallized ability consists of
their IQs are assumed to be similar.
discriminatory habits long
established in a particular
Fraternal twins like ordinary siblings

genetically less similar, which results in
the assumption that their IQs less
similar. Jensen found support for his
views in these findings. Studies with
identical twins produced an average
correlation of .86, whereas studies of
ordinary siblings produced an average
correlation of .47.
Jensen on basis of his studies believed

that genetic factors are more important
than environmental factors for one’s
intelligence.
GOLEMAN’S EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
20. PASS MODEL

The PASS (Planning, Attention-arousal,
and Simultaneous-successive )THEORY
of intelligence has been developed by
J.P Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby
(1994).They proposed that three
functional units of brain determine the
intellectual activity of an individual.
These three units are responsible for
planning, arousal/attention and Successive Processing: This involves the

simultaneous/Successive processing ability to integrate stimuli/information
These PASS processes are interactive in into a sequential order. Learning of
nature yet each has its own distinctive digits, alphabets, multiplication tables,
functions. etc. are examples of successive
processing. This type of processing is
Attention-Arousal: This process is basic related to temporal lobe.
st
to any behavior and it is processed by 1
functional unit of brain that involves the Planning: This is the ability of an
ability to selectively attend to stimuli individual to make decisions about how
while ignoring other distractions. to solve problems and how to carry out
Arousal keeps people awake ana alert the task. It involves setting goals,
.The arousal functions are generally courses of action to reach the goal and
associated with the brain stem and anticipating their consequences.
thalamus. Individuals with Attention Planning is associated with the frontal
Deficit Disorder (ADD) have lobes of the brain.
impairments in this area. An optimal
level of arousal focuses our attention to
the relevant portion of a problem.
Simultaneous Processing: This involves THE CONFLUENCE MODEL

the ability to integrate separate
stimuli/information to our knowledge Firstborn IQ advantage in terms of the
system as a interrelated whole. The ever-changing intellectual environment
occipital and parietal lobes are thought within the family. It uses a simple
to be important for these functions. For mathematical formula to compute the
example, in Raven’s Progressive relative advantages and disadvantages of
Matrices (RPM) Test, a design is given these factors:
and one of its part has been removed. The Confluence Model proposed by
We are required to choose one of the six R.B. Zajonc & Markus (1975) and
options which completes the design. Zajonc (1976, 2001) explains the
Simultaneous processing helps us in
finding relationship between the given
abstract figures. Simultaneous
processing is broadly with occipital and
parietal lobes.
Firstborns do not have to share their also gels with the finding that
parents' attention, so they benefit from children in larger families have
their parents' complete absorption in the lower IQ scores.
new responsibility. Laterborn children As more children enter the
never experience this advantage. family, the general intellectual
Moreover, additional siblings environment becomes less
automatically limit the amount of mature. This would explain why
attention any of the siblings get-and this firstborns and older children
includes the firstborn. This would from large families have lower
explain the Belmont and Marolla (1973) IQs than firstborns and older
finding that firstborns from smaller children from smaller families.
families have higher IQs than firstborns
Firstborns (and older siblings in
from larger families.
general) often have to answer
Firstborn children are exposed to more
questions and explain things to
adult language. Laterborns are exposed
their younger siblings. It is
to the less mature speech of their
siblings. This may affect their believed that the act of tutoring
performance on the verbal scales of helps the older children to
intelligence tests. Moreover, the cognitively process information.
linguistic environment becomes Further, teaching others may
increasingly less mature as more improve their verbal abilities.
children enter the family. This Except in very rare cases,
youngest siblings do not get the
opportunity to tutor their
brothers and sisters. This is the
reason why only children do not
tend to have higher IQs than
firstborns.
CREATIVITY
Syllabus : Creativity: Torrance, Getzels & Jackson, Guilford, Wallach &
Kogan Relationship between Intelligence and Creativity
Contents
Definitions of creativity
The four p’s of creativity
o Person o Process
o Product
o Place
Schools of creativity
Stages of creativity
Theories of creativity o
Torrance,
o Getzels & Jackson,
o Guilford,
o Wallach & Kogan
Creativity and intelligence o
Investment theory o
Certification hypothesis
o Threshold theory
Associative theory
DEFINING CREATIVITY proneness to invention and toughness

Creativity is defined as the and good trend.”
tendency to generate or recognize
Bertlet- “Creativity is bold thinking.
ideas, alternatives or possibilities
Bold thinking means the ability of
that may be useful in solving
thinking beyond the mainstream,
problems, communicating with
receiving new experience and adding the
others and entertaining ourselves as
present relationship with that of the
well as others.
future. Bold thinking or creativity is to
BY AUTHORS work or think with new attitude by going
beyond mutual thinking.” Rollo May-
Thurston (1955) “Any action is to be
“Creativity is the process of bringing
creative if it has immediate solution to
something new in human being.
the kind of thinking which has always
Creativity requires passion and
been innovative.” Baron (1961)
commitment. It brings to our awareness
“Creativity is the essence of making pre-
what was previously hidden and points
existing objects and elements as new to new life. The experience is one of
one.” E.P. Torrance (1965) “Creative heightened consciousness ecstasy.”
thinking is the process of understanding
errors un-received, and rare elements, The four P’s of creativity
making concepts in their relationship Creativity may also be considered in
imagining notions and making tests terms of which aspect or facet of
,carrying results to other persons and creativity they emphasize (Rhodes,
making improvement by reviewing the 1961; Runco, 2004b). Traditionally,
concepts.” E.P Torrance-“A process of these aspects have been referred to as
becoming sensitive to problems, the "four p's of creativity": process,
deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing product, person (or personality), and
elements, disharmonies and so on, place (or press). More recent versions of
identifying the difficulty, searching for this framework (e.g., Runco, 2oo7a)
solution, making guesses, or formulating have extended it to six P's, adding
hypotheses about the deficiencies, persuasion (Simonton, 1990) and
testing and 57 retesting these hypotheses potential (Runco, 2003)'
and possibly modifying and retesting Theories that focus on the creative
them, and finally communicating the process aim to understand the nature of
results.” James Drever - “Creativity is the mental mechanisms that occur when
the ability to create new objects. a person is engaged in creative thinking
Creativity in the broad sense refers to or creative activity. Process theories
the imagination of the sum of new ideas typically specify different stages of
and talents. (If the self -motivated, do processing (e.g., Mace & Ward, 2002;
not follow others) and synthesis of ideas Simonton, 1984; Wallas, 1926; Ward,
and where mental functions are not only Smith, & Finke, 1999) or particular
the sum of the other's views. Dr. Passi - mechanisms as the components of
“Creative power is a multi-faceted trait creative thought (e.g., Mumford,
and power. The verbal and nonverbal Baughman, Maher, Costanza, &
traits and power are distributed in Supinski, 1997; Mumford, Mobley,
different proportion in different human Uhhnan, ReiterPalmon, onking involves
beings. The main factors responsible for
the same basic cognitive mechanisms as
it are eloquence, flexibility or morbidity, non-creative thinking, the relative 44
curiosity or
roles of conscious versus unconscious The expression of personality often

processes, the relative contributions of depends on the setting or climate in
chance or stochastic processes versus which an individual resides. The
more controlled and guided processes, research on places or "press" factors
and the nature and reliability of (press from pressures) is especially
evaluative processes during the process useful in defining such interactions
of creation. between persons and environments.
There are individual differences in terms
Probably the most objective approach to of preferred environments, but again
creativity focuses on products: works of also general tendencies: Creativity tends
art} inventions, publications, musical to flourish when there are opportunities
compositions, and so on. Products can for exploration and independent work,
usually be counted, thus permitting and when originality is supported and
considerable quantitative objectivity, and
valued (Amabile, 1990; Witt &
they are often available for viewing or
Boerkem, 1989)'
judging, so interrater reliability can be
readily determined - two substantial Simonton (1990) offered another
advantages. A down side is that when perspective following the alliterative
studying a product, little can be directly scheme by describing creativity as
said about the process leading to it or the persuasion: Creative people change the
creator's personality; inferences are thus way others think, so they must then be
necessary to inform the creative process persuasive to be recognized as creative.
or person. Moreover, unambiguously The notion of creativity as persuasion
creative products are constructed by shares assumptions with the social
unambiguously creative persons. Thus, perspective (Amabile, 1990), the
studies of products tell us about highly
attributional theory of creativity (Kasof,
creative individuals but not about
1995), and Csikszentmihalyi's (1988a)
persons with as-yet unfulfilled creative
systems model. In the last of these,
potential (Runco, 1996).
persuasive individuals are the ones who
Another longstanding perspective on are likely to influence the direction taken
creativity has focused on the creative by a domain. The emphasis on
person (or personality). Much early persuasion implies that everyday
research compared mathematicians, originality (Runco & Richards, 1998)
architects, writers, and other groups in may not be deemed creative, since it is
terms of the traits that may be indicative
often largely personal.
or contraindicative of creative potential.
Several traits cut across domains; these Runco (2008) recently suggested that
include intrinsic motivation} wide this might be further organized into a
interests, openness to experience, and hierarchy that starts with theories of
autonomy (Barron, '995; Helson, 1972). creative performances versus creative
A number of personality traits also potentials. The former is divided into
appear to be more pervasive either products and persuasion theories, and
among persons in artistic domains or in any other perspective that focuses on
scientific domains (Feist, '998, 1999)' manifest, unambiguously creative
Personality is now usually viewed as one behavior; the latter is divided into
influence on creative behavior, rather creative personality and places, and any
than a complete explanation (Feist & other perspective that appreciates yet-
Barron, 2003). unfulfilled possibilities and subjective
processes. This hierarchical framework
captures the earlier alliterative scheme
but allows research on everyday of what it takes but require educational

creativity and the creative potentials of opportunities or other support before
children and others who may have most they can perform in a creative fashion.
STAGES OF CREATIVITY
idea, or relationship emerges. In other
The history of research on stages of
words, the subject attempts to
creativity began with Graham Wallas
reformulate his/her ideas or to formulate
(1926) who suggested that creative new ones. The subject is more active
thinking follows four successive steps: and more conscious work is needed in
this stage. In the stage of illumination
Stage of preparation: The subject begins the thinker experiences insight into the
to gather information about the problem problem when a new solution, idea, or
to be solved and attempts some relationship emerges. Thus, he/she
solutions. This stage is characterised by attempts to reformulate his/her ideas or
a state of trial -and-error in learning.
to formulate new ones.
Therefore, the subject is advised to learn
as much as possible about the problem Stage of verification: Finally, the subject
area. In preparation the thinker begins tries and checks the solution. In this
recalling personal experiences and stage some modification may also occur
investigating in all different directions to
to ideas reached in the previous stages.
gather information about the problem to
In the stage of verification the thinker
be solved. The object of defining the
tests, tries and checks the solution he/she
focus question of interest is to list all
concepts associated with the focus created. Since this stage is the final one,
question. Since the goal from this the thinker may well make some
procedure is to generate the largest modification to his/her ideas which
possible list, the thinker should not he/she reached in the previous stages. In
worry about redundancy, relative this stage thinker should rework the
importance, or relationships at this point. structure of his/her map to
represent his/her collective
Stage of incubation: In the second stage understanding of the interrelationships
the solution exists but is not clear. The and connections among groupings,
subject must not intentionally work on which may include adding, subtracting,
the problem. Instead it is allowed to sink or changing super-ordinate concepts,
into the unconscious. In this stage the thus, he/she may need to review his/her
solution exists but is not clear. concept map as he/she gains new
Therefore, the thinker must not knowledge or new insights.
intentionally work on the problem.
Instead, he/she should be allowed to sink In some situations, the above stages may
into the unconscious and the thinker is appear in a different order, or combined
advised to relax and reflect on his/her into two or three stages. They also do
focus question which might lead him/her not occur regularly. For example,
to modification of the focus question. sometimes the subject’s knowledge of
the problem area allows him/her to pass
Stage of illumination: In the third stage
over the first stage (preparation) and
the subject suddenly experiences insight
move on to the next stage (incubation) or
into the problem when a new solution,
even to the third stage.
THEORIES OF CREATIVITY interfering with traditional kinds of

Torrance Tests of Creative educational achievement. Creative growth seems to
be the greatest and most predictable when deliberate,
Thinking (TTCT) direct teaching of creative thinking skills are
Torrance chose to define creativity as a involved. Torrance believed that each person is
process because he thought if we unique and has particular strengths that are of value
understood the creative process, we and must be respected; therefore, education must be
built upon strengths rather than weaknesses. It takes
could predict what kinds of person could courage to be creative. Just as soon as you have a
master the process, what kind of climate new idea, you are a minority of one. Torrance found
made it grow and what products would that learning and thinking creatively takes place in
be involved (Torrance, 1995). Building the process of sensing difficulties, problem, and gaps
on J.P. Guilford's work, the Torrance in information; making guesses or formulating
Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) hypotheses about these deficiencies; in testing these
guesses and possibility, revising and retesting them;
originally involved simple tests of
and finally in communicating the results. Vital
divergent thinking and other problem- human needs are involved in each of these four
solving skills, which were scored on four stages. If we sense that something is missing or
scales: wrong our tension is aroused and we become
uncomfortable. To relieve our tension we try to
Fluency. make guesses in order to fill gaps and make
Flexibility. connections.
Originality.
Elaboration.
In longitudinal studies (1958-2000),
Torrance found that students identified
as creatively gifted but not intellectually
gifted (IQ of 130+), out achieved the
intellectually in adulthood. He found that
characteristics of the creative thinking
abilities differ from those of the abilities
involved in intelligence and logical
reasoning. Torrance’s research has
demonstrated that a variety of techniques
for training in creative problem solving
produce significant creative growth
without Manifesto for Children
By: E. Paul Torrance 3. Learn to free yourself from the

expectations of others and to walk
1. Don’t be afraid to fall in love with something and away from the games them impose
pursue it with intensity. on you. Free yourself to play your
2. Know, understand, take pride in, practice, own game.
develop, exploit, and enjoy your greatest 4. Find a great teacher or mentor who will help you.
strengths. 5. Don’t waste energy trying to be well-rounded.
6. Do what you love and can do well.
7. Learn the skills of interdependence
MANIFESTO FOR ADULTS
Being a Beyonder means doing your degree of conformity to accepted values,

sense of humour, and so on. They found
very best, going beyond where you
low correlation between creativity and
have been before, and going beyond
intelligence and thus maintained that
where others have gone. intelligence and creativity are different
in their existence.
-They are tolerant of mistakes by themselves and Interesting and suggestive differences
others.
were found in many of these respects; in
-The beyonders take delight in deep thinking.
particular, the 'highly creative' children
-They are able to feel comfortable as a minority of
appeared to have a more lively sense of
one.
humour, to come from less 'academic'
-They love the work that they do and do it well.
-They have a sense of mission and have the courage families, to hold less conformist values,
to be creative. and to 'over-achieve' in school work
both because of the atypicality of the

group studied and because within this
-They do not waste needless energy trying to be relatively to their IQ. But the generality
well-rounded. of these findings is open to some doubt,
attainment, popularity with teachers, home
background, career aspirations,
GETZEL AND JACKSON THEORY
OF INTELLIGENCE
Perhaps the best known research to
produce systematic evidence that
creativity and intelligence might be
independent traits was that of Getzels
and Jackson (1962). They studied a
group of children and adolescents in a
private school in Chicago, whose ages
ranged quite widely and whose average
IQ was over (In an unselected group less
than three per cent would reach this
level). Within this sample, they formed
two contrasting sub-groups, one highly
'creative', as indicated by aggregate
score on a battery of creativity tests,
including some originally devised by
Guilford and by Cattell, but relatively
less 'intelligent'; the other group
consisted of lower scorers on the
creativity tests but was exceptionally
'intelligent' even by the standards of the
whole sample. Getzels and Jackson then
compared the two groups on numerous
other characteristics, including school
special group only contrasting and
GUILFORD’S MODEL OF
extreme minorities were studied in
CREATIVITY
detail, and the majority of the Guilford (1986) considered creative
children whose performance was thinking as involving divergent thinking,
not so fully described were neither which emphasises fluency, flexibility,
exceptionally 'creative' nor originality, and elaboration. Guilford,
exceptionally 'intelligent but scored however, noted that creative thinking is
more or less equally on both sets of not the same as divergent thinking,
tests. because creativity requires sensitivity to
problems as well as redefinition
abilities, which include transformations
of thought, reinterpretations, and
freedom from functional fixedness in
driving unique solutions. In order to
develop Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking (TTCT) and in its further
revisions, Torrance
(1966, 1974) has explained six ideas to fit a system or logical

components of creativity. He has theories. This facilitates
described these aspects of creativity in construction of sentences.
Associational Fluency- It
terms of their mode of measurement.
indicates production of ideas or
These aspects of creativity are: words from a restricted area with
equal relationships.
Fluency: The number of relevant
Word Fluency - It is the
ideas; shows an ability to produce a
number of figural images. generating of words of
Flexibility: Flexibility is the specifically required epithets. It
individual’s ability to produce not only a is concerned only with words. It
large number of responses, ideas or has been drawn by divergent
solutions to a problem, but also a variety production process. Using
of responses, ideas or solutions to a semantic contents to give a
problem. product of units in a table.
Originality: The number of Various tests to measure word
statistically infrequent ideas; shows an fluency, use prefix, suffix or first
ability to produce uncommon or or last letters of words.
unique responses.
Elaboration: The number of added (2) Flexibility
ideas; demonstrates the subject’s ability It is the readiness to change behaviour to
to develop and elaborate on ideas. meet changing circumstances. It
Abstractness of Titles: The degree represents a number of classes of objects
beyond labeling; based on the idea that or trains ideas produced, It indicates in
creativity requires an abstraction of how many distinct different ways an
thought. It measures the degree a title
individual can respond to a stimulus.
moves beyond concrete labeling of the
pictures drawn. Flexibility is of two types
Resistance to Premature Closure: Spontaneous - It is the production of diversity
The degree of psychological openness; of ideas in a relatively unrestricted situation.
based on the belief that creative Adaptive Flexibility - It is some divergent
behaviour requires a person to consider transformation quality which involves changes.
a variety of information when
processing information and to keep an
“open mind.” (3) Originality
(1) Fluency It refers to the unusual unusual applications of

It refers to a rapid flow of ideas and partial uncommonness or newness in the content.
tendencies to change directions and
modify information* It is the (4). Elaboration
quantitative representation of the units It refers to the expand of higher thought.
of products* It emphasises the rate of It shows pro variety of implications and
production of all the units within all
uses quantitatively measured.
classes. Fluency is of four types :
Ideational Fluency - It Is the
generation or production of
ideas where free expression is
encouraged and where quality is
not evaluated.
Expressional Fluency - It
refers to the production of new
creativity remain unique in their content-

(5) Creative Production production Their predominant mental
It refers to possessing both creativeness operation is of the divergent type.
and yield. The semantic contents
thinking give units and figural content WALLACH AND KOGAN STUDY
transformations. Wallach and Kogan[72] highlighted that
the creativity measures were not only
(6) Ingenious Solution to Problems
weakly related to one another (to the
It is inventive, many alternative options. It is
the right option from many. extent that they were no more related to
one another than they were with IQ), but
(7) Sensitivity to Problems they seemed to also draw upon non-
creative skills. McNemar[101] noted
It indicates the Creativity for problems, that there were major measurement
creator sees defects,, needs, deficiencies, issues, in that the IQ scores were a
unusual ties and sees what must fee mixture from 3 different IQ tests.
done. Whether the problem is simple or Wallach and Kogan[72] administered 5
complex he attacks it from various measures of creativity, each of which
angles. resulted in a score for originality and
fluency; and 10 measures of general
(8) Re-definition intelligence to 151 5th grade children.
It is closely, related to flexibility and These tests were untimed, and given in a
originality that arises from game-like manner (aiming to facilitate
transformation, specially of convergent creativity). Inter-correlations between
Thinking productions. It is ability to re- creativity tests were on average r = .41.
arrange ideas, concepts, people and Inter- correlations between intelligence
things to shift the function of object and measures were on average r = .51 with
use them in new ways. It can be applied each other. Creativity tests and
to different type of contents in the same intelligence measures correlated r = .09.
way to figural symbolic, semantic etc.,
and they can be named with their names CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
as figural redefinition, symbolic Thinking and intelligent behavior
redefinition etc., thus it is evident that because it enables individuals to “think
the concept of creativity component differently” and “defy the crowd.”
emerged from Guilford divergent
thinking technology. The components of
A paradigmatic model that regards creativity

as the precondition for intelligence is
Sternberg
and Lubart’s (1995, 1996) , named after
the idea that creative individuals have an
extraordinary abilityinvestmenttoinvest
theoryinideas, “buying low and selling
high” (Sternberg & O’Hara, 2000). The
authors also posit that creativity is an
important determinant of intelligent
This idea, often referred to as the threshold Hayes (1989) proposed an

alternative
the ry of creativity significantly lower in
‘certification hypothesis’, which
creativity, but those with higher doubted intrinsic links between
creativity and intelligence. Instead, it
intelligence scores were neither stated that most possibilities to display a
recognisable level of creativity, like
significantly higher nor lower in
occupations in architecture or science,
creativity. Thus intelligence is necessary simply require a high level of formal
education. Since academic performance
but not sufficient for creative thinking is correlated with IQ, society simply
(Schubert, 1973). denies creative individuals of low IQ the
chance to express their talent
adequately.
ASSOCIATIVE THEORY As mentioned above Mednick proposed

three distinct types of creativity into
Associative theory was developed in which any idea would likely fall.
1962 by Sarnoff Mednick and falls Serendipitous creativity occurs when a
into the cognitive group of theories combination appears by chance
as the theory primarily focuses on (Example: Larry Page was eating his
three types of creativity: lunch next to a server and BANG he
serendipitous, similarity and comes up with the idea for Google).
mediation, which refer to cognitive Similarity refers to the combination of
mechanisms we use to generate new concepts which may appear remote but
ideas. Mednick defined creativity as: do actually share some similarities
which prompt us to try combining them
‘…the forming of associative elements (Example: Larry likes libraries and
into new combinations which either notices that the internet is one big
meet specified requirements or are in unorganised collection of knowledge and
some way useful […] the more so invents Google to organise the
mutually remote the elements of the internet, just like a library). Finally,
new combination, the more creative Mediation occurs when we make
the process or solution’. (Mednick, combinations of completely remote
elements using a mediatory concept that
1962).
has links to both of the initial ideas
An important aspect to understand from (Example: Larry is inspired to combine
Mednick’s definition is that creativity the concept of ‘the internet’ and libraries
arises from the combination of remote because his second name is Page and
elements. An example therefore would both libraries and the internet have pages
be the combination of computer in them).
networks and libraries to create Google,
a library of sorts housed in a world wide
network accessible through personal
computers.
CONTENTS
Determinants of personality: Biological and socio-cultural
Approaches to the study of personality: Psychoanalytical, Neo-Freudian, Social learning, Trait and
Type, Cognitive, Humanistic, Existential, Transpersonal psychology.
Other theories: Rotter's Locus of Control, Seligman's Explanatory styles, Kohlberg’s theory of
Moral development.
Basic motivational concepts: Instincts, Needs, Drives, Arousal, Incentives, Motivational Cycle.
Approaches to the study of motivation: Psychoanalytical, Ethological, S-R Cognitive, Humanistic
Exploratory behavior and curiosity
Zuckerman's Sensation seeking
Achievement, Affiliation and Power
Motivational Competence
Self-regulation
Flow
Emotions: Physiological correlates

Theories of emotions: James-Lange, Canon-Bard, Schachter and Singer, Lazarus,
Lindsley. Emotion regulation
Conflicts: Sources and types
Stress and Coping: Concept, Models, Type A, B, C, D behaviors, Stress management strategies
[Biofeedback, Music therapy, Breathing exercises, Progressive Muscular Relaxation, Guided Imagery,
Mindfulness, Meditation, Yogasana, Stress Inoculation Training].
PERSONALITY,
Chapter MOTIVATION,
EMOTION, STRESS
7 AND COPING
PERSONALITY
Personality is a concept to be used to Personality is : ...a person’s unique pattern of
traits (Guilford, 1959, p.5) ...the most adequate
recognize stability and consistency of
conceptualization of a person’s behavior in all its
behaviour across different situations,
detail.” (Mcclelland, 1951, p. 69). - 10 –
uniqueness of the person and
individual differences. There are “Personality consists of the distinctive
controversies among psychologists to patterns of behavior including thoughts
define personality. Among the and emotions that characterize each
numerous definitions of personality, the individual’s adaption to the situations of
most commonly accepted definition is his or her life” - Walter Mischel (1976)
given by Allport (1937). The word
personality has been derived from the “Personality is the sum of activities that
can be discovered by actual observations
Latin word ‘Persona.’ At first this word
over a long enough period of time to
was used for the mask worn by the give reliable information.” - Watson
actors (Roman and Greek) in ancient
times, - 8 - to indicate to the audiences “Personality refers to deeply ingrained
whether they played the villain’s or the patterns of behavior, which include the
hero’s role in a drama. Thus the mask way one relates to, perceives and thinks
gave the actor his characteristic features. about the environment and one self.” -
American Psychiatric Association-
1987
DEFINITIONS
“An individual’s pattern of
He defines personality as; “Personality psychological processes arising from
is the dynamic organization within the motives, feelings, thoughts, and other
individual of those psychophysical major psychological function.
system that determine his unique Personality is expressed through its
adjustment to the environment.” influences on the body, in conscious
(Allport-1947) Later on, Allport (1965) mental life, through the individual’s
revised his definition of personality. The social behavior.” - Mayer, 2005
revised definition of personality is
‘personality is a dynamic organization “Personality refers to individuals’
within the individual of those characteristic patterns of thought,
psychophysical systems that determine emotion and behavior together with the
his characteristic behaviour and psychological mechanisms hidden or
thought.” (Allport-1965) not-behind those patterns this definition
means that among their colleagues in
other subfields of psychology, those
psychologists who study personality
have a unique mandate: to explain whole
persons.” - Funder, D. C., 1997
“The more or less stable and enduring have an impact on the total personality
organization of a person’s character, of an individual.
temperament, Intellect, and physique
that determines his unique adjustment to The thyroid gland secretes a hormone
his environment.” - H. called thyroxin, and the main function of
this hormone is regulation of body
Eysenck metabolism. If the thyroid gland is under
“That which permits a prediction of what a person active, the result is usually mental
will do in a given situation.” - R. B. Cattell dullness, inactivity, depression, fatigue
and poor appetite. Hyper secretion of
these glands leads to extreme over
activity.
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Factors Influencing Personality The The parathyroid gland regulates calcium
factors affecting personality can be metabolism excitability of the nervous
divided into - two classes - biological system is directly dependent on the
and environmental. amount of calcium in the blood. Deficient
working of this gland leads to the
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS development of an irritable, quick
The biological factors affecting the reactive, distracted, nervous and a tense
development of personality are heredity,
person.Similarly other glands like
endocrine glands, physique and
nervous system. pituitary, the adrenal and the gonads
have their tremendous impact on various
Heredity: The principal raw materials of personality traits.
personality - physique, intelligence and
temperament are the result of heredity. Nervous System : Entire behavior is
How they will develop will depend on effectively managed and controlled by
environmental influences. Many aspects the coordination and functioning of the
of human behavior and development nervous system. How we will behave in
ranging from physical characteristics a particular situation depends upon the
such as height, weight, eye and skin judgment of our brain. The sense
color, hair, the complex patterns of impressions, which are received through
sense organs, do not bear any
social and intellectual behavior, are
significance unless they are given a
influenced by a person’s genetic
meaning by the nervous system.
endowment.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Endocrine Glands
The secretions of endocrine glands Family : Among environmental factors,
affect physical growth, emotional the most important is the family
growth and mental growth. environment. The reaction of the family
environment towards an individual, and
the role of parents, are very These will
important in the molding of personality,
parents serve as a model whom the child
imitates, and their influence is
considerable on the child. Parents
influence the development of child’s
personality in a wide variety of ways.
Children learn the moral values, code

of conduct, social norms and methods
of interacting with others from
parents.
On the whole friendly and tolerant School : The children spend much of
fathers help their children to have their time in the schools and hence it can
greater emotional stability, self-esteem play a very significant part in the
And self-confidence. Domineering and formation of the personality of the child.
rigid fathers will only foster the
development of submissive and Teacher : A teacher is the most
frightened, dependent children. important person in the school who can
Over protective mothers will influence help in modifying the children’s
their children in the direction of personalities. He or she is the most
dependence and a total disregard for powerful source of stimulation for the
others. Nagging mothers will cause child. If he/she possess desirable
their children to be shy, submissive and personal and - 15 - social modes or
emotionally unstable. reactions he/she will inculcate them
Besides the role of the parents, the among his/her student or the other hand,
atmosphere in the family is greatly effects of prejudicial treatment on the
influencing. A peaceful and loving part of teachers can make the child
atmosphere results in children being lose self-confidence and develop low
orderly, peace-loving and very self-esteem.
affectionate. Without undue strain they
develop nature and pleasant personalities. Peer Group : From their peers children
In a family where there is learn many forms of behavior, some
tension, anxiety, constant quarrels and socially appropriate and others socially
incompatibility among parents, the undesirable. For example, by striving to
child is likely to develop strong feelings be accepted and like by their peers,
of insecurity and inferiority. they gain new insights into the
Birth Order : This is another familial meaning of friendship. Through give
factor that can have an important and take with friends, they learn the
influence on the personality importance of sharing, reciprocity
development. All children has a unique and cooperation. By trying to get peers
position in the family, such as the eldest, to understand their thoughts and
youngest, second or third. This position feelings, they learn to communicate
has a definite influence on personality. more effectively. Within the friend’s
The eldest child is very often group, child also learn sex-role norms. In
overburdened with responsibility, general, boys become rougher,
hence, he or she grows up to be very boisterous, more compulsive, and from
independent, while the youngest being larger groups, while girls tend to form
the baby of the family is petted and more intimate and exclusive groups.
spoilt. The common view of an only Feelings of
child would be that he or she will be
pampered and spoilt.
masculine superiority, sex bias environment in shaping our personality.

and other attitudes and behaviors Individuals of certain cultures are
develop with gender more generous, open-hearted and
identification. warm where as individuals of some
other cultures are suspicious,
Sibling Relationships : The number of introverted and self-centered. It has
sibling as well as their sex and age has a also been found that certain cultural
considerable influence on the communities are more prone to
development of both favorable and
develop certain abnormal behaviors
unfavorable personality traits like as compared to others, probably due to
cooperativeness, sharing, the influence of geographical, dietary,
aggressiveness, jealousy, etc. Although hormonal or genetic influences within
sibling rivalry is common, older sibling the community.
invariably teach the infant a great deal
and they can even function as a source
of security. On the other hand, unhealthy
comparisons can also develop, for
instance, an athletic child who is APPROACHES TO
favored by an athletic father over a
less active sibling, may suffer from an PERSONALITY
inferiority complex or develop low self
esteem & self confidence. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Introduction
Mass Media : Mass media includes
films, television, radio, printed It revolutionized the concept of
literature, etc. Mass media has a treatment for psychological disturbances
considerable impact on attitudes, values, by proposing a method of psychological
beliefs and behavior patterns. Baron treatment based on psychological
and Bryne (1986) have shown that concepts such as understanding of the
individuals, especially child, imitate unconscious, instincts, free association,
specific aggressive acts of models. dream interpretation, and so on. The
history of modern psychotherapy in fact
They have proposed that human
begins with the work of Sigmund Freud.
personality formation is a result of
Third, psychoanalysis is both a theory of
modeling and imitating the behavior of personality as well as a system of
significant others. Many abnormal forms psychotherapy. As a theory of
of behavior can be learned by imitating personality, it aims at providing
models from the mass media. explanations of human behavior and
experience by revealing the underlying
Culture : Culture influences mental forces. As a system of
personality because every culture has a psychotherapy its basic goal is to bring
set of ethical and moral values, beliefs to consciousness the unconscious
and norms which considerably shapes impulses causing neurotic conflict and
behavior. Cross-cultural studies have thereby help the person gain greater self-
pointed out the importance of cultural knowledge and self-control.
Theory of personality sick because of frustrating early

The psychoanalytic theory of personality can be experiences which become part of the
considered from three points of view: inner states. These experiences are
physiological, social, and psychological. internalized by the individual and are
difficult to dislodge, making the person
Physiological view inaccessible to others’ influences. Covert
anxiety, which can only be inferred from
Physiological structures present in an
a total picture of the personality, has
organism are referred to as instincts,
been given enormous importance, and
drives, instinctual drives, sexuality,
studied extensively by psychoanalytic
psychosexuality or libido in the
theory.
psychoanalytic theory. According to
Freud, the physiological drives are more
important in childhood than in later life Concepts of Psychoanalysis
as they exert a significant influence in The psychoanalytic theory of personality
the formative years. However, Freud explains any human event or experience
was aware of the dichotomy present with reference to a number of different
between drive and control of the points of view. These views are: (1)
instincts – expressed in the form of topographic, (2) genetic, (3) dynamic, (4)
defenses against anxiety, growing from economic, (5) structural, (6) interpersonal,
the pleasure principle to the reality (7) cultural, and (8) adaptive.
principle, and as the conflict between
ego and id. The topographic point of view explains
the concept of the unconscious.
Social view According to this view, a mental event
The impact of social influences has can be unconscious, preconscious, or
received due importance in conscious. The unconscious consists of
psychoanalysis. Society is seen as a wishes which are repressed because of
collection of individuals, in which the anxiety. The presence of the
unconscious is felt only when these
family is the core of the social structure.
repressed wishes are expressed in the
Every culture has specific socialization
form of fantasies and dreams, neurotic
procedures which give rise to conflicts
symptoms, or overt active behavior.
between parents and children over
appropriate behavior. These interactions
may either be gratifying or frustrating The genetic-developmental view is one
depending on the love or hate within the of the fundamental bases for the
family structure. understanding of the individual. The
development process is described in
Psychological view Freud’s psychosexual stages of
development. Sexuality is divided into
Inner psychological states begin to
three main periods: from birth to the
develop at a very early stage. These
ages of three to five, from age five to
inner psychological states manifest puberty, and puberty, when sexuality
themselves in behavior, fantasy and life. reaches its adult form.
A person may become psychologically
The dynamic point of view understands to adapt to other people – the

the human psyche as an interplay interpersonal and cultural aspect of
between dynamic emotional forces while adaptation is considered the real
the economic point of view stresses problem.
upon the quantitative factor in mental
functioning. It was originally View of the individual
hypothesized that mental energy could
be quantified. A major tenet of psychoanalysis, which
Freud developed, is the principle of
The structural or tripartite view sees the psychic determinism. According to this
personality as divided into three parts – principle, the human being is seen as an
the id, ego and superego. The id is the organism driven by unconscious, innate
source of all drives, and is the reservoir of forces. Behavior is determined by
instincts. The ego is the executive of the previous behavior and by the biological
personality, and is the mediator between drives. Freud believed that nothing
the demands of the id and the external happens by chance or at random and all
environment. The superego consists of behavior is meaningful if the person has
moral and social values, and is the internal sufficient insight to understand it.
representative of parents. It acts as the According to Freud, the basic
mediator between the individual and the personality pattern is established by the
environment. age of five.
The interpersonal point of view stresses Topography of the mind

on the interpersonal context of all human Freud evolved the concept of the
activities. In the early years of a person’s unconscious and defined three
life, the interpersonal context consists constructs of the mind: the conscious,
almost entirely of the family, from which unconscious, and preconscious. The
all later relationships develop. The conscious is all that we are aware of in
essential traits of the personality become ourselves and in our environment. The
fixed by the time the child begins to go to unconscious is the bigger area
school, by which time the superego has consisting of events, wishes, desires, and
formed. impulses that have been repressed or
censored from the conscious mind.
The cultural point of view has stressed These mental events are not accessible
upon the role that the broader culture to the conscious mind. The
plays in the formation and maintenance preconscious is the censor that acts on
of the personality structure. Freud the memories in the unconscious. After a
revealed that the same psychological memory is scrutinized, it is allowed to
mechanisms can be found in all cultures. pass into consciousness; if not, it is
Thus, it can be deduced that the same repressed into the unconscious.
needs exist in human beings in all
cultures, but are moulded in different Structure of personality
ways in different cultures.
According to Freud, the personality is
made up of three major systems: the
The adaptive point of view focuses on id, the ego and the superego. Each of
the need of the human being to adapt these structures has its own functions,
himself to his environment. However, properties, and mechanisms.
psychoanalytic thought is more
concerned with the individual’s ability
Behavior is almost always the product of an The superego is the moral arm of the
interaction between these three systems. personality – it represents the ideal
rather than the real and strives for
The id consists of all aspects that are perfection rather than pleasure. The
physiological in nature and inherited – superego is our conscience and develops
aspects that are present at birth. It is the as a result of the rewards and
reservoir of psychic energy and punishments given by parents. Whatever
functions to reduce tension. Its sole is taught as improper is incorporated
purpose is to obtain pleasure, and into the conscience and what is
operates on the pleasure principle. The approved of is incorporated into the ego
id functions by two processes: the ideal through introjection. This is the
primary process, present in the process by which parental and societal
unconscious, which seeks to alleviate values are internalized by the individual.
tension immediately and the pleasure The superego functions unconsciously to
principle that makes the organism seek a large extent, and with its formation,
immediate satisfaction of instinctual
needs. Self-control takes over from parental control.
The main functions of the superego can be summed
The ego evolves out of the id as the up as:
child develops. The ego operates on the to inhibit sexual or aggressive impulses of
reality principle through the secondary the id, as the expression of these impulses
process that develops at the conscious is
level of thinking. The reality principle condemned by society,
ensures that pleasure is obtained in to persuade the ego
accordance with the demands of reality. to substitute
The ego is said to be the executive of moralistic goals for
the personality as it decides what needs realistic ones, and,
should be satisfied and to what extent. to strive for
The ego also functions to protect the perfection.
self by employing appropriate Défense
the ego, and function as a whole. The
mechanisms. id may be thought of as the
biological component of personality,
the ego as the psychological and the
superego as the social component.
ANXIETY repressing a memory is usually

Anxiety is a state of tension. The not aware that something is
external world plays a part in shaping forgotten.
the personality as it can threaten as well
as satisfy. When threatened, the ego Reaction Formation. It is the
becomes anxious. The function of blocking of an impulse that the
anxiety is to warn the person of ego labels dangerous and whose
impending danger and signal the ego that presence causes anxiety. By
appropriate measures are to be taken. strengthening and emphasizing
Freud identified three types of anxieties: the opposite impulse, reaction
reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and formation keeps the forbidden
moral anxiety. Reality anxiety is the impulse out of awareness. This
fear of real dangers in the external process is also unconscious. For
world. Neurotic anxiety is the fear that example, hate could appear as a
instincts will get out of control and that reaction formation against love,
the individual will be punished for it. if love was viewed as a threat.
Moral anxiety is fear of the conscience;
people with well-developed superegos Isolation. It is the recollection
often feel moral anxiety. When the ego of memories of the past without
cannot cope with anxiety by rational the accompanying feeling or
methods it has to fall back upon emotion. In other words, the
unrealistic ones called the Défense affect is isolated from the
mechanisms. memory. The affect or the
emotion is repressed, but the
EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS memory of the wish or incident
remains conscious. In this way,
When the ego is undergoing extreme we block frightening or painful
anxiety, it is forced to take extreme memories of emotion from the
measures called defense mechanisms to consciousness, thereby reducing
relieve the pressure. These defenses are the threat.
used to keep the unacceptable impulses
of the id out of consciousness and Undoing. This is the attempt to
prevent their open expression. All “undo” an act or impulse from
defense mechanisms have two common the id that the ego considers
characteristics: dangerous, such as a hostile or
sexual act. For example, a four-
they deny, falsify, or distort reality, and year-old hits his younger sister
they operate unconsciously so and then hugs her to “undo” the
that the person is not aware of harm.
what is taking place. Some of
the most common defense Denial. When certain
mechanisms are described unpleasant or unwanted aspects
below. of the outside world’s reality are
blocked from the consciousness,
Repression. Repression is the denial is in effect. Thus, a person
ego’s refusal to allow a who believes that he is a bright,
forbidden id impulse or gifted student denies the external
accompanying memories, reality of his poor school grades.
emotions, desires, or wish-
fulfilling fantasies to become
conscious. It is the “forgetting”
of unacceptable thoughts or
impulses - unconscious
forgetting. The person who is
belief that the teachers were not

Projection. This is the act of fair in evaluation.
not being aware of one’s own
wish or attitude and instead, Displacement. It is the
attributing it to some other purposeful and unconscious
person or external object. The shifting from one object to
child who is jealous of a another in order to solve a
classmate might explain to his conflict. Although the object is
friends how that particular changed, the impulse and its aim
classmate is jealous of him remain unchanged. For example,
because of his toys, or his school the individual who has been
grades, etc. reprimanded by his boss in the
office may shout at his wife once
Regression. It occurs when the he reaches home, displacing his
ego is faced with severe conflicts anger toward his boss onto his
with the id impulses. The ego wife.
may regress to a previous stage
where the sense of equilibrium is
maximized and sense of anxiety Intellectualization. This is a
is minimized. The points to systematic manner of thinking
which a person regresses are where the affect is removed from
called points of fixation. the event or situation in order to
defend against anxiety caused by
Sublimation. This is the these unacceptable impulses. By
unconscious procedure of merely thinking about them,
accepting a forbidden impulse instead of experiencing them, the
through the person tries to avoid the negative
secondary process and turning it associations of the impulses.
into a related, yet socially Defenses have further been classified
acceptable activity that gratifies into four types according to the level of
the basic impulse. It is adaptation and use. Narcissistic
commonly believed that many of defenses are used by children and
our aggressive drives are psychotics. Immature defenses are used
sublimated into acceptable by adolescents and are seen in
sporting activities. For example, depression, obsessions, and
a very aggressive person might compulsions. Neurotic defenses are seen
sublimate his aggression and in adults under stress and can be
become a boxer. Sexual drives observed in obsessive-compulsive and
are sublimated into activities hysteric persons. Mature defenses are
such as working, seeking power, normal adult adaptive mechanisms.
influence and money.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
Rationalization. It is the DEVELOPMENT
process of organizing facts, Psychosexual stages of development are
attitudes, and beliefs into an innately determined stages of sexual
explanation for an individual’s development through which all
behavior that is believed to be far individuals pass. According to Freud, the
more acceptable both socially first few years of life are decisive and
and personally. The facts are extremely important for the formation of
usually distorted and organised the personality. Freud introduced the
to support the individual’s concept of infantile sexuality when he
behavior or beliefs. A student, described the five stages of development:
for instance, who has failed may the oral, anal, phallic,
rationalize his failure by his
latency and genital stages. These stages In this stage of personality development,
are not discrete; as development occurs sexual interests, stimulation and
one stage merges with the other, excitement of the genital area become
producing a smooth transition. primary. The Oedipus complex appears
in this stage. The Oedipus complex is a
Oral Stage sexual attraction for the parent of the
The oral stage occurs at birth and lasts opposite sex and hostile feelings for the
about one and a half years. The mouth is parent of the same sex. Boys experience
center of gratification. The primary castration anxiety – the fear of the
sexual organ is the mouth as it seeks to removal of his genital organs
suck, bite, and put objects in the mouth – and girls experience castration
as its source of pleasure. When complex or penis envy – she does not
gratification is thwarted, the person may have something which the boy has. The
become fixated at the oral stage and may repression of the Oedipus complex
develop into either of two types of causes the superego to undergo the final
personality: oral aggressiveness is development.
shown by sarcasm and
argumentativeness, and biting, chewing LATENCY STAGE
and destroying; and oral eroticism The above mentioned three stages are
where in the person will swallow almost known as the pregenital stages. The
anything, and acquires pleasure in child then goes into a prolonged latency
amassing knowledge or possessions. period, or the quiet years, as there is a
repression of sexual urges. In this
ANAL STAGE period, the child is more involved in
This stage extends from 1-3 years same sex friendships, learning and play
approximately, and the anus becomes the activities, exploring the environment,
central area of sexual tension and and learning how to deal with the adult
pleasure. The child has to learn to world. This is a crucial period for
control the pleasure that follows from developing essential skills
relieving anal tension. If the parents are
very strict and repressive in their GENITAL STAGE
methods, the child may hold back its The genital stage extends from the onset
feces and become constipated and will of puberty till the person reaches young
develop into an obstinate and stingy adulthood. The adolescent begins to love
personality. If the parents plead and others for altruistic purposes and sexual
cajole the child, and praise it on attraction, socialization, group activities,
expulsion of faeces, the child vocational planning, and preparations
understands the importance of bowel for marrying and raising a family begin
movement and may develop into a to appear. The person becomes a reality-
creative and productive adult oriented and socialized adult. The
personality. principal biological function of the
genital stage is that of reproduction. The
PHALLIC STAGE final organization of personality
represents contributions from all stages
of development.
THEORY OF INSTINCTS turned outward onto substitute objects. A

Freud classified instincts as life instincts person fights with other people and is
(Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos). destructive because the death wish is
An instinct is an inborn psychological blocked by the forces of the life instincts
representation of an internal bodily and other obstacles in the personality.
arousal. The psychological
representation is called a wish and the
physiological arousal arising from it is
called need. According to Freud, these
instincts represent the forces that
underlie the sexual and aggressive
drives.
LIFE INSTINCTS
Hunger, thirst and sex are life instincts
as they serve the purpose of individual
survival. The energy of life instincts is
called libido. Life instinct refers to the
tendency of particles to unite, as in
sexual reproduction.
DEATH INSTINCTS
Freud stated that “the goal of all life is
death”, and defined Thanatos as the
tendency of organisms and their cells to
return to an inanimate state. An example
of the death instinct is the aggressive
drive. Aggressiveness is self-destruction
JUNG’S ANALYTIC THEORY

INTRODUCTION on the conscious person. The
Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic school, contents of the personal
known as analytical psychology, unconscious are accessible to
includes basic ideas related to Freud’s consciousness, and there is a lot
theories. He expanded on Freud’s of interaction between the ego
concept of the unconscious by and the personal unconscious.
describing the collective unconscious as Complexes. A complex is an
consisting of all humankind’s common organized group of feelings,
and shared mythological and symbolic thoughts, perceptions and
past. Jung felt that modern humans have memories that exist in the
been shaped and moulded into their personal unconscious. The
present form by the cumulative mother complex, for example,
experiences of past generations. An consists of ideas, feelings, and
individual’s Centre for Distance memories related to the mother.
personality is a resultant of inner forces Thus, an individual whose
acting upon outer forces and outer forces personality is dominated by the
acting on inner forces. mother is said to have a strong
mother complex.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
Jung described the total personality or THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
psyche as consisting of a number of It is the most powerful and
different but interacting systems. The influential system of the psyche
main systems are the ego, the personal (personality) and has the ability to
unconscious, and its complexes, the overshadow the ego and the
collective unconscious and its personal unconscious. The
archetypes, the persona, the anima and collective unconscious is made up
animus and the shadow. of latent memory traces inherited
from one’s ancestral past. This
THE EGO unconscious is the remainder of
The ego is the conscious mind. It human evolutionary development
is made up of conscious that has accumulated over many
perceptions, memories, thoughts, generations. It is universal in
and feelings. The ego is nature and is detached from
responsible for one’s feeling of anything personal. All human
identity and continuity, and beings have more or less the same
from the individual’s viewpoint, is collective unconscious.
considered as being at the centre of
consciousness. ARCHETYPES. The structural
component of the collective unconscious,
THE PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS an archetype is a universal idea that
The personal unconscious contains a large element of emotion.
consists of experiences that were Archetypes are the images that predispose
conscious at one time, but have us to perceive the external world in certain
been repressed, suppressed, ways. For example, the archetype of
mother produces an image of a mother
forgotten or ignored. It also
figure that is then identified with the
consists of the experiences that
actual mother. The baby’s experience is
were too weak to make an impact
the joint product of an inner predisposition
to perceive the world in a
certain manner and the actual nature of INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION

the world. Some of the archetypes we Jung also suggested that we are all born
have in our collective unconscious are with innate tendencies to be concerned
birth, power, death, magic, hero, child, mostly with ourselves or with the
God, etc. Some of the important outside world. The extravert is oriented
archetypes are: toward the external, objective world and
is open, confident and takes part in
The Persona. This is a mask many activities. The introverted person
adopted by the person in response is oriented toward the inner, subjective
to the demands of social world and is hesitant, cautious and
convention and tradition and to his prefers to observe the world than get
or her own inner needs. It is the involved.
role assigned by society and often
conceals the real nature of the DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
person. The persona is the public
Jung emphasized on the forward going
personality which the world sees,
character of personality development –
while the private personality exists
behind the mask. humans are constantly progressing or
attempting to progress from a less
complete stage of development to a more
The Anima and Animus. complete one. What is the goal of
Animus is the masculine side of development? In Jung’s theory, the
females and anima is the ultimate goal is self-realization or
feminine side of males. These individuation. Self-realization is the
archetypes are the products of blending of all aspects of a human’s total
racial experiences of man living personality. It means that the psyche has
with woman and vice-versa. evolved into the self in place of the ego.
The Shadow. This archetype CAUSALITY VS. TELEOLOGY

consists of the animal instincts
The idea that a goal guides and directs
that humans inherited in their
human destiny is the basis of the
evolution from lower forms of
teleological viewpoint. According to this
life. The shadow represents the
viewpoint, human personality can be
animal side of human nature and
is responsible for the unpleasant explained in terms of where it is going,
not where it has been. It explains the
and socially unacceptable
thoughts, feelings, and actions in present in terms of the future. On the other
our consciousness and behavior. hand, the present may be explained by the
past. This is the viewpoint of causality
which holds that present events are the
The self. It is the mid-point of consequences or effects of antecedent
personality and all systems are conditions or causes. A look into the
built around it. The self provides person’s past will account for his or her
the personality with unity, present behavior. Jung believed that both
equilibrium and stability. The
standpoints are necessary for a complete
self is the goal that people
understanding of personality. The present
constantly strive for, but cannot
is not only determined by the past
reach. It motivates human
(causality) but it is also determined by the
behavior and becomes evident
only when a person has reached future (teleology). When the two views
middle age. are combined, we get a complete picture
of the person.
PROGRESSION AND REGRESSION differentiation, development and

Development may follow either a expression. This is known as the
progressive forward movement or a individuation process.
regressive, backward movement. By
progression, Jung meant the satisfactory
adjustment of the conscious ego to the
ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL
demands of both external environment PSYCHOLOGY
and the needs of the unconscious. When
this progression is thwarted by a Alfred Adler expanded on Freud’s
frustrating circumstance, the libido is theories and formed Individual
unable to handle the environment, as a Psychology. Opposing both Freud’s
result of which, it regresses into the assumption of inborn instincts, and
unconscious and indulges in introverted Jung’s inborn archetypes as the factors
values. The ego loses its objectivity and motivating behavior, Adler suggested
becomes subjective. However, regression that humans are motivated primarily by
does not necessarily have a permanently social urges. According to him
bad effect on adjustment. It may help the humans are inherently social beings.
ego to find a way around the obstacle and His second major contribution was his
move forward again. For example, a concept of the creative self. This self is
young adult, living on his own may face a a highly personalized, subjective system
problem which he is unable to handle by that interprets and makes the
himself. Though he has left his parents, he experiences of the organism meaningful.
will still turn to them for help and advise, Thirdly, Adler considered the
or rather the parental images in his personality to be unique. Each person is
unconscious. a unique configuration of motives, traits,
interests, and values; and each act of the
THE INDIVIDUATION PROCESS individual has a distinctive style.
The central feature of Jung’s psychology Lastly, Adler considered consciousness
is that personality has a tendency to to be the centre of the personality, and
develop in the direction of a stable unity. considered that humans are conscious
The ultimate goal of development is the and aware of their behavior.
realization of selfhood. In order to
Adler’s theory of personality consists of
realize this aim it is necessary for all the
the following concepts: striving for
various systems of personality to be fully superiority, inferiority feelings and
developed. A neglected part will offer compensation, social interest, style of
resistance and sap energy from other life and the creative self.
developed systems. If too many
resistances develop, the person becomes
neurotic. This usually happens when
archetypes are not allowed to express
themselves through the conscious ego, as
the persona has smothered the
personality. To have a healthy integrated
personality, every system must be
allowed to reach the fullest degree of
STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY only with training and guidance. By

Superiority denotes a striving for perfect definition, social interest consists of the
completion. This striving is innate, and individual helping society to attain the
is part of life. This striving for goal of a perfect society. The person is
superiority carries the person from one embedded in a social context from the
stage of development to the other right first day of life, and is continuously
from birth to death. Each person has his involved in a network of interpersonal
or her own way of achieving or trying to relations that shape the personality and
achieve perfection. Adler identified provide outlets for striving for superiority.
power with masculinity and weakness Striving for superiority becomes
with femininity. In line with this socialized, and by working for the
suggestion, he spoke of “masculine common good, humans compensate for
protest”, a form of overcompensation their individual weakness.
that both men and women indulge in
when they feel inadequate and inferior. STYLE OF LIFE
Superiority in this context does not Style of life is the principle by which the
mean social distinction, leadership, or an individual personality functions; it is the
eminent position in society. What causes principle that explains the uniqueness of
these various modes of striving to come the person. Everyone has a style of life,
into the individual? but no two people develop the same
style. Style of life is formed very early in
INFERIORITY FEELINGS childhood, and experiences are taken in
AND COMPENSATION according to this unique style of life.
According to Adler, the causes of the What determines an individual’s style of
striving for superiority can be traced to life? Style of life is a compensation for a
inferiority feelings and compensation. particular inferiority; the dull child will
Adler observed that a person with a strive for intellectual superiority. For
defective organ tries to compensate for example, Napolean’s conquering style of
the weakness by strengthening it through life was determined by his slight
intensive training. He explained that physical build. Adler however, was not
feeling of inferiority arise from a sense satisfied with this concept, and came up
of incompletion or imperfection in any with the concept of creative self.
sphere of life. Adler was of the opinion
that inferiority feelings are not a sign of THE CREATIVE SELF
abnormality, but are the cause of all The theory of creative self asserts that
improvement in mankind. In other humans make their own personalities.
words, human beings are pushed by the They construct them out of the raw
need to overcome their inferiority and material of heredity and experience. The
pulled by the desire to be superior. creative self is the catalyst which
Perfection, not pleasure, was the goal of transforms raw data into a personality
life. that is subjective, dynamic, unified,
personal, and uniquely stylized. The
Social Interest creative self gives meaning to life and is
the goal as well as the means to the goal.
Adler believed that social interest is
It is the active principle of human life,
inborn; that humans are social creatures
and is unlike the soul.
by nature, not by habit. However, social
interest can be brought to a culmination
ERIKSON’S CONTEMPORARY (developmental tasks) in which his

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY growing abilities are tested. The resolution
of each task provides a base for further
growth; unsolved developmental crises
INTRODUCTION
block further development and may lead
Erik Erikson’s most significant to neurotic residuals in the later character
contribution is his formulation of the structure. Erikson also describes
psychosocial theory of development ritualizations that are peculiar to each
from which he expanded the conception stage. By this he means a playful, yet
of the ego. Erikson’s view of culturally determined way of doing or
psychosocial development brings experiencing something in the daily
together a number of important ideas for interplay of individuals. The basic purpose
the understanding of personality growth. of these ritualizations is to turn the
Building on Freud’s psychosexual maturing individual into an effective and
stages, Erikson added ego development familiar member of the community.
(role of sensorimotor and cognitive
capacities), and interpersonal KAREN HORNEY:
interactions. Thus, he combined the
concepts of dynamic motivation, ego BASIC ANXIETY
functioning and social behavior into a Horney emphasized on the importance
single model of personality of social relationships in personality
development. development. Basic anxiety refers to the
feeling of a child of being isolated and
THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY helpless in a potentially hostile world.
OF DEVELOPMENT
Development proceeds in eight stages ERICH FROMM
according to Erikson. The first four Erich Fromm was a neo-Freudian
stages occur during infancy and psychoanalyst who suggested a theory of
childhood, the fifth stage during personality based on two primary needs:
adolescence, and the last three stages the need for freedom and the need for
during the adult years up to and belonging. He suggested that people
including old age. Erikson places develop certain personality styles or
particular emphasis on the adolescent strategies in order to deal with the
period as it is the transition stage anxiety created by feelings of isolation.
between childhood and adulthood. Of these character types, he suggested
that four of them are unproductive
Erikson felt that each child has its own orientations, while one is a productive
timetable, and thus, it is very difficult to orientation. Fromm believed that
frame a strict chronological schedule. character is something that stems both
Further, each stage is not passed through, from our genetic inheritance and from
and left behind. Each stage contributes to our learning experiences.
the formation of the total personality. At
each stage, the maturing person faces new
and important encounters with his world
TYPE THEORIES
Sheldon set out with the intention of
establishing a relationship between body
SHELDON’S SOMATOTYPE THEORY type and psychological or
The type approach has mainly temperamental types. The human body
evolved out of the medical sciences. consists of three layers, the ectoderm,
It makes the following assumptions. the mesoderm and the endoderm.
a. People can be classified into a
few categories or types According to him an ectomorphic
depending on their behaviour individual tends to be cerebrotonic in
patterns. temperament. Cerebrotonics are
characterized
b. These types or categories are qualitatively by greater nervous and
different from each other. cerebral activities and
c. The behavioural variations among the are given to activities like thinking,
different types are stable, describable and reading, etc, The endomorphic physique
even was associated with a viscerotonic
measurable. temperament likely to be more

interested in visceral activities like
d. It is possible to relate these
eating and drinking. Lastly, the
behavioural types to
mesomorphic physique is associated
constitutional and body
with the somatotonic temperament,
characteristics.
being more given to muscular activity.
HIPPOCRATE’S TYPOLOGY Jung’s classification has been criticised on

In 400 B.C. Hippocrates attempted to the ground that it is not possible to divide
explain personality in terms of body people into two watertight compartments
fluid or humours. He postulated that our because a significant number of people do
body has four types of fluid; yellow not fall in either of the categories. They
bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. exhibit characteristics of both the
Every person is characterised by the extrovert and introvert type. To
prominence of one type of fluid which compensate for this psychologist placed
determines the temperament of the such persons into another category called
person concerned. Thus, he classified ambiverts.
people into four types which are given
below: TRAIT THEORIES
According to trait theory personality is
Choleric – people with
made up of different traits. Traits are the
predominance of yellow bile
building blocks and human behaviour
are irritable, restless and hot
blooded. can be described in terms of these traits.
A trait generally is a description of
Melancholic – people with high black bile are
behaviour, for example, friendliness,
sad, depressed and devoid of hope in life
social, assertive are words that describe
Sanguinary – When blood content human behaviour.
is high the person remains
cheerful, active and he is Now the question is do these words really
optimistic in life. describe behaviour? No, because to be
Phlegmatic – predominance of called a trait it must manifest consistency.
phlegm makes a person calm and For example, if a person shows
quite and usually there behaviour assertiveness in all situations he is said to
is marked by inactiveness. show consistency but if he does not show
assertiveness when the situation demands
it he is not showing consistency. Besides
JUNG’S TYPOLOGY consistency of a trait should also show
the characteristics of stability and
Jung postulated personality theory based relative permanency. In other words, the
on psychological characteristics. He trait should remain manifest itself in the
divided people into two broad types i.e. person’s behaviour for long periods of
extroverts and introverts. time. For example, if a person shows
honesty in his behaviour across all
Extroverts – Such people are socially
situations for a month or so but after that
oriented. They like to mix up with
honesty is not reflected in his behaviour,
people, are fun loving, optimistic. They
are realistic in their approach towards then the trait of honesty does not have
life. Often such people exhibit stability.
leadership qualities.
According to Atkinson, Atkinson and
Hilgard “A trait refers to any
Introverts – They are the opposite of
characteristic that differs from person
extroverts. They do not like to mingle
to person in a relatively permanent
with people. They have very few and consistent way.”
friends. They are self-centred and
conservative. Such people are dogmatic
in the sense that they follow traditions ALLPORT’S TRAIT THEORY
and customs of the society without ever
giving thought to their justifiability. Allport mentioned two types of traits ; common
traits and personal traits.
Common Traits – are the traits found in

dispositions,
the majority of persons living in a
b) central dispositions, and
society or culture. Thus people of a
secondary dispositions.
society or culture can be compared on
that trait. Common traits thus are those Cardinal dispositions: such
which are reflected in the behaviour of traits have overriding and
most of the persons in a society or a overwhelming influence on the
community or culture. behaviour of a person in that they
manifest themselves in all that a
Personal Traits – This refers to the
person does and guides the
unique characteristics of a person and not
behaviour of that person. For
shared by other members of the society or
example, Mahatma Gandhi had
community or culture. Such a personal
firm belief and conviction in peace
trait is not comparable with those of
and non-violence. Message of
others in that culture. These traits are
peace and nonviolence were
inculcated by a person more in the process
explicitly seen in whatever
of socialisation and thus many of do’s and Mahatma Gandhi did in his life,
don’ts of the parents or caregivers become whether at home or abroad.
part of the personality and these traits are
unique to this individual. Another Central dispositions: This is
important aspect is that, these traits are found in all persons and one can
highly consistent and can be seen in have 5 to 10 central dispositions.
almost all behaviours of this individual These are not equivalent to
irrespective of the situation concerned. To cardinal traits but one can assess
give an example, trait of parsimony, is the personality of an individual in
something which an individual will show terms of these traits. These traits
in almost every aspect of his behaviour actually define the personality of a
whether he is at home or office or school person. Let us take an example of
or anywhere. He will for example put off a person who has the traits of
the lights to economise on electricity honesty, punctuality, parsimony,
consumption whether at office or at home. cleanliness and generosity. Such a
Similarly he would be very careful not to person will be always on time to
waste paper and will use for rough work the office, and keep the scheduled
one side pages in the office as well as at meetings on time and never will
home. waste anyone’s time, will be
always straight forward and deal
Allport further divided personal traits directly with his employer
into three subcategories: a) cardinal
and employees, and would Cattell mentioned two types of

ensure that nothing is wasted and source traits i.e. environmental
will make sure others do not mould traits and constitutional
waste anything and when ever traits. In the development of
someone comes for help would some source traits environmental
be generous enough to offer help factors play more important role
and solve the problem. than genetic factors, therefore,
such traits are called
c) Secondary dispositions: environmental mould traits.
These traits of a person are less Source traits determined by
consistent, less explicit and less genetic factors are called
meaningful for the person and constitutional traits.
hence are called secondary traits.
These traits are of not much help Cattell also divided traits according to
in explaining the personality. For the behaviour they are related to and
example, hair style, dressing these include the dynamic traits and
sense, eating pattern or ability traits.
preferences etc.
Dynamic Traits are those which direct
the behaviour of the person in a
particular direction. Attitude and
CATTELL’S TRAIT THEORY sentiments are examples of dynamic
traits. For example, suppose a person
After Allport, major contribution to trait feels strongly for girls education /
theory was made by R.B. Cattell. He
women’s education, then he may join an
divided traits into two categories, viz.,
surface traits, and source traits. NGO or an organisation which is
concerned with spreading women’s
Surface Traits – As the name suggests education and offering education to girls
these are found on the periphery of and women. This trait will be reflected
personality i.e. these are reflected in the in all his activities in terms of writing
day to day interactions of the person. articles in the newspapers and various
Their expression is so explicit that it other magazines advancing the cause of
leaves no doubt about their existence in women and girls education.
the personality.
Ability Traits – traits that are
Source Traits – These represent the instrumental in reaching to a goal are
structure of personality. They are called ability traits. For example,
present in less number than surface musical ability is a must for becoming a
traits. These traits are not observable in musician.
day to day interactions of the person.
Temperamental Traits – These
Source traits come to notice when some
develop out of a person’s efforts to reach
of the surface traits are joined together. a goal and relate to emotional state and
For example, sociability, unselfishness energy of the person.
and humor are surface traits which when
joined together create a source trait
known as friendliness.
EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY such as a car crash — the extravert’s brain

inhibits itself, which means that it
H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality becomes “numb,” you might say, to the
could be reduced into two broad trauma, and therefore will remember very
dimensions. These dimensions are little of what happened. After the car
Neuroticism, and Extraversion- crash, the extravert might feel as if he had
Introversion dimensions. According to “blanked out” during the event, and may
Eysenck, these are biologically and ask others to fill them in on what
genetically based and each dimension happened. Because they don’t feel the full
subsumes under it a number of specific mental impact of the crash, they may be
traits. ready to go back to driving the very next
day. The introvert, on the other hand,
Neuroticism: Neuroticism is the name
has poor or weak inhibition: When
Eysenck gave to a dimension that had
trauma, such as the car crash, hits them,
persons who tend to be quite “nervous.”
their brains don’t protect them fast
These people tend to suffer more
frequently from a variety of “nervous enough, don’t in any way shut down.
disorders”, hence the name of the Instead, they are highly alert and learn
dimension. But it does not mean that well, and so remember everything that
people who score high on the happened. They might even report that
neuroticism scale are necessarily they saw the whole crash “in slow
suffering from neurotic disorders, but it motion!” They are very unlikely to want to
only shows that such persons are drive anytime soon after the crash, and
relatively more susceptible to develop may even stop driving altogether.
neurotic problems as compared to the Neuroticism and extraversion-introversion
normal persons. Another thing Eysenck looked into was
the interaction of the two dimensions and
Extraversion-introversion: His second what that might mean in regard to various
dimension is extraversion-introversion. psychological problems. He found, for
By this he means something very similar example, that people with phobias and
to what Jung meant by the same terms, obsessive-compulsive disorder tended to
and something very similar to our
be quite introverted, whereas people with
common sense understanding of them,
conversion disorders (e.g. hysterical
that is Shy, quiet people “versus” out-
paralysis) or dissociative disorders (e.g.
going, loud people. This dimension, too,
amnesia) tended to be more extraverted.
is found in everyone, but the
physiological explanation is a bit more
complex. According to Eysenck,
extraversion-introversion is a matter of
the balance of “inhibition” and
“excitation” in the brain itself.
Excitation is the brain waking itself up,
getting into an alert, learning state.
Inhibition is the brain calming itself down,
either in the usual sense of relaxing and
going to sleep, or in the sense of
protecting itself in the case of
overwhelming stimulation. Thus someonewho is extraverted
, he hypothesized, hasgood, strong inhibition:
When confronted by traumatic stimulation
OCEAN MODEL BY COSTA AND MC CRAE
PERSONALITY TYPES BY FRIEDMAN AND ROSENMAN
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social cognitive theory is basically a behaviours, that would make the
social leaning theory based on the ideas person much more successful in
that people learn by watching what doing so.
others do and that human thought
processes . People’s interaction with the ALBERT BANDURA’S
environment, behaviour of others ,
and one’s own cognition etc. act as
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
chief factors in influencing the
development of personality of an
individual. “In social learning theory, a self-system
is not a psychic agent that controls
Main Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory behaviour. Rather it refers to cognitive
People learn by observing others, a structures that provide reference
process known as vicarious learning. mechanisms to set of functions for
Although learning can modify perception, evaluation and regulation of
behaviour, people do not always apply behaviour”. According to Bandura the
what they have learned. three component processes involved in
Individual’s choice is based on self regulation of behaviour through the
perceived or actual consequences activation of self-prescribed
of the concerned behaviour. contingencies. The three components
People are more likely to follow the involved in self-system are self-
behaviours modeled by someone observation, judgmental processes and
with whom they can identify. self –response.
The more perceived
commonalities and/or emotional Self-observation: We look at ourselves,
attachments between the our behaviour, and keep tabs on it.
observer and the model, the more Judgment: We compare what we see with
likely the observer will learn a standard.
from the model.
Also, the degree of self-efficacy that Self-response: If you did well in
a learner possesses directly comparison with your standard, you give
affects his or her ability to learn. yourself rewarding self-responses. If you
Self-efficacy is a fundamental did poorly, you give yourself punishing
belief in one’s ability to achieve self-responses.
a goal. If a person believes that Self efficacy: In other words, self-
he or she can learn new efficacy is a person’s belief in his or
her ability to succeed in a particular
situation
People with a strong sense of self-efficacy have the help them master comparable
following characteristics: activities and succeed.
Social Persuasion: Bandura also
They view challenging problems as tasks to asserted that people could be
be mastered.
persuaded to believe that
They develop deeper interest in the activities in they have the skills and
which they participate. capabilities to succeed.
Consider a time when
They form a stronger sense of commitment to their someone said something
interests and activities. positive and encouraging that
helped you achieve a goal.
They recover quickly from setbacks
and disappointments. On the other Getting verbal
hand, people with a weak sense of self- encouragement from others
efficacy show the following helps people overcome self-
characteristics: doubt and instead focus on
giving their best effort to the
They avoid challenging tasks. task at hand.
They believe that difficult tasks and situations are Psychological Responses: Our
beyond their capabilities. own responses and emotional
reactions to situations also
They focus on personal failings and play an important role in self-
negative outcomes. efficacy. Moods, emotional
They quickly lose confidence in personal states, physical reactions, and
abilities (Bandura, 1994). stress levels can all impact
how a person feels about their
According to Bandura, there are four personal abilities in a
major sources of self-efficacy. particular situation. A person
who becomes extremely
Mastery Experiences: The most nervous before speaking in
effective way of developing a public may develop a weak
strong sense of efficacy is sense of self-efficacy in these
through mastery experiences.
situations.
(Bandura 1994).
Principles of Observational Learning
Performing a task
successfully strengthens our A Study of Aggression.” In this
senseofself-efficacy. experiment Bandura exposed a group
However, failing to of children to a video, featuring
adequately deal with a task or violent and aggressive actions. For the
challenge can undermine and
experiment Bandura made of film of
weaken selfefficacy
one of his students, a young woman,
Social Modeling: Witnessing other essentially beating up a bobo doll.
people successfully Bobo doll is an inflatable, egg-shape
completing a task is another balloon creature with a weight in the
important source of self- bottom that makes it bob back up
efficacy. According to when you knock him down. The
Bandura, when a person sees woman punched the clown, shouting
another person or persons “sockeroo!” She kicked it, sat on it, hit
similar to oneself succeeding with a little hammer, and so on,
by one’s sustained efforts, shouting various aggressive phrases.
makes the person raise the
belief that they too possess
the capabilities that could
Bandura showed this film to groups promised reinforcements

of kindergartners who, as you might (incentives) that we can
predict, liked it a lot. They then were imagine. c) vicarious
let out to play. In the play room, of reinforcement — seeing and
course, were several observers with recalling the model being
pens and clipboards in hand, a brand reinforced.
new bobo doll, and a few little
hammers.
All these variations allowed Bandura to ROTTER'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

establish that there were certain steps
involved in the modeling process: Rotter's interactionist position holds that
human behavior is based largely on the
Attentional Processes: In order to interaction of people with their
learn, you need to be paying attention. meaningful environments. Human
Anything that detracts your attention is
behavior is most accurately predicted by
going to have a negative effect on
an understanding of four variables:
observational learning
behavior potential, expectancy,
Retentional Processes: The ability to reinforcement value, and the
store information is also an important psychological situation.
part of the learning process. Retention
can be affected by a number of factors, A. Behavior Potential Behavior
but the ability to pull up information potential is the possibility that a
particular response will occur at a given
later and act on it is vital to
time and place in relation to its likely
observational learning
reinforcement.
Reproduction Processes: Once you
have paid attention to the model and B. Expectancy People's expectancy in
retained the information, it is time to any given situation is their confidence
actually perform the behaviour you that a particular reinforcement will
observed. follow a specific behavior in a specific
In the theory of observational learning situation or situations. Expectancies can
Bandura mentions a number of motives, be either general or specific, and the
which are: overall likelihood of success is a
a) past reinforcement function of both generalized and specific
b) ala traditional behaviourism. expectancies.
C. Reinforcement Value Reinforcement occur. Internal reinforcement is the

value is a person's preference for any individual's perception of an event,
particular reinforcement over other whereas external reinforcement refers to
reinforcements if all are equally likely to society's evaluation of an event.
D. Psychological Situation The E. Basic Prediction Formula

psychological situation is that part of the Hypothetically, in any specific situation,
external and internal world to which a behavior can be predicted by the basic
person is responding. Behavior is a prediction formula, which states that the
function of the interaction of people potential for a behavior to occur in a
with their meaningful environment.
particular situation in relation to a given INTRODUCTION TO

reinforcement is a function of people's
expectancy that the behavior will be HUMANISTIC THEORIES
followed by that reinforcement in that
situation. Accordingly, humanistic psychology
focuses on subjective experiences of
persons as opposed to forced, definitive
KELLY’S COGNITIVE THEORY: factors that determine behaviour.
PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS THEORY Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were
proponents of this view, which is based
on the “phenomenal field” theory of
Kelly's theory of personal constructs can
Combs and Snygg. Maslow and Rogers
be seen as a meta-theory, or a theory in
relation to the theories. It holds that emphasised a view of the person as an
people expect events through the active, creative, experiencing human
meanings or interpretations that they being who lives in the present and
place on those events. Kelly described subjectively responds to current
these interpretations personal constructs. perceptions, relationships, and
His philosophical position, described encounters. They disagree with the dark,
constructive alternativism, assumes pessimistic outlook of those in the
that alternative interpretations are Freudian psychoanalysis ranks, but
always accessible to people. rather view humanistic theories as
positive and optimistic proposals which
Psychotherapy: Kelly insisted that stress the tendency of the human
clients should set their own goals for personality toward growth and self-
therapy and that they should be active actualisation.
participants in the therapeutic process.
He sometimes used a procedure
described fixedrole therapy in which
clients act out a predetermined role for THEORY OF ABRAHAM MASLOW
many weeks. Through playing the part
of a psychologically healthy person, "Self Actualization is the intrinsic growth of
clients may discover previously hidden what is already in the organism, or more
characteristics of themselves. The Rep accurately, of what the organism is."
Test: The purpose of the Rep test is to Characteristics of Self Actualizing People
discover methods in which clients
construe important people in their lives. Realistic Realistically oriented, SA persons
Clients place names of people they know have a more efficient perception of reality,
on a repertory grid in order to identify they have comfortable relations with it. This
both similarities and differences among is extended to all areas of life. SA persons
these people. are unthreatened, unfrightened by the
unknown. they have a superior ability to
reason, to see the truth. They are logical and
efficient.
Acceptance Accept themselves, others and objective. They are self starters, responsible
the natural world the way they are. Sees for themselves, own their behavior.
human nature as is, have a lack of crippling
guilt or shame, enjoy themselves without Autonomy: Independent of Culture and
regret or apology, they have no unnecessary Environment SA's rely on inner self for
inhibitions. satisfaction. Stable in the face of hard
knocks, they are self contained, independent
Spontaneity, Simplicity, Naturalness from love and respect.
Spontaneous in their inner life, thoughts and
impulses, they are unhampered by Continued Freshness of Appreciation
convention. Their ethics is autonomous, they Have a fresh rather than stereotyped
are individuals, and are motivated to appreciation of people and things.
continual growth. Appreciation of the basic good in life,
moment to moment living is thrilling,
Problem Centering Focus on problems transcending and spiritual. They live the
outside themselves, other centered. They present moment to the fullest.
have a mission in life requiring much
energy, their mission is their reason for Peak experiences "Feelings of limitless
existence. They are serene, characterized by horizons opening up to the vision, the
a lack of worry, and are devoted to duty. feeling of being simultaneously more
powerful and also more helpless than one
Detachment: The Need for Privacy Alone ever was before, the feeling of ecstasy and
but not lonely, unflappable, retain dignity wonder and awe, the loss of placement in
amid confusion and personal misfortunes, time and space with, finally, the conviction
that something extremely important and
valuable had happened, so that the subject
was to some extent transformed and strengthened
even in his daily life by such experiences.
that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled,

Homeostasis Maslow also talks about
rotten and unhealthy. This is called
these levels in terms of homeostasis.
organismic valuing. Among the many
Homeostasis is the principle by which
things that we instinctively value is
your furnace thermostat operates: When
positive regard, Rogers umbrella term
it gets too cold, it switches the heat on,
for things like love, affection, attention,
and when it gets too hot, it switches the
nurturance, and so on. It is clear that
heat off. Maslow sees all these needs as
babies need love and attention.
essentially survival needs. Even love
and esteem are needed for the Another thing that we value is positive
maintenance of health. He says we all self regard, that is, self esteem, self
have these needs built in to us worth, and a positive self image. We
genetically, like instincts. In fact, he achieve this positive self regard by
calls them instinctoid, that is, instinct experiencing the positive regard others
like needs. Under stressful conditions, or show us over our years of growing up.
when survival is threatened, we can Getting positive regard on “on
“regress” to a lower need level. When a condition” Rogers calls conditional
person’s good career is in jeopardy, the positive regard. Because we do indeed
person might seek out a little attention need positive regard, these conditions
are very powerful, and we bend
ourselves into a shape determined, not
THEORY OF CARL ROGERS by our organismic valuing or our
actualising tendency, but by a society
A person’s identity is formed through a that may or may not truly have our best
series of personal experiences, which interests at heart
reflect how the individual is perceived
by both him or herself and the outside Incongruity: The gap between the real
world – the phenomenological field. self and the ideal self, the “I am” and the
“I should be” is called incongruity. The
Rogerian personality theory greater the gap, the more is the
distinguishes between two personalities. incongruity. The more the incongruity,
The real self is created through the the more the individual suffers.
actualising tendency, it is the self that
one can become. The demands of Defenses: When you are in a situation
society, however, do not always support where there is an incongruity between
the actualising tendency and we are your image of yourself and your
forced to live under conditions that are immediate experience of yourself (i.e.
out of step with our tendencies. The between the ideal and the real self), you
ideal self is the ideal created through the are in a threatening situation. Rogers
demands of society. also has a partial explanation for
psychosis: Psychosis occurs when a
Rogers tells us that organisms know person’s defense are overwhelmed, and
what is good for them. Evolution has their sense of self becomes “shattered”
provided us with the senses, the tastes, into little disconnected pieces.
the discriminations we need: When we
are hungry, we find food not just any
food, but food that tastes good. Food
The Fully Functioning Person the arts or sciences, through social

concern and parental love, or simply by
Rogers, like Maslow, is just as interested doing one’s best at one’s job. Creativity
in describing the healthy person. His as Rogers uses it is very close to
term is “fully-functioning,” and involves Erikson’s generativity.
the following qualities:
Therapy: Carl Rogers is best known for
Openness to experience. This is the
his contributions to therapy. He
opposite of defensiveness. It is the
originally called his therapy to be non-
accurate perception of one’s experiences
directive, because he felt that the
in the world, including one’s feelings. It
therapist should not lead the client, but
also means being able to accept reality,
rather be there for the client while the
again including one’s feelings.
client directs the progress of the therapy.
Existential living. This is living in Rogers felt that a therapist, in order to
the here-and-now. Rogers, as a part of be effective, must have three very
getting in touch with reality, insists that special qualities:
we not live in the past or the future —
Congruence — genuineness, honesty with the
the one is gone, and the other isn’t
client.
anything at all, yet! The present is the
only reality we have. Empathy — the ability to feel what the
client feels.
Organismic trusting. We should
allow ourselves to be guided by the Respect — acceptance, unconditional positive
organismic valuing process. We should regard towards the client.
trust ourselves, do what feels right, what
comes naturally. Rogers meant trust EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
your real self, and you can only know
Existential therapy focuses on free will,
what your real self has to say if you are self-determination, and the search for
open to experience and living meaning—often centering on you rather
existentially. than on the symptom. The approach
emphasizes your capacity to make
Experiential freedom: It means that rational choices and to develop to your
we feel free when choices are available maximum potential.
to us. Rogers says that the fully-
functioning person acknowledges that The existential approach stresses that:
feeling of freedom, and takes
responsibility for his choices. All people have the capacity for self
awareness.
Creativity: A fully-functioning
person, in touch with actualisation, will
feel obliged by their nature to contribute
to the actualisation of others, even life
itself. This can be through creativity in
Each person has a unique identity that their allowance in any way they choose -
can be known only through - yet they still expect the parent to
relationships with others. provide the money, and will complain
People must continually re-create about unfairness if they don't get it!
themselves because life’s meaning
constantly changes. Ordinary -- the normal adult
Anxiety is part of the human condition ego, conventional and a little
boring, perhaps. They have
learned responsibility, but find it
ROLLO MAY THEORY too demanding, and so seek
refuge in conformity and
Rollo May is the best known American traditional values.
existential psychologist. Much of his
thinking can be understood by reading
Creative -- the authentic adult,
about existentialism in general, and the the existential stage, beyond ego
overlap between his ideas and the ideas and self-actualizing. This is the
of Ludwig Binswanger is great. person who, accepting destiny,
faces anxiety with courage!
Stages of development
These are not stages in the traditional
Innocence -- the pre-egoic, pre- sense. A child may certainly be
self-conscious stage of the infant. innocent, ordinary or creative at times;
The innocent is pre-moral, i.e. is An adult may be rebellious.
neither bad nor good. Like a wild
animal who kills to eat, the Love and Will
innocent is only doing what he or
she must do. But an innocent His basic motivational construct is the
does have a degree of will in the daimonic. The daimonic is the entire
sense of a drive to fulfil their system of motives, different for each
needs! individual. It is composed of a collection
of specific motives called daimons. The
Rebellion -- the childhood and word daimon is from the Greek, and
adolescent stage of developing means little god. But originally, a
one’s ego or self-consciousness daimon could be bad or good. Daimons
by means of contrast with adults, include lower needs, such as food and
from the “no” of the two-year- sex, as well as higher needs, such as
old to the “no way” of the love.
teenager. The rebellious person
wants freedom, but has as yet no For May, one of the most important
full understanding of the daimons is eros. Eros is love (not sex),
responsibility that goes with it. and in Greek mythology was a minor
The teenager may want to spend god pictured as a young man.
Another important concept for May is will.” This idea is, in fact, an old
will: The ability to organize oneself in one that we find among quite a
order to achieve one’s goals. This makes few theorists
will roughly synonymous with ego and
reality-testing, but with its own store of
energy, as in ego psychology
VICTOR FRANKL THEORY
TYPES:
Understanding Logotherapy
There is the type he refers to as
“neo-Puritan,” who is all will,
but no love. They have amazing Frankl believed that humans are motivated by
self-discipline, and can “make something called a "will to meaning
things happen”... but they have
no wishes to act upon. So they “Everything can be taken from a man
become “anal” and but one thing: the last of the human
perfectionistic, but empty and freedoms—to choose one's attitude in
“dried-up.” The archetypal any given set of circumstances.”
example is Ebenezer Scrooge.
Fundamentals of Logotherapy
The second type he refers to as
“infantile.” They are all wishes "Logos" is the Greek word for meaning,
but no will. Filled with dreams and logotherapy involves helping a
and desires, they don’t have the patient find personal meaning in life.
self-discipline to make anything
of their dreams and desires, and Core Properties
so become dependent and
conformist. They love, but their Frankl believed in three core properties on which
love means little. Perhaps Homer his theory and therapy were based:
Simpson is the clearest example!
Each person has a healthy core.
The last type is the "creative" One's primary focus is to enlighten
type. May recommends, wisely, others to their own internal
that we should cultivate a resources and provide them tools to
balance of these two aspects of use their inner core.
our personalities. He said “Man’s Life offers purpose and meaning but does not
task is to unite love and promise fulfillment or happiness.
the freedom to access that will to

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS find meaning.
Logotherapy consists of six basic 5. Meaning of the Moment

assumptions that overlap with the
fundamental constructs and ways of The fifth assumption argues that
seeking meaning listed above: for decisions to be meaningful,
individuals must respond to the
1. Body, Mind, and Spirit demands of daily life in ways
that match the values of society
The human being is an entity that or their own conscience.
consists of a body (soma), mind
(psyche), and spirit (noos). 6. Individuals Are Unique
2. Life Has Meaning in All Circumstances Frankl believed that every individual
is unique and irreplaceable.
Frankl believed that life has
meaning in all circumstances, LOGOTHERAPY IN PRACTICE
even the most miserable ones.
This means that even when
Frankl believed that it was possible to
situations seem objectively turn suffering into achievement and
terrible, there is a higher level of accomplishment. He viewed guilt as an
order that involves meaning. opportunity to change oneself for the
better, and life transitions as the chance
3. Humans Have a Will to Meaning to take responsible action.
Logotherapy proposes that Three techniques used in logotherapy
humans have a will to meaning, include dereflection, paradoxical
which means that meaning is our intention, and Socratic dialogue.
primary motivation for living
and acting, and allows us to
Dereflection: Dereflection is aimed at
endure pain and suffering. helping someone focus away from
themselves and toward other people
4. Freedom to Find Meaning so that they can become whole and
spend less time being self-absorbed
Frankl argues that in all about a problem or how to reach a
goal.
circumstances, individuals have
. 2) Paradoxical intention:
Paradoxical intention is A
technique that has the patient
wish for the thing that is feared
most. This was suggested for use
in the case of anxiety or phobias,
in which humour and ridicule
can be used when fear is
paralyzing. For example, A
person with a fear of looking
foolish might be encouraged to
try to look foolish on purpose.
Paradoxically, the fear would be
removed when the Intention
involved the thing that was
feared most.
. 3) Socratic dialogue: Socratic
dialogue would be used in
logotherapy as a tool to help a
patient through the process of
self-discovery through his or her
own words. In this way, the
therapist would point out patterns
of words and help the client to
see the meaning in them. This
process is believed to help the
client realize an answer that is
waiting to be discovered.
Concepts
BASIC MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS:
Instincts,
Needs,
Drives,
Arousal,
Incentives,
Motivational Cycle.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MOTIVATION:

Psychoanalytical,
Ethological,
S-R Cognitive,
Humanistic
MOTIVATION characteristics model, Hackman and

Oldham (1974) emphasized the
A motive is a reason for doing importance of the core job dimensions
something. Motivation is concerned with as motivators, namely skill variety, task
the strength and direction of behaviour identity, task significance, autonomy
and the factors that info hence people to and feedback.
behave in certain ways. The term
Extrinsic motivation
‘motivation’ can refer variously to the
goal’s individuals have, the ways in Extrinsic motivation occurs when things
which individuals chose their goals and are done to or for people to motivate
the ways in which others try to change them. These include rewards, such as
their behaviour. incentives, increased pay, praise, or
promotion; and punishments, such as
disciplinary action, withholding pay,
Types of motivation or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can
have an immediate and powerful effect,
The two types of motivation are intrinsic
but will not necessarily last long.
motivation and extrinsic motivation.
The intrinsic motivators, which are
Intrinsic motivation
concerned with the ‘quality of working
Intrinsic motivation can arise from the life’ (a phrase and movement that
self-generated factors that influence emerged from this concept), are likely to
people’s behaviour. It is not created by have a deeper and longer-term effect
external incentives. It can take the form because they are inherent in individuals
of motivation by the work itself when and their work and not imposed from
individuals feel that their work is outside in such forms as incentive pay.
important, interesting and challenging
and provides them with a reasonable
degree of autonomy (freedom to act), CONCEPTS RELATED
opportunities to achieve and advance, TO MOTIVATION
and scope to use and develop their skills
Drive
and abilities. Deci and Ryan (1985)
Need leads to drive, which is the second
suggested that intrinsic motivation is
step towards achieving goal. Drive can be
based on the needs to be competent and defined as the state of tension or arousal
self-determining (that is, to have a produced by need. The drive can also be
choice). Intrinsic motivation can be considered as the original source of
enhanced by job or role design. energy that activates an organism. For
According to an early writer on the instance, when an organism is hungry
significance of the motivational impact
of job design (Katz, 1964): ‘The job
itself must provide sufficient variety,
sufficient complexity, sufficient
challenge and sufficient skill to engage
the abilities of the worker.’ In their job
and/or thirsty, the organism seeks to less or more satisfying and attractive.
reduce this drive by eating and/or Thus, one can put in greater amount of
drinking. Drive acts as a strong effort to attain a more attractive
persistent stimulus to push an organism incentive. As a matter of fact, many
towards its goal. It is the state of incentives assume considerable
heightened tension leading to restless significance in the lives of people and
activity and preparatory behavior. they do everything possible to attain
those incentives.
NEED AND MOTIVES
A need is a condition of lack or deficit Instincts
of something required by the organism.
Instinct is an old concept in the field of
In order to maintain homeostasis or
motivation. It is defined as an innate
balance the organism finds it necessary
biological force that predisposes the
to satisfy the needs. The needs are of
organism to act in a certain way . At
different types. The need for food or
one time all behaviours were supposed
water is a physiological need, which
to be results of certain instincts. Some of
arises out of lack or deficit of food or
the instincts identified by early
water in the organism. The needs for
psychologists are fight, repulsion,
excretion and urination are also
curiosity, self abasement, acquisition
physiological needs. They are due to the
etc. It was thought that instincts were
organism’s necessity to eliminate waste
inherited and compelling sources of
matter from the body. The need for
conduct, but can be modified by learning
contact with other persons is a social
and experience. This term is no more
need. The other social needs include
used in relation to human behaviour.
need for prestige, status, affection, self-
Animal behaviour is sometimes
esteem, and so on. A person becomes
explained using this term. In current
more aware of his needs when they are
usage 'instinct' is reserved for innate
not fulfilled. In other words, when you
response tendencies found among
are hungry, you need food, and, when
animals
you are thirsty you need water
Needs for food, water, sex, sleep and Values
Values work as important motivators.
rest, and elimination are primary needs.
Needs for achievement, affiliation, They are considered as desirable and
power are examples of social needs. The cheris-able goals that serve as guiding
term ‘motive’ refers to goal directed principles in people’s lives. Values help
behaviour and energising conditions to make choices. Values prioritize
within the organism that drive needs. It is only because of values that
behaviour. It is generally used to refer to people take purposeful long range
certain conditions which, besides actions. Moral values differentiate
arousing, predispose a person to between good and bad.
respond, or behave in a way appropriate
to that motive. Motives direct the
activity of the individual towards
person’s goals.
Incentives
Incentives refers to the goal objects
which satisfy the needs. Incentives vary
in quality and quantity which make them
Power: This includes social status and life. They include truth (Satya), non
prestige, control and dominance over stealing (asteya), keeping tolerance (driti),
people and resources intellect (dhi), knowledge (vidya), non-
Achievement: This includes personal anger (akrodh), forgiveness (kshama),
success by demonstrating competence purity (saucha), control of sense organs
according to social standards. (indriya nigraha) and self control (dam).
Self-direction: This includes These values provide basis for
independent thought and action, maintaining and promoting life at the
choosing, creating, and exploring. individual and the social levels. It
Universalism : This includes maintains a the view that holds entire
understanding, appreciation, tolerance universe into account.
and protection for the welfare of all
people.
Benevolence: This includes preservation Arousal's Contribution to Motivation
and enhancement of the welfare of Arousal is the energy source for
people with whom one is in frequent behaviour; it is the primary key in the
personal contact. initiation, strength and persistence of
Tradition : This includes respect, all motivational behaviours (Pfaff, 2006,
commitment and acceptance of the p. 2). You can be aroused without being
customers and ideas that are given motivated, yet you cannot be
importance in the traditional cultures or motivated without being aroused.
religions. Motivational arousal can increase and
Conformity: This includes restraint of decrease with its level of intensity being
action, inclination, and impulses likely guided by how an individual perceives a
to upset or harm others and violate task. If a task is expected to be difficult
social expectations or norms. the need for motivational arousal will
Security: This includes safety, harmony and increase, whereas if the task is expected
stability of society, of relationships and of self. to be easy motivational arousal will
decrease (Miron, Parkinson & Brehm,
In the Indian context the framework of 2007).
Dharma provides a set of values which are
considered central to the sustenance of Motivation cycle
APPROACHES TO STUDY evolve) over time to promote survival.

OF MOTIVATION Ethological theories are in large part
about how behavior adapts to better
PSYCHOANALYTICAL ensure survival and is passed down to
This theory which has been explained by Sigmund the next generations
Freud, deals with unconscious motivation.
One of the pioneers of instinct theories
According to Freud, the inborn tendencies
called instincts influence our behaviour. of motivation is the English-born social
psychologist, William McDougall, who
Life instincts (Eros): these instincts formed the Hormic Psychology, with
have the life energy called Libido-which ‘hormic’ meaning animal impulse or
urge. Hormic Psychology is based on
motivates the individual towards
determined and goal-oriented behaviors
constructive activities like love, that are supposed to be motivated by
sympathy/helping others, etc. instincts, which are spontaneous,
persistent, variable, and repetitive.
Death instincts (Thanatos)-motivate the
individual for destructive activities like
murder, suicides, aggression, attack, etc.
Humanistic approach
This theory believes in striving tendency
According to him, our unconscious
of the individual for realizing his
mannerisms, slips of tongue and pen,
potentialities, especially creative ones,
phobias are the result of these
strengthening self-confidence and
hidden motives.
attaining the ideal self. There are two
important persons related to this
ETHOLOGICAL APPROACH theory— Abraham Maslow and Carl
Ethology is a study of behavior based on two Rogers.
core principles:
Maslow has explained that every
behavior changes to achieve survival
(sometimes referred to as an adaptive trait) individual struggle to fulfil basic needs
behavioural traits are inherited first, and then followed by safety, love,
esteem and finally actualisation needs.
The work of Charles Darwin laid the
foundation for ethology. Darwin
believed biological traits could adapt (or
immediately available to his senses. The

Self-actualisation means becoming
second factor involves the individual’s
everything one is capable of, or
past experience, which the person
becoming what he can, that is, fulfilment refers to when trying to make sense of
of his basic potentialities. Maslow information presently available and in
explains that the self- actualised people determining how to respond or relate to
experience, what he calls the ‘peak the current situation.
experiences’, when they fulfil the need
for self-actualisation.
THEORIES of MOTIVATION
Carl Rogers, as a humanist believes in
the strength and potentialities of human
Content (needs) theory
beings. Every individual will strive to
The theory focuses on the content of motivation in
realise his potentialities and to grow to the shape of needs. Its basis is the belief
become a fully functioning person. that an unsatisfied need creates tension
Hence in the view of Rogers, the and a state of disequilibrium. To
motivation for self-growth and restore the balance a goal is identified
becoming a fully functioning person are that will satisfy the need, and a
important concepts. behaviour pathway is selected that will
lead to the achievement of the goal and
the satisfaction of the need. All
S-R COGNITIVE APPROACH
behaviour is therefore motivated by
Cognitive theories of motivation seek to
explain human behavior as a product of unsatisfied needs.
the careful study and active processing
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
and interpretation of information
received. Such a perspective runs The most famous classification of needs is
counter to rationalizing human behavior the one formulated by Maslow (1954). He
as a result of automatic responses suggested that there are five major need
governed by pre-programmed rules or categories that apply to people in general,
innate mechanisms involving drives,
starting from the fundamental
needs and reactions. The actions of
physiological needs and leading through a
humans, in addition to what motivates
them to engage in particular actions, are hierarchy of safety, social and esteem
therefore, the product of deliberate needs to the need for self-fulfilment, the
thought processes such as beliefs, highest need of all. When a lower need
expectations, knowledge about things
and past experiences.
Cognitive motivation is said to be rooted
on two basic factors. The first involves
information available to the individual.
Initially, an individual will process a
situation based on whatever input is
is satisfied the next highest becomes McClelland’s achievement–affiliation–power

dominant and the individual’s attention needs
is turned to satisfying this higher need. An alternative way of classifying
The need for self-fulfilment, however, needs was developed by McClelland
can never be satisfied. Psychological (1961), who based it mainly on studies
development takes place as people move of managers. He identified three needs
up the hierarchy of needs, but this is not as being most important:
necessarily a straightforward
The need for achievement, defined as
progression. The lower needs still exist,
even if temporarily dormant as the need for competitive success
motivators, and individuals constantly measured against a personal standard of
return to previously satisfied needs. excellence.
The need for affiliation, defined as

ERG theory (Alderfer) the need for warm, friendly,
Alderfer (1972) devised a theory of human compassionate relationships with others.
needs that postulated three primary categories:
Existence needs such as hunger and The need for power, defined as the need to
control or influence others.
thirst – pay, fringe benefits and working
conditions are other types of existence
needs.
Relatedness needs, which
acknowledge that people are not self-
contained units but must engage in
transactionswiththeirhuman
environment–acceptance,
understanding, confirmation and
influence are elements of the relatedness
process.
Growth needs, which involve people
in finding the opportunities ‘to be what
they are most fully and to become what
they can’.
Process theory a clearly perceived and usable

In process theory, the emphasis is on the relationship exists between performance
psychological processes or forces that and outcome, and the outcome is seen as
affect motivation, as well as on basic a means of satisfying needs.
needs. It is also known as ‘cognitive
This theory was developed by Porter
theory’ because it is concerned with
and Lawler (1968) into a model that
people’s perceptions of their working
environment and the ways in which they follows Vroom’s ideas by suggesting
interpret and understand it. According to that there are two factors determining
Guest (1992), process theory provides a the effort people put into their jobs:
much more relevant approach to
first the value of the rewards to
motivation that replaces the theories of
individuals in so far as they
Maslow and Herzberg which, he claims,
satisfy their needs for security,
have been shown by extensive research
to be wrong. social esteem, autonomy, and
self-actualization, and second
Expectancy theory the probability that rewards
Expectancy theory states that motivation depend on effort, as perceived
will be high when people know what by individuals – in other words,
they have to do to get a reward, expect their expectations about the
that they will be able to get the reward relationships between effort and
and expect that the reward will be reward.
worthwhile. The concept of expectancy
was originally contained in the valency– Thus, the greater the value of a
instrumentality–expectancy (VIE) set of awards and the higher the
theory formulated by Vroom (1964). probability that receiving each of
these rewards depends upon
Valency stands for value, effort, the greater the effort that
instrumentality is the belief that if we do will be expended in a given
one thing it will lead to another, and situation.
expectancy is the probability that action
or effort will lead to an outcome. The
strength of expectations may be based
on past experiences (reinforcement), but
individuals are frequently presented with
new situations – a change in job,
payment system, or working conditions
imposed by management – where past
experience is an inadequate guide to the
implications of the change. In these
circumstances, motivation may be
reduced. Motivation is only likely when
ability – individual characteristics such as

The two variables additional to effort that affect
intelligence, knowledge, skills, and
task achievement are
role perceptions – what individuals want to do or

think they are required to do.
Goal theory the value of goals and the individual’s

Goal theory as developed by Latham and ability to reach them. The term
Locke (1979) states that motivation and ‘reciprocal determinism’ is used to
performance are higher when individuals denote the concept that while the
are set specific goals, when goals are situation will affect individual
difficult but accepted, and when there is behaviour, individuals will
feedback on performance. Participation simultaneously influence the situation.
in goal setting is important as a means of
getting agreement to the setting of higher Equity theory
goals. Difficult goals must be agreed and Equity theory (Adams, 1965) is
their achievement reinforced by guidance concerned with the perceptions people
and advice. Finally, feedback is vital in have about how they are being treated as
maintaining motivation, particularly compared with others. To be dealt with
towards the achievement of even higher equitably is to be treated fairly in
goals. comparison with another group of
people (a reference group) or a relevant
Social learning theory other person. Equity involves feelings
Social learning theory as developed by and perceptions and it is always a
Bandura (1977) combines aspects of comparative process. It is not
both behavioural and expectancy theory.
It recognizes the significance of the
basic behavioural concept of
reinforcement as a determinant of
future behaviour but also emphasizes the
importance of internal psychological
factors, especially expectancies about
synonymous with equality, which means motivate in the short term, the effect
treating everyone the same, since this quickly wears off. According to
would be inequitable if they deserve to Herzberg's theory, only challenging jobs
be treated differently. that have the opportunities for
achievement, recognition, responsibility,
Equity theory states, in effect, that people advancement and growth will motivate
will be better motivated if they are treated personnel.
equitably and demotivated if they are
treated inequitably. It explains only one McGregor’s Theory X and Y
aspect of the processes of motivation and Douglas McGregor (1960) produced his
job satisfaction, although it may be analysis of the different views about
significant in terms of morale. people and how they should be motivated.
Theory X is the traditional view that the
There are two forms of equity: average human dislikes work and wishes
distributive equity, which is concerned to avoid responsibility and that, therefore,
with the fairness with which people feel ‘most people must be coerced, controlled,
they are rewarded in accordance with directed, threatened with punishment to
their contribution and in comparison get them to put forward adequate effort
with others; and procedural equity, towards organizational objectives’. In
which is concerned with the perceptions contrast, theory Y emphasizes that people
employees have about the fairness with will exercise self-direction in the service
which company procedures in such of objectives to which they are committed
areas as performance appraisal, and that commitment to objectives is a
promotion and discipline are being function of the rewards associated with
operated. their achievement.
Herzberg’s two-factor model Achievement Motivation

The two-factor model of satisfiers and David McClelland and his associates
dissatisfiers was developed by Herzberg (Notably John Atkinson), focused on
et al (1957) following an investigation
needs similar to the higher order (social
into the sources of job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction of accountants and and esteem) needs identified by Maslow.
engineers. The wants of employees McClelland's needs theory, also called
divide into two groups . One group Achievement motivation theory is
revolves around the need to develop in concerned with how individual needs
one’s occupation as a source of personal and environmental factors combine to
growth. The second group operates as form three basic human motives.
an essential base to the first and is
associated with fair treatment in Need for Achievement (n Ach):
compensation, supervision, working People who want to take
conditions and administrative responsibility for finding
practices. The fulfilment of the needs of solutions to problems, who
the second group does not motivate the seek challenge, who is willing
individual to high levels of job to work hard and who has the
satisfaction and to extra performance on mental vigour to reach the
the job. All we can expect from
ultimate goal are considered to
satisfying this second group of needs is
the prevention of dissatisfaction and have a high
poor job performance. The second group
forms the hygiene factors in the medical
use of the term, meaning preventive and
environmental. Herzberg pointed out
that while financial incentives may
need for achievement. Each of the McClelland's

Achievement motivated three motives evokes a
people tend to get more pay different type of feeling of
raises and are promoted satisfaction. Achievement
faster because they are motive tends to evoke a sense
constantly trying to think of of accomplishment, power
better ways of doing things. motive tends to evoke a sense
They have a desire to do of authority and affiliation
something better or more motive tends to evoke love
efficiently than it has been and affection. Tools like
done before. This drive is the Thematic Apperception
achievement need. Test (TAT) are used to
Need For Power (n POW): Need for measure and determine the
power is the desire to have strength of these needs.
impact to be influential, and
to control others. A high need
for power means that an
individual seeks to influence
or control others. Individuals
with this need are concerned
with acquiring, exercising
and retaining power or
influence over others. They
prefer to be placed into
competitive and status
oriented situations. They
generally tend to seek
positions of leadership. Top
level managers, politicians
etc., have a high need for
power.
Need For Affiliation (n Aff): Need

for affiliation is related to the
desire for affection and
establishing friendly
relationships. People who
have a high need for
affiliation view the
organization as a chance to
form new and satisfying
relationships. They are
motivated by the jobs that
provide frequent interaction
with colleagues. They derive
pleasure from being loved by
the group.
Comparison of needs in four theories of motivations
MASLOW ALDERFER MCCLELLAND HERZBERG
Self-actualization Need for Power

Growth Motivators
Need for
Esteem or Ego
Achievement
Belongingness
Relatedness Need for Affiliation Hygiene
and love
Safety and Security

Existence
Physiological
Source: Gordon R. Judith et al, Management and Organizational Behavior , Allyn and
Bacon, 1990, p.428.
IMMATURITY - MATURITY THEORY along which individuals in an

Argyris postulated a descriptive and organization naturally grow
multidimensional developmental process towards maturity.
Thus Argyris proposes that the existing theory reveals that human behaviour can
bureaucratic - pyramidal organization be explained in terms of the previous
structure (the organizational counterpart positive or negative outcomes of that
to Theory X assumptions about people) behaviour. This is truly a behaviouristic
should give way to humanistic - approach where one can see that
democratic value system (the reinforcement conditions behaviour. The
organizational counterpart to Theory Y repeating behaviours that people have
assumptions about people'2). learned will produce pleasant outcomes.
Those behaviors, which are rewarded,
tend to be repeated and those behaviors,
REINFORCEMENT THEORY which are either not rewarded or
Reinforcement theory applies the punished, tend to disappear. It should be
behaviourist learning theories to applied in conjunction with the
motivation. Also called Organizational principles of social learning. Rewards or
Behaviour Modification Theory or reinforcements must meet an employee's
O.B. Model developed by B.F Skinner is specific needs and must be applied
quite different from the cognitive equitably.
theories of Motivation. Reinforcement
CONCEPTS
Exploratory behavior and curiosity
Achievement, Affiliation and Power

Motivational Competence
Self-regulation
Flow
CURIOSITY CURIOSITY AND EXPLORATION
A second factor influencing individual What exactly are curiosity and

motivation is curiosity. This is an exploration? Loewenstein (1994) points
individual factor because a person’s out four central issues of curiosity:
curiosity can be aroused without definition and dimensionality,
involving other people. Curiosity is cause,
stimulated when something in the voluntary exposure to curiosity, and
physical environment attracts our situational determinants.
attention or when there is an optimal
level of discrepancy between present He adds a fifth issue of superficiality
knowledge or skills and what these and intensity since he states that
could be if the learner engaged in some curiosity can arise, change focus or end
activity. Novelty and interest are good abruptly.
synonyms for the motivational use of
curiosity. Loewenstein believed that despite its
transience, curiosity can be a powerful
There are two types of curiosity that can motivational force. Langevin (1971)
stimulate intrinsic motivation: conducted research in the area of
curiosity and classified measures of
Sensory curiosity occurs when curiosity into two categories.
physical factors such as changes in
tone of voice, light, or sound attract the Curiosity is viewed as a motivational state and
attention of learners. measured with behavioural indices.
Curiosity is viewed as a personality trait that is
Cognitive curiosity, on the other assessed by personality measures.
hand, is evoked when learners believe
that it may be useful to modify existing It has been suggested that curiosity is
not a unitary construct. At the
cognitive structures.
conceptual level there are numerous
The feeling of loss of control is one of definitions of curiosity which tend to
the most powerful anti-motivating encompass a broad range of
factors in education. Drive theories characteristics. Fowler (1965) stated that
differ on whether they view curiosity as boredom is generally a prerequisite
for curiosity (exploration). Curiosity
a primary or secondary drive. Some
and exploration are difficult to define
research has shown that unsatisfied
independently when looking at them
curiosity tends to intensify over some
from a psychological perspective. This
interval as do other drives such as
is so because whenever we consider
hunger and thirst.
exploration and curiosity, the concepts
of motivation and drive come into play
and become intertwined.
KINDS OF CURIOSITY
William James (1890) pointed out to two kinds ZUCKERMAN’S SENSATION SEEKING
of curiosity.
novel and highly stimulating
i) He emphasised the biological function
of curiosity as a mechanism of instinct Sensation seeking is a personality trait
driven behaviour that serves in defined by the degree to which an individual
seeks activities and experiences. People
approaching new objects. Approach and who are high in sensation seeking are
attracted to the unknown and as a result
exploration are described as being consistently seek the new, varied, and
characteristic forms of behaviour. unpredictable. Examples of such behaviors
are varied, but sensation seekers may be
attracted to extreme sports, frequent travel,
The second kind of curiosity pointed diverse foods and music, new sexual
partners and experiences, and challenging
out by James is “scientific curiosity” existing viewpoints. Specifically,
and “metaphysical wonder” with which Zuckerman’s basic proposition is that
sensation seeking is based on individual
“the practical instinctive root has differences in the optimal level
probably nothing to do” rather “the of sensation caused by biological nervous-
philosophical brain responds to an system differences. People who are high in
inconsistency or a gap in its sensation seeking are individuals who have
knowledge”. relatively low-level nervous system
activation and therefore seek arousal from
In the psychoanalytical literature Freud their external environment by looking for
views curiosity as a derivative of the sex novel stimuli and engaging in varied
drive. The partial impulse of looking experiences. In contrast, individuals who are
motivates the child’s great interest in all low in sensation seeking have a naturally
things and all events that have to do with higher level of internal activation and thus
sexuality. Whereas the looking impulse do not tend to seek sensation from external
and curiosity are primarily sexual in sources.
origin, the child’s exploratory interest Zuckerman posits that sensation seeking is
and desire for knowledge can be genetically influenced because it is
considered to be a by product of evolutionary adaptive. Across the animal
cognitive development. Due to social kingdom, engaging in a certain degree of
pressure, sexual exploration is later risky behaviors will increase the likelihood
abandoned. of survival and reproductive success (e.g.,
seeking new territories for food and new
Blarer proposed curiosity to be intrinsic to
potential mates).
the individuals perceptions and world
experiences and thus Blarer’s view is the
basis for the intrinsic motivation
viewpoint in curiosity theory.
Zuckerman first created the Sensation competence. According to the theory

Seeking Scale in 1964 to measure an competence motivation increases when a
individual’s overall level of susceptibility to person successfully masters a task. This
excitement or boredom in the context of encourages the person to master more tasks.
sensory deprivation experiments. Current
Harter’s Model
versions of the self-report measure include Harter’s competence motivation theory
four subscales: (1978) can be used to explain motivation to
Thrill and Adventure Seeking—the participate and drop out of physical activity.
extent to which individuals engage in or are This theory represents an interactionist view
of behavior, incorporating both individual
interested in participating in risky activities
and situational factors that impact one’s
such as parachuting or skiing;
motivation. The original model came from
Experience Seeking—the degree to White (1959). Harter (1978) expanded on
which one seeks excitement through the the premise that people are intrinsically
mind, such as from music, art, and travel; motivated to master specific domains. As
a consequence, they gain and display
Disinhibition—seeking sensations competence and control over their
through social stimulation and disinhibitory environment, which in turn increases
behaviors such as drinking and sex; and pleasure (positive affect or enjoyment). If
people succeed, it increases motivation to
Boredom Susceptibility—
adhere to physical activity. However, if
avoiding monotonous, repetitive, and
people do not believe they are competent in
boring situations, people, and activities.
that domain, they will have negative affect,
and this will decrease their motivation. In
addition, her model incorporates the impact
of significant others on one’s perceptions of
competence, affect, and motivation (Harter,
MOTIVATIONAL COMPETENCE 1978).
A theory of achievement motivation based
on a person's feelings of personal
Figure 1. Harter’s (1978) competence motivation theory.
SELF-REGULATION compared with the desired

Self-regulation models are concerned with temperature);
what individuals choose to do and how they
an operate stage, in which an
go about trying to accomplish their goals. In
action is undertaken to bring the
more formal terms, we can distinguish three
present value in line with the
components of the self-regulation process:
standard (the heat comes on if
goal selection, (2) preparation for action,
the room temperature is below
and (3) a cybernetic cycle of behavior (made
up of several component processes) the standard);
(Markus & Wurf, 1987). another test phase, in which the
Goal Selection- The first stage in the new value is compared with the
self-regulation process is the goal- standard (the new room temperature
selection stage. Before they can is compared with the desired
effectively regulate their behavior, temperature); and
people must select a goal; they must
an exit, or quit, stage, which
decide what they intend to do.
occurs when the desired goal is
Preparation for action- Having
adopted a goal, people prepare to reached (the furnace shuts off
attain it. This is the second stage in when the room reaches the selected
the self-regulation process. Here, temperature).
people gather information, construct
scenarios regarding possible THREE SELF-RELEVANT PHENOMENA
outcomes, and engage in behavioral Self-Efficacy-Beliefs People’s beliefs
practice (rehearsal). In short, they about their ability to succeed exert a strong
design and prepare to implement a
influence on the self regulation process.
plan to achieve their goal. Of
Bandura (1986, 1989) refers to such beliefs
course, not all behavior fits this
as self-efficacy beliefs. People with high
model.
self-efficacy beliefs think they have the
Cybernetic Cycle of Behavior The third
ability to succeed at a task, to overcome
stage in the self-regulation process
obstacles, and to reach their goals. People
has been conceptualized as a
with low self-efficacy beliefs doubt their
cybernetic cycle of action.
ability to succeed and do not believe they
Cybernetics is the study of how
have what it takes to reach their goals.
entities use information to regulate
their actions (Wiener, 1948). It is Possible Selves- People’s ideas about
also called control theory, as it what they may be like in the future also
emphasizes negative feedback influence motivated behavior. Markus and
control as the means by which her colleagues (Markus & Nurius, 1986;
machines (e.g., thermostats, guided Markus & Ruvolo, 1989) coined the term
missiles, cruise control settings in possible selves to refer to these beliefs. To
automobiles) as well as animals illustrate, an aspiring gymnast might have a
adjust their behavior to match some clearly articulated “Me winning an Olympic
standard. gold medal” possible self. This person is
able to vividly imagine herself on the
Formally, this process is known by the acronym
TOTE, as it involves four stages: victory stand with the national anthem
playing in the background and the crowd
A test phase, in which a present cheering while she receives her medal.
value is compared against some
relevant standard (the current
temperature in the room is
Self-Awareness- A third variable of interest Much of the time (perhaps most of the time)
to a motivational analysis of behavior is our attention is focused outward on the
selfawareness. As discussed throughout this environment. This means that attentional
text, the self has a reflexive quality: People focus is variable and that self-awareness is a
are capable of taking themselves as the transient state. Sometimes we are aware of
object of their own attention. But our ourselves; other times we are not.
attention is not always focused inward.
FLOW because one knows how to respond to

Viewed through the experiential lens of whatever happens next Distortion of
flow, a good life is one that is temporal experience (typically, a
characterized by complete absorption in sense that time has passed faster than
what one does. normal). Experience of the activity as
Studying the creative process in the 1960s intrinsically rewarding, such that often
(Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976), the end goal is just an excuse for the
Csikszentmihalyi was struck by the fact process. Because the direction of the
that when work on a painting was going unfolding flow experience is shaped
well, the artist persisted single-mindedly, by both person and environment, we
disregarding hunger, fatigue, and speak of emergent motivation in an
discomfort—yet rapidly lost interest in the open system (Csikszentmihalyi,
artistic creation once it had been completed. 1985): what happens at any moment is
responsive to what happened
The conditions of flow include: immediately before within the
• Perceived challenges, or interaction, rather than being dictated
opportunities for action, that stretch by a pre-existing intentional structure
(neither overmatching nor located within either the person (e.g.,
underutilizing) existing skills; a a drive) or the environment (e.g., a
sense that one is engaging tradition or script). Here, motivation is
challenges at a level appropriate to emergent in the sense that proximal
one’s capacities clear proximal goals arise out of the interaction.
goals and immediate feedback about
the progress that is being made.
THE AUTOTELIC
PERSONALITY
Under these conditions, experience From the beginning, Csikszentmihalyi (1975/
seamlessly unfolds from moment to 2000) recognized the possibility of an
autotelic personality, a person who tends to
moment, and one enters a subjective state
enjoy life or “generally does things for their
with the following characteristics:
Intense and focused concentration on what one own sake, rather than in order to achieve
is doing in the present moment some later external goal” (Csikszentmihalyi,
-Merging of action and awareness 1997, p. 117). This kind of personality is
distinguished by several meta-skills or
-Loss of reflective self-consciousness (i.e., loss competencies that enable the individual to
of awareness of oneself as a social actor) enter flow and stay in it. These meta-skills
• A sense that one can control one’s include a general curiosity and interest in
actions; that is, a sense that one can life, persistence, and low self-centeredness,
in principle deal with the situation which result in the ability to be motivated by
intrinsic rewards.
The Flow Questionnaire presents in what activity contexts

(Csikszentmihalyi &
respondents with several passages
Csikszentmihalyi, 1988).
describing the flow state and asks
The quotations used were drawn from
whether they have had the experience,
the original interviews about flow
how often, and activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975/2000),
one each from a dancer, a rock climber,
and a composer.
PHYSIOLOGICAL Both systems are constantly active,

although one system can temporarily
CORRELATES OF dominate. If you spot danger at a
EMOTION distance (in either time or space), you
pay attention to it with mainly
Any stimulus that arouses emotion alters parasympathetic activity. If the danger is
the activity of the autonomic nervous close enough to require action, you shift
system, the section of the nervous system to vigorous sympathetic activity (Löw,
that controls the organs such as the Lang, Smith, & Bradley, 2008). Many
heart and intestines. The word situations activate parts of both systems
autonomic means “independent” (Berntson, Cacioppo, & Quigley, 1993).
(autonomous). Biologists once believed Some emergency situations increase
that the autonomic nervous system was your heart rate and sweating
independent of the brain and spinal cord. (sympathetic responses) and also
We now know that the brain and spinal promote bowel and bladder evacuation
cord regulate the autonomic nervous (parasympathetic responses). Have you
system, but the term autonomic remains. ever been so frightened that you thought
you might lose your bladder control?
The autonomic nervous system consists
of the sympathetic and the To measure emotion, researchers
parasympathetic nervous systems. measure sympathetic nervous system
Chains of neuron clusters just to the left arousal as indicated by heart rate,
and right of the spinal cord comprise the breathing rate, or momentary changes
sympathetic nervous system, which in the electrical conductivity across
arouses the body for vigorous action. It the skin. However, remember that the
is often called the “fight-or-flight” sympathetic nervous system is the fight-
system because it increases your heart or-flight system, so its responses could
rate, breathing rate, sweating, and flow indicate anger, fear, or any other intense
of epinephrine (EP-i-NEF-rin; also emotion. Physiological measurements
known as adrenaline), thereby preparing do not tell us which emotion someone is
you for vigorous activity. Different feeling.
situations activate different parts of the
sympathetic nervous system to facilitate Limbic system
different kinds of activity. The limbic system was originally
proposed to consist of interconnected
The parasympathetic nervous system subcortical structures with pathways to the
consists of neurons whose axons extend hypothalamus. The limbic system was
from the medulla (see Figure 12.1) and proposed to modulate the emotional
the lower part of the spinal cord to quality of stimuli and support autonomic
neuron clusters near the organs. The effector mechanisms associated with
parasympathetic nervous system emotional states. A key limbic structure
decreases the heart rate and promotes that has a critical role in emotional
digestion and other nonemergency expression is the amygdala. The
functions. Both the sympathetic and amygdala has an important role in
parasympathetic systems send axons to evaluating the emotional valence of
the heart, the digestive system, and most stimuli. Support for this view arises from
other organs. A few organs, such as the extensive work done with lesions of the
adrenal gland, receive only sympathetic amygdala. For
input.
example, animals with amygdala the transmission of information between

lesions have difficulty learning the cortical and subcortical limbic
associations between environmental structures can have dire consequences.
stimuli and emotional states. They may For example, patients with frontal lobe
fail to learn that a stimulus predicts lesions show inappropriate emotional
reward or danger, they may fall in social and social behavior in the absence of
rank, or show decreased affiliative intellectual deficits. These patients
behavior. Damage to other limbic might cry or laugh inappropriately,
structures can also produce changes in urinate in public, or use profanity.
emotional behavior.
Monoaminergic systems (serotonin,
norepinephrine, dopamine)
The neural circuits and brain structures
involved in emotions are modulated by a
myriad of chemical neurotransmitters.
The ascending monoamine systems have
received considerable attention over the
past several decades. These include the
serotonin, norepinephrine, and
dopamine systems. Prior to the
discovery of neurotransmitters,
researchers believed that a major
ascending neural system was responsible
for arousal of forebrain (epithalamus,
thalamus, subthalamus) and
It is important to note that an telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal
interaction exists between cortical ganglia and associated structures like the
brain regions and the limbic system. nucleus basilis of Meynert and the
There are massive connections between nucleus accumbens). This neural system
cortical regions, particularly from the used to be called the ascending
frontal and temporal lobes, to subcortical reticular activating system, before the
limbic structures (Fig. 2). The monoamines were characterized. It is
implication of these connections is that believed that a balance among these
complex sensory information processing systems (as well as other
occurring in the cortex can directly neurotransmitters) is necessary for
influence the limbic system. Conversely, normal emotional states and arousal.
limbic processing can strongly influence Over the last three decades, the
higher-level cognitive integration neurochemical basis of this ascending
occurring in the cortex. Disconnection in system was described and receptors
identified.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram emphasizing the interactions between structures in the limbic
system
THE NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF

FEAR AND ANXIETY The amygdala may also be involved in
This class of emotion is elicited by what is termed “emotional memory.”
threatening situations and it functions as We seem to be able to better recall
an internal signal to alert the organism to events surrounding a strong, negative
potential danger. In response to fear, emotional experience than events not
individuals engage in defensive or linked to any particular experience.
protective acts that serve to promote Many people in the U.S. of a certain
survival. These behaviors include generation can remember exactly where
fleeing or withdrawing from a they were and what they were doing
when informed that President Kennedy
situation, freezing to remain
inconspicuous, or fighting. was shot. Younger people may clearly
remember the day the space shuttle
Challenger blew up
The amygdala: A key structure mediating
fear In the 1930's, Kluver and Bucy noted A human case study illustrates the
that large lesions of the temporal lobe made importance of the amygdala in the
monkeys tame in the presence of previously recognition of emotional stimuli. A
fearful stimuli, such as humans and snakes. patient suffered from Urbach-Wiethe
The absence of an appropriate behavioral disease, a rare genetic disorder, that
response to fear-eliciting stimuli was termed resulted in bilateral calcification and
"psychic blindness" because it was atrophy of her amygdala. When asked to
presumed that the cognitive processing of rate the intensity of various facial
emotional stimuli was altered. This taming expressions, the patient judged faces
effect could be produced by lesions restricted showing fear expressions to be
considerably less intense than ratings
to the amygdala. In contrast to the made by normal control subjects. Other
taming effects of amygdala lesions, facial expressions (smiling for instance)
electrical stimulation of the amygdala were also judged by the patient to be less
elicits defensive and flight reactions in intense than those reported by controls,
cats and feelings of fear and anxiety in but not to the degree made when
humans. Increased autonomic activity, viewing fear expressions. Bilateral
i.e., heart rate, blood pressure also amygdala damage appears to produce a
occurs after electrical stimulation of the profound insensitivity to the intensity of
amygdala.
fear shown by faces. The patient, increasing the level of biogenic amines
however, had no difficulty recognizing (DA, NE, epineph serotonin, histamine)
people by their faces and could rapidly but in different ways. MAOIs are a class
learn the identity of new faces Role of of drugs that block MAO, the major
corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) enzyme responsible for the oxidation of
systems in fear and anxiety monoamines. The tricyclic drugs work
by blocking the reuptake (keep it around
In animals, administration of CRH into
longer) of NE and serotonin into the
the cerebral ventricles (so as to
presynaptic terminal resulting in a net
eventually reach receptors on amygdala
increase in neurotransmitter availability.
and LC cells) effectively induces
Consequently, there is an increase in
anxiety responses, including postsynaptic receptor activity. SSRIs
hypervigilance, enhancement of the work by selectively blocking the
freezing posture, and decreased reuptake of serotonin. SSRIs are as
exploration in unfamiliar situations. effective as the tricycylic compounds
Furthermore, in anxiety-provoking but without some of the sedating and
situations that typically elicit these cardiovascular side effects of tricyclic
behavioural responses, administration of antidepressants. As a result, SSRIs (e.g.,
a CRH antagonist produces a reduction Prozac, Zoloft) are now used widely and
in the occurrence of these reactions. In underscore the importance of
rats, infusion of a CRH antagonist into serotonergic systems in regulating
the central nucleus reduces expression of mood.
fear behavior (“freezing” in an
environment where the animal had been It is presently unclear why reduced brain
previously shocked) suggesting that serotonin function predisposes
blockade of CRH receptors in the central individuals to commit suicide. One
nucleus has an antianxiety effect. hypothesis is that low brain 5-HT
SADNESS AND NEGATIVE values produce an increase in impulsive
AFFECT An important clinical behavior. Impulsivity refers to a
observation was made in the 1950's when propensity to act without considering
the antihypertensive agent reserpine was alternative options in a decision-making
prominently used. Clinicians noted that process. Although impulsivity is not
some individuals became markedly synonymous with acting rapidly,
depressed after taking this drug, which impulsive individuals tend to act without
produces a long-lasting depletion of time for reflection. In people with
monoamines (norepinephrine, serotonin personality disorders characterized by
and dopamine). Other work chronic problems with impulsive
demonstrated that drugs that increased behavior, the rate of completed suicide
the level of monoamines were effective can be as high as 25%. The underlying
in the treatment of depression. Together, cause of reduced brain serotonin remains
these observations led to the unknown but could be related to
monoamine hypothesis of depression. heritable factors and/or neurological
According to this hypothesis, depression insults during development.
results from a deficit in brain
norepinephrine or serotonin, or both.
Lowered brain serotonin is associated with

Suicide Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
(MAOI), tricyclic antidepressants,
and selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs ) are effective
antidepressants that share
The pharmacological Propertyof
THEORIES OF EMOTION view of emotion. It suggests that the

subjective emotional experiences are
actually the result of physiological
JAMES LANGE THEORY changes within our bodies. In other
words you feel frightened when making
Proposed independently by psychologist your speech because you notice that
William James and physiologist Carl your heart is racing, your mouth is dry,
Lange, the James-Lange theory of and so on. We feel sorry because we cry,
emotion proposes that emotions occur as angry because we strike, and afraid
a result of physiological reactions to because we tremble
events. According to this theory, you see
an external stimulus that leads to a
CANNON – BARD THEORY OF
physiological reaction. Your emotional
reaction is dependent upon how you EMOTION
interpret those physical reactions. For
example, suppose you are walking in the This theory suggests that various
woods and you come across face to face emotion provoking events induce
with a bear. You begin to tremble and simultaneously the subjective
your heart begins to race. The James- experiences which are labeled by
Lange theory proposes that you will humans as emotions. All these emotions
interpret your physical reactions and are accompanied by physiological
conclude that you are frightened (“I am reactions and thus in the situation given
trembling, therefore I am afraid.”) as an example of a student going to the
stage to give a lecture, the sight of the
William James explained the same thing audience and of his professor, whose
differently. He said that the bodily pen is poised to evaluate the student’s
performance, causes the student to
changes follow directly the perception of
experience a racing heart, a dry mouth
the exciting fact, and that our feeling of
and other signs of physiological arousal
the same changes as the facts occur and
and at the same time, also to experience
these feelings are called emotions.
subjective feelings which is labeled as
fear. In other words it may be stated that
The James-Lange theory states:
this situation stimulates various portions
of the nervous system so that both
Environmental influence (event) —> arousal, mediated by the autonomic
Physiological change —> nervous system and subjective feelings,
Psychological experience
mediate in part by the individual’s
cerebral cortex .
Problems: The Cannon-Bard theory is a
Later studies separated the internal
physiological explanation of emotion
organs that James said caused arousal
from the CNS, but this did not eliminate developed by Walter Cannon and Philip
emotional responding. So, perceptions Bard, and states that we feel the
of bodily changes could not be the only emotions and experience the
factor involved in emotions. James
Lange theory offers a more surprising
physiological reactions such as basis of several forms of evidence. More

sweating, trembling and muscle recently though the pendulum of
tension simultaneously. More scientific opinion has begun to swing the
specifically, it is suggested that other way and certain aspects of James-
emotions result when the thalamus Lange approach have gained increasing
sends a message to the brain in response acceptance. Additional support for the
to a stimulus, resulting in a James-Lange theory of emotion is
physiological reaction. provided by studies of the facial
feedback hypothesis according to
For example: I see a snake —> I am afraid —> I which changes in our facial expression
begin to tremble. sometimes produce shifts in our
emotional experiences rather than
According to the Cannon-Bard theory of merely mirroring them. In other words,
emotion, we react to a stimulus and as James would suggest, we feel happier
experience the associated emotion at the while we smile, sadder when we frown,
same time. The Cannon Bard theory of and so on. While there are many
emotion differs from other theories of complexities in examining the
emotion such as the James Lange theory hypothesis, the results of several studies
of emotion, which argues that offer support for accuracy
physiological responses occur first and
this in turn cause the emotions. The SCHACHTER-SINGER’S TWO-
questions in regard to the emotions that FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTIONS
arise are for instance
Where do our emotions come from? This theory is similar to Bem’s
What is it about the human body explanation for the cause of behaviour in
and mind that has the capacity to general. Schachter’s theory looks
form emotions and reactions to specifically at how we decide what
such a variety of situations? emotions we are experiencing especially
Why do we form these when we are experiencing one. When
emotions? trying to understand what kind of person
we are, we first watch what we do and
According to Cannon-Bard, emotions do feel and then deduce our nature from
not come as a response to physiological this.
conditions. However, at the same time,
neither do emotions come and then the This means that the first step in the
body creates a physical reaction to the experience of motions is to experience
said emotions. When we consider this physiological arousal. You are
philosophy we realise that according to physiologically up or down compared to
Cannon-Bard “emotions and normal. We then try to find a label to
physiological responses occur at explain our feelings usually by looking
exactly the same time.” When both at what we are doing (behaviour) and
these theories (James Lange and Cannon what else is happening at the time of
Bard’s) are considered, the issue arises arousal (environment) Thus we do not
is that which of these theories is closer just feel angry, happy or what ever. We
to the truth. Until recent decades, most experience general feeling and then
of the psychologists believed that decide what the experience mean, a
Cannon-Bard theory was more accurate. specific emotion.
They reached this conclusion on the
Physiological arousal + Environment about the effects of the injection were
circumstances = Attributed emotions more likely to feel either happier or
e.g. 1. I am tense and sweating + a gun is angrier than those who had been
being pointed at me = I am afraid. informed. Schachter and Singer
e.g.2. I am tense and sweating + Sheela is developed the two-factor theory of
looking at me and smiling = I am in love. emotion. The two-factor theory suggests
that emotion comes from a combination
In both the examples, the state of arousal is of a state of arousal and a cognition that
the same. What changes is the environment. makes best sense of the situation the
person is in. For example, the two-factor
Two factor theory argues that the cues in theory of emotion argues that when
the environment are what determine the people become aroused they look for
emotions that we believe we are cues as to why they feel the way they
experiencing. Change the environment do. If a person experiences a state of
the emotions will also change. Like the arousal for which they have no
James Lange theory of emotion, immediate explanation, they will
Schachter and Singer felt that physical describe their emotions in terms of the
arousal plays a primary in emotions. cognitions available to them at the time.
However, they suggested that this If a person experiences a state of arousal
arousal was the same for a wide variety for which they have an appropriate
of emotions, so physical arousal alone explanation e.g. ‘I feel this way because
could not be responsible for emotional I have just received an injection of
responses. The two-factor theory of adrenalin’, then they will be unlikely to
emotion focuses on the interaction describe their emotion
between physical arousal and how we
cognitively label that arousal. Criticism of Two-Factor Theory
While Schachter and Singer’s research
spawned a great deal of further research,
SCHACHTER AND their theory has also been subject to
SINGER’S EXPERIMENT criticism. Other researchers have only
In a 1962 experiment, Schachter and partially supported the findings of the
Singer put their theory to the test. A group original study, and have also shown
of 184 male participants were injected contradictory results. Other criticisms of
with epinephrine, a hormone that the two-factor theory:
produces arousal including increased Sometimes emotions are experienced beforewe
heartbeat, trembling and rapid breathing. think about them.
All of the participants were told that they There are actual physiological
were being injected with a new drug to differences between emotions.
test their eyesight. However, one group of
participants was informed of the To sum up this theory, strong emotions
symptoms the injection might cause, are a common part of daily life, but how
while other participants were not. do we tell them apart? How do we know
Participants were then placed in a room
that we are angry rather than frightened,
with another participant who was actually
sad rather than surprised? One potential
a confederate in the experiment. The
answer is provided by a third theory of
confederate either acted in one of two
emotion, that is the two-factor theory of
ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who
emotions by Schacter and Singer.
had not been informed
According to this view, emotion taken to a private room by the

provoking events produce increased experimenter and told that the aim of the
arousal. In response to the feelings of experiment was ‘to look at the effects of
arousal, we search the external vitamin injections on visual skills’, and
environment in order to identify the was asked if he would mind having an
cause of such arousal feelings. These injection of ‘Suproxin’ (made up name).
causes that we select play a key role in 184 out of 195 participants agreed to the
determining the importance we place on injection. They were given an injection
our arousal. If we feel aroused after a (by a doctor) of either adrenalin
near-miss in traffic, we will probably (epinephrine) or a placebo, which was
label our emotion as fear or perhaps actually a saline solution, which has no
anger. If instead we feel aroused in the side effects at all. The effects of the
presence of an attractive person, we may adrenalin are an increase in blood
label our arousal as attraction or love. In pressure, heart rate, blood sugar level,
short, we perceive ourselves to be respiration rate, and blood flow to the
experiencing the emotion based on the muscles and brain, with an
external cues, as well as our processing accompanying decrease in blood flow to
them, and then suggest what we should the skin. This is often experienced as
be feeling. The theory is described as a palpitations, tremors, flushing and faster
two factor theory because it considers breathing. The effects begin after three
both arousal and cognitive appraisal that minutes and last from ten minutes to an
we perform in our efforts to identify the hour.
cause of such arousal
The participants were then put in one of four
LAZARUS’S COGNITIVE THEORY experimental conditions:
The importance of cognitive Adrenalin Ignorant - participants were given
interpretation of circumstances in no idea of the injection adrenain
determining the arousal levels is central Adrenalin informed - participants were
to Lazarus Theory. In this theory he informed what adrenalin will do
suggests that some degree of cognitive Adrenalin misinformed -
processing is essential before an participants were given wrong
emotional reaction, either overt or information about adrenalin
internal, can occur. effect 4) Control group.
s in terms of the alternative cognitions
available. If a person is put in a The researchers then made observational
situation, which in the past could have measures of emotional response through
made them feel an emotion, they will a one-way mirror, and also took self-
react emotionally or experience report measures from the participants. In
emotions only if they are in a state of the euphoria condition the misinformed
physiological arousal. participants were feeling happier than all
the others. The second happiest group
Experiment was the ignorant group. This
The participants were 184 male college demonstrates that these participants
students, taking classes in introductory were more susceptible to the stooge
psychology at Minnesota University. As because they had no explanation of why
soon as the participant arrived, he was their bodies were reacting differently.
Lazarus’s Cognitive Theory

Lazarus et al.(1980) proposed a theory
suggesting that emotion is a cognitive theory. Cognitive appraisal of a situation
function , arising as result of appraisal is of primary importance in emotional
of a situation. A situation may be states. In contrast, Zajonc (pronounced
appraised as nonthreatening leading to “ZI-ANTS,” rhymes with “science”) holds
positive emotional states. The actual that we feel first and think later. In other
emotion experienced depends upon other words, the emotional state strongly
characteristics or circumstances. A influences the cognitive appraisal. More
stimulus appraised as threatening leads recently, cognitive scientists have
to direct action, such as attack, retreat or proposed that there may be different
freezing, together with physiological components to our response to stimuli, but
responses such as these which it is not productive to segregate them into
accompany negative states, including cognitive vs. emotional categories
fear, anger or depression.If direct action
is impossible, coping strategies may be LINDSLEYS
employed to reappraise the situation ACTIVATION THEORY
benignly, in order to live with the threat.
These coping strategies may be simply The American psychologist and
to redefine the threat as ‘not’ as bad as it neuroscientist Donald Benjamin
was first perceived.For example, why Lindsley's (1907-2003) germinal work
does a wife continue to live with her on activation in the general area of
husband who is violent towardsher? The emotion shows the importance of the
husband who is the stimulus is appraised brain-stem portion of the brain called
as threatening, but for various reasonsthe the reticular substance. Lindsley's
wife cannot take direct action. Probably activation theory is based, in particular,
she cannot fight back, as her husband on research involving the
isstronger, she cannot run away, as she electroencephalogram (EEG) and its
has no one and nowhere to go. In such relevance toward understanding the
cases, the situation is to be reappraised interaction of the cerebral cortex and the
and a different solution is to be found subcortical structures. The activation
such as staying on with the husband and theory was advanced not only as an
losing the extreme fear and doing things explanatory concept for emotional
that may prevent violence etc. A behavior, but it was related also to the
different thinking pattern may also phenomenon of sleep-wakefulness, to
perhaps help. In other words, the woman EEG recordings of cortical activity, and
may start thinking that the husband may to different types of abnormal behavior
not perhaps hit her again, and that he is involving various psychiatric
very considerate the next day and so on. symptomatology.
Living with this reappraised threat is less
problematic than fear of the outside of The activation theory states:
that situation.
the EEG in emotion shows an
activation pattern with reduction
This theory is primarily descriptive, but
in alpha (synchronized) rhythms
the underlying mechanisms involved in
and induction of low-amplitude,
emotion such as the relationship between
cognitions, feelings and expressions of fast activity;
emotion are undefined to a great extent.
Thus to sum up the cognitive theory of
emotions, it may stated that as follows:
Lazarus’ cognitive-mediational theory:
This is an extension of Schacter-Singer
the EEG activation pattern is time, magnitude, duration, and offset of
reproducible by electrical stimulation of responses in behavioral, experiential, or
the brain-stem reticular formation physiological domains. Emotion
(BSRF); regulation also involves changes in how
destruction of the rostral end of response components are interrelated as
the BSRF abolishes EEG activation the emotion unfolds, such as when large
and allows restoration of rhythmic increases in physiological responding
discharges in the thalamus/cortex; occur in the absence of overt behavior.
the behavior associated with
destruction of the rostral end of the Focus on five aspects of this definition of
BSRF is the opposite of emotional emotion regulation.
excitement, namely, apathy, First, individuals increase,
somnolence, lethargy, and catalepsy; maintain, and decrease
the combined mechanism of the negative and positive emotions
basal diencephalon and lower BSRF is (Parrott, 1993).
identical with, or overlaps, the EEG Second, neural emotion circuits do
activating mechanism, and this not appear to overlap completely
mechanism causes the objective features (LeDoux, 1994; Panksepp, 1982;
of emotional expressiveness to appear. 1998). This suggests that circuits
involved in regulating these
Lindsley (1951) concludes that it is not emotions also may not overlap
legitimate on the basis of the existing completely, and that there may
experimental evidence to attempt to be important differences in
account for all the varieties of emotional emotion regulatory processes
expression, and further research is across emotions.
advised on the influences of learning, Third, this definition of emotion
habituation, and memory on emotional regulation emphasizes regulation
expression. The activation theory is able in self. Other definitions include
to account for the extremes of emotional attempts to influence others'
behavior but is not able to explain emotions (e.g., Gross &
completely the intermediate and mixed Levenson, 1993; Masters, 1991;
states of emotional expressiveness. Thompson, 1994).
Fourth, prototypic examples of
emotion regulation are conscious,
DEFINING EMOTION such as deciding to
changeanupsetting
REGULATION conversational topic or
squelching laughter at a child's
Emotion regulation refers to the inappropriate antics. One can
processes by which individuals imagine, however, emotion
influence which emotions they have, regulatory activity that occurs
when they have them, and how they without conscious awareness,
experience and express these emotions. such as hiding one's
Emotion regulatory processes may be disappointment at an unattractive
automatic or controlled, conscious or present (Cole, 1986) or turning
unconscious, and may have their effects one's attention away from
at one or more points in the emotion
potentially upsetting material
generative process (which I describe in a
(Boden & Baumeister, 1997).
later section). Because emotions are
multi-componential processes that
unfold over time, emotion regulation
involves changes in "emotion dynamics"
(Thompson, 1990), or the latency, rise
Fifth, I make no a priori assumptions as 1996). Thus, cognitive strategies

to whether emotion regulation is good or that dampen negative emotions
bad (Thompson & Calkins, 1996). This may permit medical
circumvents the confusion that was professionals to operate
created in the stress and coping literature successfully (Lief & Fox, 1963;
by Smith & Kleinman, 1989). The
predefining defenses as same strategies, however, may
maladaptive and coping as be used to dehumanize an enemy
adaptive (Parker & Endler, and neutralize empathic distress
that could interfere with state-
sanctioned killing (Bandura,
1977).
CONFLICT embodies this benefit of conflict. In

some cases conflict initially reduces
Conflict is any situation in which there cohesion that can in turn reduce the
are incompatible goals, cognitions, or likelihood of “group think”
emotions within or between individuals occurring. In this case conflict is
or groups that lead to opposition or positive.
antagonistic interaction. It is the struggle
between incompatible and opposing • Increased Innovation and
needs, wishes, ideas, interests, or people. Creativity—Members are
Conflict is a form of interaction among encouraged to “put their ideas on
parties who differ in interests, the table”;7 this can lead to more
perceptions, goals, values, or approaches discoveries, improvements, and
to problems. Conflict arises when we creative solutions. “Two heads
begin to feel that the other person is are truly better than one” when
interfering with our ability to attain a conflict brings about synergy
certain objective. It begins when we instead of chaos.
believe the other party is interfering or
standing in the way of an action we want Positive Personal Growth and
to take, an idea we want to pursue, or a Change—Individuals learn their
belief we hold. Conflicts may involve strengths and weaknesses;
individual or group disagreements, conflict of ideas challenges
struggles, disputes, quarrels, or even individuals to learn and grow by
physical fighting and wars. Because expressing their ideas and
human beings are unique—possessing a thoughts through self-disclosure
variety of physical, intellectual, and sharing of important
emotional, economic, and social concepts with others.
difference—conflict is inevitable.
Clarification of Key Issues—
Conflict can be either positive or Through discussion, members
negative. The outcomes of conflict reduce ambiguity and focus
depend on how the conflict is managed energy on the real sources of
or resolved. Positive conflict is conflict, then work together to
functional and supports or benefits the target remaining issues that need
organization or person’s main to be addressed.
objectives.5 Conflict is constructive
when it leads to better decisions, Values Clarification—Members
creativity, and innovative solutions to clarify who they are and what
long-standing problems. Conflict is they stand for, understand who
viewed as positive when it results in: the other party is and what his or
her values are, and learn when to
• Increased Involvement— sublimate personal interests to
Organizational members have the larger needs of the group or
the opportunity to develop goals, organization.
share ideas, and voice opinions,
gaining greater insight into
others and situations.
Increased Cohesion—Members
build strong bonds from learning
how to resolve differences; “if
we can survive this, we must
have a true relationship”
Negative conflict is dysfunctional and “Unfinished Business”—
hinders the organization’s or the Members are still unclear about
person’s performance or ability to attain the issue or have remaining
goals or objectives. Conflict is
concerns that will get in the way
destructive when it leads to stress and
of being able to move forward.
anxiety, inability to take action, and loss
of esteem or purpose. Conflict is
viewed as negative when it results in: SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL
CONFLICT
Unresolved Anger—Members leave
the interaction believing they LIMITED RESOURCES
have legitimate concerns that Despite clear differences between units
have not been addressed within an organization, one commonality
appropriately or goals that remains. In general, all are vying for the
cannot be achieved; companies same resource pool. This pool is usually
can be slowly poisoned by anger limited, causing the various units within
and hostility. an organization to compete against each
other for finite resources. No matter how
Personality Clashes—Members prosperous an organization might appear
lack understanding of their style from its facilities, salary levels, or
differences and how to work private jets and limousines, few if any
cooperatively and are more tied organizations have infinite resources.
to their own interests than those This usually results in competition
among business units for the restricted
of others.
resources available through the parent
organization. People in organizations
Low Self-esteem or Self-
compete for what they consider to be
confidence—Members have a
their fair share of resources such as
diminished sense of selfworth or
money, time, senior management
identity as a result of the conflict.
attention, technology, supplies,
Often this results from impulsive
equipment, and human talent. This
things said or done in the heat of inevitably results in conflict.
the conflict.
DIFFERENCES IN GOALS/OBJECTIVES
Unclear or Opposing Views on Who
A common source of conflict within
Is or Should Be Responsible for
organizations is differences in personal
What— Members have different
and/or professional goals and objectives. If
expectations of each other and
we are working on a project with someone
their roles; the conflict was
whose objective is different from ours,
unresolved, unproductive, or
tension or conflict is likely to occur. For
ended too soon, leaving
example, perhaps one team member wants
ambiguity in its wake.
to “coast” or do as little work as possible
toward the team’s expected
Problems of Efficiency—
Members decide they are
unwilling or unable to work
together, resulting in
redundancies and poor use of
existing resources.
output or deliverable. If this person is on numerous miscommunications, each one a

a team of individuals who are committed potential source of conflict.
to a high-quality output, there will be
differences between them on a host of DIFFERING ATTITUDES, VALUES,
items, such as approach to the work, AND PERCEPTIONS
ways to get the work done, and standards Many conflicts are the result of
of work quality and quantity. This differences in attitudes, values, and
tension can be from intragroup conflict, perceptions. Sometimes, without even
differences between members of one realizing it, we bring feelings or
group, or from intergroup conflict, concerns into an interaction that
differences between competing predisposes us to react in a certain way.
subgroups of an organization. For For example, if you are afraid of dogs
example, the marketing department and encounter a neighbor with a dog
might have a different goal than the while out walking one morning, you
finance department. Marketing folks may react with fear or even hostility.
might push to increase spending on Upon reflection, you realize this fear is
advertising and promotion in order to due to a fear of animals you’ve had
improve sales, while finance folks push since you were a child. But the neighbor,
for increased cost-cutting efforts. without knowing this background, might
misinterpret your strong reaction and
MISCOMMUNICATION conclude you dislike the neighbor rather
Many times, personal and professional than fear the dog. Without a chance to
conflicts arise due to poor communication. communicate—for the neighbor to share
Seldom is miscommunication intentional. his or her perception with you and for
More often than not, it’s the result of our you to explain the background behind
not taking time to clarify our your reaction—it is likely that you will
understanding of something, or gender or each emerge from the interaction with a
cultural differences, or errors in vastly different understanding of what
semantics. Often we say one thing and just occurred, and with different,
mean another. Or in our haste, we will possibly negative, opinions of each
speak quickly and cryptically in hopes that other. Conflicting values are a common
others know what we want. Or perhaps we and difficult-to-resolve source of
speak clearly but our nonverbal conflict between people. Differences in
communication contradicts the verbal religious beliefs, attitudes towards
message. In any case, misunderstanding is diverse others, clashes in family values,
likely to occur. These communication or in work ethic might result in
issues are further compounded by the interpersonal differences that surface in
jargon shared by and understood within the work environment.
specific groups of people, such as
engineers and military personnel. The PERSONALITY CLASHES
processes and principles of Another common source of conflict is
communication may also differ between differences in personal style or
work groups. For example, one group personality. An obvious example of this is
might have a division newsletter, through the predictable tension between two
which employees are kept informed of roommates who are on different “body
important organizational changes, while clocks.” The early riser who gets up at
another group might rely on word of
dawn and the night owl who sleeps until
mouth to spread key bits of information.
noon are almost certain to get into conflict
This results in each group having a very
with each other. Conflicts likely occur
different understanding of what’s going
between the
on in the organization. Interaction
between these groups could lead to
Even cause depression. In such

occasions, it would be best to seek a
“slob” and the “neat freak.” The
way to let go of the anxiety through
manager who is task-oriented and the
communicating with other people.
employee who is a perpetual socializer
Eventually, when you find yourself out
are likely to encounter much tension
of the situation, you can become more
and conflict in their boss– subordinate
empowered as a person. Thus, the
relationship. Personality conflicts can
experience evoked a positive change
result in unproductive behaviors at
Which will help you in your own
work including gossip, jealousy,
personal growth.
insults, taking sides or playing
favorites, slowing of work speed,
forming of cliques, and even looking
for another job! • Intragroup conflict is a type of
conflict that happens among
Conflict is classified into the following individuals within a team. The
FOUR TYPES: incompatibilities and
misunderstandings among these
• Interpersonal conflict refers to a individuals lead to an intragroup
conflict between two individuals. This conflict. It is arises from interpersonal
occurs typically due to how people are disagreements (e.g. team members
different from one another. We have have different personalities which may
varied personalities which usually lead to tension) or differences in views
results to incompatible choices and and ideas (e.g. in a presentation,
opinions. Apparently, it is a natural members of the team might find the
occurrence which can eventually help notions presented by the one presiding
in personal growth or developing your to be erroneous due to their differences
relationships with others. In addition, in opinion). Within a team, conflict
coming up with adjustments is can be helpful in coming up with
necessary for managing this type of decisions which will eventually allow
conflict. However, when interpersonal them to reach their objectives as a
conflict gets too destructive, calling in team. However, if the degree of
a mediator would help so as to have it conflict disrupts harmony among the
resolved. members, then some serious guidance
from a different party will be needed
for it to be settled.
• Intrapersonal conflict occurs within • Intergroup conflict takes place when a

an individual. The experience takes misunderstanding arises among different
place in the person’s mind. Hence, it is teams within an organization. For
a type of conflict that is psychological instance, the sales department of an
involving the individual’s thoughts, organization can come in conflict with
values, principles and emotions. the customer support department. This is
Interpersonal conflict may come in due to the varied sets of goals and
different scales, from the simpler interests of these different groups. In
mundane ones like deciding whether addition, competition also contributes
or not to go organic for lunch to ones for intergroup conflict to arise. There
that can affect major decisions such as are other factors which fuel this type of
choosing a career path. Furthermore, conflict. Some of these factors may
this type of conflict can be quite
difficult to handle if you find it hard to
decipher your inner struggles. It leads
to restlessness and uneasiness, or can
include a rivalry in resources or the Stress is a defensive mechanism.

boundaries set by a group to others Stress follows the three stages of
which establishes their own identity as alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
a team. If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could
result in diseases of adaptation or even death.
STRESS
Later, in The Stress Concept: Past,
Present and Future (1983), Selye
Stress has been viewed as a response, introduced the idea that the stress
a stimulus, and a transaction. How an response could result in positive or
individual conceptualizes stress negative outcomes based on cognitive
determines his or her response, interpretations of the physical
adaptation, or coping strategies. symptoms or physiological experience
(Figure 16.3, “The General Adaptation
Stress As a Response to Stress Model“). In this way, stress
could be experienced as eustress
(positive) or dystress (negative).
Stress as a response model, initially However, Selye always considered
introduced by Hans Selye (1956), stress to be a physiologically based
describes stress as a physiological construct or response. Gradually, other
response pattern and was captured researchers expanded the thinking on
within his general adaptation stress to include and involve
syndrome (GAS) model (Figure psychological concepts earlier in the
16.3). This model describes stress as a stress model.
dependent variable and includes three
concepts:
77
The response model of stress incorporates stress as stimulus theory. The stress as
coping within the model itself. The idea of stimulus theory assumes:
adaptation or coping is inherent to the
GAS model at both the alarm and
resistance stages. When confronted with a Change is inherently stressful.
negative stimulus, the alarm response Life events demand the same levels of adjustment
initiates the sympathetic nervous system across the population.
to combat or avoid the stressor (i.e., There is a common threshold of adjustment
increased heart rate, temperature, beyond which illness will result.
adrenaline, and glucose levels). The
resistance response then initiates Rahe and Holmes initially viewed the
physiological systems with a fight or human subject as a passive recipient of
flight reaction to the stressor, returning the stress, one who played no role in
system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or determining the degree, intensity, or
more generally accommodating the valence of the stressor. Later, Rahe
stressor, which can lead to adaptive introducedtheconceptof
diseases such as sleep deprivation, mental interpretation into his research (Rahe
illness, hypertension, or heart disease. Arthur, 1978), suggesting that a
Thus, along with the early change or life event could be
conceptualization of stress as a interpreted as a positive or negative
physiological response, early research on experience based on cognitive and
coping was also born. As early as 1932, emotional factors. However, the stress
Walter Cannon described the notion of as stimulus model still ignored
self-regulation in his work The Wisdom of important variables such as prior
the Body. learning, environment, support
networks, personality, and life
Stress As a Stimulus experience.
The theory of stress as a stimulus was Stress As a Transaction

introduced in the 1960s, and viewed
stress as a significant life event or
change that demands response, In attempting to explain stress as more
adjustment, or adaptation. Holmes and of a dynamic process, Richard Lazarus
Rahe (1967) created the Social developed the transactional theory of
Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) stress and coping (TTSC) (Lazarus,
consisting of 42 life events scored 1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984),
according to the estimated degree of which presents stress as a product of a
adjustment they would each demand of transaction between a person
the person experiencing them (e.g., (including multiple systems: cognitive,
marriage, divorce, relocation, change physiological, affective, psychological,
or loss of job, loss of loved one). neurological) and his or her complex
Holmes and Rahe theorized that stress environment. Stress as a transaction
was an independent variable in the was introduced with the most impact
health-stress-coping equation — the
when Dr. Susan Kobasa first used the
cause of an experience rather than the
concept of hardiness (Kobasa, 1979).
experience itself. While some
Hardiness refers to a pattern
correlations emerged between SRRS
scores and illness (Rahe, Mahan, &
Arthur, 1970; Johnson & Sarason,
1979), there were problems with the
of personality characteristics that Carver, 1985), all of which will be

distinguishes people who remain healthy discussed in the next section.
under life stress compared with those Researchers introduced multiple
who develop health problems. In the late variables to the stress-as -transaction
1970s, the concept of hardiness was model, expanding and categorizing
further developed by Salvatore Maddi, various factors to account for the
Kobasa, and their graduate students at complex systems involved in
the University of Chicago (Kobasa, experiencing a stressor (Werner, 1993).
1982; Kobasa & Maddi, 1981; Kobasa, The nature of stress was described in
Maddi, & Kahn, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi, multiple ways: acute, episodic or
Puccetti, & Zola, 1985; Maddi & intermittent, and chronic. Different types
Kobasa, 1984). Hardiness has some of stressors emerged, such as event,
notable similarities with other situation, cue, and condition, which then
personality constructs in psychology, fell into categories based on locus of
including locus of control (Rotter, 1966), control, predictability, tone, impact, and
sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987), duration. Figure 16.4 illustrates theories
self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), and of stress as a response, stimulus, and
dispositional optimism (Scheier & transaction.
Figure 16.4 Theories of stress as response, stimulus, and transaction.
In his book Psychological Stress and the secondary, and reappraisal components
Coping Process (1966), Lazarus presented (see Figure
an elegant integration of previous research 16.5, “The Transactional Theory of
on stress, health, and coping that placed a Stress and Coping”). Primary appraisal
person’s appraisal of a stressor at the involves determining whether the
centre of the stress experience. How an stressor poses a threat. Secondary
individual appraises a stressor determines appraisal involves the individual’s
how he or she copes with or responds to evaluation of the resources or coping
the stressor. Whether or not a stressor is strategies at his or her disposal for
experienced as discomforting is addressing any perceived threats. The
influenced by a variety of personal and process of reappraisal is ongoing and
contextual factors including capacities, involves continually reappraising both
skills and abilities, constraints, resources, the nature of the stressor and the
and norms (Mechanic, 1978). Lazarus and resources available for responding to
Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of the stressor.
interpretation further in their model of
stress appraisal, which includes primary,
Figure 16.5 The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping, by J. Walinga.
BIOFEEDBACK
STRESS COPING, as described by Biofeedback is a form of self-regulation in
researchers such as Lazarus and Folkman,
which individuals learn to control
implies a more specific process of
physiological responses by providing
cognitive appraisal to determine whether
an individual believes he or she has the them with an information signal, as
resources to respond effectively to the sensory feedback, about biological
challenges of a stressor or change conditions of which they may not be
(Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Lazarus & ordinarily aware. Feedback responses
Folkman, 1987). The appraisal literature include muscle tension, skin surface
explains the response or coping process in temperature, brain wave activity, electrodermal
terms of problem-focused coping or response, blood pressure and heart rate. In combination
emotion-focused with
coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Lazarus &therapeuticFolkman,instruction1984), alsoand referredpractice, theto
as active and passive coping styles (Jex, Bliese,feedbackBuzzell,signals& enablPrimeau,patients2001). Asto
well, approach and avoidance-style measures of become active participants in
coping exist involving assertiveness or
the
withdrawal (Anshel, 1996; Anshel & rehabilitation or health maintenance
Weinberg, 1999; Roth & Cohen, 1986). process.1 Biofeedback involves the
When faced with a challenge, an application of operant conditioning to gain
individual primarily appraises the control of visceral, somatomotor, or
challenge as either threatening or non- central nervous system activities.2
threatening, and secondarily in terms of Biofeedback emerged as a treatment
whether he or she has the resources to method from pioneering learning research
respond to or cope with the challenge during the 1950s of experimental
effectively. If the individual does not psychologists, such as Neal Miller. It
believe he or she has the capacity to became a clinical modality in the late
respond to the challenge or feels a lack of 1960s.
control, he or she is most likely to turn to
an emotion-focused coping response such HOW DOES BIOFEEDBACK WORK?
as wishful thinking (e.g., I wish that I As a Stress Modifier Biofeedback
could change what is happening or how I operates on the notion that we have the
feel), distancing (e.g., I’ll try to forget the innate ability and potential to influence
whole thing), or emphasizing the positive the autonomic functions of our bodies
(e.g., I’ll just look for the silver lining) through the exertion of will and mind.
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). If the person Biofeedback shows the physiological
has the resources to manage the challenge, effects of stress and our ‘behavior’
he or she will usually develop a problem- directly as they occur and in the hands of
focused coping response such as analysis a trained clinician or therapist, can help
(e.g., I try to analyze the problem in order the patient to go through a learning
to understand it better; I’m making a plan process. In this process the patient
of action and following it). It is theorized becomes aware of the effects of stress on
and empirically demonstrated that a the body and learns how to make the
person’s secondary appraisal then required ‘behavioral’ or ‘lifestyle’
determines coping strategies (Lazarus & changes. Biofeedback is often aimed at
Folkman, 1987). Coping strategies vary changing habitual reactions to stress that
from positive thinking to denial (see can cause pain or disease. Most patients
Figure 16.7, “COPE Inventory”) and are who benefit from biofeedback are
measured and tested using a variety of
instruments and scales such as the COPE
inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub,
1989).
trained to relax and modify their Provide alternative coping mechanisms for
behavior. Relaxation is a key component dealing more successfully with stress
in biofeedback treatment of many While it is critically important for
disorders, particularly those brought on persons with stress-related disorders to
or made worse by stress. In itself, increase or enhance their ability to relax,
relaxation is characterized by a it is just as important that they learn
decreased metabolism, heart rate, blood alternate ways of dealing with the stress
pressure, and rate of breathing as well as in their lives. Music therapy can be
an increase in skin temperature. effective in this role. Wolfe (1978)
Feedback of physical responses such as successfully employed music therapy
skin temperature and muscle tension discussion groups designed to encourage
provides information to help patients group members to talk to one another as
recognize a relaxed state. The feedback well as to stimulate constructive
signal may also act as a kind of reward discussion concerning ways of
for reducing tension. Constitutive nitric improving unpleasant and stressful
oxide as a result of the relaxation situations. Learning to play instruments
approach may crucially contribute to while in music therapy has the added
potentially beneficial outcomes and benefit of providing the client with a
effects in diverse pathologies, exerting a leisure skill that serves as a means of
global healing effect. tension release.
Further, in using the music setting as a
Music therapy can be effective in model for the environment in which
helping the individual to learn to stress-evoking interactions and/or events
recognize feelings and behaviours may occur, problems may be identified
associated with stress and to express and solved within the confines of the
these emotions in positive, appropriate therapy session (Hanser, 1985). Stress-
ways. Stress and stress-related disorders related behaviours and/or patterns can be
can be terribly disruptive to normal observed within the music therapy
functioning and interrelating. The music
context and dealt with or changed within
therapy session can heighten an
this controlled environment. Also,
individual’s awareness of the emotional
beyond simply learning .relaxation
toll stress is taking on his or her fife. If
techniques, Saperston
stress-related feelings and emotions are
not identified and dealt with, they may
simply exacerbate the situation. For the
individual who has so successfully
internalized these feelings, musical
experience, being both personal and
internal, may provide an important
cathartic release (Brown, et al., 1989).
Lienhard (as cited in Peters, 1987), also
discusses the integral part that music
therapy can play as an adjunct to group
therapy in stress treatment programmes.
According to Lienhard, instrumental
improvisation, music listening, their
reactions. Song lyrics, for example, can
be used as a catalyst for discussion,
helping clients to identify areas of stress,
identify and express feelings associated
with this stress, discuss emotions, and
share constructively with the group and
receive valuable feedback.
(1989), for example, uses the music powerfully relaxing experience, and this is
therapy setting to- help individuals learn why it's so useful in managing stress and
to recognize when they would benefit coping with difficult situations.There are
from performing their relaxation several other ways that you can use imagery
induction, providing another effective to help you relax. For example, you could
means of coping with stress. create mental pictures of stress flowing out
of your body, or of your problems, your
distractions, and your everyday concerns
PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE being folded away and stashed in a
RELAXATION padlocked chest.
Progressive muscle relaxation is an
exercise that relaxes your mind and MINDFULNESS
body by progressively tensing and Mindfulness is a state of intentional,
relaxation muscle groups throughout nonjudgmental focus on the present
your entire body. You will tense each moment. Mindfulness techniques are
muscle group vigorously, but without often incorporated into other practices,
straining, and then suddenly release such as yoga or meditation. It is often
the tension and feel the muscle relax. thought to include the following
You will tense each muscle for about 5 elements:
seconds. If you have any pain or
discomfort at any of the targeted Awareness – Being tuned in to what is
muscle groups feel free to omit that happening in the present moment,
step. Throughout this exercise you including sights, sounds, smells, or
may visualize the muscles tensing and physical sensations you might usually
a wave of relaxation flowing over ignore.
them as you release that tension. It is
important that you keep breathing Focus – Paying attention to the
throughout the exercise. Now let’s present moment, without thinking
begin. about past or future events.
GUIDED IMAGERY Acceptance – Accepting whatever

Guided imagery is a stress you might be feeling or thinking,
management technique, where you without judging it or trying to change
use your imagination to picture a it or your reactions.
person, place, or time that makes you
feel relaxed, peaceful and happy. Observation – Recognizing
Imagery is slightly different from unpleasant sensations, thoughts,
other stress management techniques, and feelings as temporary and
in that it relies on the use of all of your fleeting, observing them objectively
senses.For instance, in your without reaction or judgment.
imagination you hear the sound of
birds chirping, you see the drops of
dew on the grass, you feel the breeze
on your skin, you smell the
wildflowers, and you taste the cold
drink. In imagery, using all of your
senses is what creates such a
What Are the Benefits of Mindfulness? Symptoms of certain medical
Mindfulness has been studied for many conditions.
years. According to recent research, it has
several benefits for physical and mental TYPES OF MEDITATION
health. Some of the strongest health Meditation is an umbrella term for the
benefits include: many ways to a relaxed state of being.
There are many types of meditation
Improves mood – Mindfulness and relaxation techniques that have
training may reduce depression and meditation components. All share the
anxiety. One study found that same goal of achieving inner peace.
mindfulness training was as effective Ways to meditate can include:
as antidepressant medications in
preventing a depression relapse. Guided meditation. Sometimes
called guided imagery or
Reduces stress and its consequences visualization, with this method of
– Mindfulness can lead to less intense meditation you form mental
stress responses. This has many health images of places or situations you
benefits, such as lowering your blood find relaxing.
pressure and strengthening your
immune system. You try to use as many senses as
possible, such as smells, sights,
Improves coping with pain –People sounds and textures. You may be
with chronic pain who practice led through this process by a
mindfulness meditation report less guide or teacher.
severe pain and pain-related distress.
They are also more active in spite of Mantra meditation. In this type
their pain. of meditation, you silently repeat a
calming word, thought or phrase to
Improves brain functions – prevent distracting thoughts.
Practicing mindfulness helps build Mindfulness meditation. This
your ability to pay attention and focus. type of meditation is based on
Over time, this training can sharpen being mindful, or having an
memory and improve mental increased awareness and
performance. acceptance of living in the
present moment.
Helps with weight management –
Some mindfulness techniques have
been shown to reduce overeating
and obesity.
Meditation can give you a

sense of calm, peace and
balance that can benefit both
your emotional well-being and
your overall health.
And these benefits don't end
when your meditation session
ends. Meditation can help carry
you more calmly through your
day and may help you manage
In mindfulness meditation, you stress. It was initially developed by

broaden your conscious awareness. psychologist Donald Meichenbaum in
You focus on what you experience the 1980s and has been employed to
during meditation, such as the flow mitigate the sequelae of stress in a
of your breath. You can observe variety of situations. The essence of SIT
your thoughts and emotions, but let is that by exposing people to increasing
them pass without judgment. levels of perceived stress, they practice
employing different coping skills and
Qi gong. This practice generally eventually develop increased tolerance
combines meditation, relaxation, 3
or immunity to a particular stimulus.
physical movement and breathing
exercises to restore and maintain The training consists of three phases that
balance. Qi gong (CHEE-gung) is are designed to empower individuals and
part of traditional Chinese medicine. enhance their repertoire of coping
Tai chi. This is a form of gentle 4,5,6
Chinese martial arts. In tai chi (TIE- skills :
CHEE), you perform a self-paced
series of postures or movements in a Conceptualization – This phase is
slow, graceful manner while designed to achieve two specific
practicing deep breathing. goals. First, it builds a relationship
Transcendental Meditation®. between the therapist, coach, or
trainer. Second, it educates an
Transcendental Meditation is a
individual, increasing their
simple, natural technique. In
understanding and awareness of
Transcendental Meditation, you
his or her stress response and
silently repeat a personally assigned existing coping skils. According to
mantra, such as a word, sound or Meichenbaum, is it peferential for
phrase, in a specific way. this phase to be less didactic and
This form of meditation may allow more Socratic in nature. He
your body to settle into a state of suggests using “curious questions”
profound rest and relaxation and to promote an individuals
your mind to achieve a state of inner processing and discovery.
peace, without needing to use Skills Acquisition and Consolidation
– This phase is all about developing
concentration or effort.
and practicing individual
Yoga. You perform a series of psychological tools and cognitive
postures and controlled breathing restructuring techniques (breathing
exercises to promote a more flexible techniques, relaxation
body and a calm mind. As you move techniques, negative thought
through poses that require balance stopping, etc.). The goal is build the
and concentration, you're coping techniques to they can be
encouraged to focus less on your applied in the next phase to regulate
busy day and more on the moment. negative emotions and increase
control over physiological
responses. They are discovered,
STRESS INOCULATION nurtured, and strengthened in
collaborative manner with a trainer
TRAINING (SIT) is a multifaceted or therapist.
type of cognitive-behavioral therapy
designed to help individuals cope with
Application and Follow-through behavioral approach. It is dived into

– This phase is, in essence, the three analogous phases:
phase of inoculation. On a
graduated basis, an individual is Information provision – This phase
exposed to increasing levels of a provides information on the
particular stressor and practices human stress response, conditions
applying the skills they have participants should expect to
developed to mitigate his or her encounter, and other preparatory
stress response. information
Skills acquisition – This is phase is
MODIFICATIONS OF designed to develop and refine
STRESS INOCULATION behavioral, technical, and
cognitive skills
TRAINING: STRESS
Application and practice – This
EXPOSURE TRAINING phase includes practicing skills
under conditions that approximate
It is important to recognize that
the operational environment and
Meichenbaum’s intention was really to
that gradually attain the level of
help individuals cope with physical pain,
stress expected
anxiety, anger, and fear as a result of
traumatic experiences. This was a SET is different in that, quite simply, it
clinical intervention designed to treat takes a proactive approach. It provides
pathological psychiatric conditions. prophylaxis. It prepares individuals
However, various organizations and without psychiatric pathology for
individuals saw the potential benefit of potential stressors and situations that are
instituting this technique likely to encounter.
prophylactically. Organizations, like the
military and NASA, began to adapt the
I’ll make a point to emphasize that
traditional structure of SIT in
whether we call it Stress Inoculation or
demonstrated substantial improvements
Stress Exposure, makes little difference.
7,8,9,10,11,12
in performance. Truth be told, I prefer the term
“inoculation.” However, the important
One adaptation of SIT is Stress Exposure
thing is that we maintain the salient
Training (SET). SET, originally
proposed by Driskell and Johnston, takes training objectives and strategies as they
a slightly different have been developed for SET.
11
approach. Its general structure is
similar to Meichenbaum’s cognitive
CONTENTS
NATURE, SCOPE AND HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
TRADITIONAL THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES: Field theory, Cognitive Dissonance,

Sociobiology, Psychodynamic Approaches, Social Cognition.
SOCIAL PERCEPTION [COMMUNICATION, ATTRIBUTIONS]: attitude and its

change within cultural context; prosocial behavior
GROUP AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE [SOCIAL FACILITATION; SOCIAL

LOAFING]: Social influence [Conformity, Peer Pressure, Persuasion, Compliance,
Obedience, Social Power, Reactance]. Aggression. Group dynamics, leadership style and
effectiveness. Theories of intergroup relations [Minimal Group Experiment and Social
Identity Theory, Relative Deprivation Theory, Realistic Conflict Theory, Balance Theories,
Equity Theory, Social Exchange Theory]
APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Health, Environment and Law, Personal space,

crowding, and territoriality.
UNIT
8 UNIT 8: SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? focuses less on individuals’ differences

Social psychology is a science that studies and more on how individuals, in general,
the influences of our situations, with view and affect one another. Social
special attention to how we view and psychology is still a young science. The
affect one another. More precisely, it is the first social psychology experiments were
scientific study of how people think about, reported barely more than a century ago
influence, and relate to one another. Social (1898), and the first social psychology
psychology lies at psychology’s boundary texts did not appear until just before and
with sociology. Compared with sociology after 1900 (Smith, 2005). Not until the
(the study of people in groups and 1930s did social psychology assume its
societies), social psychology focuses more current form. And not until World War II
on individuals and uses more did it begin to emerge as the vibrant field
experimentation. Compared with it is today.
personality psychology, social psychology
WHAT IS SOCIAL IN SOCIAL analysis and scientific methodology in the

PSYCHOLOGY? explaining relationship between person
and society. Obviously, there could be
Every science has its substantive field, a several social psychologies, depending on
core by which it is identified. The field of the meaning of the term 'social'. Staat
social psychology is usually defined as that (1983) posited that the concept of social
branch of science that deals with human refers to both - social environment and
interaction, i.e., the interaction between social behavior. Social environment, in a
man and man, and man and society. It aims sense, extends the analogy of physical
to search out general laws of social environment to social setting. It refers to
behavior. Social psychologists are trained social groups, organizations, structures,
in using the tools of conceptual norms, obligations, support, etc., which
provide the context within which an particularly with popularity of the

individual performs. Social behavior refers experimental approach. Graumann (1986)
to affects, attitudes, activities, and called it the individualization of 'social';
motivations in response to any social the reduction of social variables to the
environment. The study of such social level of the individual. Another way of
behavior is mostly at the individual level; looking at individualization of the social is
more precisely, the study of individual in a to treat society as individual and imputing
group. This emphasis on individual the extent they have been verified over and
behavior got accentuated with the rise of over again.
American influence on social psychology, thought) in as careful, precise, and error-
individual level processes to the society. free a manner as possible.

Objectivity: A commitment to
Thus, if psychology is defined as a science obtaining and evaluating such
information in a manner that is as free
of behavior (than that of mind), social from bias as humanly possible.
psychology can be defined as a science of
social behavior. The same methodology 
which is used at the individual level is Skepticism: A commitment to accepting
findings as accurate only to.
employed to study societies. Open-mindedness: A commitment to
changing one’s views—even views
that are strongly held—if existing
NATURE, SCOPE AND HISTORY OF

evidence suggests that these views are
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY inaccurate.
SCIENTIFIC NATURE OF SOCIAL Social Psychology, as a field, is deeply
PSYCHOLOGY: committed to these values and applies
The term science does not refer to a special them in its efforts to understand the nature
group of highly advanced fields. Rather, it of social behavior and social thought. For
refers to two things: (1) a set of values and this reason, it makes sense to describe it as
(2) several methods that can be used to scientific in orientation. In contrast, fields
study a wide range of topics. In deciding that are not scientific make assertions
whether a given field is or is not scientific, about the world, and about people, that are
therefore, the critical question is, does it not put to the careful test and analysis
adopt these values and methods? To the required by the values listed above.
extent it does, it is scientific in nature. To  SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
the extent it does not, it falls outside the FOCUSES ON THE
realm of science. Here we focus on the BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS
core values that all fields must adopt to be
considered scientific in nature. Societies differ greatly in terms of their
views concerning courtship and marriage,
Four of these are most important: yet it is still individuals who fall in love.
Similarly, societies vary greatly in terms of
Accuracy: A commitment to gathering
and evaluating information about the 
world (including social behavior and
their overall levels of violence, yet it is experimental approach to studying

still individuals who perform aggressive behavior, creating social psychology as a
actions or refrain from doing so. The same rigorous scientific discipline. Lewin is
argument applies to virtually all other sometimes known as “the father of social
aspects of social behavior, from prejudice psychology” because he initially
to helping: the actions are performed by, developed many of the important ideas of
and the thoughts occur in, the minds of the discipline, including a focus on the
individuals, although they may, of course, dynamic interactions among people. In
be strongly influenced by other people. 1954, Festinger edited an influential book
Because of this basic fact, the focus in called Research Methods in the Behavioral
social psychology is strongly on Sciences, in which he and other social
individuals. Social psychologists realize, psychologists stressed the need to measure
of course, that we do not exist in isolation variables and to use laboratory
from social and cultural influences—far experiments to systematically test research
from it. hypotheses about social behavior. He also
noted that it might be necessary in these
FOCUS ON UNDERSTANDING
THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIOR. experiments to deceive the participants
about the true nature of the research.
Social psychologists are primarily Social psychology was energized by
interested in understanding the many researchers who attempted to understand
factors and conditions that shape the social how the German dictator Adolf Hitler
behavior and thought of individuals—their could have produced such extreme
actions, feelings, beliefs, memories, and obedience and horrendous behaviors in his
inferences concerning other people.
followers during the World War II. The
Obviously, a huge number of variables
studies on conformity conducted by
play a role in this regard. Most, though,
MuzafirSherif (1936) and Solomon Asch
fall under the four major headings
(1952), as well as those on obedience by
described below.
StanleyMilgram (1974), showed the
HISTORY OF SOCIAL importance of conformity pressures in
PSYCHOLOGY social groups and how people in authority
The science of social psychology began could create obedience, even to the extent
when scientists first started to of leading people to cause severe harm to
systematically and formally measure the others. PhilipZimbardo, in his well-
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of human known “prison study” (Haney, Banks, &
beings (Kruglanski&Stroebe, 2011). The Zimbardo, 1973), found that the
earliest social psychology experiments on interactions of male college students who
group behavior were conducted before were recruited to play the roles of guards
1900 (Triplett, 1898), and the first social and prisoners in a simulated prison
psychology textbooks were published in became so violent that the study had to be
1908 (McDougall, 1908/2003; Ross, terminated early.
1908/1974). During the 1940s and 1950s, Social psychology quickly expanded to
the social psychologists Kurt study other topics. John Darley and Bibb
Lewin and Leon Festinger refined the Latané (1968) developed a model that
helped explain when people do and do not Festinger’s important cognitive dissonance
help others in need, and theory was developed during this time and
LeonardBerkowitz (1974) pioneered the became a model for later research
study of human aggression. Meanwhile, (Festinger, 1957).
other social psychologists, including Irving In the 1970s and 1980s, social psychology
Janis (1972), focused on group behavior, became even more cognitive in orientation
studying why intelligent people sometimes as social psychologists used advances in
made decisions that led to disastrous cognitive psychology, which were
results when they worked together. Still themselves based largely on advances in
other social psychologists, including computer technology, to inform the field
GordonAllport and MuzafirSherif, (Fiske & Taylor, 2008). The focus of these
focused on intergroup relations, with the researchers, including Alice Eagly, Susan
goal of understanding and potentially Fiske, E. Tory Higgins, Richard Nisbett,
reducing the occurrence of stereotyping, Lee Ross, Shelley Taylor, and many
prejudice, and discrimination. Social others, was on social cognition—an
psychologists gave their opinions in the understanding of how our knowledge
1954 Brown v. Board of Education U.S. about our social worlds develops through
Supreme Court case that helped end racial experience and the influence of these
segregation in American public schools, knowledge structures on memory,
and social psychologists still frequently information processing, attitudes, and
serve as expert witnesses on these and judgment. Furthermore, the extent to
other topics (Fiske, Bersoff, Borgida, which humans’ decision making could be
Deaux, & Heilman, 1991). In recent years flawed due to both cognitive and
insights from social psychology have even motivational processes was documented
been used to design anti-violence (Kahneman, Slovic, &Tversky, 1982).
programs in societies that have
In the 21st century, the field of social
experienced genocide (Staub, Pearlman,
psychology has been expanding into still
&Bilali, 2010).
other areas. Examples that we consider in
The latter part of the 20th century saw an this book include an interest in how social
expansion of social psychology into the situations influence our health and
field of attitudes, with a particular happiness, the important roles of
emphasis on cognitive processes. During evolutionary experiences and cultures on
this time, social psychologists developed our behavior, and the field of social
the first formal models of persuasion, with neuroscience—the study of how our social
the goal of understanding how advertisers behavior both influences and is influenced
and other people could present their by the activities of our brain (Lieberman,
messages to make them most effective 2010). Social psychologists continue to
(Eagly&Chaiken, 1993; Hovland, Janis, & seek new ways to measure and understand
Kelley, 1963). These approaches to social behavior, and the field continues to
attitudes focused on the cognitive evolve. We cannot predict where social
processes that people use when evaluating psychology will be directed in the future,
messages and on the relationship between but we have no doubt that it will still be
attitudes and behavior. Leon alive and vibrant.
TRADITIONAL geared toward some goal or objective and

THEORETICAL it is precisely this intention that matters
most in the performance of behavior.
PERSPECTIVES:
These intentions supposedly follow field
FIELD THEORY principles and are influenced by
psychological forces such as how the
Kurt Lewin (Luh-veen) was considered by individual perceives a situation.
some as the father of modern social According to Levin, behavior exists in a
psychology due to his act of breaking new totality of interacting facts which comprise
ground in employing scientific methods a dynamic field. The circumstances or
and experimentation in the study of social conditions in any part of the field are
behavior. influenced by and depend on every other
part of the field. This psychological field
Lewin not only adapted Gestalt principles
is otherwise known as the life space which
but further applied them to a theory of
comprises the individual and his
personality and development into what is
psychological or behavioral environment
now known as the Psychological Field
also known as facts that affect the
Theory. He translated Gestalt philosophy
behavior or thoughts of the individual at a
into social experience involving people
certain point in time.
who should be considered as wholes
instead of being composed of discrete Life space is most frequently determined
parts. A person is presented as a whole by the physical and social environment
system consisting of subsystems that are that the individual finds himself in. It may
somewhat separate yet are still capable of include places where he goes, events that
interacting and combining with each other. occur, feelings about places and people
encountered, what he sees on TV or reads
He was one of the first psychologists to
in books, his imagined thoughts and goals.
propose that the development of an
Encompassed by a child’s life space are
individual was the product of the
forces which the child may be aware of or
interaction between inborn predispositions
not, in addition to forces which are
(nature) and life experiences (nurture).
accepted by the child as true though they
This conception was presented by Lewin
may not be so.
in the form of a mathematical equation
known as Lewin’s Equation for behavior,
stating that behavior is the function of the COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
person interacting within his environment
or B = f (P,E). Leon Festinger's (1957) cognitive
dissonance theory suggests that we have
As such, Lewin accounted for human
an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and
behavior by emphasizing forces and
behavior in harmony and avoid
tensions that influence it. He asserted that
the behavior of an individual is always
disharmony (or dissonance). This is known organisms, including human beings. The
as the principle of cognitive consistency. highly complex behaviors
of individual animals become even more
When there is an inconsistency between
intricate when interactions among groups
attitudes or behaviors (dissonance),
of animals are
something must change to eliminate the
considered. Animal behavior within
dissonance.
groups is known as social behavior.
Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation Sociobiology asks about the evolutionary
involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or advantages contributed by social behavior
behaviors. This produces a feeling of and describes a biological basis for such
mental discomfort leading to an alteration behavior. It is theory that
in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors uses biology and genetics to explain why
to reduce the discomfort and restore people (and animals) behave the way they
balance. do.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES Sociobiology is a relatively new science. In
Psychodynamic approach includes all the the 1970s, Edward O. Wilson, now a
theories in psychology that see human distinguished professor of biology at
functioning based upon the interaction of Harvard University, pioneered the subject.
drives and forces within the person, In his ground-breaking and controversial
particularly unconscious, and between the book, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Dr.
different structures of the personality. Wilson introduced for the first time the idea
Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original that behaviour is likely the product of an
psychodynamic theory, but the interaction between an individual's genetic
psychodynamic approach as a whole makeup and the environment (or culture in
includes all theories that were based on his the case of human beings). Wilson's new
ideas, e.g., Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and ideas rekindled the debate of "Nature vs.
Erikson (1950). Nurture," wherein nature refers to genes and
nurture refers to environment.
Sigmund Freud (writing between the
Socio-biology is often subdivided into
1890s and the 1930s) developed a
three categories: narrow, broad, and pop
collection of theories which have formed
socio-biology. Narrow socio-biology
the basis of the psychodynamic approach
studies the function of specific behaviours,
to psychology.
primarily in non-human animals. Broad
His theories are clinically derived - i.e., socio-biology examines the biological
based on what his patients told him during basis and evolution of general social
therapy. The psychodynamic therapist behavior. Pop socio-biology is concerned
would usually be treating the patient for specifically with the evolution of human
depression or anxiety related disorders. social behaviour.
SOCIO-BIOLOGY Sociobiologists focus on reproductive

behaviors because reproduction is the
Sociobiology, also called mechanism by which genes are passed on
behavioral ecology, is the study of to future generations. It is believed that
the evolution of social behavior in all behavior, physically grounded in an
individual's genome (or genes), can be characteristic. It allows people to teach

acted upon by natural selection. Natural their relatives (or others) important life
selection exerts its influence based upon skills that are passed-down from
the fitness of an organism. Individuals that generation to generation. However, the
are fit are better suited (genetically) to ability to learn is also a variable trait. That
their environment and therefore reproduce is, not every person learns as quickly or as
more successfully. An organism that is fit well as every other person. A
has more offspring than an individual that sociobiologist would explain that
is unfit. Also, fitness requires that the individuals who learn faster and more
resulting offspring must survive long easily have increased fitness. Another
enough to themselves reproduce. Because example is smiling. The act of smiling in
sociobiologists believe that social behavior response to pleasurable experiences is a
is genetically based, they also believe that universal social behavior among people.
behavior is heritable and can therefore Smiling is observed in every culture.
contribute to (or detract from) an Furthermore, smiling is an example of an
individual's fitness. Examples of the kinds instinct that is modified by experience.
of reproductive interactions in which Therefore, because the behavior is
sociobiologists are interested include instinctual, it has a genetic and inheritable
courtship, mating systems like monogamy basis. Because it is altered by experience,
(staying with one mate), polygamy the behavior is socially relevant.
(maintaining more than one female mate), Sociobiologists might speculate, then, that
and polyandry (maintaining more than one since smiling is a visual cue to other
male mate), and the ability to attract a individuals that you are pleased, people
mate (called sexual selection.) who tend to smile more easily are more
Sociobiology also examines behavior that likely to attract a suitable mate, and are
indirectly contributes to reproduction. An therefore more fit.
example is the theory of optimal foraging
which explains how animals use the least SOCIAL COGNITION
amount of energy to get the maximum
Social cogntion – the way in which we
amount of food. Another example is
encode, process, remember and use
altruistic behavior (altruism means
information in social contexts in order to
selfless). Dominance
make sense of others behaviors.
hierarchies, territoriality, ritualistic (or
symbolic) behavior, communication
(transmitting information to others through DEFINITIONS OF SCHEMAS
displays), and instinct versus learning are Baron and Byrne define schemes
also topics interpreted by sociobiology. figuratively as cognitive scaffolds in our
Sociobiology applied to human behavior minds. Also, as cognitive categories or
involves the idea that the human brain frameworks into which we mentally sort
evolved to encourage social behaviors that out our cumulative information on given
increase reproductive fitness. For example, topics.
the capacity for learning in human beings Taylor and Crocker define schemes as
is a powerful cognitive structures containing our
knowledge about some specific domain schemas that we might hold about certain
and its attributes allowing us to categorize personality types to one specific case.
and interpret new information related to EVENT SCHEMA
that domain.
Event schemes are often referred to as
Fiske and Linville define social schemes as individuals internal scripts. Thus an event
richly interconnected networks of schema is a cognitive structure concerning
information relevant to various concepts the usual normal expected sequence of
that is to various aspects of our social events that should occur in various types
world of situations. For example at a wedding, an
Information in social schemas belongs to interview, a funeral etc. Such event
3 categories of groups: schemes lead us to expect how the actors
Physical appearance categories in that situation should behave. If there is a
violation of the expectations, we often
Personality traits
experience a host of negative emotions
Characteristic behaviors ranging from surprise or shock to
disillusionment.
TYPES/CATEGORIES OF SCHEMAS SELF SCHEMA
Schemas are classified into the following Self schema is a cognitive framework that
categories each person holds about himself or herself.
Role schemes It is equivalent to what is known as the
self concept. The relationship between the
Person schemes
self concept/self schema on one hand and
Event schemes the actual or real self on the other hand has
Self Schemes been a topic of great interest. McDavid
ROLE SCHEMA and Harrari have diagrammatically
represented this relationship through what
Role schema is a cognitive category or a
they call the cheeseburger self. The real
cognitive structure concerning a particular
self or actual self is represented by the
group and its members especially the
circle i.e. the totality of the self or the
roles and behaviors they are expected to
holistic self. The self concept is
display or engage in. Thus role schemes
represented by the cheese that covers most
can be formed for different occupational
of the burger bun. However, there are parts
groups, religious groups, nationalities,
of the self concept that extend beyond the
gender groups etc. Role schema is very
real self calledareas ofexaggeration.
similar to the concept of stereotype.
These are most often positive traits and
PERSON SCHEMA behaviors that are socially desirable that a
A person schema is a cognitive framework person attributes to himself or herself
concerning a specific individual that though the evidence for these is meager or
includes information about his or her non existent in the real self. They result
physical features, personality traits, and from a mechanism known as perceptual
characteristic behavior. In developing a vigilance. We are specially or
person schema we often use or apply extraattentive to instances of positive
behaviors and traits even though they Like in the case of attention, schemas also
might be very few. lead to selective perception. We are more
likely to
accurately interpret and perceive
AREAS OF DENIAL
information consistent with our schemas.
They are most often negative i.e. socially
We are more likely to
undesirable behavior that are part of our
distort, misinterpret and misperceive
real self but are denied entry into our self-
information that is inconsistent with our
concept. They result from a mechanism
schemas. If however,
known as perceptual defense to prevent the
we recognize that inconsistent information
ego from damage and devaluation by
incongruent with our schemas has some
ignoring certain information about
truth, we
oneselfespecially anxiety arousing
explain it away as being an exception to
information. That the burger and cheese
the rule. The relationship between
overlap to a large extentsuggests that for
schemas and perception
most humans the self-concept and the real
was studied by Sagar and Schofield 1980
self are congruent with each other. Thisis
who got supportive evidence.
the basis for a well adjusted personality.
MEMORY
Effects of schemas on cognitive processes: Selective memory also results from the
operation of our schemas in that we tend
Schemas tend to act like filters i.e. they to remember
allow some information to penetrate them information that is congruent with our
enabling us schemas. We are more likely to selectively
therefore to perceive and remember forget or
information that is congruent to our reconstruct information incongruent with
schemas. On the other our schemas. Research in this area began
hand, information incongruent with our with the work of Frederick Bartlett. Unlike
schemas tends to be ignored, Ebbinghaus hewas more interested in the
misperceived, distorted repressed and or qualitative changes in memory over time.
reconstructed.
He identified 3 main qualitativechanges in
memory
ATTENTION
Stimuli that fit in with our schemas are Levelingrefers to the fact that
more likely to be noticed and attended to  unimportant  are
irrelevant details
excluded from the persons
and thus becomethe focus of our attention,
memory of the story. The story
whereas those that do not fit in with our  and more concise
schemas tend to remain at theperiphery of  becomes
over time.
crisper
our attentional field. Sharpening refers to the qualitative

change where certain elements that
are different,
PERCEPTION
salient, unusual to the story are facial expressions, but recent evidence
 exaggerated, 
highlighted and begin
concerning this suggestion is mixed, so it
to dominate ones

 memory of the story. may not be as basic or as clearly
Assimilation refers to the fact that represented in facial expressions as other
 new information in the  story is emotions; Reisenzein, Bordgen,
distorted or changed to
make it fit better with ones existing  Holtbernd, & Matz, 2006).
schemas, ideas, values, beliefs etc.
Early research seemed to suggest that facial
expressions are universal in both respects
SOCIAL PERCEPTION (e.g., Ekman & Friesen, 1975) and with few
[COMMUNICATION, exceptions, these results have been
ATTRIBUTIONS] confirmed in more recent research
(Effenbin&Ambady, 2002). In fact, it has
Socialperception—the process through
been found that certain facial expressions—
which we seek to know and understand
smiles, frowns, and other signs of sadness)
other people.
occur, and are recognized as representing
Nonverbal communication basic underlying emotions (e.g., happiness,
Basic channels through which such anger, sadness) in many different cultures
communication takes place. Research (e.g., Shaver, Murdaya,
findings indicate that five of these Fraley, 2001). It seems reasonable to
channels exist: facial expressions, eye conclude that some facial expressions
contact, body movements, posture, and provide clear signals of underlying
touching. emotional states, and are recognized as
doing so all over the world. Cultural
differences certainly do exist with respect
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS AS CLUES
to the precise meaning of facial
TO OTHERS’ EMOTIONS
expressions, but unlike spoken languages,
Cicero stated: “The face is the image of the they do not seem to require much in the
soul.” By this he meant that human way of translation.
feelings and emotions are often reflected in
the face and can be read there in specific
expressions. Modern research suggests that GAZES AND STARES: EYE
Cicero was correct: It is possible to learn CONTACT AS A NONVERBAL CUE
much about others’ current moods and Taking note of the importance of cues
feelings from their facial expressions. In provided by others’ eyes, ancient poets
fact, it appears that five different basic often described the eyes as “windows to
emotions are represented clearly, and from the soul.” In one important sense, they
a very early age, on the human face: anger, were correct: We do often learn much
fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust about others’ feelings from their eyes. For
(Izard, 1991; Rozin, Lowery, & Ebert, example, we interpret a high level of
1994). (Surprise, has also been suggested gazing from another as a sign of liking or
as a basic emotion reflected clearly in friendliness (Kleinke, 1986). In contrast, if
others avoid eye contact with us, we may
conclude that they are unfriendly, don’t
like us, or are simply shy. If another
person gazes at us continuously and TOUCHING: WHAT DOES IT

maintains such contact regardless of what CONVEY?
we do, he or she can be said to be staring. Suppose that during a brief conversation
A stare is often interpreted as a sign of with another person, he or she touched you
anger or hostility—as in cold stare—and briefly. How would you react? What
most people find this particular nonverbal information would this behavior convey?
cue disturbing (Ellsworth &Carlsmith, The answer to both questions is, it depends.
1973). This is one reason why experts on And what it depends on is several factors
“road rage”—highly aggressive driving by relating to who does the touching (a friend, a
motorists, sometimes followed by actual stranger, a member of your own or the other
assaults—recommend that drivers avoid gender); the nature of this physical contact
eye contact with people who are (brief or prolonged, gentle or rough, what
disobeying traffic laws and rules of the part of the body is touched); and the context
road (e.g., Bushman, 1998). Apparently, in which the touching takes place (a
such people, who are already in a highly business or social setting, a doctor’s office).
excitable state, interpret anything Depending on such factors, touch can
approaching a stare from another driver as suggest affection, sexual interest,
an aggressive act, and react accordingly. dominance, caring, or even aggression.
Despite such complexities, existing evidence
BODY LANGUAGE: GESTURES,
indicates that when touching is considered
POSTURE, AND MOVEMENTS
appropriate, it often produces positive
our current moods or emotions are often reactions in the person being touched.
reflected in the position, posture, and One acceptable way in which people in
movement of our bodies. Together, such many different cultures touch strangers is
nonverbal behaviors are termed body through handshaking. “Pop psychology”
language, and they, too, can provide useful and even books on etiquette (e.g.,
information about others. First, body Vanderbilt, 1957) suggest that handshakes
language often reveals others’ emotional reveal much about other people—for
states. Large numbers of movements— instance, their personalities—and that a
especially ones in which one part of the firm handshake is a good way to make a
body does something to another part favorable first impression on others.
(touching, rubbing, scratching)—suggest Research findings (e.g., Chaplin, Phillips,
emotional arousal. The greater the Brown, Clanton, & Stein, 2000) suggest
frequency of such behavior, the higher the that it is. The firmer, longer, and more
level of arousal or nervousness. vigorous others’ handshakes are, the
More specific information about others’ higher we tend to rate them in terms of
feelings is often provided by gestures. extraversion and openness to
These fall into several categories, but experience, and the more favorable our
perhaps the most important are emblems— first impressions of them tend to be.
body movements carrying specific Levav and Argo (2010) found that a light,
meanings in a given culture. comforting pat on the arm can induce
feelings of security among both women
and men—but only if the touching is especially true for negative facial
performed by a woman. Such feelings of expressions. Even if such expressions are
security, in turn, influence actual behavior: seen on one occasion, they are still easier
individuals touched on the shoulder by a to notice than other stimuli on later
female experimenter actually showed occasions. For example, individuals can
greater risk taking in an investment task spot an angry face in an array of faces
than those not touched, or ones who were more quickly than neutral or smiling faces.
touched only through handshakes. The facial feedback hypothesis (Laird,
Paralinguisticcues—changes in the tone 1984) suggests that there is a close link
or inflection of others’ voices (quite apart between the facial expressions we show
from the meaning of their words). And and our internal feelings, and that this
recent research indicates that even subtle relationship works both ways: yes, the
cues relating to others’ body chemistry can expressions we show reflect our internal
be revealing. For instance, research by feelings or emotions, but in addition, these
Miller and Maner (2010) indicates that expressions also feed back into our brains
changes in women’s internal chemistry and influence our subjective experiences
occurring during the menstrual cycle can of emotion. In short, we don’t only show
be transmitted to others (especially, what we feel inside on our faces—we also
perhaps, men) through subtle olfactory sometimes feel, inside, what we show.
cues—changes in the aromas emitted by McCanne and Anderson (1987) asked
their bodies. The men couldn’t report female participants to imagine positive and
detecting differences in the scents of the negative events (e.g., “You inherit a
shirts worn during ovulation and after it million dollars,” “You lose a really close
was over, but their testosterone levels still friendship”). While imagining these
differed. Overall, these findings indicate events, they were told to either enhance or
that shifts in body chemistry, too, can suppress tension in certain facial muscles.
provide nonverbal cues about other One of these muscles is active when we
people—at least in the case of women and smile or view happy scenes. The other is
their menstrual cycle. active when we frown or view unhappy
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS. WHY IS IT scenes. Measurements of electrical activity
IMPORTANT? of both muscles indicated that after a few
In a sense, this is not surprising because practice trials, most people could carry out
we direct lots of attention to others’ faces this task quite successfully. They could
as we interact with them. In support of this enhance or suppress muscle tension when
basic fact, several different research told to do so, and could do this without
findings combine to suggest that any visible change in their facial
facialexpressions are indeed a uniquely expressions. After imagining each scene,
crucial source of information about others. participants rated their emotional
First, it is almost impossible to ignore such experiences in terms of enjoyment or
information. Even after viewing them distress. If the facial feedback hypothesis
once, they still grip our attention the next is correct, these ratings should be
time they are presented (e.g., Blagrove & affected by participants’ efforts to
Watson, 2010). Moreover, this is enhance or suppress muscle tension. If
they enhanced activity in muscles difficult to suppress. As a result, they

associated with smiling, they would can be very revealing about others’
report more enjoyment of the positive true feelings or emotions.
events. If they suppressed such activity,
they would report less enjoyment. INTER-
Results offered clear support for these CHANNELDISCREPANCIES: A
predictions. second nonverbal cue revealing of
deception is known as interchannel
discrepancies. (The term channel refers
DECEPTION: RECOGNIZING IT
to type of nonverbal cues; for instance,
THROUGH NONVERBAL CUES,
facial expressions are one channel,
AND ITS EFFECTS ON SOCIAL
body movements are another.) These
RELATIONS
are inconsistencies between nonverbal
Be honest: how often do you tell lies? This cues from different basic channels.
includes very small “white lies” designed These result from the fact that people
to avoid hurting others’ feelings or who are lying often find it difficult to
accomplish other positive social purposes control all these channels at once. For
to ones designed to get us out of trouble or instance, they may manage their facial
further our own goals (“I’m sorry, expressions well, but may have
Professor—I missed the exam because of difficulty looking you in the eye as
an unexpected death in my family . . .”). In they tell their lie.
fact, research findings indicate that most EYE CONTACT: Efforts at
people tell at least one lie every day deception are often revealed by
(DePaulo&Kashy, 1998) and use certain aspects of eye contact.
deception in almost 20 percent of their People who are lying often blink
social interaction. more often and show pupils that
Given the fact that nearly everyone are more dilated than people who
engages in deception at least occasionally, are telling the truth. They may also
how can we recognize such actions? The show an unusually low level of eye
answer seems to involve careful attention contact or—surprisingly—an
to both nonverbal and verbal cues that can unusually high one as they attempt
reveal the fact that others are trying to to fake being honest by looking
deceive us. With respect to nonverbal cues, others right in the eye.
the following information has been found EXAGGERATEDFACIALEXP
to be very helpful (e.g., DePaulo et al., RESSIONS: Finally, people who
2003): are lying sometimes show
exaggerated facial expressions.
They may smile more—or more
MICRO EXPRESSIONS: These are
broadly—than usual or may show
fleeting facial expressions lasting only a
greater sorrow than is typical in a
few tenths of a second. Such reactions
given situation. A prime example:
appear on the face very quickly after an
someone says no to a request
emotion-provoking event and are
you’ve made and then shows
exaggerated regret. This is a good sign that whether they possess specific traits or
the reasons the person has supplied for dispositions likely to remain fairly stable
saying “no” may not be true. over time.
In addition to these nonverbal cues, other Others’ behavior provides us with a rich
signs of deception are sometimes present source on which to draw, so if we observe
in nonverbal aspects of what people it carefully, we should be able to learn a
actually say, or in the words they choose. lot about them. Up to a point, this is true.
When people are lying, the pitch of their The task is complicated, however, by the
voices often rises—especially when they following fact: Often, individuals act in
are highly motivated to lie. Similarly, they certain ways not because doing so reflects
often take longer to begin—to respond to a their own preferences or traits, but rather
question or describe events. And they may because external factors leave them little
show a greater tendency to start sentences, choice. For example, suppose you go to a
stop them, and begin again. In other words, restaurant and the young woman who
certain aspects of people’s linguisticstyle greets you at the “Please Wait to Be
can be revealing of deception. Seated” sign smiles and acts in a friendly
manner. Does this mean that she is a
friendly person who simply “likes
people”? It’s possible, but According to
THEORIES OF ATTRIBUTION: Jones and Davis’s theory (Jones& Davis,
FRAMEWORKS FOR 1965; Jones & McGillis, 1976), we
UNDERSTANDING HOW WE accomplish this task by focusing our
attention on certain types of actions—
MAKE SENSE OF THE SOCIAL
those most likely to prove informative.
WORLD First, we consider only behavior that
seems to have been freely chosen, while
Because attribution is complex, many largely ignoring ones that were somehow
theories have been proposed to explain its forced on the person in question. Second,
operation. we pay careful attention to actions that
show what Jones and Davis term
noncommoneffects—effects that can be
FROM ACTS TO DISPOSITIONS: caused by one specific factor, but not by
USING OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR AS A others. Perhaps she is acting in this way
GUIDE TO THEIR LASTING TRAITS because that is what her job requires; she
has no choice.
The first of these theories—Jones and According to the theory proposed by Jones
Davis’s (1965) theory of correspondent and Davis, we are most likely to conclude
inference—asks how we use information that others’ behavior reflects their stable
about others’ behavior as a basis for traits (i.e., we are likely to reach
inferring their traits. In other words, the correspondent inferences about them),
theory is concerned with how we decide, when that behavior (1) is freely chosen;
on the basis of others’ overt actions, (2) yields distinctive, non-common
effects; and (3) is low in social behavior stemmed mainly from internal or
desirability. external causes, this is not the entire story.
In addition, we are also concerned with two
other questions: (1) Are the causal factors
KELLEY’S THEORY OF CAUSAL
that influenced their behavior likely to be
ATTRIBUTIONS: HOW WE
stable over time or likely to change?
ANSWER THE QUESTION “WHY?’’
Are these factors controllable—can the
According to Kelley, in our attempts to individual change or influence them if he
answer the why question about others’ or she wishes to do so (Weiner, 1993,
behavior, we focus on three major types of 1995)
information. First, we consider
consensus—the extent to which other
people react to a given stimulus or event ACTION IDENTIFICATION AND
in the same manner as the person we are THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS When
considering. The higher the proportion we see other people perform some action,
of people who react in the same way, the and try to understand it—why they are
higher the consensus. doing it, what they want to accomplish—
we have a wide range of interpretations
Second, we consider consistency—the
open to us. For instance, suppose you saw
extent to which the person in question
someone putting loose change into a jar.
reacts to the stimulus or event in the
You could conclude: “She wants to avoid
same way on other occasions, over time.
losing the change so she puts it into the
And third, we examine distinctiveness— jar.” Alternatively, you could conclude:
the extent to which this person reacts in “She is trying to save so that she can
the same manner to other, different contribute to her own education.” The first
stimuli or events. is a low level interpretation that focuses
According to Kelley’s theory, we are on the actionitself and involves little in
most likely to attribute another’s the way of planning or long-range goals to
behaviorto internal causes under the person involved; the second, in
conditions in which consensus and contrast, attributes such plans,
distinctiveness are low but consistency is intentions, and goals to this person. The
high. In contrast, we are most likely to action is the same (putting changes into a
attribute another’s behavior to jar) but our interpretation of it—and of
externalcauses when consensus, why it occurs—is very different. The level
consistency, and distinctiveness are of interpretation we use is known as
allhigh. Finally, we usually attribute action identification.
another’s behavior to a combinationof
internal and external factors when
THE CORRESPONDENCE BIAS:
consensus is low but consistency and
distinctiveness are high. overestimating the role of dispositional
causesCorrespondencebias—the
tendency to explain others’ actions as
OTHER DIMENSIONS OF CAUSAL stemming from (corresponding to)
ATTRIBUTION While we are often very dispositions even in the presence of clear
interested in knowing whether others’
situational causes (e.g., gilbert &malone, these into account the mental shortcut
1995). This bias seems to be so general in known as anchoring and adjustment.
scope that many social psychologists refer
to it as the fundamental attribution error. In
THE ACTOR–OBSERVER EFFECT:
short, we tend to perceive others as acting
“YOU FELL; I WAS PUSHED”
as they do because they are “that kind of
person,” rather than because of the many The actor–observer effect (Jones &
external factors that may influence their Nisbett, 1971), the tendency to attribute
behavior. This tendency occurs in a wide our own behavior to situational (external)
range of contexts but appears to be causes but that of others to dispositional
strongest in situations where both (internal) ones. Thus, when we see another
consensus and distinctiveness are low, as person trip and fall, we tend to attribute
predicted by kelley’s theory, and when we this event to his or her clumsiness. If we
are trying to predict others’ behavior in the trip, however, we are more likely to
far-off future rather than the immediate attribute this event to situational causes,
future. such as ice on the sidewalk.
WHY DOES THE FUNDAMENTAL THE SELF-SERVING BIAS: “I’M

ATTRIBUTION ERROR OCCUR? GOOD; YOU ARE LUCKY”
When we observe another person’s The self-serving bias: This tendency to
behavior, we tend to focus on his or her attribute our own positive outcomes to
actions and the context in which the person internal causes but negative ones to
behaves; hence potential situational causes external factors, and it appears to be both
of his or her behavior often fade into the general in scope and powerful in its effects
background. As a result, dispositional (Brown & Rogers, 1991; Miller & Ross,
causes (internal causes) are easier to notice 1975).
(they are more salient) than situational Why does this tilt in our attributions
ones. In other words, from our perspective, occur? Several possibilities have been
the person we are observing is high in suggested, but most of these fall into two
perceptual salience and is the focus of our categories: cognitive and motivational
attention, whereas situational factors that explanations. The cognitive model
might also have influenced this person’s suggests that the self-serving bias stems
behavior are lesssalient and so seem less mainly from certain tendencies in the way
important to us. Another explanation is we process social information (Ross,
that we notice such situational causes but 1977; see also Chapter 2). Specifically, it
give them insufficient weight in our suggests that we attribute positive
attributions. Still another explanation is outcomes to internal causes, but negative
when we focus on others’ behavior, we ones to external causes because we expect
tend to begin by assuming that their to succeed and have a tendency to attribute
actions reflect their underlying expected outcomes to internal causes more
characteristics. Then, we attempt to correct than to external causes. In contrast, the
for any possible effects of the external motivational explanation suggests that the
world—the current situation—by taking self-serving bias stems from our need to
protect and enhance our self-esteem or the issues, ideas, objects, actions (do you like
related desire to look good to others white water rafting), a specific person
(Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, (such as Barack Obama) or entire social
1986). While both cognitive and groups (Muslims). Some attitudes are
motivational factors may well play a role quite stable and resistant to change,
in this kind of attributional error, research whereas others may be unstable and show
evidence seems to offer more support for considerable variability depending on the
the motivational view (e.g., Brown & situation (Schwarz &Bohner, 2001). We
Rogers, 1991). may hold some attitudes with great
certainty, while our attitudes toward other
objects or issues may be relatively unclear
ATTRIBUTION AND DEPRESSION
or uncertain (Tormala& Rucker, 2007).
Attitudes can influence our thoughts, even
Depression is the most common if they are not always reflected in our
psychological disorder. Although many overt behavior. Moreover, while many of
factors play a role in depression, one that our attitudes are explicit attitudes—
has received increasing attention is what conscious and reportable—other attitudes
might be termed a self-defeating pattern may be implicit attitudes—uncontrollable
of attributions. In contrast to most people, and perhaps not consciously accessible to
who show the self-serving bias described us.
above, depressed individuals tend to adopt ATTITUDES FORMATION
an opposite pattern. They attribute
negative outcomes to lasting, internal CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: It is a
causes such as their own traits or lack of basic principle of psychology that when a
ability, but attribute positive outcomes to stimulus that is capable of evoking a
temporary, external causes such as good response—the unconditioned stimulus—
luck or special favors from others. As a regularly precedes another neutral
result, such people perceive that they have stimulus, the one that occurs first can
little or no control over what happens to become a signal for the second—the
them—they are simply being blown about conditioned stimulus. Advertisers and
by the winds of unpredictable fate. Little other persuasion agents have considerable
wonder that they become depressed and expertise in using this principle to create
tend to give up on life! And once they are positive attitudes toward their products.
depressed, the tendency to engage in this Attitudes can be influenced by
self-defeating pattern is strengthened, and subliminalconditioning—classical
a vicious cycle is often initiated. conditioning that occurs in the absence of
conscious awareness of the stimuli
involved.
ATTITUDE AND ITS CHANGE
WITHIN CULTURAL CONTEXT
Social psychologists use the term attitude
to refer to people’s evaluation of almost
any aspect of the world. People can have
favorable or unfavorable reactions to
MEREEXPOSURE—having seen an benefiting others (Eisenberg &Fabes,

object before, but too rapidly to remember 1998). This definition focuses on the
having seen it—can result in attitude potential benefits to the person performing
formation (Bornstein & D’Agostino, the pro-social behavior.
1992).
ILLUSION OF TRUTH EFFECT- The PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND
mere repetition of information creates a ALTRUISM
sense of familiarity and more positive
Pro-social behavior is often accompanied
attitudes.
by psychological and social rewards for its
INSTRUMENTALCONDITIONING- A performer. In the long run, individuals can
basic form of learning in which responses benefit from living in a society where
that lead to positive outcomes or which prosociality is common. It has been
permit avoidance of negative outcomes are difficult for researchers to identify purely
strengthened. altruistic behaviors, benefiting only the
OBSERVATIONALLEARNING-A recipient and not the performer. Altruism
third means by which attitudes are formed is generally defined as any form of
can operate even when direct rewards for voluntary act intended to favour another
acquiring or expressing those attitudes are without expectation of reward.
absent. It occurs when individuals acquire Perhaps the first person to utilise the term
attitudes or behaviors simply by observing altruism was the French sociologist
others (Bandura, 1997). Auguste Comte, who declared that humans
SOCIALCOMPARISONthe process have inborn drives to behave
through which we compare ourselves to sympathetically toward others (Lee, Lee and
others to determine whether our view of Kang, 2003). It is a specific kind of
social reality is, or is not, correct. motivation to benefit another without
REFERENCE GROUPS-People often consciously considering for one’s own self
adjust their attitudes so as to hold views interest (Hall, 1999). In other words,
closer to those of others who they value altruism refers to a kind of selfless help,
and identify with. which is based on pure desire to help others
(Aronson, Wilson, Akert, & Fehr, 2004).
Nevertheless, altruism is not a synonym for
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR pro-social behavior. Prosocial behavior
refers to helping behavior of favouring
another person with the goal that may
Staub (1979) defined pro-social behavior
involve benefits to self (Smith & Mackie,
as voluntary behavior intended to benefit
2000; Aronson et. al., 2004). For instance,
another person. “Voluntary” emphasises
people donating money to Tsunami relief
the spontaneous initiative by the Pro-social
fund may not always be selfless. In the case
behavior is defined as “…any act
that donation is for the sake of tax
performed with the goal of benefiting
exemption, its motive would not be regarded
another person” (Aronson, Wilson, &
as altruistic. The major difference between
Akert, 2004 p. 382). Pro-social are
altruism and pro-social
voluntary made with the intention of
behavior is that altruism does not involve (e.g., prosocial behavior) even to unrelated
the element of self interest (Myers, 1996). individuals.
FACTORS AFFECTING HELPING RELIGIOSITY Although several studies

BEHAVIOR PHYSICAL have examined the impact of donor
characteristics across various domains, the
ATTRACTIVENESS: Attractiveness is
findings are not as robust as those about
defined as physical attractiveness or the
victim characteristics. One consistent
attractiveness of a person’s personality or
finding is that humanitarian values and
behavior (DeVito, 1976). Researchers
religiosity are correlated with giving
believe physical attractiveness can be
(Burnett 1981; Pessemier, Bemmaor, and
defined for any one individual situationally
Hanssens 1977).
(DeVito, 1976). Physically attractive
people are more likely to receive help than VICTIM’S PERSPECTIVE Batson and
unattractive people (Harrell, 1978). The colleagues have shown consistently
explanation lies in the fact, that as a greater empathy and altruistic behavior by
society, we consciously or subconsciously individuals who are primed to take the
tend to treat attractive individuals victim’s perspective (Batson, Early, and
differently, expecting better lives for them Salvarani 1997; Batson et al. 2003).
(Berscheid, Walster, Bohrnstedt, 1973). PERSONAL EXPERIENCEA vast
Adams and Cohen (1976) feel physical literature examines the impact of personal
attractiveness is a major factor in the experience on self-protective behavior
development of prosocial behavior in a (Weinstein, 1989, for a critical review).
child. Although the majority of studies examine
effects on victims themselves, a few assess
SIMILARITY AND KINSHIPFinally,
the impact of knowing a victim as a form of
individuals are more likely to behave
personal experience (Manheimer,
prosocially towards similar or likable
Mellinger& Crossley 1966 and Schiff 1977).
others (Penner et al., 2005), and towards
Barnett et al. (1986) found that participants
others considered to be close, especially
who had been raped reported greater
kin (Graziano et al., 2007). Genetic
empathy when watching a video about a
relatedness aside, pro-social behavior
rape victim than did those who had never
towards family members probably
been raped. Batson et al. (1996) found that
involves a sense of duty, reciprocity, and
for females but not males, the expectation of
affective relationships. Individuals care
oneself receiving a shock affected self-
more for victims who belong to their in-
reported empathy when one observed a
group rather than to their out-group
same-sex peer receiving a shock. Christy
(Dovidio et al. 1997; Flippen et al. 1996;
and Voigt (1994) found that those who
Levine et al. 2002). Park and Schaller
reported being abused as a child indicated
(2005) found that attitude similarity serves
that they would be more likely than those
as a heuristic cue signaling kinship, which
who had never been abused to intervene if
may motivate kin-recognition responses
they saw a child being abused.
IDENTIFIABLE VICTIM
EFFECTPrevious research has shown that
people give more to identifiable victims
than to unidentifiable or statistical victims (Wentzel, Barry, & Caldwell, 2004;

(Kogut and Ritov 2005a, b; Small, Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997). Adolescents
Loewenstein, and Slovic 2006). This effect who have friends are more likely to be
has even been demonstrated when no pro-social than those without friends
meaningful nformation is provided about (McGuire & Weisz, 1982).
the identified victim (Small and GENDER Females engage in prosocial
Loewenstein 2003). Other identifying behaviors more frequently than males
factors, such as showing a victim’s face or (Fabes, Carlo, Kupanoff, &Laible, 1999),
being in the presence of a victim, also which is consistent across ratings from
increase pro-social behavior (Bohnet and parents, teachers, and peers (Holmgren,
Frey 1999). Charities do often describe or Eisenberg, &Fabes, 1998). Additionally,
show images of specific victims to observational studies have indicated that
potential donors in their advertising females are more likely than males to
campaigns, but such attempts seem share and cooperate when interacting
designed to benefit from the identifiable (Burford, Foley, Rollins, & Rosario,
victim effect (Kogut and Ritov, 2005a, b; 1996). Beutel and Johnson (2004) reported
Small et al. 2006), rather than to create that in a study of 12 through 17 year-olds,
“friendship” between donors and victims. females placed more importance on
ATTRIBUTIONS CONCERNING prosocial values than males at younger
VICTIM’S RESPONSIBILITYPeople ages, and the gender gap in prosocial
also give more to victims who are values was larger at older ages. Eagly and
perceived as “deserving,” in other words, Crowley (1986) did a meta-analysis and
whose needs arise from external rather found that men are more likely to help in
than internal causes (Weiner 1980). Thus, chivalrous, heroic ways, and women are
disabled children are deemed deserving; more likely to help in nurturant ways
healthy unemployed men are not (Schmidt involving long-term commitment.
and Weiner 1988). Finally, the effect of AGE Older adolescent males placed less
deservingness on prosocial behavior is importance on prosocial values than younger
mediated by sympathy, suggesting that adolescent males (Beutel& Johnson, 2004).
giving decisions are not based on cold Further, in a study of adolescent soccer
mental calculations (Weiner, 1980). A players’ behaviors, recruited from age
study carried out on the New York subway groups of under 13, under 15, and under 17,
showed that people were more likely to significant differences among the age groups
help ‘blind’ rather than ‘drunk’ indicated that the oldest group displayed
confederates who had collapsed (Piliavin, more frequent antisocial behaviors and less
1969). frequent prosocial behaviors compared to
Positive FRIEND INFLUENCEBarry the younger groups (Kavussanu, Seal, &
and Wentzel (2006) supported the notion Phillips, 2006). However, there appears to
that friends in particular can be important be an increase in the use of some prosocial
socialisers of pro-social behavior. Children behaviors after a certain point in
are similar to their friends in the degree to adolescence, as Eisenberg et al. (2005)
which they display pro-social behavior and found that prosocial moral reasoning and
are motivated to behave this way
perspective-taking abilities showed the booth, a confederate walked by and

increases with age from late adolescence to dropped a sheaf of papers; 84% of those
early adulthood, whereas helping and who found the dime helped compared with
displaying sympathy did not increase with 4% of those who did not find the dime.
age. North, Tarrang, & Hargreaves (2004)
found that people are more likely to help
PERSONALITY Research following
others when in a good mood for a number
children from early childhood to adulthood
of other reasons, including doing well on a
supports the existence of the long-debated
test, receiving a gift, thinking happy
altruistic or prosocial personality
thoughts, and listening to pleasant music.
(Eisenberg et al., 1999). Individual
Good moods can increase helping for three
differences in prosociality are linked to
reasons: (1) good moods make us interpret
sociability, low shyness, extroversion, and
events in a sympathetic way; (2) helping
agreeableness, although specific prosocial
another prolongs the good mood, whereas
behaviors may require a combination of
not helping deflates it; (3) good moods
additional traits, such as perceived self-
increase self-attention, and this in turn
efficacy in the case of helping (Penner et
leads us to be more likely to behave
al., 2005). Personality and contextual
according to our values and beliefs (which
variables are likely to interact in
tend to favor altruism).
determining prosocial behavior. For
example, agreeable individuals were more THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
likely to help an outgroup member than
low-agreeableness individuals, but SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
agreeableness was not associated with Social learning theory suggests that pro-
helping an ingroup member (Graziano et social behavior is learned (Bandura, 1977;
al., 2007). While, Hartshorne and May Bandura & McDonald, 1963; Batson,
(1929) found only a .23 correlation 1998). Observing role models who are
between different kinds of helping loved or respected, such as parents or
behaviors in children, and several studies authorities, engaged in pro-social
have found that those who scored high on behavior, demonstrates how people can
a personality test of altruism were not and should behave prosocially. Rewards
much more likely to help than those who reinforce helping behavior; punishments
scored low. People’s personality is clearly reduce unhelpful or hurtful behavior.
not the only determinant of helping. Within a group context, social recognition,
Instead, it seems to be that different kinds not just private reward, increases pro-
of people are likely to help in different social behavior (Fisher & Ackerman,
situations. 1998).Observational modeling processes
EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: with reinforcement will result in learning
Feel Good, Do Good People who are in a over time (Compeau& Higgins, 1995; Lim
good mood are more likely to help. For et al., 1997).
example, Isen and Levin (1972) did a MOTIVATION PERSPECTIVE
study in a shopping mall where subjects
either found or did not find a dime in a
phone booth. As the person emerged from
Theorists differentiate altruistic prosocial BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

behavior from egoistic prosocial behavior Empathy, altruism and prosocial behavior
depending upon the motivation of the are considered vital for the good
helper (Batson, 1991; Nelson, 1999; functioning of society. Although
Piliavin&Charng, 1990). Altruistic psychological theories emphasise the
prosocial behavior is motivated purely by importance of cognition and socialisation,
the desire to increase another person’s genes also have a role to play.
welfare; egoistic prosocial behavior is Monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs share 100%
motivated by the desire to increase one’s of their genes, whereas dizygotic (DZ)
own welfare or that of one’s group or twin pairs share 50%; thus the comparison
cause through helping others (Batson, of MZ and DZ twin similarities and
1998; MacIntyre, 1967). differences allows for estimates to be
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY made of genetic influences (Plomin et al.
Social identity theory and self- 2001). Several studies have found that by
categorisation theory (Tajfel& Turner, adulthood, approximately 50% of the
1986; Turner et al., 1987) are helpful in variance in altruism, empathy and social
understanding why some people exhibit responsibility is due to genes and 50% to
substantial prosocial behavior over time. nongenetic factors (Rushton et al. 1986;
Social identity theory is based on the Rushton 2004).
premise that people identify with particular NEGATIVE-STATE RELIEF
groups in order to enhance their self- HYPOTHESIS
esteem. Identification leads to selective Negative State Relief Model, views
social comparisons that emphasise empathic concern as being accompanied
intergroup differences along dimensions. by feelings of sadness that the helper tries
This leads to favouring the ingroup and to relieve through helping someone in
confer positive distinctiveness on the need (Smith, Keating, &Stotland, 1989;
ingroup when compared to the salient Cialindi, et al., 1987; Schroeder, Dovidio,
outgroup (Hogg & Abrams, 1988). Sibicky, Matthews, & Allen, 1988). Here,
Categorising the self and others in terms of the motivation for prosocial behavior is
groups accentuates the similarities between based on increasing the welfare of both the
group members with respect to their fit helper and helpee. Three prominent
with the relevant group prototype or features of the Negative State Relief
‘cognitive representation of features that Model are that: (1) helpers experience
describe and prescribe attributes of the empathic concern; (2) such concern is
group’ (Hogg & Terry, 2000). The accompanied by feelings of sadness and
prototype guides the participants’ helpers attempt to relieve such feelings by
understanding of the group and its helping others. Cialdini’s (1987)
expected behaviors and attitudes. People experiments involved participants taking
identified with a group will thus be more the place of people receiving electric
likely to exhibit behaviors that are shocks. However, high empathy
consistent with shared group norms and participants were less inclined to help if
will cooperate with the group and its they had been praised by the researchers.
members. It is thought that this praise helped to lift
their mood so that it was not necessary to the awareness of relief for another’s
help the person receiving the shocks. distress promotes subsequent relief of the
When people feel guilty, they are more helper’s empathic concern as well as a
likely to help. For example, Harris et al. sense of joy.
(1975) found that churchgoers were more SELF-EFFICACY HYPOTHESIS
likely to donate money after confession
This hypothesis reflects a combination of
EMPATHY – ALTRUISM proposals from authors regarding
HYPOTHESIS correlates to helping behaviors. According
Batson (1987, 1991) introduced the to Midlarsky (1968) individuals? level of
empathy-altruism hypothesis, which states competence with a given skill can
refers to “ the claim that feeling empathic influence helping behavior, especially in
emotion for someone in need evokes times of need. Such competence may
altruistic motivation to relieve that need increase the likelihood of helping through
has been called the empathy-altruism increased certainty over what to do, along
hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, with the decreased fear of making a
the greater the empathetic emotion, the mistake and decreased stress over the
greater the altruistic motivation.” (Batson situation (Withey, 1962; Janis 1962,
et. al., 2002). According to the Empathy- Midlarsky, 1968; Staub, 1971).
Altruism Hypothesis, empathic concern
motivates helpers to enhance the welfare
of those in need rather than avoid the GROUP AND SOCIAL
situation instead (Smith, Keating, INFLUENCE [SOCIAL
&Stotland, 1989; Baston, 1987). FACILITATION, SOCIAL
EMPATHIC-JOY HYPOTHESIS LOAFING]
Smith, Keating, and Stotland’s (1989)
hypothesis proposes that empathic concern WHAT IS A GROUP?
is based on a helper’s overarching
Group dynamics expert MarvinShaw
sensitivity to a victim’s emotional state
(1981) argued that all groups have one
and a subsequent heightened sense of
thing in common: Their members interact.
vicarious happiness and relief upon the
Therefore, he defines a group as two or
fulfillment of the recipient’s needs. The
more people who interact and influence
authors propose that empathic witnesses to
one another. Moreover, notes Australian
someone in need may regard empathic joy
National University social psychologist
as being more achievable and rewarding
JohnTurner (1987), groups perceive
than would be a self-focused witness, and
themselves as “us” in contrast to “them.”
thus have greater motivation to help. The
A pair of jogging companions, then, would
three prominent features of the Empathic-
indeed constitute a group. Different groups
Joy Hypothesis are that:
help us meet different human needs—to
helpers experience empathic concern; affiliate (to belong to and connect with
this concern is a function of their others), to achieve, and to gain a social
sensitivity to another’s needs; and identity (Johnson & others, 2006).
By Shaw’s definition, students working But why are we aroused by others’

individually in a computer room would not presence? Experiments suggest that the
be a group. Although physically together, arousal stems partly from evaluation
they are more a collection of individuals apprehension and partly from distraction—
than an interacting group (though each a conflict between paying attention to
may be part of a group with dispersed others and concentrating on the task. Other
others in an online chat room). The experiments, including some with animals,
distinction between collections of suggest that the presence of others can be
unrelated individuals in a computer lab and arousing even when we are not evaluated
the more influential group behavior among or distracted.
interacting individuals sometimes blurs. SOCIAL LOAFING
People who are merely in one another’s
presence do sometimes influence one
another. At a football game, they may DO INDIVIDUALS EXERT LESS
perceive themselves as “us” fans in EFFORT IN A GROUP?
contrast with “them” who root for the In a team tug-of-war, will eight people on
other team. a side exert as much force as the sum of
their best efforts in individual tugs-of-
war? If not, why not? What level of
SOCIAL FACILITATION
individual effort can we expect from
members of work groups?
HOW ARE WE AFFECTED BY THE Nearly a century ago, French engineer
PRESENCE OF OTHERS? MaxRingelmann (reported by Kravitz &
Social psychology’s most elementary issue Martin, 1986) found that the collective
concerns the mere presence of others. effort of tug-of-war teams was but half the
Some early experiments on this question sum of the individual efforts. Contrary to
found that performance improved with the presumption that “in unity there is
observers or co-actors present. Others strength,” this suggested that group
found that the presence of others can hurt members may actually be less motivated
performance. Robert Zajonc reconciled when performing additive tasks.
those findings by applying a well-known Researchers Bibb Latané, Kipling
principle from experimental psychology: Williams, and Stephen Harkins (1979;
Arousal facilitates dominant responses. Harkins & others, 1980) kept their ears
Because the presence of others is arousing, open for other ways to investigate this
the presence of observers or co-actors phenomenon, which they labeled
boosts performance on easy tasks (for socialloafing. They observed that the
which the correct response is dominant) noise produced by six people shouting or
and hinders performance on difficult tasks clapping “as loud as you can” was less
(for which incorrect responses are than three times that produced by one
dominant). person alone. Like the tug-of-war task,
Being in a crowd, or in crowded however, noisemaking is vulnerable to
conditions, is similarly arousing and group inefficiency. So Latané and his
facilitates dominant responses. associates followed Ingham’s example by
leading their Ohio State University inescapable. So let us be clear on the

participants to believe others were meanings of the following labels:
shouting or clapping with them, when in conformity, compliance, obedience, and
fact they were doing so alone. acceptance. Conformity is not just acting as
other people act; it is also being affected by
how they act. It is acting or thinking
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
differently from the way you would act and
[CONFORMITY, PEER PRESSURE,
think if you were alone. Thus,
PERSUASION, COMPLIANCE,
conformity is a change in behavior or
OBEDIENCE, SOCIAL POWER,
belief to accord with others. When, as part
REACTANCE].
of a crowd, you rise to cheer a game-
winning goal, are you conforming? When,
SOCIAL INFLUENCE along with millions of others, you drink
WHAT IS CONFORMITY? milk or coffee, are you conforming? When
you and everyone else agree that women
Let us take this question first. Is
look better with longer hair than with
conformity good or bad? That question has
crewcuts, are you conforming? Maybe,
no scientific answer. Assuming the values
maybe not. The key is whether your
most of us share, we can say that
behavior and beliefs would be the same
conformity is at times bad (when it leads
apart from the group. Would you rise to
someone to drive drunk or to join in racist
cheer the goal if you were the only fan in
behavior), at times good (when it inhibits
the stands? There are several varieties of
people from cutting into a theatre line),
conformity (Nail & others, 2000).
and at times inconsequential (when it
Consider three: compliance, obedience,
disposes tennis players to wear white). In
and acceptance. Sometimes we conform to
Western individualistic cultures, where
an expectation or a request without really
submitting to peer pressure is not admired,
believing in what we are doing. We put on
the word “conformity” tends to carry a
the necktie or the dress, though we dislike
negative value judgment. How would you
doing so. This insincere, outward
feel if you overheard someone describing
conformity is compliance. We comply
you as a “real conformist”? I suspect you
primarily to reap a reward or avoid a
would feel hurt. North American and
punishment. If our compliance is to an
European social psychologists, reflecting
explicit command, we call it obedience.
their individualistic cultures, give social
influence negative labels (conformity, Sometimes we genuinely believe in what
submission, compliance) rather than the group has persuaded us to do. We may
positive ones (communal sensitivity, join millions of others in exercising
responsiveness, cooperative team play). because we all have been told that exercise
is healthy and we accept that as true. This
In Japan, going along with others is a sign
sincere, inward conformity is called
not of weakness but of tolerance, self-
acceptance. Acceptance sometimes
control, and maturity (Markus &Kitayama,
follows compliance; we may come to
1994). he moral: We choose labels to suit
inwardly believe something we initially
our values and judgments. Labels both de-
questioned.
scribe and evaluate, and they are
Three classic sets of experiments Using conformity testing procedures,

illustrate how researchers have studied experimenters have explored the
conformity. circumstances that produce conformity.
Certain situations appear to be especially
powerful. For example, conformity is
MuzaferSherif observed that others’
affected by the characteristics of the
judgments influenced people’s estimates of
group: People conform most when three or
the movement of a point of light that
more people, or groups, model the
actually did not move. Norms for “proper”
behavior or belief.
answers emerged and survived both over
long periods of time and through Conformity is reduced if the modelled
succeeding generations of research behavior or belief is not unanimous.
participants. Conformity is enhanced by group
Solomon Asch had people listen to cohesion.
others’ judgments of which of three The higher the status of those modeling
comparison lines was equal to a standard the behavior or belief, the greater
line and then make the same judgment likelihood of conformity.
themselves. When the others unanimously People also conform most when their
gave a wrong answer, the participants responses are public (in the presence of the
conformed 37 percent of the time. group).
Stanley Milgram’s obedience A prior commitment to a certain
experiments elicited an extreme form of behavior or belief increases the likelihood
compliance. Under optimum conditions— that a person will stick with that
a legitimate, close-at-hand commander, a commitment rather than conform.
remote victim, and no one else to
exemplify disobedience—65 percent of his
adult male participants fully obeyed WHY CONFIRM?
instructions to deliver what were
supposedly traumatizing electric shocks to Experiments reveal two reason ns people
a screaming, innocent victim in an conform. Normative influence results
adjacent room. from a person’s desire for acceptance:
These classic experiments expose the We want to be liked. The tendency to
potency of several phenomena. Behavior conform more when responding publicly
and attitudes are mutually reinforcing, reflects normative influence.
enabling a small act of evil to foster the Informational influence results from
attitude that leads to a bigger evil act. The others’ providingevidenceaboutreality.
power of the situation is seen when good The tendency to conform more on difficult
people, faced with dire circumstances, decision-making tasks reflects
commit reprehensible acts (although dire informational influence: We want to be
situations may produce heroism in others). right.
WHAT PREDICTS CONFORMITY? WHO CONFIRMS?
The question “Who conforms?” has There has been considerable study
produced few definitive answers. regarding peer pressure's effects on
Personality scores are poor predictors of children and adolescents, and in popular
specific acts of conformity but better discourse the term is mostly used in the
predictors of average conformity. contexts of those age groups. For children,
Traiteffects are strongest in “weak” the common themes for study regard their
situations where social forces do not abilities for independent decision making;
overwhelm individual differences. for adolescents, peer pressure's
Although conformity and obedience are relationship with sexual intercourse and
universal, different cultures socialize substance abuse have been significantly
people to be more or less socially researched. Peer pressure can affect
responsive. individuals of all ethnicity, genders and
ages, however. Peer pressure has moved
Social roles involve a certain degree of
from strictly face-to-face interaction to
conformity, and conforming to
digital interaction as well. Social media
expectations is an important task when
offers opportunities for adolescents and
stepping into a new social role.
adults alike to instil and/or experience
pressure every day.
PEER PRESSURE
COMPLIANCE
Peer pressure (or social pressure) is the THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
direct influence on people by peers, or the
Some years ago, RobertCialdini, a well-
effect on an individual who gets
known social psychologist, decided that the
encouraged to follow their peers by
best way to find out about compliance
changing
was to study what he termed compliance
their attitudes, values or behaviors to confo
professionals—people whose success
rm to those of the influencing group or
(financial or otherwise) depends on their
individual. This can result in either a
ability to get others to say yes. Who are such
positive or negative effect, or both. Social
people? They include
groups affected include both membership
salespeople, advertisers, political
groups, in which individuals are
lobbyists, fund-raisers, politicians, con
"formally" members (such as political
artists, professional negotiators, and many
parties and trade unions), and cliques, in
others. Cialdini’s technique for learning
which membership is not clearly defined.
from these people was simple: He
However, a person does not need to be a
temporarily concealed his true identity and
member or be seeking membership of a
took jobs in various settings where gaining
group to be affected by peer pressure. Peer
compliance is a way of life.
pressure can decrease one's confidence. It
can affect the lives of the students
drastically. FOLLOWING ARE THE
PRINCIPLES OF COMPLIANCE:
FRIENDSHIP/LIKING: In general,
we are more willing to
comply with requests from friends or from COMMITMENT/CONSISTENCY:

people we like than with requests from Once we have committed ourselves to a
strangers or people we don’t like. position or action, we are more willing to
comply with requests for behaviors that
The term ingratiation refers to behaviors are consistent with this position or action
that a person illicitly enacts to make others than with requests that are inconsistent
like him or her or think well of his or her with it.
qualities as a person. There are many ways
in which people can ingratiate themselves. This is the basic idea behind an approach
One that is frequently used is to show for gaining compliance known as the foot-
interest in another person; ask questions, in-the-door technique. Basically, this
pay attention, and single out the person so involves inducing target people to agree
that you make him or her feel special. A to a small initial request (“Accept this
second strategy is do favors or to help or free sample”) and then making a larger
assist a person. For instance, you can bring request—the one desired all along. The
your colleague a cup of coffee or help an results of many studies indicate that this
attractive stranger with car trouble. Third, tactic works—it succeeds in inducing
you may show support and loyalty, for increased compliance. Once we have said
instance during a meeting, when you yes to the small request, we are more
express agreement with your supervisor. A likely to say yes to subsequent and larger
fourth way to make people like you is ones, too, because refusing these would be
simply to smile and be friendly, cheerful, inconsistent with our previous behavior.
and positive. Fifth, you can directly Another is the lowball procedure. In this
express admiration by flattering people technique, which is often used by
and telling them what you like or admire automobile salespersons, a very good deal
about them. is offered to a customer. After the
Another means is incidental similarity— customer accepts, however, something
calling attention to small and slightly happens that makes it necessary for the
surprising similarities between them salesperson to change the deal and make it
and ourselves. In several recent studies, less advantageous for the customer— for
Burger, Messian, Patel, del Pardo, and example, the sales manager rejects the
Anderson (2004) found that research deal. The totally rational response for
participants were more likely to agree to a customers, of course, is to walk away. Yet,
small request (make a donation to charity) often they agree to the changes and accept
from a stranger when this person appeared the less desirable arrangement.
to have the same first name or birthday as Clear evidence for the importance of an
they did than when the requester was not initial commitment in the success of the
similar to them in these ways. Apparently, lowball-technique is provided by research
these trivial forms of similarity enhance conducted by Burger and Cornelius
liking or a feeling of affiliation with the (2003). These researchers phoned students
requester and so increase the tendency to living in dorms and asked them if they
comply with this person’s requests. would contribute $5.00 to a scholarship
fund for underprivileged students. In the
lowball condition, she indicated that technique suggesting that they have very
people who contributed would receive a little interest in the target person— the
coupon for a free smoothie at a local juice one toward whom playing hard to get is
bar. Then, if the participant agreed to make directed. For instance, a person playing
a donation, she told them that she had just hard to get might drop hints to the effect
run out of coupons and couldn’t offer them that a potential partner (the target person)
this incentive. She then asked if they has a lot of competition—many rivals.
would still contribute. When it works, this tactic can fan the
In another condition (the interrupt flames of passion in the people who are on
condition), she made the initial request but the receiving end (e.g., Walster, Walster,
before the participants could answer yes or Piliavin, & Schmidt, 1973).
no, interrupted them and indicated that A related procedure also based on the
there were no more coupons for people “what’s-scarce-is-valuable” principle is
who donated. In other words, this was just one frequently used by department stores.
like the “lowball condition”, except that Ads using this deadline technique state
participants had no opportunity to make an that a special sale will end on a certain
initial commitment to donating to the fund. date, implying that after that, the prices
Finally, in a third (control) condition, will go up. In many cases, the time limit
participants were asked to donate $5.00 is false: the prices won’t go up after the
with no mention of any coupons for a free indicated date and may, in fact,
drink. Results indicated that more continue to drop if the merchandise
people in the lowball condition agreed to remains unsold. Yet many people reading
make a donation than in either of the such ads believe them and hurry down to
other two conditions. the store to avoid missing out on a great
SCARCITY: In general, we value, and opportunity. So when you encounter an
try to secure, outcomes or objects offer suggesting that “the clock is ticking”
that are scarce or decreasing in and may soon run out, be cautious: this
availability. As a result, we are may simply be a technique for boosting
more likely to comply with sales.
requests that focus on scarcity than RECIPROCITY: We are generally more
ones that make no reference to this willing to comply with a request from
issue. someone who has previously provided a
favor or concession to us than to someone
We are often willing to expend more effort who has not. In other words, we feel
or go to greater expense to obtain items or obligated to pay people back in some way
outcomes that are scarce than to obtain for what they have done for us.
ones that are in large supply. This principle
serves as the foundation for several Tactics Based on Reciprocity: The Door-
techniques for gaining compliance. One of in-the Face and the “That’s-Not-All”
the most common of these is playing Approach Reciprocity is a basic rule of
hard to get—a tactic often used in the social life: we usually “do unto others as
area of romance. What it involves is they have done unto.” If they have done a
actions by a person using this favor for us, therefore, we feel that we
should be willing to do one for them in with a request for some action if this
return. While this is viewed by most action is consistent with what we believe
people as being fair and just, the principle people similar to ourselves are doing (or
of reciprocity also serves as the basis for thinking). We want to be correct, and one
several techniques for gaining compliance. way to do so is to act and think like others.
The door in-the-face AUTHORITY: In general, we are
technique(because the first refusal more willing to comply with
seems to slam the door in the face of the requests from someone who holds
requester), and several studies indicate legitimate authority—or simply
that it can be quite effective. For appears to do so.
example, in one well-known experiment, SOCIAL POWER
Cialdini and his colleagues (1975) stopped
college students on the street and presented Keltner, Gruenfeld, and Andeson (2003)
a huge request: Would the students serve have noted that the restrictions that often
as unpaid counselors for juvenile influence the thought, expression, and
delinquents 2 hours a week for the next 2 behavior of most people don’t seem to
years! As you can guess, no one agreed. apply to the powerful. And in fact, there
When the experimenters then scaled down are several reasons why this might be so.
their request to a much smaller one— Powerful people are less dependent on
would the same students take a group of others for obtaining social resources. As a
delinquents on a 2-hour trip to the zoo— result, they may not pay much attention to
fully 50 percent agreed. In contrast, less threats from others or efforts to constrain
than 17 percent of those in a control group their actions in some way. They may be
agreed to this smaller request when it was less likely to take the perspective of other
presented cold rather than after the larger people and so be less influenced by them.
request. Instead, their thoughts and actions are
more directly shaped by their own internal
A related procedure for gaining states; in other words, there is a closer
compliance is known as the “that’s-not- correspondence between their traits and
all technique”. Here, an initial request is preferences and what they think or do than
followed, before the target person can is true for most people. Overall, then,
say yes or no, by something that situational information might have less
sweetens the deal—a small extra influence on their attitudes, intentions,
incentive from the people using this actions, and creative expressions.
tactic (e.g., a reduction in price, “throwing
in” something additional for the same Research conducted by Galinsky et al.
price). For example, television (2008) indicates that it is. In a series of
commercials for various products related studies, they found that people
frequently offer something extra to induce who possessed power, or were merely
viewers to pick up the phone and place an primed to think about it, were in fact
order—for instance a “free” knife or a less likely to show conformity to the
“free “cookbook. actions or judgments of others than
SOCIALVALIDATION: We are
generally more willing to comply
people lower in power. In one study, for started wearing the band (Berger & Heath,
instance, participants were asked to think 2008). Likewise, rich Brits dissociated
either about a situation in which they had themselves from a dissimilar group when
power over someone (high power) or a they stopped wearing Burberry caps after
situation in which someone else had power they caught on among soccer hooligans
over them (low power). In a third (Clevstrom&Passariello, 2006). Reactance
condition they did not think about power may contribute to underage drinking. A
one way or the other. Following these survey of 18- to 24-year-olds by the
conditions, they performed a tedious word Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse
construction task—one that most people (1997) revealed that 69 percent of those
do not find interesting or enjoyable. Then, over the legal drinking age (21) had been
they were asked to rate this task. drunk in the last year, as had 77 percent of
Before doing so, however, they learned those under 21. In the United States, a
that 10 other students rated it very high on survey of students on 56 campuses
both dimensions. (In a control, baseline revealed a 25 percent rate of alcohol
condition, they did not receive this abstinence among students of legal
information.) It was predicted that the drinking age (21) but only a 19 percent
people primed to think about times when abstinence rate among students under 21
they had power over others would rate the (Engs& Hanson, 1989).
task less favorably than those who thought
about times when others had power over AGRESSION
them—in other words, their feelings of
There are three key issues with defining
power would affect the extent to which
human aggression. First, it is hard to
they were influenced by the judgments of
interpret research findings and theories
other people. In contrast, those not asked
about aggression without a clear definition.
to think about power would be influenced
Historically, however, many different
by others’ opinions and therefore rate the
definitions have been used. As a result,
task more favorably.
many studies of aggressive behavior are
REACTANCE hard to meaningfully compare. More
Individuals value their sense of freedom recently, definitions of aggression among
and self-efficacy. When blatant social social psychologists have converged around
pressure threatens their sense of freedom, the notion that aggression is any behavior
they often rebel. The theory of enacted with the intention to harm
psychological reactance — that people act another person who is motivated to avoid
to protect their sense of freedom—is that harm (e.g., Anderson and Bushman,
supported by experiments showing that 2002;Bushman and Huesmann, 2010). Such
attempts to restrict a person’s freedom a definition is wide enough to capture the
often produce an anti-conformity full range of aggressive behaviors, and to
“boomerang effect” (Brehm & Brehm, make allowance for activities that can
1981; Nail & others, 2000). In one field ‘hurt’a target person but to which the target
experiment, many nongeeky students of the hurt willingly consents (such as
stopped wearing a “Livestrong” wristband undergoing surgery or engaging in
when nearby geeky academic students sadomasochistic sex).
The second issue is that many laypersons hitting, biting, kicking, clubbing, stabbing,
and misinformed professionals use the shooting), hurting another with spoken
term aggression interchangeably with words (i.e., verbal aggression such as
related but conceptually distinct yelling, screaming, swearing, name
phenomena such as anger, hostility and calling), or hurting another’s reputation or
competitiveness. There is no question that friendships through what is said to others
in the field of psychology, aggression verbally or digitally (i.e., relational
refers only to a behavior, and not to a aggression).
mindset or an emotional state. Feelings Aggression may also be direct (with the
such as anger, attitudes such as wishing the victim physically present) or indirect
worst for another, and motivations such as (enacted in the absence of the victim; for
the desire to win or control one’s example, smashing someone’s property or
environment may contribute to a person spreading rumors about them).
behaving aggressively but are not
Aggression also differs by function. It may
aggression per se. To study aggression
involve a relatively pure intent to
effectively, such factors need to be clearly
punish/hurt the target person, as in reacting
differentiated from aggression and from
aggressively to provocation (i.e., reactive,
each other. A third definitional issue
affective, hostile, hot, impulsive,
involves the common practice of using the
orretaliatory aggression) or it may
term ‘violence’ interchangeably with the
involve a considered and deliberate plan to
term ‘aggression.’ Treating these as
harm another to gain a desired outcome
synonymous creates miscommunications
(i.e., instrumental, proactive, planned, or
and confusion among researchers, public
cold aggression). Aggression may be an
policy-makers, and the general public.
automatic response driven by hard-wired
Among most social psychologists,
self-protection mechanisms (e.g., fight or
violence is a subtype of aggression. More
flight) or involve a script for aggressive
precisely, ‘violence’ is aggression that is
behavior that is so commonly enacted that
intended to cause harm extreme enough to
the response is no longer thought-through.
require medical attention or to cause death.
Many social psychologists extend this Of course, such distinctions can be
definition to include causing severe problematic. What about a person whose
emotional harm. Thus, all violent behavior rage drives them to carefully plan the
is aggression, but most aggression is not death of another? Such instances do not fit
violence. Note that this definition of any of these traditional categorical or
violence is not synonymous with ‘violent dichotomous distinctions. A viable
crime,’ which is a legal term, not a alternative approach to understanding the
scientific one. function of aggression is to locate
aggressive acts on three dimensions –
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
AGGRESSION the degree to which the goal is to harm
the victim versus benefit the
Different forms of aggression include perpetrator;
physically harming another (i.e., physical the level of hostile or agitated emotion
aggression such as that is present; and
the degree to which the aggressive act the inclination which will be acted upon is
was thought-through. the one that best reduces frustration. In this
revised formulation, people learn through
THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
experience to respond to frustrations with
Early Social Psychological Theories For
aggressive or nonaggressive responses.
more than 70 years, social psychology has
provided a variety of frameworks from
2. LEARNING THEORIES
which hypotheses about the causes and
consequences of aggression could be
The earliest theory of learning in modern
derived and tested. These theories,
psychology explains behavior in terms of
although distinct, have also tended to
classical conditioning –learning to
overlap as new knowledge has extended an
associate one thing with another.
existing framework of aggressive
Pioneered by Pavlov, this approach
behavior. The earliest influential theory
suggests that once people mentally pair
from social psychology was the
things together, they become ‘conditioned’
frustration-aggression hypothesis.
to expect those things to always occur
together. This theory was later
1. THE FRUSTRATION-
supplemented with theories of operant
AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
conditioning developed by Thorndike and
Skinner, which suggest that people are
During 1939, partially in response to
more likely to repeat a behavior that has
World War II and partially in response to
been rewarded and less likely to repeat a
the spreading influence of psychodynamic
behavior that has been punished. In
theories in the US, Dollard et al. (1939)
aggression research it has been shown that
proposed the first systematic theory of
children can be taught to behave
aggression. Using assumptions from
aggressively through rewarding aggressive
psychoanalytic theory, they focused on the
behavior (positive reinforcement) or
frustration caused
removing a painful consequence after
when a goal is blocked, and suggested that
aggression (negative reinforcement). In
“the occurrence of aggressive behavior
addition, children learn to discriminate
always presupposes the existence of
between situations where aggression has a
frustration,” and that “the existence of
desirable consequence and when it does
frustration always leads to some form of
not, and to generalize this knowledgeto
aggression”(p. 1). Although this theory
new situations. Although such research
enjoyed some empirical support, it quickly
demonstrates that aggression can be
became obvious that
learned through conditioning (e.g., Eron et
frustration does not always lead to
al., 1971), it was clear by the 1960s that
aggression, and that not every act of
such processes could not explain the
aggression can be traced back to
acquisition of all learned aggression.
frustration. Frustration-aggression theory
Bandura proposed that social behaviors,
was revised to incorporate the possibility
including aggression, could be learned
that frustrations can elicit responses other
through observing and imitating others
than aggression (e.g., to escape or to find
(i.e., via observational learning). In his
another way to achieve a goal), and that
classic experiments, children observed a
film of an actor hitting a ‘Bobo Doll’in making inferences about observed

several novel ways. The children later aggression not only increases the
imitated the behavior in the absence of any likelihood of imitating it, but also expands
classical or operant conditioning. Bandura the range of situations to which that
alsodeveloped the concept of vicarious response might be generalized (see
learning of aggression, and showed that Bandura, 1986). There is considerable
children were especially likely to imitate research support for social cognitive
models that had been rewarded for explanations of aggression. People
behaving aggressively. In social learning sometimes imitate aggressive models,
theory (later called social cognitive especially if the aggressive behavior is
theory), Bandura hypothesized that the rewarded or carried out by a person who is
way people mentally construct heroic, admired, of high status, attractive,
theirexperiences is crucial. People may see or similar.
one person hit another, but will also decide
how competent they feel to do the same, 3. AROUSAL: COGNITIVE
and will make assumptions about what LABELING AND
constitutes a normal way to respond when EXCITATION TRANSFER
someone provokes you. In this way,
to thesecond event will be misattributed as
The emergence of cognitive psychology being relevant to all of thearousal
inspired a plethora of new approaches to experienced, thus producing an
aggression by social psychologists. Early inappropriately strongresponse (e.g.,
in this period, researchers explored the becoming angry to a level far greater than
way people make meaning of mightbe expected for a minor
physiological arousal, a known precursor provocation). Because the cognitivelabel
to aggression. Researchers such as (or attribution) is crucial in determining
Schacter found that when people
Are aroused, they look for cues in the behavior, stronganger related to excitation
environment to help themattribute the transfer may persist long after thearousal
cause of their arousal. For example, itself has dissipated.
Schacter andcolleagues found that if
aroused people were exposed toanother
person who was angry, they tended to MAINSTREAM COGNITIVE
cognitively labeltheir arousal as being THEORIES
angry themselves. Zillmann
(1979)extended this concept with INFORMATION PROCESSING
excitation-transfer theory AND SCRIPT THEORIES
(ETT).Physiological arousal, however
produced, dissipates slowly.ETT posits The confluence of computer availability
that if two arousing events are separated and the growing dominance of cognitive
by a shortamount of time, arousal from the approaches to psychology in the 1980s
first event will add to arousalfrom the heralded a major change of direction in
second. However, the cognitive label given social psychological
aggression research. For the first time, Cognitive Neoassociation Theory (CNA)
researchers started to conceptualize the reformulated the frustration-aggression
acquisition of social behavior in terms of hypothesis within the framework of
computerlike processes –inputs, outputs, emerging knowledge about neural
and the processing of information. Two connectivity. Assuming that concepts,
key theories of aggression emerged –the emotions, memories, and action tendencies
Social Information Processing (SIP) theory are interconnected within the brain’s
of Dodge (1980) associative neural network,
and Script theory from Huesmann (1982). Berkowitz (1989) posited that aversive
SIP theory emphasized the way people events such as frustrations, provocations,
perceive the behavior of others and make or unpleasant physical environments
attributions about their motives. A key produce negative affect, which is neurally
construct in SIP theory is the hostile linked to various thoughts, feelings, and
attributional bias –a tendency to interpret behavioral tendencies that are themselves
ambiguous events (such as being bumped linked to both fight and flight tendencies.
in a corridor) as Depending on the characteristics of the
being motivated by hostile intent. This bias person and the situation, one response set
has been extensively studied and has been will eventually dominate, with dominant
found to reliably predict aggressive ‘fight’responses linked with anger and
behavior. Script theory emphasizes the being more likely to elicit aggression.
acquisition of scripts for behavior (much Importantly, higher-order processes such
like an actor’s script) through either direct as making attributions about another’s
experience or observational learning. Once motives or thinking through the
encoded in semantic memory, scripts consequences of an aggressive response
define particular situations and provide a may cause a person to moderate an
guide for how to behave in them. In script aggressive impulse in this model.
theory, a person faced with a particular
situation first considers a script relevant to CURRENT THEORIES
that situation, assumes a role in the script,
assesses the appropriateness or likely THE GENERAL AGGRESSION
outcome of enacting the script, MODEL
and if judged appropriate, then behaves
according to the script. If a person The General Aggression Model (GAM;
habitually responds to conflict by using Anderson and Bushman, 2002) is the most
scripts that include behaving aggressively, recent and broadest theory of aggression
these scripts may become more processes to date. It is a biosocial-cognitive
easily brought to mind (i.e., chronically model designed to account for both short-
accessible), become automatic, and and long-term (developmental) effects of an
generalize to other situations, increasing extensive range of variables on aggression.
the likelihood of aggression in a growing GAM canexplain the widest range of
number of spheres of life. aggressive behaviors, including those not
based around aversive events or
COGNITIVE NEOASSOCIATION
THEORY
negative affect. In addition, it is arguably assumptions that take into account a

the model that has the most empirical myriad of within-person factors, a range of
support. GAM unifies previous major possible triggers for aggression, known
models of aggression from the field of internal psychological processes, and the
social psychology into a single framework, means by which behavior is reinforced and
butalso incorporates knowledge from other learned. In terms of the latter, knowledge
disciplines in psychology. The model itself structures such as schemas(a grouping of
is deceptively parsimonious. Every knowledge, feelings, memories,
instance of aggression involves a person, perceptions and notions about typical
with all their characteristics(e.g., biology, behavior that is centered around a
genes, personality, attitudes, beliefs, particular theme) and scripts (knowledge
behavioral scripts), responding to an about how people typically behave in a
environmental trigger such as a given situation such as during conflict) are
provocation, an aversive event, or an person factors that can not only impel a
aggression-related cue. These person and person to be aggressive in the moment, but
situation variables influence the also change to reflect our experiences
person’spresent internal state –cognitions, (upper portion of Figure 1). Thus,
affects, and physiological arousal. experience leads to changes in the type,
Depending on the nature of activated content, and accessibility of knowledge
knowledge structures (which include structures, which are seen as the basis of
affect), and on howaroused the person is, personality. Together, these features of
the person’s immediate response may be GAM can be used to explain short- and
an impulse to aggress. The person may act long-term aggression across a range of
on this impulse, but if they have the time forms and functions, including the three
and cognitive resources to do so, and if the key dimensions already noted: degree of
immediate response is undesirable, a hostile/agitated affect; degree of
period of appraisal and reappraisal will automaticity versus conscious thought;
follow. Consequences are then thought- and degree to which the goal is to harm the
through, alternate responses considered, victim versus benefit the perpetrator.
and a considered response made. The Phenomena as different as sexual and
resulting behavioral action may or may not nonsexual aggression against women (e.g.,
be aggressive, but in any case all actions Anderson and Anderson, 2008),
feed back into the immediate situation and personality effects on violent crime (Hosie
also influence the person’s psychological et al., 2014), and dozens more are well
make-up (i.e., their personality). explained by GAM.
Underlying the GAM are detailed
taken into account in current social
psychological models of aggression.

RESEARCH FINDINGS:
DETERMINANTS OF AGGRESSION 3. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN
AGGRESSION
1. DEVELOPMENT AND Overall, males are generally more
STABILITY OVER TIME aggressive than females, and this applies
Scholars studying social development have from early in childhood through the life
shown that the frequency of physical span. This is especially true for physical
aggression typically peaks in the toddler aggression and violent behavior, although
years and then decreases across the life women are as physically aggressive as
span. Importantly, the degree to which one men when strongly provoked. Men are
person is aggressive relative to others of more likely than women to use direct
the same age is fairly stable across the life forms of aggression, but the reverse is true
span. Aggressive children tend to become for women, who are more likely to use
adolescents and adults who are more forms of indirect aggression, including
aggressive than their peers (Bushman and relational aggression. Within intimate
Huesmann, 2010). relationships, however, women are
somewhat more likely to use physical
2. PERSON FACTORS aggression than men, though for different
Numerous factors in a person’s make-up purposes and with different results. For
have been shown to increase the likelihood example, men are much more likely to
of aggressive behavior. Not all are studied strike with a fist (women with an open
directly in social psychology, but all are slap), which is one reason why intimate
partner violence yields many more women 6. IMPULSIVITY, EXECUTIVE

requiring medical attention than men. CONTROL AND SELF-
CONTROL
4. TRAIT ANGER Impulsivity is a temperament variable
Trait anger reliably predicts an aggressive often noticeable fromearly infancy, and is
predisposition. It is characterized by a reliable predictor of
extreme sensitivity to provocation and a aggression,presumably because impulsive
considerably increased inclination to people have difficulty curbingaggressive
respond with aggression once provoked. impulses. In contrast, people are less
aggressiveif they have greater control over
5. CALLOUS UNEMOTIONAL their emotions, greaterself-control, and a
PERSONALITY TRAITS stronger capacity to inhibit their impulses
There are three personality styles under (Moffitt et al., 2011).
this umbrella – psychopathy,
Machiavellianism, and narcissism. All 7. INTELLIGENCE
three are linked with high levels of There is not a great deal of research on IQ
aggression, lack of empathy, and curtailed and aggression, but some studies have
emotional responding. Individuals of all found links between low IQ and higher
three types routinely use aggression levels of aggression in children,
instrumentally to obtain desired goals, but particularly in children with poor verbal
narcissists and psychopaths are also prone intelligence and/or with low self-control.
to reactive aggression. Narcissists often
respond aggressively when they feel 8. PERSONALITY TRAITS – THE
threatened (particularly by insults, ‘BIG FIVE’
humiliations, or other threats to their Research on the ‘Big Five’ personality
inflated ego), or when they fear that their traits and aggression has generally found
flaws may be exposed. Psychopaths, that people low in agreeableness and high
particularly those with secondary in neuroticism are more aggressive and
psychopathy characteristics, are often violent. Furthermore, both of these
impulsive, fearless, and unconcerned about dimensions are associated with aggressive
negative consequences to themselves or emotions, and low agreeableness is also
victims –a potent mix for a person already associated with greater aggressive thinking
predisposed to aggression. Machiavellians (Barlett and Anderson, 2012).
most typically use instrumental aggression
to achieve their goals and feel little or any 9. HORMONES
remorse for harmful consequences to The hormone most consistently linked
others. They do, however, consider with aggression is testosterone. Males
potential consequences to themselves, and have around 10 times as much testosterone
are thus more likely to aggress indirectly as females, and levels are much high in
so that there is little likelihood of being older teenagers and young adults than in
held responsible for their actions.
older men. Interestingly, when people FACTORS FROM THE

dominate others, their testosterone levels ENVIRONMENT AND CUES
typically increase, along with their levels
FOR AGGRESSION
of aggression. There also is evidence that
testosterone’s effect on aggression is a by-
1. PROVOCATION
product of its effect on dominance. There
Perhaps the single greatest trigger for
also may be links between low levels of
aggression is provocation by another
estrogen and progesterone and aggression,
person (Bettencourt et al., 2006).
although results are mixed. Finally,
However, provocation does not need to be
emerging evidence suggests that low levels
direct. People can be provoked to
of oxytocin may be linked with increased
aggression by social exclusion, having
aggression.
rumors spread about them and a range of
other ‘indirect’ provocations.
GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS
Although aggressive behavior has a
2. WEAPONS
considerable learned component, studies
Weapons are one stimulus that almost all
show that inherited characteristics account
people conceptually link with aggressive
for perhaps a quarter to a third of an
behavior. Research consistently shows a
aggressive predisposition (Tuvblad et al.,
‘weapons effect’ whereby people who view
2009). More than a dozen genetic markers
a real or virtual weapon tend to have
have been linked with aggressive and
aggression-related cognitions primed in
antisocial behavior, although links are
semantic memory, and become more likely
rarely direct. Typically, genetic
to behave aggressively. Interestingly, this
predispositions more directly relate to
effect varies by type of weapon and hunting
temperament variables such as impulsivity,
experience (see Figure 2).
which are themselves linked with greater
aggression. The two most widely studied
VIOLENT ENVIRONMENT
genetic markers of aggression are a
According to social cognitive models,
polymorphism in the promoter of the
people who are exposed to a lot of
monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) and
violence, virtual or real, will have an
a variation in the 5-HT serotonin
associative neural network with a lot of
transporter gene. Crucially, in line with the
aggression-related knowledge structures,
emerging field of epigenetics, the MAOA
including aggressive behavioral scripts.
gene polymorphism seems to interact with
This is borne out by research
a child’s
demonstrating that people from violent
early environment, so that aggression and
environments, whether homes,
antisocial behavior are most likely in those
neighborhoods, or war-torn countries,
who have this genetic trait and also
have a greater predisposition to be
experience childhood maltreatment (Kim-
aggressive (e.g., Aguilar et al., 2000).
Cohen et al., 2006).
VIOLENT MEDIA
The same principle applies to exposure to
violent media. It is one of the most studied
phenomena by social psychologists, and more prosocially to facilitate reinclusion.

several hundred studies converge across all However, the dominant response to such
major research methodologies in finding rejection is to aggress, especially when the
that violent media exposure increases the person can do so without significant social
likelihood of aggressive behavior and reprisals (e.g., Warburton et al., 2006).
causes desensitization to violence in both
the short- and long-term (Warburton, 8. SUBSTANCES
2014). In addition, greater exposure to Alcohol intoxication consistently causes
media violence has been linked to hostile both men and women to behave more
biases in thinking, increases in aggressive aggressively inside and outside the
thoughts and feelings, and decreases in laboratory, and is linked with a substantial
empathy and prosocial behavior (see proportion of murders, assaults, rapes, and
Anderson et al., 2003; incidents of intimate partner violence.
Krahe et al., 2012, forreviews). Importantly, this increase is due to the
aggressor experiencing
5. ENVIRONMENTAL a diminished ability to inhibit their
STRESSORS aggressive impulses. Thus people who are
A variety of environmental stressors can predisposed to behave aggressively are
increase the tendency to aggress. The most most affected (Giancola, 2000).
notable are physical pain, bad-smelling Aggression has also been linked with other
odors, loud or aversive noises, and hot substances that cause disinhibition and/or
temperatures. Importantly, it seems that an increase in physiological arousal, such
aggression is most likely when the as stimulants, amphetamines, and
individual has no control over those methamphetamines.
environmental stressors.
RESEARCH FINDINGS: FACTORS
6. ANONYMITY THAT MEDIATE AGGRESSION
Anonymity in some circumstances
increases the likelihood of aggressive The previous section examined factors
behavior. It is much easier to hurt another within the person and in the environment
if an individual believes there will be no that can trigger or increase the likelihood
consequences, and anonymity allows a of aggression. This section deals with the
person to experience ‘deindividuation’–a three key types of internal processes noted
lessening of the restraints on antisocial in GAM that can increase or decrease the
behavior normally accorded to people likelihood of aggression.
perceived as being ‘individuals.’
1. EMOTION/AFFECT
Early models of aggression placed
7. SOCIAL REJECTION
considerable emphasis on the role of
Humans have a fundamental need to feel
negative emotions in causing aggressive
socially included and to have supportive
behavior, and research has linked several
and enduring relationships. When this
emotions to an increased likelihood of
need is thwarted through social exclusion
aggression, most notably anger, shame,
or rejection, people sometimes behave
jealousy, and frustration. Of these, anger is influence of hostile biases on the

the most researched. Although interpretation of cues from the
anger can precede aggression, the pathway environment.
is far from a simple cause and effect.
Anger increases aggression primarily 3. AROUSAL
through reducing inhibitions, narrowing Physiological arousal and emotional
attentional focus to cues for aggression, arousal are both linked with increased
and alerting people to cues for potential aggression, and this is true regardless of
threats (see Anderson and Bushman, what caused the arousal in the first
2002). Shame has also been linked to instance. This may be due to one or more
increases in aggression, primarily when the of several factors. First, arousal increases
shamed person feels their personal flaws the likelihood that a person will act on an
have been exposed. Jealousy has also been aggressive action tendency or impulse
linked with aggression and in particular rather than think through the consequences
with intimate partner violence. Recent of an aggressive action. Second, excessive
research suggests that the anticipation of levels of
how one will feel in the future can be as arousal feel unpleasant, and can elicit
important as how one currently feels in aggression in the same way as other
determining whether a person will be unpleasant experiences. Third, arousal
aggressive. It should be noted that some may be part of a fight or flight response
emotions can be a protective factor for system that bypasses rational thought and
aggression. For example, empathy (taking impels aggressive action. Fourth, arousal
another person’s perspective and having may be cognitively labeled as resulting
concern for them) is consistently related to from anger, thus causing the
lower aggression. person to feel and act angry. Excitation
transfer may compound this effect, leading
2. COGNITION to a disproportionately aggressive
Recent models of aggression have focused response. Finally, low levels of arousal
increasingly on the cognitions that may may facilitate aggression if people lack the
underlie aggression. These include energy and motivation to inhibit
attitudes, beliefs, expectations, aggressive impulses.
perceptions, ideas, and concepts as well as
aggregated cognitions such as schemas and PERSUASION
scripts. It is clear that a variety of external WHAT PATHS LEAD TO
triggers can increase the accessibility of PERSUASION?
aggressive cognitions in semantic memory.
Sometimes persuasion occurs as
These cognitions may be activated but
 people focus on arguments and 
below the threshold of awareness, or respond with favorable thoughts.
activated to the point of conscious Such systematic, or “central route,”
awareness. In either case they can elicit an persuasion occurs when people are
aggressive behavioral tendency through naturally analytical or involved in
the priming of aggression-related action- the issue.
tendencies, the activation of aggressive
scripts for behavior, or through the
- When issues don’t engage - The message itself persuades;

systematic thinking, persuasion associating it with good feelings
may occur through a faster, makes it more convincing. People
“peripheral route,” as people often make quicker, less reflective
use heuristics or incidental cues judgments while in good moods.
to make snap judgments. Fear-arousing messages can also
-
Central route persuasion, be effective, especially if the

being more thoughtful and less recipients feel vulnerable but can
superficial, is more durable and take protective action.
more likely
 to influence
behavior. 
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF How discrepant a message should be
PERSUASION? from an audience’s existing opinions
Among the ingredients of persuasion depends on the communicator’s
explored by social psychologists are these credibility. And whether a one- or two-
sided message is more persuasive
four:
depends on whether the audience
the communicator, already agrees with the message, is
the message, unaware of opposing arguments, and is
 opposition.
how the message is communicated, unlikely later to consider the
and
the audience. When two sides of an issue are
included, the primacy effect often
In other words, who says what, by what makes the first message more
method, to whom? How do these factors persuasive. If a time gap separates the
affect the likelihood that we will take presentations, the more likely result
 second message prevails.
either the central or the peripheral route to will be a recency effect in which the
persuasion?
Another important consideration is
WHAT MAKES PERSUASION how the message is communicated.
EFFECTIVE? Usually, face-to-face appeals work
Researchers have explored four factors: best. Print media can be effective for
complex messages. And the mass
the communicator (who says it), the
media can be effective when the issue
message (what is said), the channel (how it
 media reach opinion leaders.
is minor or unfamiliar, and when the
is said), and the audience (to whom it is
said). Finally, it matters who receives the
Credible communicators have the best message. The age of the audience
success in persuading. People who makes a difference; young people’s
speak unhesitatingly, who talk fast, and attitudes are more subject to change.
who look listeners straight in the eye What does the audience think while
seem more credible. So are people who receiving a message? Do they think
argue against their own self-interest. favourable thoughts? Do they counter
An attractive communicator also is argue? Were they forewarned?

effective on matters of taste and
personal values.
HOW DO PEOPLE RESIST To explain which individual from within

PERSUASION? those categories becomes a leader, early
A prior public commitment to one’s own researchers formulated the great person
position, stimulated perhaps by a mild theory of leadership—the view that great
attack on the position, breeds resistance to leaders possess certain traits that set them
later persuasion. apart from other human beings—traits that
differentiate them from those who are
A mild attack can also serve as an
inoculation, stimulating one to merely followers. 
develop counterarguments that will AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
 attack comes.
then be available if and when a strong Autocratic leadership style is centered on the
boss. In this leadership the leader holds all
This implies, paradoxically, that one
way to strengthen existing attitudes is authority and responsibility. In this
to challenge them, though the leadership, leaders make decisions on their
 be so strong as to
challenge must not own without consulting subordinates. They
overwhelm them. reach decisions, communicate them to
subordinates and expect prompt
implementation. Autocratic work
LEADERSHIP STYLE AND
environment does normally have little or
EFFECTIVENESS.
no flexibility. In this kind of leadership,
THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN guidelines, procedures and policies are all-
GROUP SETTINGS natural additions of an autocratic leader.
LEADERSHIP—the very word conjures Statistically, there are very few situations
up images of heroic figures leading their that can actually support autocratic
followers toward something better: leadership.Some of the leaders that
victory, prosperity, or social justice. support this kind of leadership include:
Leadership involves influence— Albert J Dunlap (Sunbeam Corporation)
influencing others in a group by and Donald Trump (Trump Organization)
establishing a direction for collective effort among others. 
and then encouraging the activities needed DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
to move in that direction. Consistent with In this leadership style, subordinates are
that definition, being a leader involves involved in making decisions. Unlike
exerting influence—changing the behavior autocratic, this headship is centered on
and thoughts of other members of the subordinates’ contributions. The
group so that they work together to attain democratic leader holds final
the group’s common goals. We consider responsibility, but he or she is known to
three key aspects of the findings of delegate authority to other people, who
research on this topic in terms of (1) why determine work projects. The most unique
some individuals, but not others, become feature of this leadership is that
leaders; (2) when non-traditional leaders communication is active upward and
are most likely to emerge; and (3) how downward. With respect to statistics,
leaders influence group members’ democratic leadership is one of the most
satisfaction with their performance. preferred leadership, and it entails the
following: fairness, competence,

creativity, courage, intelligence and vision inspires and provides a strong sense
honesty. of purpose and direction. Team leadership
 is about working with the hearts and minds
STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP of all those involved. It also recognizes
STYLE that teamwork may not always involve
Strategic leadership is one that involves a trusting cooperative relationships. The
leader who is essentially the head of an most challenging aspect of this leadership
organization. The strategic leader is not is whether or not it will succeed.
limited to those at the top of the According to Harvard Business Review,
organization. It is geared to a wider team leadership may fail because of poor
audience at all levels who want to create a leadership qualities.
high performance life, team or 
CROSS-CULTURAL
LEADERSHIP
organization. The strategic leader fills the
gap between the need for new possibility This form of leadership normally exists
and the need for practicality by providing a where there are various cultures in the
prescriptive set of habits. An effective society. This leadership has also
strategic leadership delivers the goods in industrialized as a way to recognize front
terms of what an organization naturally runners who work in the contemporary
expects from its leadership in times of globalized market. Organizations,
change. 55% of this leadership normally particularly international ones require
involves strategic thinking. leaders who can effectively adjust their

TRANSFORMATIONAL leadership to work in different environs.
LEADERSHIP Most of the leaderships observed in the
Unlike other leadership styles, United States are cross-cultural because of
transformational leadership is all about the different cultures that live and work
initiating change in organizations, groups, there. 
FACILITATIVE LEADERSHIP
oneself and others. Transformational
leaders motivate others to do more than Facilitative leadership is too dependent on
they originally intended and often even measurements and outcomes – not a skill,
more than they thought possible. They set although it takes much skill to master. The
more challenging expectations and effectiveness of a group is directly related
typically achieve higher performance. to the efficacy of its process. If the group
Statistically, transformational leadership is high functioning, the facilitative leader
tends to have more committed and uses a light hand on the process. On the
satisfied followers. This is mainly so other hand, if the group is low functioning,
because transformational leaders empower the facilitative leader will be more
followers.  directives in helping the group run its
TEAM LEADERSHIP process. An effective facilitative
Team leadership involves the creation of a leadership involves monitoring of group
vivid picture of its future, where it is dynamics, offering process suggestions
heading and what it will stand for. The and interventions to help the group stay on
track.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
transformation of followers’ values and
Laissez-faire leadership gives authority to beliefs. Therefore, this distinguishes a
employees. According to azcentral, charismatic leader from a simply populist
departments or subordinates are allowed to leader who may affect attitudes towards
work as they choose with minimal or no specific objects, but who is not prepared as
interference. According to research, this the charismatic leader is, to transform the
kind of leadership has been consistently underlying normative orientation that
found to be the least satisfying and least structures specific attitudes. 
effective management style.  VISIONARY LEADERSHIP
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
This form of leadership involves leaders
This is a leadership that maintains or who recognize that the methods, steps and
continues the status quo. It is also the processes of leadership are all obtained
leadership that involves an exchange with and through people. Most great and
process, whereby followers get immediate, successful leaders have the aspects of
tangible rewards for carrying out the vision in them. However, those who are
leader’s orders. Transactional leadership highly visionary are the ones considered to
can sound rather basic, with its focus on be exhibiting visionary leadership.
exchange. Being clear, focusing on Outstanding leaders will always transform
expectations, giving feedback are all their visions into realities.
important leadership skills. According to
Boundless.com, transactional leadership
behaviors can include: clarifying what is THEORIES OF INTERGROUP
expected of followers’ performance; RELATIONS [SOCIAL
explaining how to meet such expectations; IDENTITY THEORY,
and allocating rewards that are contingent
RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
on meeting objectives. 
COACHING LEADERSHIP THEORY, REALISTIC
CONFLICT THEORY,
Coaching leadership involves teaching and
supervising followers. A coaching leader is BALANCE THEORIES,
highly operational in setting where results/ EQUITY THEORY, SOCIAL
performance require improvement. EXCHANGE THEORY]
Basically, in this kind of leadership,
followers are helped to improve their SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
skills. Coaching leadership does the HenriTajfel's greatest contribution to
following: motivates followers, inspires psychology was social identity theory.
followers and encourages followers. 
Social identity is a person’s sense of who
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
they are based on their group
In this leadership, the charismatic leader memberships. Tajfel (1979) proposed that
manifests his or her revolutionary power. the groups (e.g. social class, family,
Charisma does not mean sheer behavioural football team etc.) which people belonged
change. It actually involves a to were an important source of pride and
self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of
social identity: a sense of belonging to the
social world. In order to increase our self- “in-group” and “out-group”. These take
image, we enhance the status of the group place in a particular order.
to which we belong. For example, England The first is categorization. We categorize
is the best country in the world! We can objects in order to understand them and
also increase our self-image by identify them. In a very similar way we
discriminating and holding prejudice views categorize people (including ourselves) in
against the out group (the group we don’t order to understand the social
belong to). For example, the Americans, environment. We use social categories like
French etc. are a bunch of losers! black, white, Australian, Christian,
Muslim, student, and bus driver because
Therefore, we divided the world into
they are useful.
“them” and “us” based through a process
of social categorization (i.e. we put people If we can assign people to a category then
into social groups). that tells us things about those people, and
as we saw with the bus driver example, we
This is known as in-group (us) and out-
couldn't function in a normal manner
group (them). Social identity theory states
without using these categories; i.e. in the
that the in-group will discriminate against
context of the bus.
the out-group to enhance their self-image.
Similarly, we find out things about
Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping
ourselves by knowing what categories we
(i.e. putting people into groups and
belong to. We define appropriate behavior
categories) is based on a normal cognitive
by reference to the norms of groups we
process: the tendency to group things
belong to, but you can only do this if you
together. In doing so we tend to
can tell who belongs to your group. An
exaggerate:
individual can belong to many different
The differences between groups groups.
The similarities of things in the same
In the second stage, social identification,
group.
we adopt the identity of the group we have
We categorize people in the same way. We categorized ourselves as belonging to. If for
see the group to which we belong (the in- example you have categorized yourself as a
group) as being different from the others student, the chances are you will adopt the
(the out-group), and members of the same identity of a student and begin to act in the
group as being more similar than they are. ways you believe students act (and conform
Social categorization is one explanation to the norms of the group). There will be an
for prejudice attitudes (i.e. “them” and emotional significance to your identification
“us” mentality) which leads to in-groups with a group, and your self-esteem will
and out-groups. become bound up with group membership.
The final stage is social comparison. Once
THE OUTLINE we have categorized ourselves as part of a
Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that group and have identified with that group,
there are three mental processes involved we then tend to compare that group with
in evaluating others as “us” or “them” (i.e. other groups. If our self-esteem is to be
maintained our
group needs to compare favorably with enough for social comparison and in-group
other groups. bias to occur.
This is critical to understanding prejudice, The findings, from numerous studies,

because once two groups identify show that the in-group will act favorably
themselves as rivals, they are forced to towards members of their own in-group.
compete in order for the members to Moreover, they will even sacrifice rewards
maintain their self-esteem. Competition for themselves to increase the difference in
and hostility between groups is thus not rewards given between the in-group
only a matter of competing for resources members and the out-group members.
(like in Sherif’s Robbers Cave) like jobs
but also the result of competing identities. RELATIVE DEPRIVATION THEORY
In sociology, relative deprivation theory is
METHODOLOGY OF THE a view of social change and movements,
MINIMAL GROUP PARADIGM according to which people take action for
The minimal group paradigm is the social change in order to acquire
typical design used in experiments that something (for example, opportunities,
inspired and support SIT. The basic idea is status, or wealth) that others possess and
that participants (adults and children have which they believe they should have, too.
been used in studies) are randomly divided Some sociologists believe relative
into groups. They are then asked to award deprivation theory explains why people
rewards, prizes or even money to other join social movements or advocate social
participants in specially designed booklets. change. For example, in this view, gay
The recipients are anonymous, except for a people join the movement for gay
number and which group they are in (e.g. marriage in order to acquire something
Member #28, Group X; Member #3, (the right to marry) they believe others
Group Y). already possess; relative to these people,
such advocates of gay marriage believe
Originally, the Tajfel and Turner they are deprived. Critics claim that
hypothesized that they would have to relative deprivation theory does not
gradually increase the similarities between explain why some people join movements
group members before they would observe that apparently do not benefit them
in-group bias (e.g. positive directly (animal rights movements, say)
distinctiveness). They were surprised to
learn that even when groups were formed REALISTIC GROUP CONFLICT
using complete arbitrary criteria, such as THEORY CLASSIC STUDY
flipping a coin, they demonstrated in-
MuzaferSherif’s Robbers Cave experiment
group bias. Even when they were directly
is a demonstration of this theory. Sherif is
informed that the groups were
meaningless, they still were biased to their credited as one of the most important social
in-group. This initial discovery is what psychologists of his time. With his
lead to further development and colleagues, he set up a 2-week experiment
elaboration of the SIT; they concluded that involving White, middle-class, 12-year-old
the mere existence of an out-group was boys at a summer camp.
At first, the boys interacted only with their began to behave more like individuals
own group members because Sherif rather than group members and formed
wanted them to develop a sense of group friendships across group lines.
identity. The boys did develop a group Psychologically, they began as two
identity and called themselves the Eagles distinct groups, but when the perception of
or the Rattlers. In the second phase of the threat was replaced by cooperation and
study, the boys were introduced to the interdependence, the groups re-established
other group and were required to engage in themselves as one large group. Therefore,
a series of competitive activities. Rewards the group distinctions made between
and prizes were handed out to the winning Eagles and Rattlers disappeared and
team. Sherif and his colleagues purposely everyone felt as if they belonged to the
set up these games and rewards so that the same group.
boys would have reason to compete
intensely. During these fierce BALANCE THEORY
competitions, both groups became It was proposed independently by
suspicious of and hostile toward one Newcomb (1961) and by Heider (1958).
another. As tensions increased, the boys This framework suggests that people
demonstrated allegiance to their group by naturally organize their likes and
discouraging one another from establishing dislikes in a symmetrical way (Hummert,
friendships across group lines. No one Crockett, & Kemper, 1990). When two
wanted to be seen as a traitor, so the boys people like each other and discover that
stuck to their own groups. Hostility they are similar in some specific respect,
increased to the point that physical fights this constitutes a state of balance, and
and acts of vandalism broke out. Despite balance is emotionally pleasant. When two
direct interventions by adults, the two people like each other and find out that
groups could not seem to reconcile. they are dissimilar in some specific
respect, the result is imbalance. Imbalance
is emotionally unpleasant, causing the
Unity was restored only when Sherif and individuals to strive to restore balance by
colleagues created situations requiring inducing one of them to change and thus
both groups of boys to depend on each create similarity, by misperceiving the
other to achieve important goals equally dissimilarity, or simply by deciding to
valued by both groups. In other words, dislike one another. Whenever two people
harmony was restored when both groups dislike one another, their relationship
were equally invested in achieving a goal involves non-balance. This is not
that required everyone’s help and especially pleasant or unpleasant because
cooperation. For example, Sherif set up a each individual is indifferent about the
situation in which a truck carrying their other person’s similarities or
food supply broke down and the help of all dissimilarities.
the boys was needed to bring the food to
EQUITY THEORY
camp. After completing a series of such
tasks requiring interaction and everyone’s It focuses on determining whether the
involvement, positive behavior toward the distribution of resources is fair to both
other group members increased. The boys relational partners. Equity is measured by
comparing the ratio of contributions (or requiring a significant amount of time or

costs) and benefits (or rewards) for each effort. For example, romantic relationships
person. Considered one of the justice may involve costs such as shared
theories, equity theory was first developed housework and spending vacations with
in the 1960s by J. Stacy Adams, a one’s in-laws (which, for some people, can
workplace and behavioral psychologist, be extremely unpleasant). Of course, the
who asserted that employees seek to evaluation of rewards and costs is highly
maintain equity between the inputs that subjective because that which is rewarding
they bring to a job and the outcomes that for one individual might not be quite as
they receive from it against the perceived rewarding for another person. Similarly,
inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, that which is considered rewarding in one
1963). According to Equity Theory, in relationship might not be perceived as
order to maximize individuals' rewards, we rewarding in a different social
tend to create systems where resources can involvement.
be fairly divided amongst members of a
group. Inequalities in relationships will People’s evaluations of perceived rewards
cause those within it to be unhappy to a and costs influence how satisfied they are
degree proportional to the amount of with their relationships and the relative
inequality. The belief is that people value stability of those relationships. Satisfaction
fair treatment which causes them to be with a relationship is determined by
motivated to keep the fairness maintained considering one’s outcome comparison
within the relationships of their co-workers level (i.e., the standard by which one
and the organization. The structure of judges his or her current relationship’s
equity in the workplace is based on the outcomes). For instance, a person may
ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the compare his or her current outcomes with
contributions made by the employee for those he or she has received in a past
the organization. relationship of a similar type. So, you
might compare how things are going now
with your current boyfriend or girlfriend
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY with how things went with past romantic
partners. To the extent that a person’s
Social exchange theory is based on the
current outcomes exceed his or her
idea that people seek to maximize rewards
previous outcomes, the person is satisfied
and minimize costs in any given social
with a relationship and desires it to
relationship. Rewards can consist of
continue. However, if a person’s current
anything tangible or intangible that an
outcomes don’t compare favorably to his
individual considers valuable. For
or her previous outcomes, the person
instance, business relationships may
becomes dissatisfied and is less likely to
provide several concrete benefits, such as
work at furthering the relationship. People
income or material goods, in addition to
compare their current outcomes not only
several more abstract benefits, such as
to past outcomes but also to those that they
prestige and a sense of security. Costs
could be receiving now in other potential
include anything that an individual
relationships (referred to as the
considers to be unrewarding or sees as
comparison level for alternatives). To the
extent that the outcomes people perceive APPLIED SOCIAL

as possible within an alternative PSYCHOLOGY:
relationship are better than those that they ENVIRONMENT AND LAW;
are receiving in their current relationship, PERSONAL SPACE,
they are less likely to continue in the
CROWDING, AND
current relationship.
TERRITORIALITY.
Reward-to-cost ratios and comparison
levels are subject to change over time, as ENVIRONMENT
individuals continually take stock of what
The first topic is resource dilemmas,
they have gained and lost in their
which are sometimes called commons
relationships. This implies that
dilemmas. These are situations in which
relationships that a person found satisfying
individuals must choose between self-
at one point in time may become
interest (taking or using unsustainable
dissatisfying later because of changes in
amounts of a natural resource such as
perceived rewards and costs. This may
water or fish) and the interests of the
occur because certain factors may become
community or environment (taking a
less rewarding or costlier over time. For
sustainable share, or less, of the resource).
instance, sex may be extremely rewarding
Which social factors do you think might
for members of a newly married couple
come into play as individuals make these
but may become less so as passion and
decisions? Given that no one person is
spontaneity decrease over the years.
likely to be given control of an entire
Finally, people’s perceptions of their water supply, fishing grounds, or the
relationships also depend on whether the climate, how might you conduct some
exchanges that occur are viewed as research to understand what causes greed
equitable. Equitable or fair exchanges are or cooperation in these situations?
necessary to avoid conflict between
relationship partners. For instance, assume The first topic is resource dilemmas,
that there is favorable exchange for all which are sometimes called commons
parties involved in an ongoing dilemmas. These are situations in which
relationship, but one party is receiving individuals must choose between self-
substantially greater benefits than the interest (taking or using unsustainable
other. Such a scenario may be perceived as amounts of a natural resource such as
unfair because distributive justice is not water or fish) and the interests of the
present (i.e., outcomes are being community or environment (taking a
distributed unequally). In this case, sustainable share, or less, of the resource).
individuals with worse outcomes may feel Which social factors do you think might
exploited and have negative feelings about come into play as individuals make these
their exchange partner, which may decisions? Given that no one person is
ultimately affect how committed they are
to continuing the relationship.
likely to be given control of an entire water self-interest might lead to a process called
supply, fishing grounds, or the climate, the tragedy of the commons, which
how might you conduct some research to occurs when “each [person] is locked into
understand what causes greed or a system that compels him to increase his
cooperation in these situations? [harvesting] without limit—in a world that
is limited. Ruin is the destination toward
Defensible space represents a way of which all [persons] rush, each pursuing his
fighting crime through careful arrangement own best interest” (Hardin, 1968, p. 1244).
of the physical aspects of communities, Hardin’s (1968) article in the journal
retail buildings, and residences. The way Science on the ultimate consequences of
in which a building or community is resource dilemmas has been very
designed can encourage or discourage influential. He concluded that commons
burglars, robbers, and vandals. What could dilemmas probably would be fatal to the
those design factors be? How could social entire planet eventually. In terms of one
psychology be a part of this kind of enormous environmental-social problem,
research? climate change, many tendencies to not
take appropriate action have been
Social dilemmas are a group of situations identified. These “dragons of inaction”
in which individuals face important (Gifford, 2011) include over 30 “species”
choices. Sometimes individuals do not in seven “genera” – limited cognition,
realize how important their choices are— certain ideologies, social norms and
or even that they are making choices—but comparison, discredence (mistrust of
that is a separate problem. In social experts), perceived risks (of changing
dilemmas, the rewards to the individual for one’s behavior), sunk costs (e.g.,
noncooperation are greater than the investments in resource extraction), and
rewards for cooperation no matter what limited behavior (e.g., “I recycle, so I have
others do; however, if most individuals done enough”).
involved fail to cooperate, then everyone
receives lower rewards (Dawes, 1980). Grounded theory analysis is a
sophisticated way of learning how people
Public goods problems involve dilemmas think about particular issues by asking
about whether to contribute (e.g., time, them what they are doing, and why, as
effort, money) to a project that would they are considering something such as
benefit everyone when such a contribution making a decision about using a resource.
is voluntary. For example, one may decide It uses the think-aloud procedure, in
to help (or not help) build a neighborhood which individuals explain their decisions
children’s playground. The dilemma is that moment by moment as they make them.
contributing costs something (in this case, This procedure enables the researcher to
one’s money or time), but if not enough track online cognitive processing as it
others contribute, the playground project naturally occurs. As noted earlier, in most
will not be successful. resource dilemma studies, researchers
simply impose a set of conditions on the
In a limited common consisting of some harvesters and then observe their resultant
desirable resource, individuals acting in decisions. This tells us little about exactly
how the decision makers arrived at their in more of the undesirable behavior than
decisions because it ignores what goes on the norm and also for those who engage in
in the “black boxes” of the people’s minds. less of the undesirable behavior than the
norm. Thus, in shifting their behavior
Getting people to reduce household toward greater conformity with the norm,
energy usage. A third major the former individuals will show
environmental issue is household energy reductions in the undesirable behavior,
use, which is a major contributor to the whereas, contrary to the objectives of the
steady increases in greenhouse gas intervention, the latter individuals will
emissions. In 2008, households accounted show increases in the undesirable behavior
for about 21% of U.S. carbon dioxide (i.e., the boomerang effect).
emissions (U.S. Department of Energy,
2009). Therefore, effective interventions Schultz and colleagues suggested the
aimed at lowering household energy usage possible importance of a second type of
can help to ameliorate the negative impact norm, an injunctive norm, that is, a norm
of households on the environment. The that communicates/defines what is the
Internet has been used as an intervention culturally appropriate and approved
tool to encourage consumers to use less behavior. The researchers hypothesized
energy. It was used by Abrahamse, Steg, that introducing an injunctive normative
Vlek, and Rothengatter (2007) in the message along with a descriptive
Netherlands to encourage households to normative message will prevent the
reduce their use of direct energy (gas, occurrence of a boomerang effect. That is,
electricity, and fuel) and indirect energy individuals whose levels of undesirable
(that which is used to produce, transport, behavior are already relatively low will be
and dispose of consumer goods). A made aware of this fact (by the descriptive
combination of three intervention norm) but will be less tempted to shift
strategies was employed: (a) a list of toward the norm because at the same time
energy-saving measures with potential they will receive a message that approves
savings tailored to each household, (b) a of their current behavior.
goal-setting request to reduce energy
consumption by 5% over five months, and Have you ever had to study, live, or work
customized feedback about changes in in a school, home, or workplace that just
energy use and amount of money saved. did not work well and foster the types of
The 5% goal was achieved. Households behavior the situation called for?
consumed 5.1% less energy, whereas a Certainly, some parts of the built
control group had a slight increase in environment need much improvement.
energy consumption. One well-known example is a large
apartment complex in St. Louis, Missouri,
Schultz and colleagues reasoned that the that was completed in 1954. The Pruitt–
occurrence of unintended boomerang Igoe project was designed with the
effects may account for some of the admirable intention of replacing
disappointing results. They suggested that deteriorating inner-city housing. The
the normative information provided might design for this complex, which contained
act as a “magnet” for people who engage 43 eleven-story buildings to house 12,000
people, was praised in an architectural is, real people imagined in real spaces
journal for having vandal-resistant (Schneekloth&Shibley, 1993). To “make a
features, individualistic design, and no place,” architects and social designers
wasted space (“Slum Surgery in St. work together to create an “envelope for
Louis,” 1951). The Pruitt–Igoe design behavior,” meaning that they think mainly
saved space in part by having elevators about what people actually do in a
stop only at every third floor, so that most building rather than think of the building
residents would walk up or down one mainly as a sculptural object without much
flight of stairs to their apartments. Pruitt– regard for the people who will be using it.
Igoe cost much less per unit than did
comparable buildings. The design changes Social design is not always needed in the
were considered so admirable that the design process. It is not required, for
architect even applied for a patent on the example, in times, places, and cultures
design. where buildings are constructed by small
But problems appeared soon after Pruitt– communities in which everyone works
Igoe opened. The failure to carefully together in accordance with a time-tested
examine its design in relation to human architectural tradition. These traditions,
social behavior contributed to high rates of called preindustrial vernacular
fear, vandalism, serious crime, and (Rapoport, 1969), evolved an architecture
vacancy. A particular problem was crime that already quite well fits community and
in the stairwells that residents were forced cultural norms, individual interests, local
to use caused by the “innovative” elevator climate, geography, and building
savings plan. The situation was so bad materials. When community members are
that, after only 18 years, the city began to both builders and occupants, the design
demolish the entire complex. In this process does not need separate financiers,
example, insufficient consideration of how architects, boards of directors, and
the physical structure would influence construction firms (for an example of
social behavior led to the ultimate failure vernacular architecture, see Figure 13.4).
of the project. Whether the architect ever
received his patent is unknown. SIX GOALS OF SOCIAL
DESIGN.Social design researchers and
Pruitt–Igoe is the most dramatic example practitioners have six main goals, with
of building design failure, but many other some being broader than others and some
buildings also pose problems for their overlapping with others (Steele, 1973):
users. Take a look at Figure 13.3 for a
different example of architecture that fails Create physical settings that match the
to suit human needs. Hard architecture is needs and activities of their
aimed at preventing vandalism but goes so occupants. This goal is probably
far toward that goal that it is the most important one of all.
uncomfortable and, therefore, rarely used. Satisfy building users. Occupant
satisfaction is important because
However, when architects and social occupants must spend significant
designers do collaborate, they begin to parts of their lives working,
think of architecture as placemaking, that residing, or relaxing in the setting.
Change behavior. Such changes might might seem to be a fine place to stage a
include increasing office worker concert, but for concert-goers and bands,
productivity, enhancing social ties among the acoustics and general aesthetics will
institutionalized elderly people, reducing often be be quite inappropriate for a great
aggression in a prison, or increasing musical experience.
communication among managers in an
administrative office. As we will see, the The early personality theorist Henry
behavior change goal can be both difficult Murray and his collaborators distinguished
to attain and controversial. between two forms of press, which refers
Enhance the building users’ personal to properties or characteristics of
control (Holahan, 1983). The more environmental features that shape behavior
building users are able to alter the setting (Murray, 1938). Alpha press refers to
to make it suit their needs, the less actual reality that can be assessed through
stressful that setting will be. objective inquiry. Beta press refers to
Facilitate social support (Holahan, 1983). people’s interpretation of external reality.
Designs that encourage cooperation, For example, a person may act toward a
assistance, and support are desirable conversation partner in an objectively
primarily for building occupants who are neutral fashion (alpha press) but be
disadvantaged in one way or another but perceived by the partner as aggressive
also for active and successful individuals. (beta press).
Employ “imageability.” This refers to the
ability of the building to help occupants, Alpha matching, or congruence, refers to
and (especially) visitors and newcomers, to how well the setting fits the person from
find their way around without getting lost an objective point of view. For example,
or confused. there is a good (objective) height for
kitchen counters for persons of different
MATCHING.How well the occupants’ heights. Beta matching, or habitability, is
activities and needs are met by the setting “environmental quality as perceived by
is called matching. An example of poor occupants of buildings or facilities”
matching might be a gymnasium when it is (Preiser& Taylor, 1983, p. 6). Some
used for a concert. It is done, but gyms are kitchen workers might not think that a
not very well suited to that task. Ideally, of certain counter height is good for them,
course, buildings should match their even if experts claim that the existing
occupants’ needs and behaviors perfectly. counter height is correct.
However, whether the degree of match is
high or low sometimes depends in part on SOCIAL SUPPORT. Personal control is
whose viewpoint is considered an individual phenomenon, whereas social
(Michelson, 1976). For some, the gym support is a group phenomenon. Social
support is a process in which a person
receives caring, kind words, and
helpfulness from those around him or her.
Many social problems would be eased if
more and better social support were
available. Common psychological
problems, such as depression and anxiety, anonymity and safety were most preferred
have been shown to increase when social (Refuerzo&Verderber, 1990). Sometimes
support is absent or inadequate. Social social support is maximized when a person
support may be seen as an antistress simultaneously can be near a helper and
process (Moos, 1981). far from an abuser. The difference in
helpfulness and caring is especially large
What can social design do to facilitate when the contrast is between a residence
social support? On a small scale, furniture that is full of hostility and violence and
can be arranged in a sociopetal fashion one that is dominated by caring and
instead of a sociofugal fashion. Sociopetal understanding.
arrangements are those that encourage
social interaction (e.g., when people sit OUTDOOR SPACES.
facing each other), whereas sociofugal Many of the same social design ideas apply
arrangements discourage social to outdoor public areas such as plazas,
interaction (e.g., when people sit in rows parks, and streets. In one of the most widely
or even facing away from one another; used changes wrought by environmental
Mehrabian & Diamond, 1971). At the psychology principles, the very fabric of
building level, open- space areas may be many cities has been changed by a concept
arranged to facilitate social interaction called density bemusing, which can be
(Holahan, 1972). Of course, if the personal traced to the pioneering work of William
control goal, as well as the social support Whyte (1980). Recognizing the need for
goal, is to be met, the increased social some open space in the city core in 1961, the
interaction must be controllable; occupants City of New York offered developers a deal:
should be able to find social interaction For every square foot of plaza they included
when and if they want it but should not be in a new project, their new building could
faced with unwanted social encounters. exceed normal zoning restrictions by 10
square feet. Developers liked the idea, and
In office buildings, social support may be this deal certainly increased New York
fostered through the provision of high- City’s supply of open space downtown
quality lounge space for employees. The
mere existence of such space does not IMAGEABILITY.
guarantee that valuable social support will Buildings should be imageable (i.e.,
be available, but with inadequate space for clearly understandable or legible) to the
employees to share coffee and people who use them (Hunt, 1985). When
conversation, the likelihood of supportive you walk into a building, you should
social networks declines. immediately be able to find your way
around or, in more technical terms, be
capable of purposeful mobility. In simple
Finally, in some cases, social support may
terms, you should not be confused.
result from a design that provides optimal
privacy (being able to filter one’s Too often, a person enters a building that
interactions). Consider shelters for victims is unfamiliar and is unable to figure out
of domestic violence. A study of where to go next. Unless we realize that
alternative designs for such shelters buildings should be imageable, there is a
showed that designs characterized by
tendency to blame ourselves (e.g., “I never halls with defensible space features (e.g.,
did have a good sense of direction”). more areas over which residents could feel
Sometimes observation reveals that you some control and exercise more
are not the first to have problems. Perhaps “surveillability”) suffered less crime than
you have seen handmade signs that did halls on the same campus without such
occupants have made to be helpful and/or features (Sommer, 1987). A survey of 16
to save themselves from answering the well-conducted studies in which multiple
same question about where such-and-such design changes were made in accordance
is “for the hundredth time.” Such signs with defensible space theory found
represent a failure to make the building reductions in robberies of 30% to 84%
imageable, either through good signage or (Casteel & Peek-Asa, 2000). In what
through good and legible design of the follows, we consider the notion of
building itself. defensible space in several settings.
DEFENSIBLE SPACE PERSONAL CONTROL.

As noted previously, in Baltimore, the use Good social design will provide building
of speed bumps and barriers has helped to occupants with real options to control their
promote feelings of safety among residents proximate environment. What does this
of neighborhoods. How might the physical mean in specific terms? Consider, for
setting influence the actual likelihood of example, publicly funded residential space
crime? Most evidence bearing on this for students (dormitories) and poor people
question has emerged from the (housing projects). Some buildings, high-
observations and ideas of Jane Jacobs and rises in particular, seem designed to
Oscar Newman that led to defensible overload residents with social stimulation.
space theory, which deals with both crime Too few elevators and long, narrow
and the fear of crime (Jacobs, 1961; hallways, for example, result in the sense
Newman, 1972). This theory proposes that that people are everywhere and
certain design features will increase inescapable. Residents may develop the
residents’ sense of security and decrease feeling that they cannot control the
crime in the territory. Some of the features number of social contacts—especially
include the use of real or symbolic barriers unwanted social contacts—they must face
to separate public territory from private daily. This loss of control can negatively
territory and the provision of opportunities affect feelings of security and self-esteem.
for territory owners to observe suspicious
activity in their spaces (surveillance). Two other common examples of low-
Quite a number of field studies have tested control settings are crowded retail stores
defensible space theory, and most of them and traffic jams.
provide support for it
(Schneekloth&Shibley, 1993). For CROWDING
example, one would expect more crime in It refers to the subjective sense that too
areas that offer fewer opportunities for many people are around; it may be
surveillance and do not appear to be distinguished from population density,
controlled by anyone. A study of crime in which is an objective measure of persons per
university residence halls showed that unit area. High density does not always
lead to crowding, and crowding is not with one another varies from culture to
always the result of high density. culture. Yet in every culture, there are
Crowding is caused, in part, by social rules that govern the choice of those
overload and informational overload, interactional distances.
which in turn lead to the sense that one has
lost control. Designing against crowding Personal space has been described as
is, in part, designing for personal control. hidden, silent, and invisible, yet everyone
Again, simple design changes can be possesses and uses personal space every
effective. By merely adding a few day. Personal space stretches and shrinks
entrances to a mental health center, clients’ with circumstances. It is interpersonal, so
sense of freedom (and thus control) was it depends on with whom people are
increased. Furthermore, the various interacting. It refers to the distance people
treatment units within the center choose to stay from others, but social
experienced a greater sense of identity interaction, involving angle of orientation
because therapists felt as though they had and eye contact, is also part of personal
their “own” entrances (Gutkowski, Ginath, space. Finally, personal space can be
&Guttman, 1992). invaded, although such invasions are a
Stress is often related to lack of personal matter of degree (Patterson, 1975). In sum,
control over physical and social input. personal space is the geographic
Noise, unwanted social contact, component of interpersonal relations, that
congestion, and a lack of places of refuge is, the distance and angle of orientation
are examples of primary sources of stress (e.g., side by side, face to face) between
(Evans & McCoy, 1998). Good social individuals as they interact (Gifford,
design can anticipate and attempt to 2014).
overcome such sources or at least buffer
the user from them. Beyond these within-culture variations,
personal space is used differently around
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN the world. In one study, for example,
PERSONAL SPACE groups of four male students came to the
laboratory and were told that they would
Environmental psychologists are acutely be observed but were given no other
aware that human behavior varies instructions (Watson & Graves, 1966).
considerably around the world. The ways Half of the groups were composed of
in which people celebrate birth, teach their Arabs, and half were composed of
children, dress, get married, work, and are Americans. The average interpersonal
treated at death are like a colorful tapestry distance chosen by Arabs was about the
of swirling colors. Yet in another way, and length of an extended arm, whereas the
at another level, people are the same average interpersonal distance chosen by
everywhere. They celebrate births, teach Americans was noticeably farther. The
their children, dress, get married, work, Arabs touched one another much more
and recognize death in some kind of often, and their orientation was much more
ceremony. Personal space is like that; the direct. In general, the Arabs were much
distance across which individuals interact more “immediate” (close) with one
another than were the Americans.
Such findings might lead to overly such training. Consider the implications
simplistic generalizations or stereotypes for diplomats or even ordinary tourists.
about cultural differences, for example,
that some cultures are “close” and others APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
are “distant.” However, two studies PSYCHOLOGY TO DIFFERENT
(Forston& Larson, 1968; Mazur, 1977) LEVELS OF JUSTICE
revealed that students from supposedly
close cultures (Latin America, Spain, and KIRK BLOODSWORTH:
Morocco) chose seating positions that
were farther apart from one another than Is the first American sentenced to
did students from a supposedly distant death row to be exonerated by DNA,
culture (United States). Furthermore, not although his death sentence had
all Latin Americans use the same amount already been commuted to two
of space (Shuter, 1976). Costa Ricans, for consecutive life sentences by the time
his exoneration based upon DNA
example, choose smaller interpersonal
evidence was in the works.
distances on average than Panamanians
Bloodsworth was released as a result
and Colombians. of DNA testing, a new science,
 revealed that the evidence left on
Despite some oversimplifications, personal Dawn’s clothing could not have come
space does vary with culture. In one study,  from him.
for example, Japanese people used more  The question is how could the legal 
system have incarcerated an innocent
distance in conversations than did
man? Bloodsworthnot fit the
Americans, who in turn used more than did
description given by eye witness
Venezuelans. But when the same Japanese
accounts of a tall, 6 ft all man with
and Venezuelans spoke English instead of
 curly blond hair.
their first languages, their conversational
It seems as if the jurors convicted
distance moved toward that of the solely on the eyewitness testimony
 neighbours.
Americans (Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1982). provided by two young boys and other
Language, an important part of culture, can
modify one’s cultural tendencies to use But could their identifications have
been influenced by the procedures the
more or less interpersonal distance.
 evidence?
police used to collect this eyewitness
Could the jurors have been affected by

The study of personal space is not merely the process used to select jurors for
 sentencing option?
academic; it also has important cases in which the death penalty is a
implications for cultural understanding and Could the overwhelming media
conflict. For example, a researcher taught attention to the crime have prejudiced
some English students how to act more the jury against KB? Long  before
like Arabs in their nonverbal behavior reaching adulthood, most people
(Collett, 1971). Arabs who interacted with
the trained students liked them more than
they did students who had not received
understand that laws are developed to help

regulate human behavior.
in countries all over the world. Juries tend
However, lawmakers, law enforcement
personnel, judges, and jurors are social and to pay extra attention to eyewitness
cultural beings whose decisions about testimony and generally see it as very
which behaviors need regulating and how trustworthy and convincing. However, a
to respond to people who break the law are great deal of research in cognitive
influenced by their assumptions about psychology tells us that, in general,
human behavior Thus our criminal justice people's memories are fairly fallible. This
system is based on many psychological section examines some of the
assumptions about behavior: Highly psychological factors that can affect the
confident witnesses to a crimemust have accuracy of EWT.

accurate memories. Are highly confident

It is split into two main sections:
 
Reconstructive Errors & Leading Questions

witnesses necessarily Can
accurate?
Weapon Focus and Violence Distraction
jurors disregard information when judges
instruct them to do so? Social RECONSTRUCTIVE ERRORS
Psychologists are in a unique position to
test whether these psychological
Many people believe that memory works
assumptions are warranted.
something like a videotape. Storing
information is like recording and
EYEWITNESS MEMORY:
remembering is like playing back what was
recorded, with information being retrieved
Eyewitness testimony is a legal term. It
in much the same form as it was encoded.
refers to an account given by people of an
However, memory does not work in this
event they have witnessed. For example,
way. It is a feature of human memory that
they may be required to give a description
we do not store information exactly as it is
at a trial of a robbery or a road accident
presented to us. Rather, people extract from
someone has seen. This includes
information the gist, or
identification of perpetrators, details of the
underlying meaning. In other words,

crime scene etc.
people store information in the way that
One important application of research into makes the most sense to them. We make
memory is eyewitness testimony (EWT). sense of information by trying to fit it into
EWT is used as evidence in criminal trials schemas, which are a way of organising
information. Schemas are general purpose So, whilst you might encode a few details
'packets' of knowledge that correspond to about it, for example, the layout, or the
frequently encountered people, objects or colour of the walls and so on, you would
situations. They allow us to make sense of not need to store any more than this. For
what we encounter in order that we can this reason, schema driven processing
predict what is going to happen and what increases the efficiency or cognitive
we should do in any given situation. economy with which memory operates.
Schemas are a very effective way of However, schema driven processing has
processing information. Besides making an important consequence for the way we
the world more predictable, they remove store information. By forcing new
the need to store similar information more situations to fit into our schemas, we may
than once. For example, if you think about distort them in some way. So the
a kitchen, you will probably find that your information encoded in memory will not
idea of kitchens includes features like a correspond exactly to what we actually
cooker, a fridge, cupboards, work surfaces
and so on. Your schema for 'kitchen' encounter. When we later recall the
includes these features, because you have information, these distortions will have
discovered through your experiences that been incorporated into our recall that
most kitchens have them in some form. hence may not be entirely accurate.
Now, suppose you visit someone's house THE WORK OF FREDERICK
for the first time, and they ask you to get BARTLETT
something from the kitchen. You may not These general ideas were first formulated
know where the kitchen is, but you would by Frederick Bartlett in the 1930s. Bartlett
be able to recognise it when you found it carried out a large number of studies in
because it would contain all or most of the which he showed that the ways in which
things that feature in your 'kitchen participants make sense of something (i.e.
schema'. Additionally, when you got there, the schema they apply to it) affects the
it would not be necessary for you to store way they recall it later. In one study,
information about its contents, because participants were shown unfamiliar line
you would already know most of what was drawings like the one below and instructed
in there due to your having a schema for to memorise them.
that particular type of room.
Bartlett asked his participants to talk aloud participant. Bartlett hypothesised that his
whilst trying to memorise the figures. He participants would find the story difficult
found that different participants would to understand and memorise and, hence,
make sense of the figures in different that when they recalled it they would
ways. For the figure above, for example, distort it in a number of ways. As he
one participant called the drawing a predicted, the participants' retellings of the
pickaxe, whilst another called it a turf story differed from the original in several
cutter. When the participants were later characteristic ways: 
 The story became significantly shorter.
asked to draw the figures as they  
Much of the detail was lost.
remembered them, Bartlett found that the
 Some details were changed e.g. 'seal
labels (or schemas) they had applied hunting' became 'fishing'.
during initial encoding influenced their  to become more
The structure altered
'Westernised'.
recall:
These differences in recall show that the The participants attempted to fit the story
schema applied by the participants affected into their western schemas and, as a result,
their recall of the stimulus. Another study distorted it during recall. This showed that
by Bartlett illustrated further the role that they were not recalling the information
schemas can play in the distortion of exactly as it had been presented to them,
information in memory. Participants were but were making a 'best guess' at the story,
asked to memorise a short story called 'the based on their own understanding. Bartlett
war of the ghosts'. The important thing called this the tendency to make 'efforts
about this story is that it comes from a after meaning'. He concluded that we
native American tradition, whilst the always try to recall things in a way that is
participants were British. Native American consistent with out schemas and, hence,
storytelling uses different conventions to that memory is 'the imaginative
European storytelling, and different reconstruction of experience'. The Work of
assumptions are made about the Elizabeth Loftus You may be wondering
knowledge that the listener is likely to what kitchens, pickaxes and folk tales
have. So the schemas needed to understand have to do with eyewitness testimony. The
'the war of the ghosts' would not link between reconstructive memory and
necessarily be possessed by a European witness testimony was made by Elizabeth
Loftus in the 1970s. Following on from different questions about what they had
Bartlett's work, she reasoned that seen. Loftus and her colleagues found that
witnesses to crimes, rather than recalling the different questions caused the
events exactly as they happened, are participants to recall the events differently.
creating reconstructions of the crime based For example, Loftus &Zanni (1975) found
on their own schematic understanding of that asking the participants if they had seen
the world. However, Loftus Contributed 'the' broken headlight rather than 'a' broken
by Aidan Sammons took this idea one step headlight increased the likelihood that they
further. She suggested that any new would report seeing one, even though there
information about the crime that the was no broken headlight in the film.
witness took in had the potential to distort Similarly, Loftus & Palmer (1974) found
their recall of events. Where might this that participants who were asked how fast
new information come from? There are a the cars were going when they 'smashed
number of possible sources. For example, into' each other gave higher estimates of
witnesses might confer with each other speed than participants who were asked how
about what they saw, thereby fast the cars were going when they 'hit' each
contaminating each other’s' accounts. But other. In a further study, Loftus, Miller &
the most problematic source of new Burns (1978) found that they were able to
information is the leading questions that get some participants to recall having seen a
may be asked by police and lawyers. A sign by the road, even though there had been
leadingquestion is a question that contains no sign shown. This study also showed that
information previously unknown to the most participants were unaware that they
witness. For example, a police officer that had been misled, which helps to reduce the
asks 'how many times did Joe Bloggs hit possibility that results like these are simply
the victim?' is not only requesting the result of demand characteristics. Loftus'
information about an assault but basic position on eyewitness testimony is
incidentally conveying the idea that it was that, frequently, witness’ accounts of what
Joe Bloggs that hit the victim and not Joe they have seen are little better than guesses.
Blow. This information has the potential to This finding was highly influential in the
affect the witness' understanding of the writing of The Devlin Report, which
event so that, when they are later asked concluded that, unless the circumstances
who carried out the assault, the were highly unusual, eyewitness testimony
understanding that it was Joe Bloggs has should not result in a conviction in an
been implanted in their recollection of English court in the absence of other
what happened. This is a fairly trite corroborating evidence. However, not all
example, and it is unlikely that a police researchers agree with Loftus' point of view.
officer or lawyer would ask such a Some research has shown that, if the
blatantly leading question. However, the circumstances are right, witness recall can
information suggested by real leading be extremely accurate. For example, Yuille
questions can be subtle and go unnoticed
by the witness. Loftus carried out a Cutshall (1986) examined the recall of
number of studies in which participants witnesses to a shooting in a town in
were shown films of car crashes.Different Canada. A man had attempted to rob a gun
groups of participants were asked slightly shop. During the course of the robbery the
shop owner was shot. He returned fire,  The 

witness believes the questioner
knows what really happened.
killing the would-be robber. The incident  is unaware they may be
 The witness
misled.
occured in braod daylight, in front of a
The misleading information concerns
large number of witnesses. Some months details of 
afer the event, Yuille and Cutshall tracked
 peripheral
rather than central ones.
the incident,
down the witnesses and asked to interview 

The misleading information is not
blatantly incorrect.
them. Fifteen of them agreed to take part
in the study. Examining their accounts, WEAPON FOCUS
Yuille and Cutshall made several
important findings:
One of the main assumptions of the
The witnesses were able to recall the cognitive approach is that people have a
incident in a great deal of detail. limited capacity for processing information.
There was a very high level of agreement This can be a problem because there is a
between the accounts given by the huge amount of information in the
different witnesses. environment. It would be impossible for a
person to take in and process all this
The witnesses accounts did not alter in
information. Therefore, people are selective
response to leading questions.
about what they take in. The cognitive
system is equipped with a sort of filtering
These findings are contrary to those that system (called attention) that is used to
Loftus might lead us to expect. The select some information and reject other
reconstructive memory approach would information. Under normal circumstances,
suggest first, that the witnesses memory of people are quite good at choosing which
the event would fade with time, second information will be processed. However,
that the witnesses' accounts would differ there appear to be some sorts of information
according to their different interpretations that draw attention to themselves. Weapons
of the incident and, third, that the and other threats are one example. When a
witnesses would be susceptible to leading person witnesses a crime in which a weapon
questions. Such findings, which are was used, their attention tends to focus on
obtained from real-world witnesses and the weapon. This is hardly surprising, as it is
hence are high in ecological validity cast the weapon that represents the most obvious
doubt on the validity of Loftus' threat. However, whilst the person's
conclusions. However, it would be unwise attention is focused on the weapon, it it not
to dismiss Loftus' research purely on the focused elsewhere, so the person is not
basis of Yuille and Cutshall's findings. The taking in much information about the person
incident witnessed by their participants holding it, for example. In other words,
was shocking, highly unusual and was weapon focus is the tendency for witnesses
observed in ideal viewing conditions. The
same is not true of most witness incidents.
In general, the available research supports
Loftus' view that witness testimony can be
affected by leading questions, but only
under certain circumstances:
to violent crimes to focus their attention on hypothesis. Weapon focus appears most
the weapon used. Weapon focus usually likely to occur when the weapon is
results in poor quality testimony, as the incongruous (for example, a nun holding a
witness is unable to describe much that is gun will be more poorly recalled than a
useful about other aspects of the incident. soldier holding a gun) and when a weapon
This is why bank tellers (whom you might in not appropriate to the situation (e.g. a
expect to be able to describe an armed person holding a gun is poorly recalled if
robber quite well, if they have faced one) they are depicted in a restaurant but
can typically describe the weapon used in reasonable well recalled if they are
great detail, but not the person who was depicted on a firing range). Arousal,
pointing it at them. Studies of Weapon Anxiety and Violence Distraction Some
Focus Loftus et al (1987) showed researchers have questioned whether
participants one of two films. In one, a witnesses' poor recall of violent incidents
customer in a restaurant was holding a is solely due to attentional focus. For
cheque, in the other he was holding a gun. example, Clifford and Scott (1978) found
It was found that participants had a higher that witnesses to violent incidents
recall for the 'cheque' condition. Maass and generally recall less than witnesses to non-
Kohnen (1989) carried out a field violent incidents, regardless of whether a
experiment in which participants were weapon was used or not. They showed
approach by a woman holding either a pen participants one of two films involving the
or a syringe. Participants in the 'pen' same people. In one film there was a
condition were able to supply more physical assault. Participants who viewed
accurate descriptions of the woman. this film were less likely to identify the
Studies like these give support to the people involved than those who had
suggestion that witnesses' attention tends viewed the non-violent film. Clifford and
to be drawn towards a weapon, thereby Hollin (1981) examined the relationship
preventing them from taking in other between the level of violence and recall.
details about the situation. However, this They found that the higher the level of
theory rests on the assumption that the violence depicted, the poorer participants'
weapon represents a threat. What about recall of an assault.
situations in which weapons do not pose a
threat? It might be suggested that in these There are two possible reasons why this
situations weapon focus does not occur. might be:
The research appears to support this
Violent incidents, like weapons,  draw improves performance but only up to a

the focus of the witnesses' attention,
point. Once arousal has passed a
critical point called the optimum,

performance tends to decline.
leading to little or no processing of
other information A possible interpretation of the research
Violent incidents increase anxiety and on violence distraction is that witnessing
autonomic arousal, which has a violence raises witnesses' arousal level
detrimental effect on memory
past optimum, leading to poorer memory
generally. According to the Yerkes- 
Dodson Law, an increase in arousal performance.
CONTENTS
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES:
Nature, Principles, Factors in development, Stages of Development.
Successful aging.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: Psychoanalytical, Behavioristic, and Cognitive
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT:

Sensory-motor, cognitive, language, emotional, social and moral.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: Concept, Mental Status Examination, Classification, Causes
PSYCHOTHERAPIES:
Psychoanalysis, Person-centered, Gestalt, Existential, Acceptance Commitment Therapy,
Behavior therapy, REBT, CBT, MBCT, Play therapy, Positive psychotherapy, Transactional
Analysis, Dialectic behavior therapy, Art therapy, Performing Art Therapy, Family therapy.
Applications of theories of motivation and learning in School
Factors in educational achievement
Teacher effectiveness
GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS:
Needs, organizational set up and techniques
COUNSELLING:
Process, skills, and techniques
HUMAN
UNIT DEVELOPMENT and
9 INTERVENTIONS
WHAT IS LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT?

Lifespan development, also known as years, there was much speculation about
human development, is a field how people grow and change and when
of study that is devoted to understanding combined.
constancy and change throughout a The study of developmental psychology is
person’s lifespan (Berk, 2010). Life span essential to understanding how humans
development begins with infancy and learn, mature and adapt. Throughout their
looks at several points in a person’s life in lives, humans go through various stages of
which significant change takes place. development. Developmental
The study of children did not begin until psychologists study how people grow,
the late nineteenth and early twentieth develop and adapt at different life stages.
centuries (Berk, 2010). Throughout the
DEVELOPMENT: Pattern of change adolescence, little or no change in

that begins at conception and continues adulthood, and decline in late old age.
throughput the life span (Santrock, 1998) Infancy is especially thought to be a
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: time of considerable change, in the
Branch of psychology devoted to the traditional approach.
understanding of all changes that human
being experience throughout the life span.  The life-span approach emphasizes
CHILD DEVELOPMENT: all changes/ developmental change during
aspects of human growth from conception adulthood as well as childhood
through adolescence . Developmental (Salthouse, 2000). Baltes saw the way
psychology, which is the study of how that people changed throughout the
humans grow and change, was confined to entirety of their lives. To challenge the
the years from birth through adolescence. traditional view of development, he
By the time people reach adulthood, established the life span perspective
psychologists believed, they are through of development, which views growth
developing: and change as occurring at all points in
 The traditional approach emphasizes a person's life, as well as in many
extensive Change from birth to different directions at once.No age
period dominates development (so Developmental psychologist’s study

don’t give importance to childhood human growth and development over the
only). Whether a child is learning to lifespan, including physical, cognitive,
feed himself or a new parent is social, intellectual, perceptual, personality
learning how to make decisions based and emotional growth. Developmental
on more than their own selfish psychologists working in colleges and
interests, people are always growing universities tend to focus primarily on
and changing. research or teaching. Others working in
more applied settings like health care and treat people living with developmental
facilities or clinics help to assess, evaluate disabilities. Developmental psychologists
may also work in assisted living homes for
the elderly, hospitals, mental health clinics
and centres for the homeless.
TABLE: COMPARISON OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
Development refers to overall changes in
Growth refers to physiological
theindividual. It involves changes in anorderlyand
changes.
coherent type towards the goal of maturity.
Changes in the quantitative respect is Development changes in thequality along with

termed as growth. quantitative aspect.
Growth does not continuethroughout

Development continuesthroughout life.
life.
Growth stops aftermaturation. Development is progressive.
Growth occurs due to the Development occurs due to both maturation and
multiplication of cells. interaction with the environment.
Growth is cellular. Development isorganizational.
Growth is one of the parts of the

Development is a wider and comprehensive term.
developmental process.
Growth may be referred to describe

the changes in particular aspects of Development describes the changes in the
the body and behavior of the organism as a whole.
organism.
The changes produced by growth are Development brings qualitative changes which are
subjects of measurements. They may difficult to measure directly. They are assessed
be quantified and observable in through keen observation of behavior in different
nature. situations.
Growth may or may not bring

Development is possible without growth.
development.
Tenets of a life span MULTIDIRECTIONAL: Humans

perspective/Characteristics of development change in many directions. We may
(Baltes, 1987) show gains in some areas of
development, while showing losses in
DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG: other areas. Every change, whether it is
Lifespan theorists believe that development finishing high school, getting married,
is life-long, and change is apparent across or becoming a parent, entails both
the lifespan. No singl age period is more growth and loss.
crucial, characterizes, or dominates human 3. DEVELOPMENT IS AN
development. Consequently, the term INTERACTIVE
lifespan development will be used PROCESS:Intersection between the
throughout the textbook. environment and the individual
2. DEVELOPMENT IS
DEVELOPMENTISMULTIDIMEN specific age-grade share particular

SIONAL: We change across three experiences and developmental
generaldomains/dimensions; physical, changes.
cognitive, and psychosocial. The 2. NORMATIVE HISTORY-
physical domain includes changes in GRADED INFLUENCES: The time
height and weight, sensory capabilities, period in which you are born (see
the nervous system, as well as the Table 1.1) shapes your experiences. A
propensity for disease and illness. The cohort is a group of people who are
cognitive domain encompasses the born at roughly the same period in a
changes in intelligence, wisdom, particular society. These people travel
perception, problem-solving, memory, through life often experiencing similar
and language. The psychosocial circumstances.
domain focuses on changes in 3. NON-NORMATIVE LIFE
emotion,self-perceptionand INFLUENCES: Despite sharing an
interpersonal relationships with age and history with our peers, each of
families, peers, and friends.All three us also has unique experiences that
domains influence each other. It is also may shape our development. A child
important to note that a change in one who loses his/her parent at a young age
domain may cascade and prompt has experienced a life event that is not
changes in the other domains. For typical of the age group.
instance, an infant who has started to
crawl or walk will encounter more FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN
objects and people, thus fostering DEVELOPMENT:
developmental change in the child’s
understanding of the physical and
social world. 1. HEREDITARY FACTORS:
DEVELOPMENTIS Heredity exerts an influence on human
MULTIDISCIPLINARY: As development. The child carries genetic
mentioned at the start of the chapter, endowments from his/her parents. It is
human development is such a vast genetically transmitted characteristics
topic of study that it requires the from one generation to the next. The
theories, research methods, and physical characteristics like height,
knowledge base of many academic weight, eye color etc. and psychological
disciplines. characteristics such as intelligence,
DEVELOPMENTIS personality, creativity and soon are
CHARACTERIZED BY innately determined and hereditary. The
PLASTICITY: Plasticity is all about genetic code provides the base on
our ability to change and that many of which brain and body grow and
our characteristics are malleable. For manifest in observable appearance and
instance, plasticity is illustrated in the behavior.
brain’s ability to learn from experience
and how it can recover from injury. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
DEVELOPMENT IS MULTI- Another important factor of human
CONTEXTUAL:Development occurs development is the environment
in many contexts. where an individual lives. The child
lives and grows in his environment.
Environment consists of a wide
Baltes(1987) identified three specific range of stimuli and it provides the
contextual influences. necessary input and experiential base
for development of the child.
Enrichment or impoverishment of
NORMATIVE AGE-GRADED
the environment would produce
INFLUENCES: An age-grade is a
specific age group, such as toddler, differences in his abilities. For
adolescent, or senior. Humans in a example, a child may have inherited
music talent from his parents through appreciation for cultural differences
transmission of genes, but he may and the understanding that cultural
not excel in music field if he does practices are best understood from
not get the proper environment and the standpoint of that particular
support to develop his innate ability. culture. The socialization processes
of the child take place according to
HOME ENVIRONMENT: Home the culture, customs and traditions of
environment exerts tremendous the society. For example, greeting
influence on child’s understanding of someone is a familiar experience but
the external world. It builds self- behavioral experiences are different
concept and prepares him to face the
in different cultures. In Indian
external world. The child begins to
culture, people greet others by saying
acquire knowledge through namaskar, folding hands or lying
interaction with parents and down near the feet but in Western
otherfamilymembers.Duringhisearly culture, people greet by handshake or
yearsofdevelopment,thebehaviorsoft kissing or saying hello etc.
hechildare modulated by the home
environment. The environment of the
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
family can be supportive or stressful
(SES): Socioeconomic Status plays a
for the child. If it is supportive,
pivotal role in human development.
warm and harmonious environment,
The index of socioeconomic status is
the child develops normally. In
determined by parental education,
unsupportive and stressful home
occupation and income. The children
environment, broken families or
of low socioeconomic status may
uncaring parents in the family,
develop as mal- nourished, suffer
children may develop as mal-
from lack of knowledge in many
adjusted persons.
aspects and the normal development
may get hampered. The parenting in
CULTURAL FACTORS: Culture high socioeconomic status families
is the totality of our shared would be different from low socio-
language, knowledge, material economic status families. Children
objects, and behavior. Culture fro of the high socioeconomic
teaches us how to live in a society groups of the society get better
and allows us to advance because social opportunities, are nurtured
each new generation can benefit with better nutrition, good medical
from the solutions found and passed treatment and are exposed to more
down from previous generations. intellectual stimulation than low
Culture is learned from parents, socioeconomic group.
schools, houses of worship, media, NORMATIVE INFLUENCES:
friends and others throughout a Normative influences occur in a
lifetime. The kinds of traditions and
similar way for majority of people in
values that evolve in a particular
a particular group. These influences
culture serve to help members
may be biological or environmental.
function and value their own society.
For example, biological events like
We tend to believe that our own
sexual maturity or deterioration in old
culture’s practices and expectations
age. Environmental events, like
are the right ones. This belief that
entering the school at about 6 yrs. of
our own culture is superior is called
age, parenthood etc. have the same
ethnocentrism and is a normal by-
influences on
product of growing up in a culture. It
individuals.Mostofthepeopleofthesa
becomes a roadblock, however,
meage,atsameplaceandtimeandgener
when it inhibits understanding of
ationhave common biological and
cultural practices from other
environmental influences such as
societies. Cultural relativity is an
floods, famines and other natural year-old. A 70- year-old might be

disasters.Non- travelling to new countries, taking
normativeinfluencesincludetheunusu courses at college, or starting a new
allifeeventsinanindividual’slife.For business. Compared to others of our
example, death of a parent when a age group, we may be more or less
child is young or birth defectsetc. adaptive and excited to meet new
challenges. Remember you are as
EDUCATION AND TRAINING: young or old as you feel.
Each child is equipped with certain
abilities which need to be nurtured
through proper education and
SOCIAL AGE: Our social age is
training. Therefore, the first and
based on the social norms of our
foremost step is to identify and
culture and the expectations our
recognize the ability of the child and
culture has for people of our age
the next step is to provide adequate
group. Our culture often reminds us
opportunities to develop the same. If
whether we are “on target” or “off
proper identification of the ability is
target” for reaching certain social
not possible and
milestones, such as completing our
adequatefacilitiesarenotavailabletoth
education, moving away from home,
echild,thenhisinnateabilitymaynotbe
having children, or retiring from work.
developed. Thus, adequate education
However, there have been arguments
and training have influence on
that social age is becoming less
human development.
relevant in the 21st century
(Neugarten, 1979; 1996). If you look
CONCEPTIONS OF AGE around at your fellow students in your
courses at college you might notice
more people who are older than the
1. CHRONOLOGICAL AGE:The more traditional aged college students,
number of years that have elapsed those 18 to 25. Similarly, the age at
since a person’s birth. which people are moving away from
the home of their parents, starting their
BIOLOGICAL AGE: Another way careers, getting married or having
developmental researcher can think children, or even whether they get
about the concept of age is to examine married or have children at all, is
how quickly the body is aging, this is changing.
your biological age. Several factors
determine the rate at which our body ISSUES IN LIFESPAN
ages. Our nutrition, level of physical DEVELOPMENT
activity, sleeping habits, smoking,
alcohol consumption, how we mentally
handle stress, and the genetic history of NATURE AND NURTURE: Why are
our ancestors, to name but a few. you the way you are? As you consider
some of your features (height, weight,
personality, being diabetic, etc.), ask
PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE: Our yourself whether these features are a result
psychologically adaptive capacity of heredity or environmental factors, or
compared to others of our both. Chances are, you can see the ways in
chronological age is our psychological which both heredity and environmental
age. This includes our cognitive factors (such as lifestyle, diet, and so on)
capacity along with our emotional have contributed to these features. For
beliefs about how old we are. An decades, scholars have carried on the
individual who has cognitive "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular
impairments might be 20 years of age, feature, those on the side of nature would
yet has the mental capacity of an 8- argue that heredity plays the most
important role in bringing about that developmental path? Are you at the whim
feature. Those on the side of nurture of your genetic inheritance or the
would argue that one's environment is environment that surrounds you? Some
most significant in shaping the way we are. theorists see humans as playing a much
This debate continues in all aspects of more active role in their own development.
human development, and most scholars Piaget, for instance believed that children
agree that there is a constant interplay actively explore their world and construct
between the two forces. It is difficult to new ways of thinking to explain the things
isolate the root of any single behavior as a they experience. In contrast, many
result solely of nature or nurture. behaviorists view humans as being more
passive in the developmental process.
CONTINUITY VERSUS
DISCONTINUITY: Is human
development best characterized as a slow, STABILITY VERSUS CHANGE: How
gradual process, or is it best viewed as one similar are you to how you were as a
of more abrupt change? The answer to that child? Were you always as out-going or
question often depends on which reserved as you are now? Some theorists
developmental theorist you ask and what argue that the personality traits of adults
topic is being studied. The theories of are rooted in the behavioral and emotional
Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are tendencies of the infant and young child.
called stage theories. Stage theories or Others disagree, and believe that these
discontinuous development assume that initial tendencies are modified by social
developmental change often occurs in and cultural forces over
distinct stages that are qualitatively
different from each other, and in a set,
universal sequence. At each stage of
development, children and adults have
different qualities and characteristics.
Thus, stage theorists assume development
is more discontinuous. Others, such as the
behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information
processing theorists, assume development
is a more slow and gradual process known
as continuous development. For instance,
they would see the adult as not possessing
new skills, but more advanced skills that
were already present in some form in the
child. Brain development and
environmental experiences contribute to
the acquisition of more developed skills.
ACTIVE VERSUS PASSIVE: How

much do you play a role in your own
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
• In the original sin view: especially advocated during the Middle
Ages, children were perceived as being basically bad, born into
1. Original Sin the world as evil beings.
• The goal of child rearing was salvation, which was believed to
remove sin from the child’s life
• Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the tabula rasa view
was proposed by English philosopher John Locke.
• He argued that children are not innately bad.
• children are like a “blank tablet/slate”,
2. Tabula Rasa • They acquire their characteristics through experience.
• Locke believed that childhood experiences are important in
determining adult characteristics.
• He advised parents to spend time with their children and help
them become contributing members of society.
• In the eighteenth century, the innate goodness view was
presented by Swiss-born French philosopher Jean-Jacques

Innate Goodness:
Rousseau.
3. children are
• He stressed that children are inherently good. Rousseau said that
inherently good
because children are basically good, they should be permitted to
grow naturally with little parental monitoring or constraint.
RESEARCH DESIGNS FOR

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
1. THE LONGITUDINAL DESIGN.

PARTICIPANTS are studied
repeatedly, and changes are noted as
they get older.
The time spanned may be relatively
short (a few months to several years)
or very long (a decade or even a
lifetime).
2 major strengths:
For instance,by tracing how children’s

 It tracks the performance of each vocabularies increase on a day-by-day
person over time, researchers can basis, researchers have been ableto
identify common patterns as well understand the processes that underlie the
as individual differences in human ability to become competent in
 development. using language(Gershkoff-Stowe & Hahn,
 Longitudinalstudiespermit 2007; Oliver & Plomin, 2007; Childers,
investigators to examine 2009; Fagan, 2009)
relationships between early and
later events and behaviors.
LIMITATIONS
The granddaddy of longitudinal studies, a
classic study, is a study of giftedchildren Participants moving away or Dropping
begun by Lewis Terman about 80 years out
ago. In the study—which has yet to be Changes the original sample: questions
concluded—a group of 1,500 children with of generalizability
high IQs were tested about every 5 years. Becoming test wise (practice effect)/
Now in their 80s, the participants—who becoming aware of one’s own
call themselves “Termites”—have T/F/A due to repeated
provided information on everything from testing/questioning (age related
intellectual accomplishment to personality change not being reflected)
and longevity (Feldhusen, 2003; Cohort effect: Individuals born in the
McCullough, Tsang, &Brion, 2003; same time period are influenced by a
Subotnik, 2006). particular set of historical and
cultural conditions. Results based on
one cohort may not apply to people
Longitudinal research has also provided developing in other times.
great insight into language development.
of people differing in age are studied at

the same point in time.
 An 
efficient strategy for describing age-
2. THE CROSS-SECTIONAL related trends.
DESIGN Participants are measured only once.
Hence no concern about as participant
The length of time it
takes for many dropout or practice effects.
behaviors to change 
In the cross-sectional design, groups

Does not provide evidence about
development at the level at which it
LIMITATIONS  actually occurs: the  individual
(Kraemer et al., 2000). 
Comparisons are limited to age-group
averages. Within individual changes 3. SEQUENTIAL DESIGNS

cannot be analysed.  Utilizing the strengths of both the designs
 Cannot 
tell if important individual
differences exist.
 Examining a number of different age
Indeed, longitudinal findings reveal groups at several points in time.
that adolescents vary considerably in Conducting several similar cross-
the changing quality of their sibling  (called
sectional or longitudinal studies
sequences) at varying times.
relationships. Although many become 
more distant, others become more
supportive and intimate, and still others  ADVANTAGES:
more rivalrous and antagonistic We can find out whether cohort
 (Branje et al., 2004; 
Dunn, effects are operating by comparing
Slomkowski, & Beardsall, 1994).
Cross-sectional studies—especially participants of the same age who were
 threatened by cohortwide
those that cover a agecan be born in different years. E.g., we can
effects. compare the three longitudinal samples
 differ, we can rule out cohort effects.
For example, comparisons of 10-year- at ages 20, 30, and 40. If they do not
old cohorts, 20-year-old cohorts, and
30-yearold cohorts—groups born and We can make longitudinal and cross-
reared in different years—may not sectional comparisons.If outcomes are
really represent age-related changes. similar in both, then we can be
Instead, they may reflect unique especially confident about our
experiences associated with the findings.
historical period in which  the age
groups were growing up.
social studies of childhood’

(James, Jenks, and Prout, 1998)
and the children’s right discourse
Issues of research in Life Span (the United Nations Conventions
Development: Methodological & Ethical on the Rights of the Child, 1989
(1); the Children’s Act, 2004),
PERCEPTION OF CHILDREN children are now viewed as social
actors who are ‘experts’ on their
Until relatively recently, research was
own lives (e.g. Mauthner, 1997;
fundamentally on children, rather
Kellett and Ding, 2004).
than with children or for children
(Mayall, 2000; O’Kane,
2000; Darbyshire et al., 2005). METHODOLOGICAL SHIFT
Historically, children were seen as Emergence of new ‘participatory’
objects to be studied, being research methodologies, the
regarded as incompetent, unreliable adaptation of more traditional
and incomplete (e.g. Barker and methods, such as observation and
Weller, 2003). questionnaires (Punch, 2002), and
With the emergence of the ‘new the development of multi-method
approaches, such as the ‘mosaic and for all it is a fact of research, as it is of

approach’, developed by Clark life, that many of the problems we identify
and Moss (2001). and views which we hold today will be
In recent years, children have started challenged by future generations and
to become involved in the various surpassed as different questions and
stages of the research process, approaches to research emerge.
such as formulating the research
questions, planning the
methodology, collecting and/or DIVERSITY OF CHILDREN
analysingdata,drafting PARTICIPANTS
recommendations and Pattman and Kehily remind us that it is
disseminating findings (Coad and essential that researchers think carefully
Evans, 2008). This has involved about the suitability of their
differing levels of control-sharing methodological approach, given the
and of participation in the research diversity of participants.
process (Brownlie et al., 2006;
Alderson, 2000; McNeish, 1999).
GAINING ACCESS AND SEEKING

POWER RELATIONS
CONSENT:
Fraser (2004) argues for the
importance of ‘research with…’
rather than ‘research on…’Children When undertaking research with
and young people can be involved children, researchers must gain the co-
is as active participants, like operation of a range of different
children and young people actually ‘gatekeepers’, such as school staff and
carrying out the research(for parents (Cree et al., 2002).
example interviewing other Informed consent should be freely
children or young people. Our given (without coercion, threat or
beliefs about the competence of persuasion) by children who can make
children and young people and how an appropriately informed decision.
these affect research, questions of Competent minors less than 16 years old
power relations, and who should of age can give consent, with
provide consent competence being defined as having
Robinson and Kellett (2004), Jones enough knowledge to understand what is
(2004) point out, when children proposed and enough discretion to be
and young people become co- able to make a wise decision in light of
researchers in a project this can be one’s own interests (Alderson and
genuinely empowering. Involving Morrow, 2004).
children and young people as co- It has often been assumed that
researchers raises additional issues, ‘children are not competent enough to
such as ensuring that the research give their informed consent, that this
activities and arrangements are needs to be gained from a ‘more
appropriate for the child competent adult’ and the simpler level
researchers and considering the of ‘assent’ (agreement to participate) is
consequences for the children when sufficient from the child’ (Kellet and
they cease being researchers. Ding, 2004).
Some researchers have questioned this
assumption and claim that children are
EVER CHANGING CONTEXT AND
fully capable of giving their informed
RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH consent.
FINDINGS: Cocks (2006) argues that the notion of
Fashions and trends shift and change in consent might exclude some children,
research and while we may believe that we such as disabled or refugee children,
have identified and solved a problem once since it might not always be possible to
obtain in those particular contexts. (L121/34) from 2001 advised that

She endorses the concept of ‘assent’ paying children to take part in research
(their like or dislike in participating) should be illegal (Cree et al., 2002)
as a sensitive and appropriate option to
include all children in research on REWARDS
issues that affect them, and argues that
the notion of ‘assent’ ‘removes the Payments should be given as an
reliance on the child demonstrating acknowledgement of the participants’
adult-centric attributes such as time and contribution. (Children in
maturity, competence and Scotland, 2001)
completeness’ Cree and others (2002) decided not to
pay or give vouchers to the participants
in their research, but to offer them a
CONFIDENTIALITY AND CHILD pack of paper and pens as a sign of their
PROTECTION ISSUES gratitude. In contrast, Bushin
Parents’ curiosity and concern for their (2007) decided to give a ‘thank you’
child as well as child protection voucher to children, but only informed
regulations. them about the voucher during the
Children might reveal that they are interviews with them, rather than prior
seriously harmed or ill-treated/abused, to participating in the research, since
or the researcher, when interviewing a that might have acted as an incentive.
child, might identify a medical
condition or learning difficulty which
USE OF DECEPTION:
the parents could take action about.
Children should be informed about the
limitations of confidentiality before When is deception acceptable? Never,
participating in the research in order to if there is another way to elicit and
enable them to give fully informed study the behaviour.
consent (Williamson et al, 2005). If deception is a critical element of the
This could ‘be expressed as the research, however, the importance of
difference between what can be ‘just the research is paramount in
between you and me’ and what may determining if deception is acceptable.
need to be told to others ‘to stop Debriefing is necessary to fulfil our
someonefromgettinghurt’’ responsibility to the rights of subjects.
(Thompson and Rudolph, 2000: 35) It is intended to remove any
unwarranted negative effects of
DATA COLLECTION: DEBRIEFING participation, especially when stress
AND REWARDS and deception are involved.
Even when there is no stress and
DEBRIEFING virtually no possibility of harm to
subjects, debriefing is included as a
After the interview, it might be standard part of experimental
appropriate to have some debriefing procedure.
(Clark, 2005), and suitable support
might be needed in cases where the TECHNIQUES, METHODS AND
participants’ feelings may become TOOLS WHEN RESEARCHING
overwhelming (Kay et al., 2003). CHILDREN
Giving payments (whether cash or Various methods and techniques have
vouchers) to participants is a somewhat been used when conducting research with
controversial issue. children. However, it has been argued that
Payments can pressurise people into researchers need to critically reflect on the
taking part in the research and into
saying what they think researchers
want to hear. An EU Directive
methods and techniques they use and the source of pleasure at the particular
ways they use them (Barker and Weller, stage. Theyare:
2003; Sanders and Munford, 2005). The
ORAL STAGE (BIRTH TO 18
methodology chosen needs to match the
MONTHS):Itbeginsatbirthand
research questions of the project, respect
extend till12to18months.
limitations of time and resources, be
Inthisstagethemouthistheprimaryorga
sensitive and ethical, and consider the
nofgivingpleasure.Theexperienceofth
particular characteristics and needs of the
e child and mother relationship has
participants, as well as the cultural and
an impact on unconscious mind of
physical setting where it takes place (e.g.
the child. This stage relates to the
Christensen and Prout, 2002; Punch, 2002a
activities like feeding, crying,
teething, biting and thumb sucking,
etc.
THEORIES OF HUMAN ANAL STAGE (18 MONTHS TO
DEVELOPMENT 3 YEARS):The child gets sensual
gratification from withholding
andexpellingfecesduringthisstage.An
usisthechiefsourceofpleasure. The
child’s real experiences during this
stage have an impact upon the
FREUDIAN MODEL OF unconscious and behaviors. Pleasure
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES derived from body parts are the
centre of the world during this stage.
Sigmund Freud (1953, 1964a, 1964b) PHALLIC STAGE (3 TO 6
proposed that people are born with YEARS): During this period the
biological drives that must be child derives pleasure from genital
redirected so as to live in society. The region. Many of the normal sexual
personality of the child is formed in behaviour of human personality
childhood, as children deal with develop in this period. The child’s
unconscious conflicts between these sexual longing is intensified at this
inborn urges and the requirements of time. This is the stage in which
civilized life. These conflicts occur in conflicts related to reproductive
an unvarying sequence of five issues areresolved.
maturational based stages of
psychosexual development, in different LATENCY STAGE (6 TO
stages of development, sexual pleasure PUBERTY):This stage is a stage of
shifts from one body zone to another, learning skills rather than a
i.e. from the mouth to the anus and then psychosexual stage. There is no
to the genitals. sexual development takes place
during this period.
According to Sigmund Freud there are Thisisthetimeofrelativecalmbetween
five stages of development. Freud moreturbulentstages.Previousexperie
believed that nces, fears and conditioning have
personalityisformedinfirstthreestagesw shaped many of the child’s feelings
hichincludesfirstfewyearsoflife,aschildr andattitudes.
endeal
withconflictsbetweentheirbiological,sex
uallyrelatedurgesandthepressuresofthes
ociety. At each stage there a change in
the main source of gratification. Each
stage is characterized
byatypicalpleasuregainingbehavioraswe
llasaconflictduetothesocialpressures.Th
ese stages are named according to the
Genital Stage (Puberty onwards): Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage

This the time of mature adult theorist who took Freud’s controversial
sexuality. In this stage many theory of psychosexual development and
hormonal and physical changes take modified it as a psychosocial theory.
place. Children are engaged in sex- Erikson emphasized that the ego makes
Basic Virtue &

Erikson's Second Named Maladaptation
Freudian
Psychosocial Strength / Malignancy
Psycho- Life Stage / Relationships /
Crisis Stages (Potential (Potential Negative
sexual Issues
(Syntonic v Positive Outcome from Each
Stages
Dystonic) Outcomes from Crisis)
Each Crisis)
infant / mother / feeding and
Trust v Sensory Distortion
Mistrust Oral being comforted, teething, Hope and Drive / Withdrawal
sleeping
Autonomy v toddler / parents / bodily

Willpower and Impulsivity
Shame & Anal functions, toilet training,
Doubt muscular control, walking Self-Control / Compulsion
preschool
Initiative v Purpose and Ruthlessness
Phallic / family / exploration and
Guilt discovery, adventure and play Direction / Inhibition
schoolchild / school,
Industry v teachers, friends, Competence Narrow Virtuosity
Latency
Inferiority neighborhood / achievement and Method / Inertia
and accomplishment
adolescent / peers, groups,
Identity v Puberty
influences / resolving identity Fidelity and Fanaticism
Role and
and direction, becoming a Devotion / Repudiation
Confusion Genitality grown-up
young adult / lovers, friends,

Intimacy v work connections / intimate Love and Promiscuity
Isolation Genitality relationships, work and social Affiliation / Exclusivity
life
mid-adult / children,
Generativity Care and Overextension
- community / 'giving back',
v Stagnation helping, contributing Production / Rejectivity
Integrity v late adult / society, the world, Wisdom and Presumption

- life / meaning and purpose,
Despair Renunciation / Disdain
life achievements
related thoughts and feelings. positive contributions to development by
Narcissism takes place during mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at
thisstage. each stage of development.
This mastery helps children grow into
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF successful, contributing members of
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT society. During each of Erikson’s eight
stages, there is a psychological conflict
that must be successfully overcome in also motivates behaviors and actions. Each
order for a child to develop into a healthy, stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned
well-adjusted adult. with becoming competent in an area of
According to Erikson, a person passes life. If the stage is handled well, the person
through eight developmental stages that will feel a sense of mastery, which he
build on each other. At each stage we face sometimes referred to as ego strength or
a crisis. By resolving the crisis, we ego quality. 2 If the stage is managed
develop psychological strengths or poorly, the person will emerge with a
character traits that help us become sense of inadequacy. In each stage,
confident and healthy people. One of the Erikson believed people experience a
main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial conflict that serves as a turning point in
stage theory is the development of ego development. In Erikson’s view, these
identity. 1 Ego identity is the conscious conflicts are centered on either developing
sense of self that we develop through a psychological quality or failing to
social interaction. According to Erikson, develop that quality. During these times,
our ego identity is constantly changing due the potential for personal growth is high,
to new experience and information we but so is the potential for failure.
acquire in our daily interactions with
others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson
also believed that a sense of competence
and doubt by working to establish
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST independence. This is the “me do it” stage.
For example, we might observe a budding
sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
From birth to 12 months of age, infants wants to choose her clothes and dress herself.
must learn that adults can be trusted. This Although her outfits might not be appropriate
for the situation, her input in such basic
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
needs for survival. Infants are dependent independence. If denied the opportunity to act
on her environment, she may begin to doubt
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who her abilities, which could lead to low self-
are responsive and sensitive to their esteem and feelings of shame.
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world 3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive
caregivers who do not meet their baby’s Once children reach the preschool stage
needs can engender feelings of anxiety, (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the initiating activities and asserting control
world as unpredictable. If infants are over their world through social
treated cruelly or their needs are not met interactions and play. According to
appropriately, they will likely grow up Erikson, preschool children must resolve
with a sense of mistrust for people in the the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning
world. to plan and achieve goals while interacting
with others, preschool children can master
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition
and responsibility, occurs when parents
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to allow a child to explore within limits and
explore their world, they learn that they then support the child’s choice. These
can control their actions and act on their children will develop self-confidence and
environment to get results. They begin to feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
show clear preferences for certain
elements of the environment, such as food,
toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is
to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame
unsuccessful at this stage—with their 6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

initiative misfiring or stifled by over-
controlling parents—may develop feelings People in early adulthood (20s through
of guilt. early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY of self in adolescence, we are ready to
share our life with others. However, if
During the elementary school stage (ages other stages have not been successfully
6–12), children face the task of industry vs. resolved, young adults may have trouble
inferiority. Children begin to compare developing and maintaining successful
themselves with their peers to see how relationships with others. Erikson said that
they measure up. They either develop a we must have a strong sense of self before
sense of pride and accomplishment in their we can develop successful intimate
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and relationships. Adults who do not develop a
family life, or they feel inferior and positive self-concept in adolescence may
inadequate because they feel that they experience feelings of loneliness and
don’t measure up. If children do not learn emotional isolation.
to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an 7. GENERATIVITY VS.
inferiority complex might develop into STAGNATION
adolescence and adulthood.
When people reach their 40s, they enter
5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE the time known as middle adulthood,
CONFUSION which extends to the mid-60s. The social
task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face stagnation. Generativity involves finding
the task of identity vs. role confusion. your life’s work and contributing to the
According to Erikson, an adolescent’s development of others through activities
main task is developing a sense of self. such as volunteering, mentoring, and
Adolescents struggle with questions such raising children. During this stage, middle-
as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do aged adults begin contributing to the next
with my life?” Along the way, most generation, often through childbirth and
adolescents try on many different selves to caring for others; they also engage in
see which ones fit; they explore various meaningful and productive work which
roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to contributes positively to society. Those
discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who do not master this task may
who are successful at this stage have a experience stagnation and feel as though
strong sense of identity and are able to they are not leaving a mark on the world in
remain true to their beliefs and values in a meaningful way; they may have little
the face of problems and other people’s connection with others and little interest in
perspectives. When adolescents are productivity and self-improvement.
apathetic, do not make a conscious search
for identity, or are pressured to conform to 8. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
their parents’ ideas for the future, they may
develop a weak sense of self and From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are
experience role confusion. They will be in the period of development known as
unsure of their identity and confused about late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage
the future. Teenagers who struggle to is called integrity vs. despair. He said that
adopt a positive role will likely struggle to people in late adulthood reflect on their
“find” themselves as adults. lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction
or a sense of failure. People who feel
proud of their accomplishments feel a
sense of integrity, and they can look back
on their lives with few regrets. However, following his or her crying is more likely
people who are not successful at this stage to employ crying behavior in the future.
may feel as if their life has been wasted. Or, an individual who has experienced
They focus on what “would have,” “should ridicule following his or her initiation of a
have,” and “could have” been. They face social contact may soon employ
the end of their lives with feelings of withdrawal and isolation as a
bitterness, depression, and despair. developmental coping style. A second
behavioral approach to the explanation of
the influence of environment on
BEHAVIORISM THEORY development is that initially presented by
Albert Bandura (1997, 2008) as social
learning theory. Bandura’s model
Whereas,Erikson introduced
expanded the classic behavioral theory to
heimportanceofsocialcontexttodevelopmen
include cognitive
t,theBehavioralTheory, at least in its
elements.Bandura’sworkemphasizedtheim
classical form, placed nearly sole emphasis
portanceofobservationallearning(also
on the impact of environment, experience,
called imitation or modeling). For
and learning about the unfolding
example, consider the situation of a child
development of the human condition. This
who was raised in an environment where
orientation can best be illustrated by a
there was much domestic arguing and
quote offered by John B. Watson (1878–
physical violence and the employment of
1985), deemed the father of American
alcohol as a stress- reducing strategy.
Behaviorism.Watson’semphasisontheroleo
Raised in this setting and observing these
fenvironmentintheshapingofhumandevelop
social exchanges and coping styles, the
mentis concretized in his statement “Give
child, according to social learning theory,
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed,
would be very likely to model the
and my own specified
observed behavior and engage in similar
worldtobringthemupinandIwillguaranteetot
domestic violence and alcohol
akeanyoneatrandomandtrainhimtobecomea
usebehaviors.
ny type of specialist I might select... doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief... According to Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, and
and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, Pastorelli (2001), social learning is connected to
regardless of his talents, penchants, perceptions and interpretations of the individual’s
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of experience. Self-efficacy, the belief that personal
his ancestors” (Watson, 1998, p.82). That
achievement depends on one’s actions, teaches
is quite a guarantee and clearly highlights
the valuing and people to have high aspirations and to strive for
focusesthisbehavioristplacedontheroleofen notable accomplishments when they see others
vironment,experience,andlearninginthecre solve problems successfully. This premise is
ationof the humancondition. contrary to Behavioral Theory, which holds that
Two main themes or forms of behavioral theory behavior depends on associations between one
have been presented in explaining how the stimulus and
environment has such a formational impact. One anotherandalsoassumesthatallbehaviorsrea
proffered by B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) suggested ctfromachainoflearnedresponses.Incontrast ,social
that behavior was formed, or shaped, as a result of learning maintains that behaviors come from
the consequences experienced. His operant people acting on the stimulation of theenvironment.
conditioning model argued that behavior followed
by a rewarding stimulus would be more likely to
recurandendurethanthatfollowedbyapunish COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ingconsequence(Cohen,1987;Skinner,1974 ).Thus, THEORY (JEAN PIAGET)
an infant who experiences the comfort of being
picked up and cradled Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist was
particularly concerned with the way
thinking develops in children from birth world, which we use both to understand
till they become young adults. To and to respond to situations. The
understand the nature of this development, assumption is that we store these mental
Piaget carefully observed the behavior of representations and apply them when
his own three kids. He used to present needed.
problems to them, observe responses
Piaget believed that newborn babies have
slightly after the situations and again
a small number of innate schemas - even
observe their responses. Piaget called this
before they have had many opportunities
method of exploring development clinical
to experience the world. These neonatal
interview. Piaget believed that humans
schemas are the cognitive structures
also adapt to their physical and social
underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes
environments in which they live.
are genetically programmed into us.For
THERE ARE THREE BASIC example, babies have a sucking reflex,
COMPONENTS TO PIAGET'S which is triggered by something touching
COGNITIVE THEORY: the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple,
a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger.
1. Schemas- (building blocks of Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby
knowledge). has a 'sucking schema.'
2. Adaptation processes that enable the Similarly, the grasping reflex which is
transition from one stage to another
elicited when something touches the palm
(equilibrium, assimilation, and of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in
accommodation). which a baby will turn its head towards
Stages of Cognitive Development- something which touches its cheek, are
innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be
sensorimotor, the combination of two schemas, grasping
preoperational, and shaking.
concrete operational,
formal operational.
ASSIMILATION AND
ACCOMMODATION
SCHEMAS
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth,
Schemas are the basic building blocks of 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a
such cognitive models, and enable us to process of adaptation (adjustment) to the
form a mental representation of the world. world. This happens through:
Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as:"a ASSIMILATION: Which is using an
cohesive, repeatable action sequence existing schema to deal with a new
possessing component actions that are object or situation.Example: A 2-year-
tightly interconnected and governed by a old child sees a man who is bald on top
core meaning." of his head and has long frizzy hair on
the sides. To his father’s horror, the
When Piaget talked about the development toddler shouts “Clown,  clown”
of a person's mental processes, he was  (Siegler et al., 2003).
referring to increases in the number and
complexity of the schemata that a person ACCOMMODATION: This happens
had learned.When a child's existing when the existing schema (knowledge)
schemas are capable of explaining what it does not work, and needs to be
can perceive around it, it is said to be in a changed to deal with a new object or
state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of situation. Example: In the “clown”
cognitive (i.e., mental) balance. incident, the boy’s father explained to
his son that the man was not a clown
Piaget emphasized the importance of and that even though his hair was like
schemas in cognitive development and a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny 
described how they were developed or costume and wasn’t doing silly things
acquired. A schema can be defined as a set
of linked mental representations of the
to make people laugh.With this new PIAGET'S 4 STAGES OF

knowledge, the boy was able to change COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
his schema of “clown” and make this
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
idea fit better to a standard concept of
development suggests that children move
“clown”.
through four different stages of intellectual
EQUILIBRATION- This is the force development which reflect the increasing
which moves development along. sophistication of children's thought
Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a His theory focuses on understanding how
steady rate, but rather in leaps and children acquire knowledge regarding
bounds. It occurs when a child's fundamental concepts such as object
schemas can deal with most new permanence, number, categorization,
information through assimilation. quantity, causality, and justice.
However, an unpleasant state of Piaget's four stages of cognitive
disequilibrium occurs when new development include:
information cannot be fitted into
existing schemas (assimilation). It is Sensorimotor: Birth to ages 18-24
the force which drives the learning months.
process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore Preoperational: Toddlerhood (18-24
balance by mastering the new months) through early childhood (age 7).
challenge (accommodation). Once the Concrete operational: Ages 7 to 11
new information is acquired the years.
process of assimilation with the new
schema will continue until the next Formal operational: Adolescence to
adulthood.Each child goes through the
time we need to make an adjustment to
it. stages in the same order, and child
development is determined by biological
maturation and interaction with the
environment.
1.SENSORIMOTOR STAGE- This stage

begins at birth and lasts till the child is
about 2 years old. It is called Sensorimotor Pretend Play: Pretending is a favorite

Stage, because children’s thinking activity at this time. A toy has qualities
involves seeing, hearing, moving, beyond the way it was designed to function
touching, testing and so on. This stage and can now be used to stand for a
marks a transitional stage for a person character or object unlike anything
from a biological to a psychological being. originally intended. A teddy bear, for
In the first few weeks of life the baby’s example, can be a baby or the queen of a
behavior consists simply of reflex faraway land. Piaget believed that
responses, such as sucking, stepping and children’s pretend play helped children
solidify new schemata they were
grasping. Later the reflex disappears and
developing cognitively. This play, then,
the baby chooses what and when to grasp. reflected changes in their conceptions or
During this period the infants attain the thoughts. However, children also learn as
concept of object permeance. This refers they pretend and experiment. Their play
to the understanding that objects and
events continue to exist even when they
 what they have
does not simply represent
learned (Berk, 2007).
cannot directly be seen, heard or touched.
Till this kind of understanding is achieved, 
an object that is out of sight remains out of Egocentrism: Egocentrism in early
mind and therefore, becomes non-existent. childhood refers to the tendency of young
children not to be able to take the
A second major accomplishment in the perspective of others, and instead the child
Sensorimotor period is learning to reverse thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels
actions. E.g., we give a toy to a child that just as they do. An egocentric child is not
has ten detachable parts. We detach all able to infer the perspective of other
parts. Through trial and error, the child people and instead attributes his own
gradually learns to attach all the parts of perspective to situations. For example, ten-
the toy. year-old Keiko’s birthday is coming up, so
her mom takes 3-year-old Kenny to the toy
store to choose a present for his sister. He
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 TO 7 selects an Iron Man action figure for her,
YEARS)-The preoperational period is thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister
divided into two stages: will too.
The Symbolic Function Substage occ urs

between 2 and 4 years of age and is
characterized by the child being able to
mentally represent an object that is not
present and a dependence  on
 perception in problem solving.
 The lasting 
Intuitive ThoughtSub-stage,
from 4 to 7
years is marked by greater dependence
 on intuitivethinking rather than
just perception (Thomas, 1979). At this
stage, children ask many questions as
they attempt to understand the world
around them using immature
reasoning. Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism
involved showing children a three-
Let’s examine some of Piaget’s assertions dimensional model of a mountain and asking
about children’s cognitive abilities at this them to describe what a doll that is
age.
looking at the mountain from a different However, even younger children when
angle might see. Children tend to choose a speaking to others tend to use different
picture that represents their own, rather sentence structures and vocabulary when
than the doll’s view. By age 7 children are addressing a younger child or an older
less self-centered. adult. This indicates some awareness of
the views of others.
level and asked if they have the same

Conservation of Liquid. Does pouring amount. Usually the child agrees they
liquid in a tall, narrow container make have the same amount.
it have more? 
Conservation The experimenter then pours the liquid
Errors: Conservation refers to the in one glass to a taller and thinner
ability to recognize that moving or glass (as shown in b). The child is
rearranging matter does not change the again asked if the two glasses have the
quantity. Let’s look at Kenny and same amount of liquid. The
Keiko again. Dad gave a slice of pizza preoperational child will typically say
to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice the taller glass now has more liquid
to 3-year-old Kenny. Kenny’s pizza because it is taller (as shown in c). The
slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny child has centrated on the height of the
told his sister that he got more pizza glass and fails to conserve.
than she did. Kenny did not understand
that cutting the pizza into smaller Classification Errors: Preoperational
children have difficulty understanding
pieces did not increase the overall that an object can be classified in more
amountexhibited. than one way. For example, if shown
three white buttons and four black
Centration, or focused on only one ch buttons and asked whether there are
aracteristic of an object to the exclusio more black buttons or buttons, the
n of others. Kenny focused on the five child is likely to respond that there are
pieces of pizza to his sister’s one piece more black buttons. They do not
even though the total amount was the consider the general class of buttons.
same. Keiko was able to consider Because children lack these general 
several characteristics of an object than  classes, their reasoning is typically.
just one. Because children have not
developed this understanding of Transductive, that is, making faulty
conservation, they cannot perform inferences from one specific example
 mentaloperations. to another. For example, Piaget’s
daughter Lucienne stated she had not
The classic Piagetian experiment had her nap, therefore it was not
associated with conservation involves afternoon. She did not understand that
liquid (Crain, 2005). As seen in Figure afternoons are a time period and her
4.10, the child is shown two glasses (as nap was just one of many events that
shown in a) which arefilled to the same occurred in the afternoon (Crain,
2005). As the child’s vocabulary

improves and more schemata are EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS:
developed, the ability to classify Piaget’s concept of development process
objects improves. of understanding working of the child’s
 mind can be helpful to those who are
Animism: Animism refers to involved in teaching and other educational
attributing life-like qualities to objects. practices. He says that children pass
The cup is alive, the chair that falls through number of stages before the age of
down and hits the child’s ankle is 14 years and a lot of care should be taken
mean, and the toys need to stay home in child’s training and development. Most
because they are tired. Cartoons of the teachers are now in agreement with
frequently show objects that appear him that it is waste of time to take those
alive and take on lifelike things to children which cannot be
qualities.Young children do seem to experienced through sense organs. When
think that objects that move may be the children form many direct experiences
alive, but after age three, they seldom then only they are in a position to
refer to objects as being alive (Berk, understand the abstract ideas and concept.
2007). Piaget does not like to looking at
education, therefore, the teacher must
always make aneffort to orient education
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL around the child. The most important
STAGE (7 TO 11 YEARS). function of school is to provide good
stimulating environment within the school
At this stage a child is concerned with the for the proper development of their mental
integration of stability of his cognitive abilities. The school should provide good
systems. He learns to add, subtract, library opportunities for free discussions
multiply and divide. He is in a position to and community services. The needs of
classify concrete objects. In short, children adolescents should be given proper place
develop the abilities of rational thinking on the school curriculum.
but their thinking is tied to concrete
objects. At the concrete operational stage,
children are able to use inductive logic – VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL
the type of reasoning that starts from a THEORY OF COGNITIVE
specific idea and leads to a generalization. DEVELOPMENT
They can also distinguish facts from
fantasies, as well as formulate judgements
about cause and effect. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural
Another important milestone at this stage approach to cognitive development. He
is the idea of reversibility – children developed his theories at around the same
understand that some objects can be time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop
altered and then shaped back to their his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at
original shape. For example, a deflated the age of 38, and so his theories are
balloon can be filled with air again to incomplete - although some of his writings
become an inflated balloon. are still being translated from Russian. No
single principle (such as Piaget's
equilibration) can account for
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE development. Individual development
(11 & ABOVE).This type is characterized cannot be understood without reference to
by the emergence of logical thinking and the social and cultural context within
reasoning. Other important cognitive which it is embedded. Higher mental
attainments during this period are: the processes in the individual have their
ability to think about the hypothetical origin in social processes.Vygotsky's
possibilities and to solve problems through theory differs from that of
logical deductions and in a systematic Piaget in a number of important ways:
manner.
words, Vygotsky believed that social
learning comes before cognitive
The main assertion of the Vygotsky theory
development, and that children construct
is that the cognitive development of
knowledge actively.
children is advanced through social
interaction with other people, particularly
those who are more skilled. In other VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF ZONE
OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Vygotsky is most recognized for his VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF MORE

concept of Zone of Proximal Development KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER
(ZPD) pertaining to the learning process of
children. According to the Vygotsky Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes
theory of cognitive development, children that children learn through social interaction
who are in the zone of proximal that include collaborative and cooperative
development for a particular task can dialogue with someone who is more skilled
almost perform the task independently, but in tasks they’re trying to learn. Vygotsky
not quite there yet. They need some help in called these people with
order to perform the task successfully.
higher skill level the More Knowledgeable child by a More Knowledgeable Other
Other (MKO). They could be teachers, that enables the child to perform a task
parents, tutors and even peers. until such time that the child can perform
this task independently.
VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF
SCAFFOLDING According to Vygotsky’s theory,
scaffolding entails changing the quality
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is and quantity of support provided to a child
closely related to the concept of the Zone in the course of a teaching session. The
of Proximal Development. Scaffolding MKO adjusts the level of guidance in
refers to the temporary support given to a order to fit the student’s current level of
performance.
(ZPD) showed the greatest improvement

compared with their first attempt at the
For novel tasks, the MKO may utilize task. The conclusion being that guided
direct instruction. As the child gains more learning within the ZPD led to greater
familiarity with the task and becomes more understanding/performance than working
skilled at it, the MKO may then provide alone (discovery learning).
less guidance.
EVIDENCE FOR VYGOTSKY AND

VYGOTSKY AND LANGUAGE:
THE ZPD-
Freund (1990) conducted a study in which Vygotsky believed that language develops
children had to decide which items of from social interactions, for
furniture should be placed in particular communication purposes. Vygotsky
areas of a dolls house. Some children were viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a
allowed to play with their mother in a means for communicating with the outside
similar situation before they attempted it world. According to Vygotsky (1962)
alone (zone of proximal development) language plays two critical roles in
while others were allowed to work on this cognitive development:
by themselves (Piaget's discovery It is the main means by which adults
learning). Freund found that those who had transmit information to children.
previously worked with their mother
Language itself becomes a very powerful for the purpose of self-regulation (rather
tool of intellectual adaptation. than communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)
VYGOTSKY (1987) Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e.,

DIFFERENTIATES BETWEEN hidden), private speech is overt. In contrast
THREE FORMS OF LANGUAGE: to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech
representing a developmental dead-end,
Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private
Social speech which is external speech as: 'A revolution in development
communication used to talk to others which is triggered when preverbal thought
(typical from the age of two); private and pre-intellectual language come together
speech (typical from the age of three) to create fundamentally new
which is directed to the self and serves an forms of mental functioning.'
intellectual function; and finally, private (Fernyhough& Fradley, 2005: p. 1)
speech goes underground, diminishing in
audibility as it takes on a self-regulating
function and is transformed into silent Through private speech, children begin to
inner speech (typical from the age of collaborate with themselves in the same way
seven). For Vygotsky, thought and a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults)
language are initially separate systems collaborate with them in the achievement of
from the beginning of life, merging at a given function. Vygotsky (1987) notes that
around three years of age. At this point private speech does not merely accompany a
speech and thought become child’s activity but acts as a tool used by the
interdependent: thought becomes verbal, developing child to facilitate cognitive
speech becomes representational. When processes, such as overcoming task
this happens, children's monologues obstacles, enhancing imagination, thinking,
internalized to become inner speech. The and conscious awareness. Vygotsky (1987)
internalization of language is important as proposed that private speech is a product of
it drives cognitive development. 'Inner an individual’s social environment. This
speech is not the interior aspect of external hypothesis is supported by the fact that there
speech - it is a function in itself. It still exist high positive correlations between
remains speech, i.e., thought connected rates of social interaction and private speech
with words. But while in external speech in children. Children raised in cognitively
thought is embodied in words, in inner and linguistically stimulating
speech words dies as they bring forth environments (situations more
thought. Inner speech is to a large extent frequently observed in higher
thinking in pure meanings.' (Vygotsky, socioeconomic status families) start using
1962: p. 149). and internalizing private speech faster than
children from less privileged backgrounds.
Indeed, children raised in environments
Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist
characterized by low verbal and social
to document the importance of private
exchanges exhibit delays in private speech
speech. He considered private speech as
development.
the transition point between social and
inner speech, the moment in development
where language and thought unite to CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
constitute verbal thinking. Thus, private A contemporary educational application of
speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal teaching,"
earliest manifestation of inner speech. used to improve students' ability to learn
Indeed, private speech is more similar (in from text. In this method, teachers and
its form and function) to inner speech than students collaborate in learning and
social speech. Private speech is 'typically practicing four key skills: summarizing,
defined, in contrast to social speech, as questioning, clarifying, and predicting.
speech addressed to the self (not to others)
The teacher's role in the process is reduced together to form sentences, groups of
over time. Also, Vygotsky is relevant to words that make meaningful statements.
instructional concepts such as Pragmatics is the study of language as
"scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in used in particular situations, which may
which a teacher or more advanced peer affect its meaning. Consider the
helps to structure or arrange a task so that statement, “What a wonderful day!” and
a novice can work on it successfully. its various meanings if the sun is shining,
Vygotsky's theories also feed into the if the rain is pouring down, and if the
current interest in collaborative learning, speaker has just received a traffic ticket.
suggesting that group members should
have different levels of ability so more
advanced peers can help less advanced ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. B. F.
members operate within their ZPD. Skinner believed that language acquisition,
an important development in childhood,
occurs because of reinforcement, that is,
LANGUAGE
because children’s parents or other
caregivers reward them when their initially
Language is a system of communication random sounds most resemble speech.
using gestures, sounds, or written symbols Linguist Noam Chomsky contested
that have significance for those who use Skinner's approach and proposed the well‐
the language and follow its rules. In known, but controversial, theory that
speech, phonemes are the smallest units of children have an innate neural mechanism
sound in a language, and although they called a language acquisition device
individually have no meaning, they acquire (LAD) (not yet discovered), which allows
it when combined. For example, the them to master language.
phonemes k and r alone convey no
meaning (other than that they are letters),
but together they sound like car, which is a
meaningful sound in the English language.
SEMANTICS. The term semantics refers

to the study of meaning in a language. The
smallest unit of meaning in spoken
language is called a morpheme, which in
many instances is itself a word. The word
overcoat is composed of two morphemes,
over and coat. Language rules govern the
combination of morphemes to
create meaning; overcoat, for example,
Developmental psychologists have
means something different than
subsequently documented the general
does coatover.
process of language acquisition, which is
usually thought to progress through the
SENTENCES. Language rules also
stages shown in Table 1.
dictate syntax, how morphemes are put
here)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5
KOHLBERG’S MORAL czp9S4u26M
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Kohlberg believed and was able to
Lawrence Kohlberg was, for many years, a demonstrate through studies...that people
professor at Harvard University. He progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e., in
became famous for his work there their bases for ethical behavior) through a
beginning in the early 1970s. He started as series of stages. He believed that there
a developmental psychologist and then were six identifiable stages which could be
moved to the field of moral education. He more generally classified into three levels.
was particularly well-known for his theory
of moral development which he The first level of moral thinking is that
popularized through research studies generally found at the elementary school
conducted at Harvard's Center for Moral level. In the first stage of this level, people
Education. behave according to socially acceptable
norms because they are told to do so by
His theory of moral development was some authority figure (e.g., parent or
dependent on the thinking of the Swiss teacher). This obedience is compelled by
psychologist Jean Piaget and the American the threat or application of punishment.
philosopher John Dewey. He was also The second stage of this level is
inspired by James Mark Baldwin. These characterized by a view that right behavior
men had emphasized that human beings means acting in one's own best interests.
develop philosophically and
psychologically in a progressive fashion. The second level of moral thinking is that
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to generally found in society, hence the name
tell people stories involving moral "conventional." The first stage of this level
dilemmas. In each case, he presented a (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude
choice to be considered, for example, which seeks to do what will gain the
between the rights of some authority and approval of others. The second stage is
the needs of some deserving individual one oriented to abiding by the law and
who is being unfairly treated. responding to the obligations of duty.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s The third level of moral thinking is one
(1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the
who lived somewhere in Europe: (Link majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5)
is an understanding of social mutuality and
a genuine interest in the welfare of others.
The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect Kohlberg, it was important to present them
for universal principle and the demands of with moral dilemmas for discussion which
individual conscience. While Kohlberg would help them to see the reasonableness
always believed in the existence of Stage 6 of a "higher stage" morality and encourage
and had some nominees for it, he could their development in that direction. The
never get enough subjects to define it, last comment refers to Kohlberg's moral
much less observe their longitudinal discussion approach. He saw this as one of
movement to it. the ways in which moral development can
be promoted through formal education.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could Note that Kohlberg believed, as did Piaget,
only progress through these stages one that most moral development occurs
stage at a time. That is, they could not through social interaction. The discussion
"jump" stages. They could not, for approach is based on the insight that
example, move from an orientation of individuals develop as a result of cognitive
selfishness to the law and order stage conflicts at their current stage.
without passing through the good boy/girl
stage. They could only come to a Kohlberg's classification can be outlined
comprehension of a moral rationale one in the following manner:
stage above their own. Thus, according to
CRITICISM:
Kohlberg’s work has been criticized by a

lot of researchers. A prominent one among
them is Carol Gilligan who argues that
Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias. achievement of separation from the mother
In contrast with Kohlberg’s justice or on the progress of individuation. Since
perspective, Gilligan argues for a care masculinity is defined through separation
perspective, which is a moral perspective while femininity is defined through
that views people in terms of their attachment, male gender identity is
connectedness with others and emphasizes threatened by intimacy while female
interpersonal communication, relationships gender identity is threatened by separation.
with others and concern for others. Thus, males tend to have difficulty with
According to Gilligan, Kohlberg greatly relationships, while females tend to have
underplayed the care perspective, perhaps problems with individuation.
because he was a male, because most of Even though Gilligan’s critique is an
his research was with males rather than important one, questions have been raised
females, and because he used male about Gilligan’s gender conclusions
responses as a model for his theory. (Walker and Frimer, 2009). For example, a
In Gilligan’s conception of morality, meta-analysis casts doubt on Gilligan’s
which is different from psychologists like claim of substantial gender differences in
Freud,Piaget or Kohlberg, the moral moral judgements (Jaffee and Hyde,
problem arises from conflicting 2000). Also, a research review concluded
responsibilities rather than from competing that girls’ moral orientations are
rights and requires for its resolution a “somewhat more likely to focus on care
mode of thinking that is contextual and for others than on abstract principles of
narrative rather than formal and abstract. justice, but they can use both moral
This conception concerned with the orientations when needed (as can boys...)”
activity of care centers moral development (Blakemore, Brenbaum and Liben, 2009).
around the understanding of responsibility
and relationships, just as the conception of
Some other criticisms of Kohlberg’s
morality as fairness ties moral
theory include:
development to the understanding of rights
and rules. The morality of rights differs  Moral thought and moral behavior:
from the morality of responsibility in its Kohlberg’s theory has been
emphasis on separation rather than criticized for placing too much
connection and in its consideration of the emphasis on moral thought and not
individual rather than the relationship as enough emphasis on moral
primary. behavior (Walker, 2004).

This dissimilar construction of the moral
problem by women has been cited as the Culture and Moral Reasoning:
critical reason for their failure to develop Kohlberg emphasized that his
within the constraints of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning are
universal, but some critics claim
system. his theory is culturally  biased
 (Gibbs, 2010; Miller, 2007).
The differences in morality in men and
women may as well be understood by  Families 
and Moral Development:
differences in their formation of gender Kohlberg argued that family
identity as pointed out by Gilligan (1979) processes are essentially
in her paper ‘Woman’s Place in Man’s unimportant in children’s moral
Life Cycle.’ development. However, most
experts on children’s moral
For boys and men, separation and development conclude that parent’s
individuation are critically tied to gender moral values and actions influence
identity since separation from the mother children’s development of moral
is essential for the development of
masculinity. On the other hand, for girls
and women, issues of femininity or
feminine identity do not depend on the
reasoning (Laible and Thompson, “bioecological systems theory” to

2007). emphasize that a child’s own biology is a
primary environment fueling her
development. The interaction between
BRONFENBRENNER’S factors in the child’s maturing biology, his
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY immediate family/community
environment, and the societal landscape
Ecological systems theory: This theory fuels and steers his development. Changes
looks at a child’s development within the or conflict in any one layer will ripple
context of the system of relationships that throughout other layers. To study a child’s
form his or her environment. development then, we must look not only
Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex at the child and her immediate
“layers” of environment, each having an environment, but also at the interaction of
effect on a child’s development. This the larger environment as well.
theory has recently been renamed
the child also affects the behavior and

beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls
these bi-directional influences, and he
THE MICROSYSTEM– this is the layer shows how they occur among all levels of
closest to the child and contains the environment. The interaction of structures
structures with which the child has direct within a layer and interactions of
contact. The microsystem encompasses the structures between layers is key to this
relationships and interactions a child has theory. At the microsystem level, bi-
with her immediate surroundings (Berk, directional influences are strongest and
2000). Structures in the microsystem have the greatest impact on the child.
include family, school, neighborhood, or However, interactions at outer levels can
childcare environments. At this level, still impact the inner structures. The
relationships have impact in two directions
mesosystem – this layer provides the
both away from the child and toward the connection between the structures of the
child. For example, a child’s parents may child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000).
affect his beliefs and behavior; however,
Examples: the connection between the quickly during the Prenatal Period, which
child’s teacher and his parents, between is the time between conception and birth.
his church and his neighborhood, etc. Fetal development occurs in
THE EXO-SYSTEM – this layer defines cephalocaudal order, beginning with the
the larger social system in which the child head and ending with the lower body and
does not function directly. The structures extremities. This sequence of development
in this layer impact the child’s results in the head of a typical fetus being
development by interacting with some disproportionately larger than the rest of
structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). its body.This period is generally divided
Parent workplace schedules or community- into three stages: the germinal stage, the
based family resources are examples. The embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.
child may not be directly involved at this
level, but he does feel the positive or
negative force involved with the STAGE 1: THE GERMINAL STAGE
interaction with his own system. The two-week period after conception is
called the Germinal Stage. Conception
occurs when a sperm cell combines with
THE MACROSYSTEM– this layer may an egg cell to form a Zygote. About thirty-
be considered the outermost layer in the six hours after conception, the zygote
child’s environment. While not being a begins to divide quickly. The resulting ball
specific framework, this layer is comprised of cells moves along the mother’s
of cultural values, customs, and laws fallopian tube to the uterus.
(Berk, 2000). The effects of larger
principles defined by the macrosystem
have a cascading influence throughout the Around seven days after conception, the
interactions of all other layers. For ball of cells starts to become embedded in
example, if it is the belief of the culture the wall of the uterus. This process is
that parents should be solely responsible called Implantation and takes about a
for raising their children, that culture is week to complete. If implantation fails, as
less likely to provide resources to help is quite common, the pregnancy
parents. This, in turn, affects the structures terminates. One key feature of the
in which the parent’s function. The germinal stage is the formation of a tissue
parents’ ability or inability to carry out that called the Placenta. The placenta has two
responsibility toward their child within the important functions:
context of the child’s microsystem is Passing oxygen and nutrients
likewise affected. from the mother’s blood into
 the embryo or fetus
THE CHRONOSYSTEM– this system Removing waste materials
encompasses the dimension of time as it from the embryo or fetus
relates to a child’s environments. Elements STAGE 2: THE EMBRYONIC
within this system can be either external, STAGE
such as the timing of a parent’s death, or The Embryonic Stage lasts from the
internal, such as the physiological changes end of the germinal stage to two
that occur with the aging of a child. As months after conception. The
children get older, they may react developing ball of cells is now called
differently to environmental changes and an Embryo. In this stage, all the
may be more able to determine more how major organs form, and the embryo
that change will influence them. becomes very fragile. The biggest
dangers are teratogens, which are
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES agents such as viruses, drugs, or
radiation that can cause deformities
PRENATAL in an embryo or fetus. At the end of
DEVELOPMENT:Development happens the embryonic period, the embryo is
only about an inch long.
syndrome may have problems such as

STAGE 3: THE FETAL STAGE small head size, heart defects, irritability,
hyperactivity, mental retardation, or
The last stage of prenatal development is slowed motor development. Fetal alcohol
the Fetal Stage, which lasts from two syndrome is incurable.
months after conception until birth. About
one month into this stage, the sex organs
of the fetus begin to form. The fetus INFANCY AND TODDLER-HOOD
quickly grows as bones and muscles form, STAGE:
and it begins to move inside the uterus.
Organ systems develop further and start to Developmentalpsychologistsusedtheter
function. During the last three months, the minfancytodenotetheperiodofdevelopm
brain increases rapidly in size, an entthat generally is from birth to two
insulating layer of fat forms under the skin, years of age. The word infant means
and the respiratory and digestive systems “without language”. Infancy includes
start to work independently. development in the areas of cognition,
FETAL VIABILITY perception, motor activity, emotion,
sociabilityandlanguage.Inthebeginning
Around twenty-two to twenty-six weeks ofinfancyperiodinfantscan recognize
after conception, the fetus reaches the age humanfaces
of viability, after which it has some chance andafterthattheycandifferentiatebetwee
of surviving out-side the womb if it is born nknownandunknownfacesandreactdiffe
prematurely. The chances of a premature rently.
baby’s survival increase significantly with
Developmentondifferentareastakeplacet
each additional week it remains in the
hroughinfancytotoddlerhood,i.e.,thefirs
mother’s uterus.
tthree years oflife.
ADVERSE FACTORS AFFECTING a. PHYSICALDEVELOPMENT:

FETAL DEVELOPMENT
Although the womb provides protection, Itreferstothechangesinthebody.Thi
the fetus remains indirectly connected to sdevelopmentisrapidduringinfancy .Infantsincrease
the outside world through its mother.
Several factors that are linked to the theirbodyweightalmosttripleandinc
mother can harm the fetus: reaseinheightbyaboutone-third
during thefirstyear
Poor nutrition alone.Notonlybodysizeandweighto
Use of alcohol ftheinfantincreasebutalsobrainsize
Smoking expandsrapidly

Use of certain prescription or over-the- duringthefirst18monthsandbrainwe
counter drugs ightoftheinfantreachingmorethanh

Use of recreational drugs such as alfoftheadult brain due to rapid
 cocaine, sedatives, and narcotics growth of dendrites and axons
 X-rays and other kinds of radiation within the brain and glia cells.
Ingested toxins, such as lead Physical development also
 Illnesses such as AIDS, German includes development in vision,
measles, syphilis, cholera, hearing, perceptual development
smallpox, mumps, or severe flu etc. Infants motor development
takes place in a sequential order
and this type of development
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME
proceeds from head towards the
limbs. Infant first controls his head
Mothers who drink heavily during
and trunk, then lift his chest,sit-up-
pregnancy may have babies with fetal
right,crawling,creeping,standwithh
alcohol syndrome. Babies with this
elp,standalongwithholdingsome
objects, and soon walking. REFLEXES AND MOTOR SKILLS

Thisdevelopmentoccursduetoimpr
ovementofskillsandcontrolofother Because infants cannot endure on
body parts like legs, arms, etc. their own, newborns have specific
Gradually children develop their built‐in or prewired abilities for
eye, head and hand coordination survival and adaptive
and are able to pick upthings. purposes. Reflexes are automatic
reactions to stimulation that enable
In the early life, infant’s vision,
infants to respond to the environment
hearing and perception are not
before any learning has taken place.
clear and focused. The neonate
For instance, babies automatically
prefers to perceive brighter colors
suck when presented with a nipple,
and which are nearer to him. These
turn their heads when a parent speaks,
senses develop as the child
grasp at a finger that is pressed into
matures from infancy to
their hand, and startle when exposed
toddlerhood. The new born is well
to loud noises. Some reflexes, such as
equipped with sensory functioning
blinking, are permanent. Others, such
for life. The child is capable to
as grasping, disappear after several
turn his head toward a loud noise
months and eventually become
or clapping. Gradually he tries to
voluntary responses.
locate the source of noise and he
can differentiate between the voice COMMON INFANT MOTOR
of mother and the father and also REFLEXES APPEAR IN TABLE 1.
recognizes the voices of other
people. Another capacity of the (OVER LEAF)
infant is his ability to learn from
experience. For example, the child
learns to suck faster when sucking
is pleasant.
Piaget noted that the sensory
motor stage of cognitive
development occurs during
infancy. During infancy period
there are development in vision,
control of muscles and nervous
system, start to eat and sleep on
regular intervals, sit on their own
and to hold objects themselves.
Motor skills, or behavioral abilities, body) and proximodistal (extremities and
develop in conjunction with physical lower body) patterns, so that motor skills
growth. In other words, infants must learn become refined first from the center and
to engage in motor activities within the upper body and later from the extremities
context of their changing bodies. At about and lower body. For example, swallowing
1 month, infants may lift their chins while is refined before walking, and arm
lying flat on their stomachs. Within movements are refined before hand
another month, infants may raise their movements.
chests from the same position. By the
fourth month, infants may grasp rattles, as TEMPERAMENT:Some babies have
well as sit with support. By the fifth fussy personalities, while others have
month, infants may roll over, and by the chirpy or quiet natures. These differences
eighth month, infants may be able to sit result from Temperament, the kind of
without assistance. At about 10 months, personality features babies are born with,
toddlers may stand while holding onto an individual differences in behavioural
object for support. At about 14 months, styles, emotions, and characteristic ways
toddlers may stand alone and perhaps even of responding.Temperament has an
walk. Of course, these ages for each emotional basis; but while emotions such
motor‐skill milestone are averages; the as fear, excitement, and boredom come
rates of physical and motor developments and go, temperament is relatively
differ among children depending on a consistent and enduring.
variety of factors, including heredity, the Temperament—sometimes defined as a
amount of activity the child participates in, person’s characteristic, biologically based
and the amount of attention the child way of approaching and reacting to people
receives. and situations—has been described as the
how of behaviour: not what people do, but
Motordevelopment how they go about doing it (Thomas &
follows cephalocaudal (center and upper Chess, 1977).
Temperament appears to be largely inborn
and probably hereditary. But not fully
formed at birth. It can change during the Easy children tend to be happy and
early months in response to parental adapt easily to change. They have
attitudes and treatment. regular sleeping and eating patterns
and don’t upset easily.
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, two  Slow-To-Warm-Up children tend
researchers who study temperament, to be less cheerful and less
described three basic types of adaptable than easy children. They
temperament: easy, slow to warm up, and are cautious about new
difficult. In their research, 40 percent of experiences. Their sleeping and
the children were easy, 15 percent were eating patterns are less regular than
slow to warm up, and 10 percent were those of easy children.
difficult. The remaining 35 percent of the Difficult children tend to be glum and
children displayed a mixture of these irritable, and they dislike change.
temperaments: Their eating and sleeping patterns
are irregular.
Various psychologists have provided

insight on the devoploment of attachment.
ATTACHMENT Freud: He emphasised that infants
Attachment is a close emotional bond become attched to the person or object that
between two people. It is the strong provides oral satisfaction. For most
affectionate tie we have with special infants, this is the mother, since she is
people in our lives that leads us to most likely to feed the infant.
experience pleasure and joy when we Erik Erikson: Physical comfort plays a
interact with them and to be comforted by crucial role in his view of infant’s
their nearness during times of stress.By the devlopment. Phyical comfort and sensitive
second half of the first year , infants care, accordig to Erikson(1968), are key to
beconme attached to familiar people who establishing a basic trust in infants.
have responded to their needs.
Behaviourism: Behaviourism emphasizes
the importance of feeding. According to a
well-known behaviourist account, as the Rhesus monkeys from their mothers at

mother satisfies the baby’s hunger, the birth;for six months they were reared by
infants learn to prefer her soft caresses, surrogate mothers. One surrogate mother
warm smiles, and tender words of comfort was made of wire, the other of cloth.
because these events have been paired with Regardless of which mother fed them, the
tension relief. infant monkeys spent more time with the
cloth mother. Whether the mother
provided comfort seemed to determine
Harlow: He emphazised the importance of whether the monkeys associated the
contact comfort in the attachment process. mother with security.
A classic study done by him in 1958
revealed this. Harlow removed infant
A plain cylindrical A form covered

wire-mesh form with terry cloth
were fed
from bottles “nursed” by the warm,
connected to the cuddly cloth ones
wire “mothers
Showed more natural interest

spent more time clinging in exploring than those
to the cloth surrogates, “raised” by wire surrogates
even if they were being
fed only by the wire ones
After a year’s separation,

After a year’s separation
the “cloth-raised” monkeys

eagerly ran to embrace the terry-
“wire-raised” monkeys cloth forms, whereas the
showed no interest in
the wire forms
an evolved response that promotes

Bowlby: The ethological perspcetive given survival through ensuring both safety and
by John Bowlby(1969,1989) also stresses competence. In his theory, he retained the
the importance of attachment in the first psychoanalytic idea that quality of
year of life and the responsiveness of the attachment to the caregiever has profound
caregiver. implications for the child’s feelings of
security and capacity to form trusting
BOWLBY’S ETHOLOGICAL relationships. At the same time, Bowlby
THEORY OF ATTACHMENT was inspired by Konrad Lorenz’s studies
of imprinting.
The ethological theory of attchment DEVELOPMENTAL COURSE OF
formulated by Bowlby views the infant’s ATTACHMENT:
emotional tie to the familiar caregiver as
According to Bowlby, attachment

develops in four phases: Bowlby argued that infants develop an
internal working model of attachment, a
simplemental model of the caregiver, their
Pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks): relationship and the self as deserving of
Built-in signals, such as crying and nurturant care.
cooing, grasping, smiling and gazing
into the adult’s eyes- bring a newborn
baby into close proximity with their INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
caregiver. Babies of this age recognize ATTACHMENT PATTERNS
their own mothers smell and voice.
However, they are not yet attached to Mary Ainsworth (1979) proposed that the
her, so the baby is still comfortable quality of babies’ attachment experiences
being left with an unfamiliar person. vary. She created the Strange Situation, an
Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks observational measure of infant attachment
to 8 months): During this phase, that takes about 20 minutes in which the
infants respond differently to familiar infant experiences a series of
caregivers than they do to strangers. As introductions, separations and reunions
infants interact with their parents and with the caregiver and an adult stranegr in
experience relief from distress, they a prescribed order.
learn that their own actions affect the
behaviour of those around them. They Observing the responses of infants to these
begin to develop a sense of trust- the episodes, researchers have identified a
expectation that the caregiver will secure attachment pattern and three patterns
respond when signalled. Though they of insecurity; a few babies cannot be
recognize the parents babies still do not clasified (Ainsworth et al., 1978;Barnett
protest when separated from her. and Vondra,1999; Main and
Parents continue to build attachment Solomon,1990).
by meeting the baby's basic needs for
 food, shelter, and comfort.
Clear-cut attachment (8 months to
18 months): In this phase, attachment
to the familiar caregiver is evident.
Babies display separation anxiety- they
become upset when the adult on whom
they have come to rely, leaves.
Separation anxiety does not always
occur; it depends on infant
temperament, context and the adult’s
behaviour. During this phase, infants
use their mother as a secure base from Attachment Description
pattern
 which to explore. 
Formation of reciprocal attachment Secure These infants use
(18 months to 2 years): By the end of attachment the parent as a

the second year, Rapid growth in secure base.

representation and language permits When separated
toddlers to understand some of the they may or may
factors that influence parent’s coming not cry, but if
and going and to predict her return. As they do, it is due
a result, separation protest declines. to the parent’s
Now children start to negotiate with absence, Since
the caregiver using requests and they show A
persuasion to alter her goals rather than strong preference
clinging to her. for her over the
stranger.
 
When the parent Disorganized - This pattern
returns they disoriented reflects the
actively seek attachment greatest
contact, and their insecurity.

crying is reduced At reunion, these
immediately. infants show
 confused,
Avoidant These infants
attachment seem Contradictory
unresponsive to behaviors.

the parent when They might look
she is present. way while being
 held by the
When she leaves,
they usually are parent or
not distressed, approach her
and they react to with flat,
the stranger in depressed
much the same emotion.

way as to the Most
parent. Communicate
 their
During reunion
they avoid or are disorientation
slow to greet the with a dazed
parent, and when expression on the
picked up, they face.

often fail to A few cries out
cling. after having
 calmed down or
Resistant Before
attachment separation, these display odd,
infants often frozen postures.
seek closeness to
the parent and CAREGIVING STYLES AND
fail to explore. ATTACHMENT:

When she
returns, they
Dozens of studies report that sensitive
display angry,
caregiving- responding promptly,
resistive
consistently and appropriately to infants
behavior,
and holding them tenderly and carefully-
sometimes
is moderately related to attachment
hitting and
security in diverse cultures.
pushing.
 Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be
In addition,
many continue to unavailable or rejecting (Posada and
cry and cling Kaloustian, 2010). They often don’t
after being respond to their babies’ signals and have
picked up and little physical contact with them. When
cannot be they do interact with their babies, they
comforted easily. may behave in an angry or irritable way.
Resistant infants often experience
inconsistent care. Their mothers are
unresponsive to infant signals. Yet when
the baby begins to explore, these mothers
interfere, shifting the infant’s attention
back to themselves. In general, the
caregivers tend not to be very affectionate
with their babies and show little synchrony about 46 inches and weigh about 46
when interacting with them. pounds. Of course, these figures are
Caregivers of disorganized babies often averages and differ from child to child,
neglect or physically abuse them (Bernard depending on socioeconomic status,
and others, 2012; Bohlin and others, 2012; nourishment, health, and heredity factors.
Groh and others, 2012).
b. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Across several studies, a special form of
communication called interactional
Brain and nervous system developments
synchrony separated the experiences of during early childhood also continue to be
secure and insecure babies. It is best dramatic. The better developed the brain
described as a sensitively tuned and nervous systems are, the more
“emotional dance” in which the caregiver complex behavioral and cognitive abilities
responds to infant signals in a well-timed, children are capable of.
rhythmic, appropriate fashion.
The brain is comprised of two halves,
THE CHILDHOOD STAGE: the right and left cerebral
hemispheres. Lateralization refers to the
localization of assorted functions,
Ages 2 through 6 are the early childhood competencies, and skills in either or both
years, or preschool years. This stage hemispheres. Specifically, language,
includes two sub-stages: one is early writing, logic, and mathematical skills
childhood and another is late childhood. seem to be located in the left hemisphere,
This period covers the period between the while creativity, fantasy, artistic, and
age of 3 to 11 years. Sometimes the girls at musical skills seem to be located in the
13 years right hemisphere. Although the
andboysat14yearsofageareconsideredasado hemispheres may have separate functions,
lescentsandtillthenthechildisconsidered these brain masses almost always
beinginthechildhoodstage.Duringthisperio coordinate their functions and work
dsignificantphysicalandpsychologicalchan together.
ges take place.
The two cerebral hemispheres develop at
different rates, with the left hemisphere
a. PHYSICAL CHANGES
developing more fully in early childhood
(ages 2 to 6), and the right hemisphere
Children begin to lose their baby fat, or
developing more fully in middle childhood
chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon
(ages 7 to 11). The left hemisphere
acquire the leaner, more athletic look
predominates earlier and longer, which
associated with childhood. The child's
may explain why children acquire
trunk and limbs grow longer, and the
language so early and quickly.
abdominal muscles form, tightening the
appearance of the stomach. Even at this
early stage of life, boys tend to have more Another aspect of brain development is
muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers' handedness, or preference for using one
physical proportions also continue to hand over the other. Handedness appears
change, with their heads still being to be strongly established by middle
disproportionately large, but less so than in childhood. About 90 percent of the general
toddlerhood. population is right‐handed, while the rest
of the population is left‐handed
and/or ambidextrous. A person is
Three‐year‐old preschoolers may grow
ambidextrous if he or she shows no
to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about
preference for one hand over the other.
32 pounds. For the next 3 years, healthy
Typically, right‐handedness is associated
preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3
with left‐cerebral dominance and left‐
inches and gain from 4 to 6 pounds per
handedness with right‐cerebral dominance.
year. By age 6, children reach a height of
The nervous system undergoes changes in  Form a mental image of the behavior.

 Imitate the behavior.
early childhood, too. The majority of a 
 Practice the behavior.
child's neurons, or cells that make up 
Be motivated to repeat the behavior.
nerves, form prenatally. However, the glial
cells, (nervous system support cells
In other words, children must be ready,
surrounding neurons) that nourish,
have adequate opportunities, and be
insulate, and remove waste from the
interested in developing motor skills to
neurons without actually transmitting
become competent at those skills.
information themselves, develop most
rapidly during infancy, toddlerhood, and
early childhood. The myelin sheaths that d. FAMILIAL RELATIONSHIPS
surround, insulate, and increase the
efficiency of neurons (by speeding up the DIANA BAUMRIND'S (1966, 67)
action potential along the axon) also form PROTOTYPICAL DESCRIPTIONS
rapidly during the first few years of life. OF 3 PARENTING STYLES
The postnatal developments of glial cells
and myelin sheaths help to explain why The permissive parent attempts to behave
older children may perform behaviors that in a nonpunitive, acceptant and affirmative
younger children are not capable of. manner towards the child's impulses,
desires, and actions. She [the parent]
consults with him [the child] about policy
c. MOTOR SKILLS
decisions and gives explanations for
family rules. She makes few demands for
Motor skills are physical abilities or
household responsibility and orderly
capacities. Gross motor skills, which
behavior. She presents herself to the child
include running, jumping, hopping,
as a resource for him to use as he wishes,
turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and
not as an ideal for him to emulate, nor as
dancing, involve the use of large bodily
an active agent responsible for shaping or
movements. Fine motor skills, which
altering his ongoing or future behavior.
include drawing, writing, and tying
She allows the child to regulate his own
shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily
activities as much as possible, avoids the
movements. Both gross and fine motor exercise of control, and does not
skills develop and are refined during early encourage him to obey externally defined
childhood; however, fine motor skills standards. She attempts to use reason and
develop more slowly in preschoolers. If manipulation, but not overt power to
you compare the running abilities of a 2‐ accomplish her ends (p. 889).
year‐old and a 6‐year‐old, for example,
you may notice the limited running skills
The authoritarian parent attempts to
of the 2‐year‐old. But the differences
shape, control, and evaluate the behavior
are even more striking when comparing a
and attitudes of the child in accordance
2‐ year‐old and 6‐year‐old who are tying
with a set standard of conduct, usually an
shoelaces. The 2‐year‐old has difficulty
absolute standard, theologically motivated
grasping the concept before ever
and formulated by a higher authority. She
attempting or completing the task.
[the parent] values obedience as a virtue
and favors punitive, forceful measures to
Albert Bandura's theory of observational curb self-will at points where the child's
learning is applicable to preschoolers' actions or beliefs conflict with what she
learning gross and fine motor skills. thinks is right conduct. She believes in
Bandura states that once children are keeping the child in his place, , in
biologically capable of learning certain restricting his autonomy, and in assigning
behaviors, children must do the following household responsibilities in order to
in order to develop new skills:  inculcate respect for work. She regards the
Observe the behavior in others.
preservation of order and traditional but recognizes the child's individual

structure as a highly valued end in itself. interests and special ways. The
She does not encourage verbal give and authoritative parent affirms the child's
take, believing that the child should accept present qualities, but also sets standards
her word for what is right (p. 890). for future conduct. She uses reason,
power, and shaping by regime and
The authoritative parent attempts to direct reinforcement to achieve her objectives,
the child's activities but in a rational, issue- and does not base her decisions on group
oriented manner. She [the parent] consensus or the individual child's desires.
encourages verbal give and take, shares [... but also, does not regard herself as
with the child the reasoning behind her infallible, or divinely inspired.]
policy, and solicits his objections when he
refuses to conform. Both autonomous self- [Note that portions in brackets are
will and disciplined conformity are valued. significant additions to the prototype in
[She values both expressive and Baumrind (1967).]
instrumental attributes, both autonomous
self-will and disciplined conformity] ... CONSEQUENCES OF PARENTING
Therefore, she exerts firm control at points STYLES
of parent-child divergence, but does not
hem the child in with restrictions. She
enforces her own perspective as an adult,
Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive

Parenting Parenting parenting
anxious, withdrawn,
lively happy disposition and unhappy poor emotion
self-confident about disposition regulation (under
ability to master tasks. poor reactions to regulated)
frustration rebellious and
girls likely to give up defiant when desires
Well developed boys become hostile are challenged.
emotion regulation
Developed social skills
do well in school (studies
may show authoritative
parenting is comparable)
low persistence to
less rigid about gender- not likely to engage in challenging tasks
typed traits (exp: antisocial activities (exp:
sensitivity in boys and drug and alcohol abuse, antisocial behaviors
independence in girls) vandalism, gangs)
be complied with and internalized.Nurturing

WHY DOES AUTHORITATIVE parents who are secure in the standards they
PARENTING WORK? hold for their children provide models of
caring concern as well as confident, self-
controlled behavior. A child's modeling of
Control that appears fair and reasonable (i.e.
these parents provides emotion regulation
not arbitrary) to the child is far more likely to
skills, emotional understanding, and social
understanding.Parents who combine warmth
and rational and reasonable control are likely
to be more effective reinforcing agents. They

praise children for striving to meet their NEGLECTFUL OR UNINVOLVED
expectations and making good use of PARENTING
disapproval, which works best when applied th
by an adult who has been warm and caring.  4 style  
 Added by Maccoby & Martin (1983)
Parents, because of stress or depression
Authoritative parents make demands that fit  focus  own needs rather than on
on their
their child.
with children's ability to take responsibility Related with a number of behavioral
for their own behavior. Children subsequently 
disorders in childhood & adolescence
learn that they are competent individuals who (Baumrind, 1991)
can do things successfully for themselves.
This fosters high self-esteem, cognitive
development, and emotional maturity.
PEERS- PLAY:
The significance of peers is made evident inculcates initiative taking and adherence
very early on. Play is a voluntary, to social rules.
intrinsically motivated, usually non-literal Piaget (1951) and Parten (1932) divided
activity which helps children develop new playing behaviour on the basis of content
skills, mastery over their own body, and social dimension:
cognitive skills, physical health and
PIAGET (1951) PARTEN (1932)
these processes are associated with

adolescent development depends on how
and when adolescents grow.
Adolescence typically describes the

1. Functional 2. Constructive years between ages 13 and 19 and can
Play: Play: product
Manipulate oriented play be considered the transitional stage
objects and (Eg: building a
repeat actions lego house) from childhood to adulthood. However,
the physical and psychological changes
4. Games with
3. Dramatic
that occur in adolescence can start
Rules: require
problem
Play: pretend earlier, during the preteen or "tween"
solving abilities
play years (ages 9 through 12). As this is the
transitional phase of life adolescents’
rebel against their parents and society
most often. Therefore, this period is
labelled as storm and stressperiod.
Adolescence can be a time of both
disorientation and discovery. This
transitional period can bring up issues of
independence and self-identity; many
adolescents and their peers face tough
choices regarding
schoolwork, sexuality, drugs, alcohol,
and social life. Peer groups, romantic
interests, and appearance tend to naturally
increase in importance for some time
during a teen's journey toward adulthood.
PHYSICAL CHANGES
Pubescence refers to the two years before

puberty. The adolescent growth spurt
actually begins during pubescence, at
ADOLESCENCE STAGE about age eleven in girls and about age
thirteen in boys. At this time, children get
taller and heavier and develop secondary
ThetermadolescenceisderivedfromtheLatin
sex characteristics. Secondary Sex
wordadolescere,whichmeanstosproutinto
Characteristics are sex-specific physical
maturity. Adolescence is a transitional
characteristics that are not essential for
period in the human life span, linking
reproduction. Girls develop breasts,
childhood and adulthood. Understanding
widened pelvic bones, and wider hips.
the meaning of adolescenceis important
Boys develop facial hair, broader
because adolescents are the future of any
shoulders, and deeper voices. After
society.Most researchers currently
pubescence and at the beginning of
involved in adolescent research agree that
adolescence, Puberty occurs. Puberty is
development includes a combination of
the point at which sexual organs mature.
socioemotional, cognitive, and biological
Sexual organs include the ovaries in girls
processes. However, the balance of how
and the penis and testes in boys. abstract and hypothetical ways, young
Menarche, or the first menstrual period, adolescents often get caught up in a mental
marks the onset of puberty in girls. The world far removed from reality. This may
average age of menarche for American entail the belief that things just can’t or
girls is about twelve and a half. The won’t happen to them and that they are
beginning of Nocturnal Emissions, so- omnipotent and indestructible.
called wet dreams, marks the onset of
puberty in boys. American boys typically ERIKSON AND IDENTITY
 5th stage: Identity vs. Role confusion
begin to produce sperm by fourteen years
of age. Girls reach full sexual maturation
around age sixteen, and boys reach sexual Developing a coherent sense of self and
role one has to take up
 Modifying & synthesizing earlier 
maturity at around eighteen.
 identificationsintoanew
PSYCHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
IDENTITY greater than the sum of its parts
 (Kroger, 1993)
Organizing abilities, needs, interests,
David Elkind [1967, 1976, 1978]:
 desires  be expressed in a
that can
IMMATURE ASPECTS OF social context.
of
ADOLESCENT THOUGHT:  Danger
confusion
this stage is: identity or role
Imaginary audience is the belief that o Confusion takes 2 forms:

others are as pre-occupied with the isolation or lost identity in the
adolescent’s behavior as he or she is.  crowd
Attention-seeking behavior, so common in Some degree of identity confusion
always present: accounting forthe
early adolescence, may reflect this interest chaos associated with this stage.
in an, imaginary audience, that is the
desire to be noticed, visible, and on stage.
MARCIA'S THEORY
Particularly during early adolescence,
individuals see themselves as constantly Probably the most famous person who
on stage, believing they are the main actors studied the formation of identity is a man
and all others are the audience. named James Marcia. Marcia decided to
The construction or representation interview lots of different people to ask
personal fable on the other hand refers to how they developed their beliefs,
the adolescent’s sense of personal preferences, and so on. He believed that
uniqueness and indestructibility. Their identity is mostly based on two things. The
sense of personal uniqueness makes them first is what he called occupation, which
feel that no one can understand how they refers to the main role one has in society.
really feel - their perception that they are Occupation might refer to a job, like a
special. Another aspect of the personal doctor or bus driver, but it could also
fable involves the belief that one is apply to roles such as father, student, or
indestructible. This results in feelings of celebrity. The second base for identity,
invulnerability or insusceptibility and according to Marcia, is ideology, which
therefore risk–taking behaviors such as refers to a person's fundamental beliefs
alcoholism, drug and substance abuse as
well as sexual promiscuity. For reasons
likely tied to an emerging interest in
idealism and the ability to think in more
about topics like religion or politics. Are or degrees to which a person has achieved
you religious? Are you involved in a set identity. As we go through them,
politics? Marcia tried to identify different think about your own identity.
people's occupations and ideologies in
IDENTITY STATUS
order to identify their current identities.
Based on his interviews, Marcia proposed
that there are four major identity statuses,
COMMITMENT
PRESENT ABSENT
Exploration Present Identity Achievement Identity Moratorium

Description: Has committed to Description: Has not
an identity after exploring committed to an identity but is
multiple possibilities exploring alternatives
Characteristics: Active Characteristics: Information-
problem-solving style, high seeking, active problem-
self-esteem, feelings of control, solving style, open to
high moral reasoning, and experience, anxiety,
positive views of work and experimentation with alcohol
school or substance use
Absent Identity Foreclosure Identity Diffusion
Description: Has committed to Description: Has neither
an identity without having committed to an identity nor
explored multiple possibilities explored alternatives
Characteristics: Avoid Characteristics: Avoidance;
reflecting on their identity tend to not solve personal
choice, not open to new problems in favor of letting
information, especially if issues decide themselves,
contracts their position, rigid academic difficulties, apathy,
and inflexible and alcohol and substance use
enough that all members interact. Often
ADOLESCENT-PEER RELATIONS cliques are made up of same sex and same
The phase of adolescence in dominated by age individuals with similar interests. The
peer influence and the formation of more choice of membership in certain cliques is
intense and intimate bonds between evidence of a child's increasing control of
individuals. their choice in their peer interactions.
PEER PRESSURE AND Crowds are more reputation based. The

CONFORMITY: Adolescents conform to individuals in these crowds may not
peer standards much more than children necessarily be friends. They are often
do. Students of approximately 9 th grade groups that have been labelled and
peak at adolescent peer conformity, stereotyped. There are three ways in which
especially to antisocial standards (Brendt, crowds influence adolescent social life:
1979). This influence can be both positive help themlearn about alternative social
and negative. identities that are available to them, they
strongly influence whom they are likely to
CLIQUES AND CROWDS: A clique is a
meet and spend time with and end up
group of several people, but it is small
shaping their members interpersonal interacting and this leads to the formation
relations. of unisex cliques (especially comprising of
ADOLESCENT GROUPS V/S CHILD high-status members of the former
GROUPS: The number of cross-sex cliques). These unisex cliques are closely
relations increase in adolescent groups. associated with other such cliques, making
These adolescent groups include a broader a cohesive crowd. As adolescence
array of members and have more defined progresses, these crowds disintegrate and
rules. Dexter Dunphy’s (1963) supports become loosely associated groups of
the notion that while late childhood sees couples.
the development of same-sex cliques,
during early adulthood these cliques start
(Nansel and others, 2001). The same study

BULLYING found that girls where bullied more for
their looks, speech and are subject to
rumors and sexual comments or gestures.
Bullying is defined as verbal or physical Boys where bullied more for their religion,
behavior that is intended to disturb race and were hit, slapped and pushed.
someone less powerful (Nansel& others, Children who were bullied reported more
2001). A national US survey found that loneliness and difficulty in making friends.
nearly one in three students have had Research has also shown that anxious,
occasional or frequent involvement as socially withdrawn (since they won’t
either victim, or perpetrator of bullying retaliate) and aggressive children (since
they irritate the perpetrators) are more Group size: From age 5 onwards, boys
likely to get bullied (Hanish and Guerra,  tend to having larger groups  of
playmates as compared to girls.
2004). A 2004 Netherlands study found Interactions in same-sex groups- Boys
that victims of bullying are prone to are more likely to participate in
having from headaches, sleeping problems, organized group games and rough and
abdominal pain, lethargy and depression tumble play. They engage in
(Fekkes et. al., 2004). Perpetrators where competition, conflict, ego display, risk
more likely to have low grades and smoke taking, dominance seeking, and group
and drink alcohol. Children who’ve been goal oriented behaviours. Girls are
more likelyto engage in “collaborative
both bullies and victims display the highest discourse”.
level of conduct, school and relationship
problems and bullies enjoyed the highest
ADULTHOOD STAGE
standing among classmates (Juvonen,
Graham and Schuster, 2003). An adult is someone who is
responsible, mature, self-supporting
and well-integrated into
society.Also,peopledonotdevelopthesea
The following methods can be adopted to
ttributesandcharacteristicsatthesametim
curb bullying:
  eand with same skills. This adult stage
Get older peers Policy level has three sub-stages of development.
to monitor and changes in First stage is early adulthood, second
intervene institutions stage is middle adulthood, and third

Widespread
Provide peer stage is lateadulthood.
advertising of
support groups In early childhood period adults are at
anti-bullying the peak of physical health, strength
for those
messages at a and energy. Sensory and motor systems
who’re bullied are at their highest functioning. Adults
community level

Using social
Involving
 gain weight and their
skills training heightincreases.Theydevelopintimaterel
parents to ationships,theymarryandbegintheirfami
help bullies in lies.At this period of life adults take
inculcate
early stages to many important decisions of life like
positive choice of career, type of friends,
modify residence, etc. independently and
behaviour
behaviour accept responsibility and consequences

Reinforce for their own decisions. Every adult

Take help form positive tries for recognition, job security and to
mental health behaviour and excel in hisjob.
professionals model positive
behaviour Middle adulthood period is explained
in terms of a gradual decline in one’s
physical abilities, physical health,
GENDER AND PEER RELATIONS
stamina etc., but the decline is gradual
Gender influences the children’s group in nature. Both men and women feel
composition, size, and interactions, It has tired easily. In this period people
been seen that gender typed behaviors experience stress due to the double
increase in children if their playmates are responsibility of caring for the aged
of the same sex. parents and the growing children.
Group Composition: Even from the tender Women usually experience hormonal
age of 3 years, preference for
changes which results in the loss of
same-sex playmates is evident and
ability to reproduce, a process called
increasingly prominent. This menopause. Many psychological and
preference continues to increase from
age 4-10.
intellectual changes occur in middle In the middle adulthood period (during

age. 20s) there is a decline in our physical
Duringthisperiod,womenexpressmoreas stamina and health. At that time
sertivenessandmenaremorenurturant.Th physical functioning are generally
eterm “late adulthood” is roughly perfect, but physical attractiveness
equivalent to old age. This is the final declines and biological changes in the
stage of physicalchange. sexual life occurs. The physical
changes like loss of
elasticityoftheskin,resultinginfaciallines
Robert Havinghurstlists major tasks in aswellasloosenessinotherpartsofthebod
the middle years:
yare easily noticeable through external
 physical appearance. There is a marked
Accepting and adjusting to
change in visual activity. People suffer
physiological changes, such
from presbyopia – the far sightedness
asmenopause.
 associated with aging. The
Reaching and maintaining
one’soccupation.
satisfaction in
auditoryproblemisalso associated
to and possibly caring for aging
Adjusting withincreasingage,i.e.presbycusis.Itmea
parents.
Helping 
teenage children to become nsprogressive loss of hearing. In this
responsible adults. period loss of taste, smell and
 and
Achieving adult, social
sensitivity to touch also occurs. Some
 civicresponsibility. 
Relating to one’s spouse as aperson.  physiological changes like enlargement
Developing leisure timeactivities.
of prostrate gland, less enzyme
secretion in the
Somepeoplesufferfromdepressiondueto
gastrointestinaltract,diminishedabilityto
middleagecrisisbythinkingthatsomeimp
pumpblood,reducedkidneyfunctioning,e
ortant
tc.take place.
yearsoftheirlivesareoverwhilesomeothe
rstryhardtoachievetheirgoalsbychangin
gtheir
lifestyles.Somepeopleengagethemselve PSYCHO-SOCIAL
sincreativeactivitiestogetself- DEVELOPMENT
satisfaction.Other people get worried During early years of adulthood,
about the future of their children and people face the problem of choosing,
some start worrying about their post preparing for and
retirementactivities. enteringintocareersbrings a lot
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ofsocialchangesintheadult.Theyhavecor
dialrelationships with their siblings.
Physical growth and development is at They spend very few times with friends
its maximum during this period. because their energies are consumed
Physical strength usually is more than for family and work. Middle adulthood
previous years due to mature physical people have children of adolescent age.
structures. strength, speed, coordination It is very difficult to handle their
and endurance for activity is greatest problems. Conflicts occur between
during this period. A number of parents and children regarding “giving”
sensory and “getting” independence. Parents
andneuralfunctionsareoptimallevelsduri have to help their children in their
ngthisperiod.Fullbrainweightandmature search for identity. Middle aged adult
brain wave patterns are observed at this also has important responsibilities
stage of development. Changing life towards their
style pattern has an impact on growth parents.Inthisperiod,theyalsotrytobesati
anddevelopment. sfiedatworkplace.Peopleareworriedabo
ut their jobs and pay packages because
they have to meet the daily needs of
themselves and of the family.
actual age, are vital, vigorous

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT andactive.
Intellectual ability and cognitive skills The Old Old: Those older
are high in early adulthood. Middle individuals who are infirm, inactive
adulthood people cannot learn new
 problems
and suffer from physical
include in thisgroup.
skills. Recent research suggests that
intellectual development continues into As most of older persons suffer from
late adulthood. Intellectual physical problems, they became less
development continued and that are active. There are
influenced by the accumulation of the changesinbodylikewrinklesinface,rough
experiences of life, i.e. verbal skills, skin,grayhairs,problemsinhearingandey
social knowledge and moral esight, bones and joints problems,
judgments.Duringthisperiodpeoplesho change in voice, etc. They may suffer
wchangesinlogicandmorality.Itisobserv from various diseases. Old
edthat peoplealsosufferfromirreversiblemental
creativitypeaksintheearlyadulthoodbutf problem,whichisorganicinnatureandisca
ormsofcreativitythatrequireexperience,r lled Alzheimer’s disease.
evision and interpretation either remain
unchanged or increase in middle age.
People utilize their
cognitiveskillsandcreativityparticularly
attheworkplaceinordertogetrecognition.
Studies During late adulthood period significant
revealedthatintelligencedeclineswithag changes take place which are mentioned
e,butthereisnocertaintythatintelligencea below.
ndage are related with each other.
a. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
The experiences of old age are not
LATEADULTHOOD STAGE
same for everybody. Some people are
The term late adulthood is rightly worried about old age particularly those
equivalent to old age. This is the final who are single or there is nobody in the
stage of physical change. It is difficult family to support them economically or
to consider the exact age of a person for have continued physical ailments. It is
being old. The onset of old age may a period in one’s life span that is
vary from country to country. Although characterized by physical decline.
the retirement age is considered as one There are two types of physical
of the criteria of old age, it varies from changes during old age. They are (a)
job to job. For example, in India the Primary ageing and (b) Secondary
retirement age for government ageing. Primary ageing is that in which
organization is 58 years while for bodily deterioration occur by the
Universities it is 62 years and in some passage of time or by genetic factors
other institutions like IIT and IIM it is which is gradual and inevitable.
years. Now-a-days people beyond Secondary ageing results from disease,
years are considered as old. It is the disuse or abuse of body which is
period of decline where the person preventable.Manystructuralandfunction
thinks that he has done what he wanted alchangesoccuraspeoplereacholdage.Co
to do and most of his life span is over. mmon physical changes like decrement
in sensory abilities of vision, hearing,
Today researchers used two categories to taste, smell and other senses, skin
describe old age people. becomes inelastic, decrease in fat and
The young Old: This category of older muscle tissue, loss of teeth,
people irrespective of their deterioration of bone tissue, decline in
height due to compression of spinal This undue dependence makes them

disc and postural strop etc. occur due to sad. But those people who are
primary ageing. Physical changes occur independent and less expectations from
due to secondary ageing are also their children and other support system,
different for different people. For they are happy in their old age and they
example, physical changes of diabetic engage themselves in various activities.
people are different They think that old age is the golden
frompersonswhoaresufferingfromarthrit age because they are free from family
is.Oldpeoplearealsoinefficientinsensory responsibilities and burdens of job.
-motor There are many social and cultural
coordination.Theycannotrespondtothep factors
hysicaldemandsofstressfulsituationsasq
uickly or efficiently as possible. They Influences the process of successful
are prone to accidents due to decline of ageing. Financial security and close
reserve capacity of physical energy. relationship with children or other
Thus, ageing affects appearance, relatives or good friends make people
healthy in old age.
sensation and motor abilities of
aperson. Ageing is a process of growing old.
The most important theory that
However,despitetheproblemsof old age
explains the psychosocial aspects of
somepeopleleadahappylifeduetotheirpo
ageing are:
sitive thinking towards life and they are
physically fit by doing yoga and
exercises. Theyare developing and
enjoying their hobbies and their
perception of old age for relaxation
help them free from differentailments.
(I) THE ACTIVITY THEORY, AND
PSYCHO-SOCIAL (II) THE DISENGAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT THEORY.
Many psycho-social changes happen to

TheActivityTheory:Thistheorystate
people during old age. The statement
stherelationshipbetweenkeepingact
that old age is a period for waiting
iveandageing well. According to
death can prove to be a myth.
this theory, persons who age
Commonly people believe that old age
successfully keep themselves busy
is a curse so far as physical and
in many activities and they find
psychological aspects of life
substitutes for activities which they
areconcerned.
have lost due to retirement and also,
According to Erikson during late they perform many roles. As role
adulthood the outcome of a well- decreases, ageingincreases.

integrated person is wisdom. Wisdom The Disengagement Theory: This
means accepting life as it is, accepting theory reveals that successful
imperfections in self, parents and in life ageing by mutual withdrawal
and having no regrets. Old people between society and the older
remain in a state of inward depression person. Generally, older people
and dissatisfaction. These internal voluntarily minimize their
feelings are manifested in reaction activities by retiring and also
formations for which they become over society encourages this by
sensitive and demanding. Some old making individuals retire.
people depend on their children to a 
large extent. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
People commonly believe that with old remember and use learned information.
age intellectual decline occurs. Fluid intelligence includes reasoning,
Intellectual decline is associated with memory and information, processing
respect to certain functions such as; capabilities, whereas
speed, perceptual integration ability, crystallizedintelligenceistheacquiredkn
memory and inductive reasoning. owledgeoftheperson.Duringoldagepeop
People show variability in intellectual leforget that may lead to dementia or
functioning in late adulthood period. Alzheimer’s disease which is possible
Researchers classified intelligence into due to Fluid intelligence, because it
two types. They are: (1) Fluid relates to neurological functioning. On
intelligenceand(2)Crystallizedintelligen the other hand, crystallized intelligence
ce.Fluidintelligencedeclinesasageincrea helps in storing information. Therefore,
ses.Fluid intelligence involves ability to in old age people should keep their
perceive relations, form concepts and minds active by mental exercises such
reason abstractly. Crystallized as problem-solving analysis and other
intelligence involves the ability to operationsetc.
Just like pathology is the study of the

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY nature of disease (including causes,
development, and outcomes),
The term "psychopathology" was first used psychopathology is the study of the same
in 1913 when this scientific discipline was concepts within the realm of mental health
introduced by Karl Jaspers, a (or illness).
German/Swiss philosopher and
psychiatrist. This new framework for What we might consider normal behavior
understanding the mental experience of is difficult to define. Equally difficult is
individuals followed a long history of understanding what abnormal behavior.
varied attempts at making meaning out of The American Psychiatric Association, in
the "abnormal experiences." its publication, the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th indicates a move away from what is
edition (DSM-5 for short), states that normal, or the mean (i.e. what would
though “no definition can capture all be considered average and in this case
aspects of all disorders in the range in relation to behavior), and so is
contained in the DSM-5” certain aspects behavior that occurs infrequently (sort
are required. These include: of an outlier in our data). Our culture,
or the totality of socially transmitted
o DYSFUNCTION– includes behaviors, customs, values,
“clinically significant disturbance in an technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and
individual’s cognition, emotion other products that are particular to a
regulation, or behavior that reflects a group, determines what is normal and
dysfunction in the psychological, so a person is said to be deviant when
biological, or developmental processes he or she fails to follow the stated and
underlying mental functioning”. unstated rules of society, called social
Abnormal behavior, therefore, has the norms. What is considered “normal”
capacity to make our well-being by society can change over time due to
difficult to obtain and can be assessed shifts in accepted values and
by looking at an individual’s current expectations. For instance,
performance and comparing it to what homosexuality was considered taboo
is expected in general or how the in the U.S. just a few decades ago but
person has performed in the past. As today, it is generally accepted.
such, a good employee who suddenly
The APA (2000) defines a psychological
demonstrates poor performance may be
disorder as “a clinically significant
experiencing an environmental demand behavioral or psychological syndrome or
leading to stress and ineffective coping pattern that occurs in an individual and
mechanisms. Once the demand that is associated with present distress
resolves itself the person’s (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e.,
performance should return to normal impairment in one or more important
according to this principle. areas of functioning) or with a
significantly increased risk of suffering
o DISTRESS– When the person death, pain, disability, or an important
loss of freedom”
experiences a disabling condition “in
social, occupational, or other important
ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE
activities”. Distress can take the form ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR ARE:
of psychological or physical pain, or
both concurrently. Alone though, 1. VIOLATION OF SOCIAL
distress is not sufficient enough to NORMS
describe behavior as abnormal. Why is
that? The loss of a loved one would What is considered socially acceptable
cause even the most “normally” changes overtime (e.g. homosexuality)
functioning individual pain. An athlete and differs between cultures. Also, a
who experiences a career ending injury lot of great leaders violate social
would display distress as well. norms (Martin Luther King)
Suffering is part of life and cannot be
avoided. And some people who display 2. STATISTICAL DEVIATION
abnormal behavior are generally Many behaviors are normally
distributed (bell shaped curve).
positive while doing so.
Not all statistically infrequent qualities
considered bad e.g. Superior
DEVIANCE– Closer examination of intelligence
the word abnormal shows that it
3. MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
- Behavior that causes impaired

functioning for people
- Not necessarily the behavior which is
the problem, it’s the outcome
CRITICISM-
Definition doesn’t consider personal

context/distress i.e. John’s gambling
may be causing him a lot of distress, but
it isn’t affecting his work, relationship
or health, is it still normal?Another
criticism that it is difficult to identify
what may be considered a maladaptive
behavior with reference to
psychological processes (i.e.
thought/cognition)
4. PERSONAL DISTRESS
Cause a person to be upset or

uncomfortable
- Assumes it is normal not to feel upset
- Emphasisessubjectiveexperienceandon
thereactiontoasituationasopposedtothe
outcome
- Criticism- person could feel no distress
(lack of insight) but behaviour could
still be considered abnormal (i.e.
psychopath) Also, distress is not
necessarily abnormal
NORMALITY - IS EVEN MORE

DIFFICULT TO DEFINE, BUT MOST
WOULD AGREE ON:
Efficient perception of reality

Self-knowledge
Voluntary control of behavior
Self-esteem & acceptance
Ability to form affectionate
relationships
Productivity
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY: The given period of time, typically the past

scientific study of abnormal behavior, with year.
the intent to be able to reliably predict, Lifetime prevalence indicates the
explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, proportion of a population that has had
and treat maladaptive behavior is what we the characteristic at any time during
refer to as abnormal psychology. their lives.
Abnormal behavior can become
pathological in nature and so leads to the
scientific study of psychological disorders, Incidence indicates the number of new
or psychopathology. Mental disorders cases in a population over a specific period
are characterized by psychological of time. This measure is usually lower
dysfunction which causes physical and/or since it does not include existing cases as
psychological distress or impaired prevalence does.
functioning and is not an expected Finally, comorbidity describes when two
behavior according to societal or cultural or more mental disorders are occurring at
standards. the same time and in the same person.
Epidemiology is the scientific study of the The etiology is the cause of the disorder.
frequency and causes of diseases and other There may be social, biological, or
health-related states in specific populations psychological explanations for the
such as a school, neighborhood, a city, disorders beginning which need to be
country, and the world. understood to identify the appropriate
Psychiatric or mental health treatment. Likewise, the effectiveness of a
epidemiology refers to the occurrence of treatment may give some hint at the cause
mental disorders in a population. In mental of the mental disorder.
health facilities, we say that a patient The course of the disorder is its particular
presents with a specific problem, or the pattern. A disorder may be acute meaning
presenting problem, and we give a that it lasts a short period of time, or
clinical description of it which includes chronic, meaning it lasts a long period of
information about the thoughts, feelings, time. It can also be classified as time-
and behaviors that constitute that mental limited, meaning that recovery will occur
disorder. We also seek to gain information in a short period of time regardless of
about the occurrence of the disorder, its whether any treatment occurs.
cause, course, and treatment possibilities.
Prognosis is the anticipated course the
Occurrence can be investigated in several mental disorder will take. A key factor in
ways. First, prevalence is the percentage determining the course is age, with some
of people in a population that has a mental disorders presenting differently in
disorder or can be viewed as the number of childhood than adulthood.
cases per some number of people. For
instance, if 20 people out of 100 have Treatment is any procedure intended to
bipolar disorder, then the prevalence rate is modify abnormal behavior into normal
20%. Prevalence can be measured in behavior. The person suffering from the
several ways: mental disorder seeks the assistance of a
trained professional to provide some
degree of relief over a series of therapy
 Point prevalence indicates the sessions. The trained mental health
proportion of a population that has the professional may prescribe medication or
characteristic at a specific point in utilize psychotherapy to bring about this
time. In other words, it is the number change.
of active cases.
MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION:
Period prevalence indicates the
proportion of a population that has the
characteristic at any point during a
The mental status examination (MSE) is a

is based on your observations of the client. APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR
It is not related to the facts of the client's Age, sex, race, body build, posture,
situation, but to the way the person acts, eyecontact, dress, grooming,
how the person talks, and how the person manner,attentiveness to examiner,
looks while in your presence. The purpose distinguishingfeatures, prominent
is to evaluate, quantitatively and physical abnormalities,emotional facial
qualitatively, a range of mental functions expression, alertness
and behaviors at a specific point in time.
The MSE provides important information SPEECH
for diagnosis and for assessment of the Rate, rhythm, volume,
disorder’s course and response to amount,articulation, spontaneity
treatment. Observations noted throughout
the interview become part of the MSE, EMOTION (MOOD AND AFFECT)
which begins when the clinician first meets Stability, range, appropriateness,
the patient. Information is gathered about intensity,affect, mood
the patient’s behaviors, thinking, and
mood. At an appropriate point in the
evaluation the formal MSE is undertaken PERCEPTION
to compile specific data about the patient’s Hallucinations,
cognitive functioning. Earlier informal illusions,depersonalization,
observations about mental state are woven derealization
together with the results of specific testing.
For example, the interviewer will have THOUGHT CONTENT AND
considerable information about attention PROCESS
span, memory, and organization of thought Suicidal ideation, death wishes,
from the process of the interview. Specific homicidal ideation, depressive
questions during the formal exam clarify cognitions, obsessions, ruminations,
more precisely the degree of attention or phobias, ideas of reference, paranoid
memory dysfunction. ideation, magical ideation,delusions,
overvalued ideas.
To assess properly the patient’s mental Thought content- Associations,
status, it is important to have some coherence, logic, stream, clang
understanding of the patient’s social, associations, perseveration, neologism,
cultural, and educational background. blocking, attention.
What may be abnormal for someone with
more intellectual ability may be normal for
someone with less intellectual ability.
Patients for whom English is a second
language may have difficulty INSIGHT AND JUDGEMENT
understanding various components of the
MSE, such as the proverbs. Age may be a
Insight Assuming the patient has
factor. In general, patients over the age of
difficulties and/or an illness,
60 years tend to do less well on the
does the patient understand
cognitive elements of the MSE. Often this
this?
is related to less education rather than to
aging alone.
Good insight: Patient
understands they are ill and
MAIN COMPONENTS OF MSE ( need treatment (similar to
MENOMONIC- ASEPTIC) being in action phase))
Partial insight may indicate
that the patient acknowledges
a problem, but is not willing
to seek appropriate help or Can the patient

treatment (similar to being recall distant
contemplative) events?
Poor insight means that the
patient does not see that they Intelligence (globally Based on your
are ill nor does the patient and intellectual observations
need any help or treatment functions) and patient’s
(similar to being pre- use of speech,
contemplative) does the
patient’s
overall
Judgment Is patient able to use facts and intelligence
make reasonable decisions? and cognition
May be good, fair, impaired appear to be 1)
below average,
2) average, or
7. COGNITION 3) above
average?
Level of consciousness Alert,
confused,
lethargic, Several shortened forms of the MSE have
stuporous been developed as screening instruments.
All are composed of a combination of
measures to detect cognitive impairments
Orientation in 3 spheres Name: What is
more accurately. Although helpful, such
your name?
exams must be combined with clinical
Place: Where history. The diagnosis of dementia and
are you right delirium also requires the demonstration of a
now? Time: decline in cognitive functioning from a
What year, higher baseline. All screening exams have
month, day is
difficulty in identifying patients with mild
it?
cognitive impairment and patients with
focal neurologic lesions, such as subdural
Attention/Concentration How well hematomas or meningiomas. The key
does the point is that MSEs should not be used as
patient the sole criteria fordiagnosing delirium or
seem to be dementia.
able to
focus?
(Good,
poor)
Memory How well can

the patient OTHER SCREENING EXAMS-
remember?
Short-term: The Mini-Mental State Examination
Can the patient (MMSE) is probably the best known.
recall recent The MMSE tests orientation,
things that immediate and short-term memory,
have concentration, arithmetic ability,
happened?
language, and praxis. It takes about 10
Long-term: minutes to administer.
We say “a person with autism” instead of

The Cognitive Capacity Screening an “autistic person” for very good reasons.
Examination (CCSE) tests People are not their disorders, & much is
happening in this child's life that has
orientation, serial subtraction, memory,
nothing to do with autism.
and similarities. It is less sensitive to
Similarly, we say a person with
delirium or dementia in the elderly. schizophrenia rather than a schizophrenic.
Neurobehavioral Cognitive Status

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Examination (NCSE) is especially
good for medically ill patients; it There are two classification systems in use
currently in the world: DSM and ICD.
focuses on consciousness, orientation,
attention, language, construction,
memory, calculations, and reasoning. It DSM: The Diagnostic and Statistical
tends to be more sensitive in detecting Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
impairment because it is more detailed.  given by American Psychiatric 
Association (APA). This is different
from American psychological
association also referred to as APA).
CLASSIFICATION-
ICD: International Statistical
Classification of Diseases (ICD)
The term classification refers to any effort developed by WHO
to construct groups or categories and to
assign objects or people to these categories DSM (DIAGNOSTIC AND
or groups on the basis of their attributes, STATISTICAL MANUAL OF
characteristics or relations. MENTAL DISORDERS)
Emil Kraepelin (late 19th century): The
"father of psychiatry" (Weckowicz, 1984) The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
gave the first truly comprehensive system Mental Disorders is the handbook widely
medical classification scheme. In it he used by clinicians and psychiatrists in the
defines two major groups of mental United States to diagnose psychiatric
disorders: the manic-depressive psychoses, illnesses. Published by the American
and dementia praecox (i.e. schizophrenia) Psychiatric Association (APA), the DSM
with further subdivisions. Kraepelin's covers all categories of mental health
system is important because it defined the disorders for both adults and children.It
discipline of psychiatry as distinct from contains descriptions, symptoms, and
neurology, and as a part of the general other criteria necessary for diagnosing
field of medicine. mental health disorders. It also contains
statistics concerning which gender is most
Considering the difficulty in affected by the illness, the typical age of
distinguishing normal from abnormal, onset, the effects of treatment, and
categorizing & diagnosing different common treatment approaches.
types of abnormalities can be difficult.
DSM HISTORY
TERMINOLOGYIn the past decade or
so, psychologists have begun to change the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual has
terminology used in referring to people been updated seven times since it was first
with psychological disorders. published in 1952.
Version Year Number of diagnosesVersion Year Number of diagnoses
DSM-I 1952 106 DSM-II 1968 182
Version Year Number of diagnoses disorder and histrionic personality

DSM-III 1980 265 disorder. Personality disorders cause
significant problems in how a person
DSM-III-R 1987 292 relates to the world, while mental
DSM-IV 1994 297 retardation is characterized by intellectual
DSM-IV-TR 2000 365 impairment and deficits in other areas such
as self-care and interpersonal skills.
The newest version of the DSM, the DSM-5, was AXIS III – GENERAL MEDICAL
published in May of 2013. This latest revision CONDITIONS
was met with considerable discussion and some
controversy. Axis III was used for coding medical
conditions that influence or worsen Axis 1
DSM-IV-TR MULTIAXIAL and Axis II disorders. Some examples
SYSTEM include HIV/AIDS and brain injuries.
The DSM-IV was originally published in AXIS IV – PSYCHOSOCIAL
1994 and listed more than 250 mental AND ENVIRONMENTAL
disorders. Anupdated version, called the PROBLEMS
DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000. This
version utilized amultiaxial or Any social or environmental problems that may impact
multidimensional approach for diagnosing Axis I or Axis II disorders were accounted for in this
mental disorders. axis. These include such things as unemployment,
relocation, divorce, or the death of a loved one.
The multiaxial approach was intended to
help clinicians and psychiatrists make AXIS V – GLOBAL
comprehensive evaluations of a client's ASSESSMENT OF
level of functioning because mental FUNCTIONING
illnesses often impact many different life
areas. Axis V is where the clinician gives their
impression of the client's overall level of
It described disorders using five DSM functioning. Based on this assessment,
"axes" or dimensions to ensure that all clinicians could better understand how the
factors—psychological, biological, and other four axes interacted and the effect on
environmental—were considered when the individual's life.
making a mental health diagnosis.
CHANGES IN THE DSM-5
AXIS I – CLINICAL SYNDROMES
Axis I consisted of mental health and The DSM-5 contains a number of significant
substance use disorders that cause changes from the earlier DSM-IV. The most
significant impairment. Disorders were immediately obvious change is the shift from
grouped into different categories such as using Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.
mood disorders, anxiety disorders, or eating
disorders. Perhaps most notably, the DSM-5
eliminated the multiaxial system. Instead the
AXIS II – PERSONALITY DSM-5 lists categories of disorders along
DISORDERS AND MENTAL with a number of different related disorders.
RETARDATION Example categories in the DSM-5 include
anxiety disorders, bipolar and
Axis II was reserved for mental retardation related disorders, depressive disorders,
and personality disorders, such feeding and eating
as antisocial personality
disorders, obsessive-compulsive and While the DSM is an important tool, only

related disorders, and personality those who have received specialized
disorders. training and possess sufficient experience
are qualified to diagnose and treat mental
A few other changes in the DSM-5: illnesses.
Asperger's disorder was removed and ICD 10 (INTERNATIONAL

incorporated under the category of CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES)
 autism spectrum disorders. The International Classification of
Disruptive mood dysregulation Diseases (ICD) is published by the WHO
 disorder was added, in part to in Geneva, Switzerland. The latest ICD is
decrease over-diagnosis of ICD-10 (1992). This classification system
 childhood bipolar disorders. includes diagnoses for all the systems in
Several diagnoses were officially the human body. Of the 21 chapters in
added to the manual including ICD 10, Chapter V is devoted to mental
 binge eating disorder, hoarding health disorders. Chapter V is divided into
disorder, and premenstrual 10 groups with every main group has the
dysphoric disorder identification letter “F”. The ICD (for clinical
practice - CDDG) and the DSM are now
broadly similar.
character if it is necessary to subdivide
further.
All of the diagnostic codes start with the
letter F and, like the other chapters, it has
10 major divisions, each of which can be
divided into 10 subdivisions, and so on.
For example, F20 schizophrenia can be
followed by a further number for the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DSM AND
category within the group (e.g. F20.1, ICD
disorganized schizophrenia), and a fourth
obvious external cause, to an extent that
MAJOR CATEGORIES OF itaffects routine functioning of the
DISORDERS IN DSM-IV-TR person.Stress is the part of daily routine in
a person’s life but the reactions to stress
Anxiety disorders vary fromindividual to individual.
Somatoform disorders Anxiety is one of the various reactions to
stress. Whether or not one will develop
Dissociative disorders anxiety, and to what extent, will depend on
Mood disorders the nature of stress faced, family history,
Schizophrenia and fatigue or over work, and the person’s
coping strategies.
Personality disorders
Sexual disorders
Substance-related disorders MAJOR SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
INCLUDE:
Delirium, dementia, amnesia, and other
Sleeplessness, Headaches, Twitching and
cognitive disorders.
trembling,Dry mouth,Memory
problems,Nightmares, Irritability, Fatigue,
ANXIETY DISORDERS Sweating, Muscle tension, Insomnia
Disorders in which anxiety becomes an SUBCATEGORIES OF ANXIETY

impediment in a person’s routine DISORDERS:
functioning.Anxiety is a reaction to real or Panic Disorder consists of recurrent
imagined threat that may hamper the daily unexpected Panic Attacks. A panic
functioning andresults in uneasiness, attack is generally accompanied by
worry, and apprehension.In anxiety physical symptoms, such as a
disorders, anxiety occurs without an pounding  heart, sweating, and rapid
breathing.
 Person suffers from panic Have a fear of embarrassing

attacks (brief attacks of
themselves.
intense terror &

apprehension, often marked
 by trembling, shaking, SIMPLE PHOBIAS
confusion, dizziness,
nausea, and/or difficulty Is a fear of an animal, object
 breathing).  orsituation.
 40% of young adults have Over 300 have been named.
occasional attacks. Example:
In addition to panic attacks, 
this diagnosis requires that Animals
 
the attacks have chronic
Zoophobia
consequences, either:
worry over the attacks' Being touched
potential implications Aphephobia
persistent fear of future Blood
attacks Hemophobia
significant changes in
behavior related to the Confinement
attacks Claustrophobia

 33-50% develop agoraphobia. Darkness
 Nyctophobia
A phobia is an irrational fear that Death
produces a conscious avoidance of the Thanatophobia
feared object. The affected person Dirt
usually recognizes that the reaction is
excessive. Specific phobias (formerly Mysophobia
 known as “simple phobias”) involve  Dog
fear of specific objects; social phobias Cynophobia
– involves fear of social situations and Fire
agoraphobias (fear of situations where
Pyrophobia
 escape is difficult). God
AGORAPHOBIA (GREEK - Theophobia
“FEAR OF Heights
MARKETPLACE”) Acrophobia
Marriage
Fear anyplace where Gamophobia
mightbe trapped or
unable to Money
receive help in an Chrematophobia
emergency.
Often accompanies
panicdisorder.
Are usually very
dependentpeople.
Is the most common &
thehardest to treat.
SOCIAL PHOBIAS
Are insecure in
socialsituations.
Naked body Diagnosis of GAD is made

Gymnophobia when a person has been
excessively worried about
Robbers
 an everyday problem for
Harpaxophobia >6 months. 
 Anxiety here is free floating.
Sex
Genophobia It is the most common
anxietydisorder in older
Sin  adults.
Harmartophobia
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE
Sleep DISORDERis marked by the presence
Hypnophobia of either an obsession or a compulsion
Spiders that interferes with their life, either by
 their ability to function adequately.
Arachnephobia taking up too much time or impairing
Strangers 
Xenophobia Obsession - an idea you 
cannot get out of your head.
Thunder   
Compulsion - a behavior
Brontophobia you cannot stop
Travel  performing.
Hodophobia 
Washing, cleaning, &
Women checking are the most
Gynophobia common.

Work
Ponophobia POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS
DISORDER (PTSD) often occurs
 after the person has been exposed to a
GENERALIZED ANXIETY
 traumatic  the
effect. It involves
DISORDER is defined by excessive persistent reexperiencing of a
worry about a number of events or traumatic event (flashbacks,
activities, accompanied by restlessness, nightmares), avoidance of stimuli
fatigue, or other physical symptoms. associated with the event, and
symptoms of increased arousal lasting
Characterized by long- at least 1 month. Acute Stress Disorder
 
lasting anxiety that is not
focused on any one object  involves similar features lasting less
than 1 month.
or situation. Those  
Results from a traumatic
suffering from generalized experience. Post-traumatic
anxiety disorder experience stress can result from an
non-specific persistent fear extreme situation, such as
and worry, & become combat, natural disaster, rape,
overly concerned with hostage situations, child abuse,
everyday matters. bullying or even a serious
accident. It can also result from
chronic exposure to a severe
 stressor.
Symptoms - avoidance &
 numbing, intrusive  memories,
anxiety & emotions.
Became widely accepted asa
diagnostic category because of
difficulties experienced by Dissociative Disorders: The essential

Vietnam War veterans. feature of Dissociative Disorders is a
disturbance in the integrative functions of
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS identity, memory, and consciousness. All
of the disorders are trauma-based (such as
rape, wartime trauma or severe
A disorder in which psychological accident.)(Dissociation is the
problems take the physical (somatic) form disconnection from full awareness of self –
without anyapparent physical cause; a state don’t know who you are, time – don’t
where there are physical symptoms present know what time is it, and/or external
but no medicalcause. circumstances –don’t know where you are)
Somatization Disorder involves a history
of multiple physical complaints over a
TYPES OF DISSOCIATIVE
period of several years without any organic DISORDER
pathology, pain in at least four different
sites on the body (head, abdomen, back,
joints etc.) two gastrointestinal problems 1- DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA
(e.g. diarrhea, vomiting, bloating) one A state when a selective loss of memory
sexual symptom (impotence, sexual occurs. The person is unable to recall
indifference, irregular menses), and one specific events often as a result of extreme
pseudo-neurological symptom similar to stress. Significant memory loss occurs
those seen in Conversion disorder about personal information that is not due
(fainting, blindness). They have no organ to an organic cause. This disorder vanishes
pathology to account for their multiple abruptly as it begins and rarely re-occurs.
symptoms.
2- DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE
Conversion Disorder is distinguished
Fugue means, “Flight” Fugue is a form of
by the development of a symptom
amnesia. The sufferer takes sudden
suggestive of a neurological disorder
impulsive trips, at times assuming a new
affecting senses (e.g. blindness, double
identity. Dissociative fugue includes
vision, deafness, loss of touch or pain
forgetting as well as fleeing from one’s
sensation), or voluntary motor function
home for days and weeks, also being
(e.g. aphonia, impaired coordination or
unable to remember one’s identity.
balance, paralysis or localized
Unconscious wandering in which the
weakness, difficulty swallowing,
person has limited social contacts.
urinary retention, seizures). However,
the underlying cause is not In some instances, person may take over
another personality that is more sociable
 conflict.
neurological but severe psychological

than theprevious one.
 Pain Disorder is characterized by pain
3- DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY
occurring in association with DISORDER/MULTIPLE
 psychological factors.
PERSONALITY
Hypochondriasis is the fear of, or the
 idea  one has, a serious physical
that Rare disorder in which the person may
illness. take over two or more personalities that
Body Dysmorphic Disorder is a are entirelydifferent from one another The
preoccupation with an imagined defect first one is usually restrained, restricted
in appearance
and dull but the other one is entirely
different from the previous one; one’s
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER mannerisms, vocal, movements are
entirely different from one another.
MOOD DISORDERS
Disturbances of mood are the primary There is a deep division between

manifestation of Mood Disorders. The the real world and the
schizophrenic’s world. Have
primary Mood Disorders are divided into difficulty sorting out the real
unipolar and bipolar disorders. from unreal, in keeping track of
 their thoughts, & responding to
the everyday events in life.
 personality disintegration
In unipolar disorders, patients  Involves
& a loss of contact with reality.
experience emotional extremes at just  Thisbeds the
group occupies about half
in mental hospitals.
one end of the continuum i.e. Occurs equally in men & women,
depression. The unipolar Depressive  but tends to occur at an earlier
age in men than women. 
Disorders include Major Depressive  Typical age of onset is 15 - 35.
Disorder (severe depression) and 
 Major Symptoms
Dysthymic Disorder (mild depression 
Disordered Thinking
that lasts for at least two years) 
Bipolar disorder mayinvolve both 
Autistic Thinking -
depressive and manic periods or only  Absorption in fantasy.
manic period. Even though the patient  Prelogical Thinking -
may be exhibiting only manic Thought processes are
symptoms, it is assumed that a  primitive & incomplete.
depressive episode will eventually  Delusions - False beliefs.
occur and so no “unipolar” mania  Several types: Persecution,
exists. These are divided into Bipolar - Grandeur, Control, &
I disorder (most severe form of mania),  Identity. 
 Disturbances of Perception
Bipolar - II disorder (mild form of
mania) and Cyclothymic disorder

Attention & Filtering -
(mildest form of mania). Bipolar - I is
 Seem to have trouble
characterized by episodes of both focusing attention &
severe depression (usually but not filtering out irrelevant
always) and severe mania; BP II by  stimuli.
severe depression with occasional  Louis Wain (1860-1939) -
episodes of "mild" mania, called A famous animal artist. His
hypomania and cyclothymic disorder drawings of a cat show his
alternates between hypomania and progressive deterioration &
mild depression. (BP-I; pronounced some disturbing distortions
 of perception.
"type one bipolar disorder"). 
 Hallucinations - False
perceptions. Are usually
SCHIZOPHRENIA
auditory (hear voices), but
may also be visual or
Schizophrenia is a category of mental
 olfactory. 
disorders marked by severe distortion of Disturbances of Emotion
reality.Schizophrenia is a disorder with a 
minimum of 6 months' duration and is  Flattened emotions (blunted
characterized by an active psychotic phase affect).
for at least 1 month: delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly
disorganized behavior, and negative
symptoms (e.g. alogia or little speech, or
avolition or lack of motivation).

 Inappropriate emotions. 
 Bizarre Motor Behavior
 Communication Difficulties
Unusual Motions - May
Echolalia - Repeating the grimace or gesture in
last word or phrase spoken  peculiar ways.
 by another. Catalepsy - Holding a
Neologisms - Made up particular posture for a long
 words.  time.
 Word Salad - Words Waxy Flexibility - Posture
haphazardly thrown  can be molded.
 together. Cataplexy - Loss of muscle
 Verbal Exhibitionism - A tone.
grandiose manner of
speech.
TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
Disorganized or Marked by inappropriate emotion: inappropriate giggling, laughter,
Hebephrenic Type silliness, incoherentspeech, infantile behavior, and strange and at
times obscene behavior.
The patient experiences delusions and hallucinations of his own
Paranoid
greatness.
Schizophrenia
Behavior is unpredictable, and erratic.
Sense of judgment is lost.
Catatonic schizophrenia is marked by disturbances in the motor

Catatonic activity and muscularcontrol. Major disturbances occur in movement.
Schizophrenia At times all motion stops and the patient just freezes in one position.
This frozen posture may last for hours and even days. In some phases
the patient exhibits wild, free floating, and even violent movement.
This variety of schizophrenia involves a combination of the major

Undifferentiated symptoms found in othervarieties. This diagnosis is used when
Schizophrenia patients do not fit into any one of the major categories of
schizophrenia.
Residual
Residual schizophrenia consists of minor signs of schizophrenia after
Schizophrenia
a major, more serious,episode.
Taken together, these data suggest

Genetics a very strong genetic
component to the disorder.
 is to
The more closely related a person
a patient with schizophrenia,
the more likely that person is to PERSONALITY DISORDERS
develop schizophrenia (Gottesman,
1991). as “an enduring pattern of inner

Adopted children with experience and behavior that deviates
schizophrenia are the most likely to markedly from the expectations of the
have symptomatic biological individual's culture.” This pattern is
relatives. manifested in two (or more) of the
following areas-
Cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and

interpreting self, other people, and events):
e.g. suspicious, self-critical.
Odd or
Schizotypal -
eccentriccluster
Affectivity (i.e., the range, intensity,
behavior odd
lability or abnormal sudden rapid shifts in which leads to
mood, and appropriateness of emotional socialisolation
response) e.g. indifferent, flattened affect
Schizoid - social
isolation by
Interpersonal functioning: Does not
choice(loner)
have healthy and satisfying relationships
with friends and family members. Paranoid -
suspicious,
Impulse control: This is mistrusting,
jealous, andcold
characterized by an inability to resist the
impulse to perform an action that is
harmful to one's self or others e.g. Dramatic, emotional Histrionic -
aggressive outbursts, sudden changes of or erraticcluster Dramatic and
jobs, residences, or relationships. Attention seeking,
Shallow and
Superficia
CLUSTERS OF PERSONALITY
l
DISORDERS inrelationships
Cluster A (odd or eccentric): Paranoid Narcissistic -

| Schizoid | Schizotypal (treatment overcompensat
e for low self-
resistant category)
esteem by
Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or building self-
erratic): Histrionic/ Antisocial | up/self-
Borderline//Narcissistic (mixed preoccupation
results) Borderline -
attention seeking,
Cluster C (anxious or fearful): manipulative,
Avoidant | Dependent | mood swings,
Obsessive-Compulsive (treatment struggles
responsive category) withidentity
Antisocial - no
conscience/remors
e, regularly violate
the rights of
others,superficial
Anxious/fearfulclust Avoidant - fear

er rejection therefore
socially isolated
though
desireintimacy
Obsessive -
compulsive -
preoccupied with
organization environment in utero, trauma at birth,

andperfection and social and psychological factors in
infancy and childhood. Precipitating
Dependent - factors are events that occur shortly
inability to take before the onset of a disorder and
responsibility for appear to have induced it. They may be
self, need others physical, psychological, or social.
to makedecisions Physical precipitating factors include
diseases such as cerebral tumor,
CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL traumatic brain injury that is caused by
DISORDERS accidents, and the effects of drugs
taken for treatment or used illegally.
Knowledge of the causes of As for psychological causes, there are
psychological disorders is important for many as for example a psychological
two main reasons. First, in everyday cause can be bereavement ,losing a
clinical work it helps the psychologist very near and dear person.This causes
to understand possible causes of an depression.While moving home is a
individual patient’s psychological social cause, some causes may act in
disorder. Second, it adds to the general more than one way; for example, a
understanding of mental disorders, head injury may induce a psychological
which may contribute to advances in disorder through physical changes in
diagnosis, treatment, or prognosis. the brain and through psychological
effects.
A necessary cause is a condition that
must be there for a disorder to occur. Perpetuating factors (or maintaining
For example, general paresis,a factors) prolong a disorder after it has
degenerative brain disorder cannot begun. Sometimes a feature of a
develop unless a person had syphilis.A disorder makes itself perpetuating (e.g.
necessary cause is not always sufficient some ways of thinking commonly
to cause a disorder and therefore other prolong anxiety disorders). Social
factors may also berequired. factors are also important (e.g.
overprotective attitudes of parents or
A sufficient cause is a condition that care givers or relatives). Awareness of
guarantees the occurrence of a disorder. perpetuating factors is
For example, one theory says that particularlyimportantinplanningtreatme
hopelessness is a sufficient cause of ntbecausetheymaybemodifiableevenwh
depression (Abramson et al 1995). enlittle can be done about predisposing
According to this theory if you are and precipitating factors.
hopeless enough about your future then
you will become
depressed.Acontributorycauseisonethati BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
ncreasestheprobabilityofdevelopingadis
order. For example, parental rejection According to this view, mental
could increase the probability that the disorders are seen as disorders of the
child may have problems in handling central nervous system and thus are
close relationships later. When there sometimes inherited or caused by some
are multiple causes it is useful to group medical factors like injuries or physical
them into predisposing, precipitating, diseases. These are given below:
and perpetuatingfactors.
Neurotransmitter and Hormonal
Predisposing factors determine the imbalances in the brain,
vulnerability to other causes that act
close to the time of the illness. Many Genetics,
predisposing factors act early in life,
Constitutional liabilities, Brain
for example, genetic endowment, the
structure, fortheoffspring of an affected person it

becomes 10% and in bipolar disorder
Physical deprivation or is20%.
disruption.
For many years, twin studies served as
Neurotransmitter and Hormonal the most direct way of determining
Imbalances in the Brain whether or not a disorder has a genetic
basis. In the classic twin study design,
Factors affecting neurotransmitter the similarity of monozygotic
imbalance include: (‘identical’) twins and dizygotic
Excessive production and release of (‘fraternal’) twins are compared.
the neurotransmitter substance into Because monozygotic twins share all of
the synapses, causing an excess  in their genes and dizygotic twins share
 Dysfunctionsinthenormal
levels of that neurotransmitter. only half their genes, greater similarity
among monozygotic twins than among
processes by which dizygotic twins implies a genetic
neurotransmitters are deactivated component for most major mental
after they are released into the disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, the
synapse. This deactivation is done major mood disorders, anxiety
in two ways. They are either disorders,alcohol-
deactivated by enzymes present in usedisorders),twinand/oradoptionstudie
the synapse or reabsorbed or sucked shavedemonstratedsignificant genetic
back into the presynaptic axon
 button, a process called re-uptake. effects. However, these studies also
demonstrate equally, if not more,
Dysfunctions can important environmental effects.
occurwhentheenzymesinthesynapse However, psychologists often assume
aredeficientorthereisslowingofthepr
that ‘environment’ means the family or
 ocess ofre-uptake. psychosocial environment and this is
Problems in the receptors in the not necessarily the case. Factors such
postsynaptic neuron, which may as the prenatal environment and viral

either be abnormally sensitive or infections are all part of the
insensitive.
‘environment’ in geneticterms.
HORMONAL IMBALANCE
Hormones are chemicals messengers Usingseveraldifferenttechniquestoanaly
secreted by the endocrine glands zeDNA(themolecularbasisofgenes),rese
(e.g.,pituitary).Theyplayaroleinthefunct archers are now in a position to
ioningofthenervoussystemandintheregu correlate the presence of specific genes
with specific mental disorders. The task
lation of behavior
is complicated because existing
(e.g.,duringadolescence,changesinthehy
pothalamicpituitary-adrenalaxisare research suggests that most mental
involvedintheincreaseincortisol,astress- disorders are caused by multiple genes
relatedhormone).Malfunctionofthissyst (polygenic), making it very difficult to
emhas been said to be responsible for discover each individual gene that is
various forms of psychopathology. associated with adisorder.
Hormonal influences are also
responsible for the differences in CONSTITUTIONAL
behaviour between men andwomen. LIABILITIESThe term
‘constitutional’ is used to describe any
GENETICSGenes play an important characteristic that is either innate or
role in determining risks for both acquired early in life often at prenatal
psychotic and non- stage and in such strength that it is
psychoticdisorders.Forexample,thelifeti functionally similar to a genetic
meriskofschizophreniais1%,but characteristic. Physical handicaps and
temperament are some of the traits
included in this category Embryonic
abnormalities or environmental feelings of depersonalization.

conditions operating before or after Prolonged food deprivation also affects
birth may result in physical defects. psychological health. Severe
The most common birth difficulty malnutrition in children not only
associated with learning disabilities and impairs physical development
behavioural and emotional disorders andlowersresistancetodiseasebutitalsost
islowbirthweight.Prenatalconditionsthat untsbraingrowth,resultsinloweredintelli
canleadtoprematurebirthandlowbirthwe gence and increases risk for disorders
ights include nutritional deficiencies, like attention-deficitdisorder.
disease, and exposure to radiation,
drugs, severe emotional stress or
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
mother’s excessive use of alcohol or
tobacco. Socio-economic status is also Personality ‘traits’ are usually defined
related to fetal and birth difficulties. as those aspects of how one person
The temperament of an infant or young relates to others,
child has profound effects on a variety reactstointerpersonalstimuliandevaluate
of important developmental processes sthemselvesovertime.Forallthis,aperson
(Rothbart &Ahadi,1994). may laugh, cry, be angry, be thoughtful
and act unkindly at different times.
BRAINSTRUCTURE
Knowledge about brain structure has This does not mean
increased with thattheir‘personality’isconstantlychangi
the advances in ng–
computedtomography(CT)scanningand itistheoverallbalanceofthinking,feelinga
magneticresonanceimaging(MRI).This nd behaviour that is important, not how
hasleadto many notable observations. they react in any specificsituation.
For instance, neuroimaging in some PSYCHODYNAMICS AND THE
patients with schizophrenia shows PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP
dilated cerebral ventricles and reduced
frontal lobe density. This evidence Freud emphasized the role of the early
indicates that schizophrenia may be parent–child relationship in the
neurodevelopmental in origin. development of mental illness.
Exposure to adverse conditions According to Freud, to the extent that
whichcanaffectbraindevelopment(inute the child did not successfully negotiate
roorinearlylife)mayleadtochangesinthef the psychosexual stages, mental illness
rontal lobes that increase the risk of would develop.
schizophrenia. Neuroimaging also
Contemporary psychodynamic models
helps us to distinguish between
(e.g., Kohut, 1977; Kernberg, 1976;
different types of dementia. Also, some
Mitchell, 1988) also suggest that the
older people experiencing severe
early parent child relationship is the
depression for the first time might have
original source of mental illness, and
underlying cerebro-vasculardisease.
that what goes on in the mind of the
PHYSICAL DEPRIVATION OR child (and the adult) is important. The
DISRUPTIONThe most basic human attachment model of psychopathology,
requirements are those of food, water, developed by Bowlby (1969; 1973;
oxygen, sleep and elimination of 1980) resembles the contemporary
wastes. Insufficient rest, inadequate psychodynamic models in that it also
diet or working too hard when ill, can emphasizes the early parent child
all interfere with a person’s ability to relationship and how the resulting
cope and might predispose him or her
to a variety of problems.Experimental
studies of volunteers who have gone
without sleep for 72 to 98 hours show
psychological problems like
disorientation for time and place and
models of self and others guide Lidz et al. (1958) suggested that
development abnormalities in the relationships
between the parents of mentally ill
LEARNED BEHAVIOUR patients were primarily responsible for
Behavioral models suggest that all their developing psychological
behaviours, abnormal included, is a problems.They coined the terms skew
product of learning, that is mainly and schism to describe such
learning by association. For example, relationships. Skew describes a
according to the classical conditioning marriage where one partner is dominant
model of learning (e.g. Pavlov, 1928), and the other submissive, while schism
if a person experiences chest pain describes the relationship in which
which results in parents are emotionally distant from
anxietywhileshoppinginadepartmentalst one another.
ore,hemaydevelopafearofdepartmentals
tores
andbegintoavoidthembecauseheassociat SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
esthemwithanxiety.Thereisnothinginher
ently One, called social causation, suggest
frighteningaboutdepartmentalstores,but that lower economic class people are
thispersonfearsthembecauseoftheassoci more prone to
ation that he has formed with his earlier mentaldisorderbecausetheyaremorelikel
anxiety about having a possible ytoexperiencesocialstress (e.g.
heartattack unemployment, separation), to suffer
from psychic frailty, infectious
DISTORTED THINKINGCognitive diseases, neurological impairments, and
models of abnormal behaviour focus on to lack good medical treatment, coping
the way people think ability and social support. Through an
aboutthemselves,othersandtheworld(e.g accumulation of these problems, and
.Becketal.,1979).Distortedcognitivepro the stresses that result, low social status
cesses–such as selectively attending to becomes a cause of mental
some information and ignoring other illness.Theotherexplanationemphasizes
information, exaggerating negative socialselectionordrift.Thissuggeststhat
feelings, expecting the worst, or mentally ill people from higher social
making inaccurate attributions about classes often drift downward into the
eventshavebeenshowntoplayanimportan lower-class areas, (due to job loss,
troleinvarioustypesofpsychologicaldiso unemployment) helping to increase the
rders. rate of mental illness in such
neighborhoods. This explanation
FAMILY THEORIES suggests that being lower economic
Fromm-Reichmann (1948) coined the class is a result of mental illness among
term schizophrenogenic mother, to formerly higher status individuals. Both
describe a parent who was cold, explanations may be true to some
domineering and manipulative, and extent.
who had a marked tendency to induce GENDER
conflict in others around her.
The female role is relatively restrictive
Bateson et al. (1956) argued that and oppressive, likely to confine the
schizophrenia develops as a result of woman to her inner self, such that she
repeated exposure to a process called tends to keep her frustration and anger
the double-bind. This term means to herself rather than aggressively pour
communications that are inherently it out on others. Hence women are
contradictory or conflicting, and which more likely to fall victim to depression
put the child in a ‘no win’ situation andanxiety.Men,ontheotherhand,havea
moreliberatedrole,andtheyareencourage
dto be bold, assertive and aggressive in psychosocial factors to predict the

social relations. If frustrated and angry, likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-
they are more likely to take it out on stress model suggests that people with an
others — behaving as antisocial and underlying predisposition for a disorder
paranoidindividuals. (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than
others to develop a disorder when faced
AGE with adverse environmental or
Anothersocialfactorthathasbeenassociat psychological events (i.e., stress), such as
edwithmentaldisorderisage.Studiescond childhood maltreatment, negative life
ucted before the 1980’s suggested that events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is
older persons were more likely to suffer not always a biological vulnerability to an
from mental disorders. This was illness; some diatheses may be
attributed to societal neglect of the psychological (e.g., a tendency to think
elderly eventually resulting in about life events in a pessimistic, self-
institutionalization, where the neglect defeating way).
can continue. Yet, more
recentstudiesinthe1980’sand1990sshow The key assumption of the diathesis-stress
thattheelderlyaretheleastlikelyamongall model is that both factors, diathesis and
age groups to become mentallyill. stress, are necessary in the development of
a disorder. Different models explore the
RACE AND ETHNICITY relationship between the two factors: the
A third social factor in mental level of stress needed to produce the
disorders is race and ethnicity. Like disorder is inversely proportional to the
gender, level of diathesis.
thesehavenotbeenconsistentlyfoundtobe
relatedtomentalillnessingeneral.Whilem
any studies have shown higher rates of TREATMENT OF DISORDERS
psychological stress among minorities,
the standard explanation has been that There are different approaches to therapy
these groups experience more social but they can be basically divided into two
stresses stemming from discrimination, groups:
poverty and cultural conflict. 1) pharmacological and 2) psychotherapy
THE DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL

OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS DRUGS:
Antipsychotic medications are used in
Despite advances in understanding the
psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia,
biological basis of psychological disorders,
the psychosocial perspective is still very and bipolar disorder. They reduce or
important. This perspective emphasizes the eliminate symptoms such as delusions and
importance of learning, stress, faulty and hallucinations. Patients begin to feel better
self-defeating thinking patterns, and within six weeks of starting antipsychotic
environmental factors. Perhaps the best medication.
way to think about psychological
disorders, then, is to view them as
originating from a combination of ANTIPSYCHOTIC
biological and psychological processes. MEDICATIONS:There are two types of
Many develop not from a single cause, but
antipsychotic medications. These are
from a delicate fusion between partly
biological and partly psychosocial factors. known as:
The diathesis-stress model (Zuckerman, ST

1999) integrates biological and TYPICAL / 1 GENERATION
ANTIPSYCHOTICS (E.G.
CHLORPROMAZINE (THORAZINE)
–this refers to the older type of  Selective serotonin reuptake
medications that first appeared in the mid- inhibitors (SSRIs): They act by
1950s that work by blocking the action of increasing the amount of
dopamine. These medications were likely serotonin in the brain. The SSRIs
to cause side effects called ‘extrapyramidal include drugs such as Fluoxetine
symptoms’ or EPS, such as: Rigidity (Prozac) and Sertraline (Zoloft).
(muscle stiffness) and ‘Tardive dyskinesia’
Atypical/Serotonin-norepinephrine
– movement of the mouth, tongue and reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): These

sometimes other parts of the body over target serotonin and
which the person has no control. norepinephrine.

ND Serotonin,noradrenalin,and
ATYPICAL / 2 GENERATION 
ANTIPSYCHOTICS (E.G. dopamine reuptake inhibitor (or
TM
CLOZAPINE (CLOZARIL) AND  SNDRI). Drugs like Wellbutrin
RISPERIDONE (RISPERDAL).This TM
andEffexor blockthe
works on both dopamine and serotonin and reabsorption of the three
also have fewer side effects. Clozapine is neurotransmitters – serotonin,
considered a very effective but it can cause dopamine and norepinephrine.
‘agranulocytosis’, a loss of the white blood
cells and hence blood cell need to OLDER/CLASSICAL
bemonitored every week. Common side- ANTIDEPRESSANTS
effects of atypical antipsychotic include
diabetes and weight gain. Tricyclic antidepressants:
Tricyclics are among the older
antidepressants. They work by
INJECTIONS – DEPOT inhibiting the brain’s reuptake
MEDICATION:Depot medication is of dopamine, serotonin and
given by injection, which releases the drug norepinephrine. Because the
slowly over some weeks. Some people tricyclics have such a broad
prefer injections as they find remembering mechanism of action, they tend
to take tablets difficult. to cause more side effects than

the other classes of
antidepressants.
ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS:These 
drugs are used for treating depression, Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
anxiety, eating disorders and certain (MAOIs): MAOIs are not
personality disorders such as borderline. typically chosen as a first-line
There are several types of antidepressants depression treatment because
available to treat depression, such as: of their side effects.
NEWER/SECOND GENERATION ANTIANXIETY/ANXIOLYTIC

TREATMENT;They have less DRUGS:These reduce anxiety and are
severe side effects than the older also prescribed as sleeping pills and
drugs. Common side effects of newer muscle relaxants.
antidepressants include: Feeling sick, Benzodiazepines: they enhance the
dry mouth, insomnia and weight gain activity of GABA which then
promotes relaxation by slowing the
CNS. They include:  TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC

Valium(diazepam), Xanax STIMULATION (TMS):Transcranial
(alprazolam). magnetic stimulation (TMS) creates a
magnetic field to induce a much
 Beta blockers. Trade
smaller electric current without
names: Inderal, Tenormin. These
causing seizure or loss of
cardiac drugs counteract the effect
consciousness.
of adrenaline and alleviate certain
anxiety symptoms such as shaking,  VAGUS NERVE STIMULATION
(VNS):Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)
palpitations and sweating.
works by sending electrical pulses
through the left vagus nerve. The vagus
buspirone (Buspar®): Buspar, or
nerves carry messages from the brain to
buspirone hydrochloride, is in a
the body's major organs like the heart,
class of its own. It stimulates both
lungs and intestines, and to areas of the
serotonin and dopamine.
brain that control mood, sleep, and
LITHIUM AND OTHER MOOD other functions.
STABILIZING DRUGS (E.G.,
DEPAKOTE): Lithium is used to treat the NEUROSURGERY:
mania Lithium affects the flow of sodium During neurosurgery a small piece
through nerve and muscle cells in the of brain is destroyed. In lobotomy fiber
body.
tracts connected to the frontal lobe are
destroyed. It was believed that this could
BRAIN STIMULATION help could reduce problems, such as
TECHNIQUES: depression and anxiety. Unfortunately, the
technique left some patients with severe
Brain stimulation therapies involve
side effects, including seizures, and
activating the brain directly with electricity
changes in personality. By the 1980s, the
(ECT), magnets (TMS), or implants (VNS)
neurosurgery field moved away from
to treat depression and other disorders like
destruction to deep-brain stimulation
bipolar, schizophrenia and OCD. These are
where electrodes are placed into the neural
usually considered only after a patient's
tissue and current is passed to activate or
illness has not improved after other
inactivate patches of the brain.
treatment options.
Evaluation: Many pharmacological

ECT: With ECT, electrodes are put on
treatments are effective (especially for
the patient's scalp and a finely
major depression and bipolar disorder) but
controlled electric current is applied
side effects need to be controlled.
causing a brief seizure. In Unilateral
Moreover, they need to be combined with
ECT current flow is applied to only
psychotherapy for long term results.
one side of the brain (nondominant
side) while in bilateral ECT (which is
considered more effective), electrical PSYCHOTHERAPY-
current is applied to both sides. ECT is
much safer today; it still causes some Psychotherapy is a form of treatment for
side effects such as temporary problems of an emotional nature in which
memory loss and confusion. a trained person deliberately establishes a
professional relationship with a patient for
the purpose of removing, modifying, or Psychoanalytic theory grew out of the

retarding existing symptoms, of mediating work of the famous psychoanalyst
disturbed patterns of behavior, and of Sigmund Freud who began developing his
promoting positive personality growth and therapeutic techniques in the late 1800s. In
development (Wolberg, 1967). 1885, Freud began to study and work with
Jean-Martin Charcot at the Salpêtrière in
Psychologists generally draw on one or Paris. Charcot used hypnosis to treat
more theories of psychotherapy. women suffering from what was then
known as hysteria. Symptoms of the
A theory of psychotherapy acts as a illness included partial paralysis,
roadmap for psychologists: It guides them hallucinations, and nervousness.
through the process of understanding
clients and their problems and developing Freud continued to research hypnotism in
solutions. treatment, but his work and friendship
with colleague Josef Breuer led to the
development of his most famous
Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic
therapies. therapeutic technique. Breuer described
his treatment of a young woman, known in
This approach focuses on changing the case history as Anna O., whose
problematicbehaviors,feelings,andthou symptoms of hysteria were relieved by
ghtsbydiscoveringtheirunconsciousmea talking about her traumatic experiences.
ningsand motivations. Freud and Breuer collaborated on a book
Psychoanalytically oriented therapies called Studies on Hysteria and Freud
are characterized by a close working continued to develop his use of this "talk
partnership between therapist and therapy." This approach proposed that
patient. Patients learn about themselves simply talking about problems could help
by exploring their interactions in the relieve psychological distress.
therapeutic relationship. While
psychoanalysis is closely identified THE PROCESS
with Sigmund Freud, it has been
extended and modified since his
Psychoanalytic therapy is insight driven,
earlyformulations.
and therefore looks to foster change by
helping you understand your past and how
The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is events from your early life could be
to help patients better understand the affecting you now. Sessions will vary
unconscious forces that can play a role according to why you are seeking therapy,
in current behaviors, thoughts, and and where you are in the therapy journey,
emotions. This type of therapy is based but much of the time will be spent talking
upon the theories and work of Sigmund freely to your therapist in a safe, non-
Freud, who founded the school of judgmental environment.
thought known as psychoanalysis.
Freud described the unconscious as the The therapist will listen to your concerns
reservoir of desires, thoughts, and and look out for patterns or certain events
memories that are below the surface of that may hold significance. In this type of
conscious awareness. He believed that therapy, it is believed that our unconscious
it was these unconscious influences that feelings and certain childhood events play
could often lead to psychological a key role in mental distress.
distress and disturbances.
As well as listening to you talk about your
THE HISTORY OF experiences and your concerns, the
PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY therapist may use other techniques to help
you understand and identify potential
causes for your concerns, such as free
association, therapeutic transference and quick, solution-focused therapies.

interpretation. Psychoanalytic therapy is a gradual
process that takes time, yet the results are
FREE ASSOCIATION said to be life changing.
Free association involves you talking Some believe that due to the nature of
about whatever comes into your mind therapy, psychoanalytic work is better
without censoring or editing the flow of suited to more general concerns such as
memories or ideas. Your therapist will anxiety, relationship difficulties, sexual
encourage you to speak freely to help you issues or low self-esteem. Phobias, social
return to an earlier emotional state, so they shyness and difficulties sleeping are
can better understand any recurrent further examples of areas that may be
patterns of conflict you may be effectively managed with the help of
experiencing. psychoanalytic therapy.
THERAPEUTIC TRANSFERENCE Psychoanalytic therapy can also be applied

in a group setting. This is called group
Transference relates to the way you may analysis. This form of therapy brings
be transferring thoughts or feelings together psychoanalytic techniques with
connected to influential figures in your life interpersonal functions.
(for example your parents or siblings) onto
your therapist. While this may not happen
in every case, if it does, your therapist
should discuss transference with you to BEHAVIOR THERAPY.
help you gain further insight into the way
you deal with people in your daily life. This approach focuses on learning's
role in developing both normal and
abnormalbehaviors.
INTERPRETATION
A key element of psychoanalytic therapy Ivan Pavlovmade important

is interpreting and 'reading between the contributionstobehavior
lines'. While your therapist is likely to stay therapybydiscovering
relatively quiet and allow you to talk classical conditioning, or
freely, they will occasionally interject with associative learning. Pavlov's
thoughts or interpretations of the topics famous dogs, for example, began
you discuss. They may also ask you about drooling when they heard their
your dreams; freud wrote a lot on the dinner bell, because they
subject of dream analysis and believed associated the sound withfood.
that dreams were important resources for "Desensitizing" is classical
understanding the unconscious. conditioning in action: A
therapist might help a client with
APPLICATIONS OF a phobia through repeated
PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY exposure to whatever it is that
causesanxiety.
Psychoanalytic therapy can be used by AnotherimportantthinkerwasE.L.
those with a specific emotional concern, as Thorndike,whodiscoveredopera
well as those who simply want to explore ntconditioning. This type of
themselves. Understanding why we are the learning relies on rewards and
way we are, often brings with it a sense of punishments to shape
well-being and a strong sense of self. As people'sbehavior.
psychoanalytic therapy is considered one Severalvariationshave
of the more long-term therapy types, it is developed since behavior
perhaps less useful for those seeking therapy's emergence in the

1950s. One variation is Edward Thorndike was one of the first to
cognitive-behavioral therapy, refer to the idea of modifying behavior.
which focuses on both thoughts Other early pioneers of behavior therapy
and behaviors. included
 psychologists Joseph Wolpe
and Hans Eysenck. Behaviorist B.F.
In behavioral therapy, the goal is to Skinner's work had a major influence on
reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate the development of behavior therapy and
unwanted or maladaptive ones. Behavioral his work introduced many of the concepts
therapy is rooted in the principles of and techniques that are still in use today.
behaviorism, a school of thought focused
on the idea that we learn from our Later on, psychologists such as Aaron
environment. The techniques used in this Beck and Albert Ellis began adding a
type of treatment are based on the theories cognitive element to behavioral strategies
of classical conditioning and operant to form a treatment approach known as
conditioning. cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).
One important thing to note about the THE FOUNDATION OF

various behavioral therapies is that unlike BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
some other types of therapy that are rooted
in insight (such as psychoanalytic and In order to understand how behavioral
humanistic therapies), behavioral therapy therapy works, let's start by exploring the
is action-based. Behavioral therapists are two basic principles that contribute to
focused on using the same learning behavioral therapy: Classical and operant
strategies that led to the formation of conditioning.
unwanted behaviors.
 Classical conditioning involves
Because of this, behavioral therapy tends forming associations between
to be highly focused. The behavior itself is stimuli. Previously neutral stimuli
the problem and the goal is to teach clients are paired with a stimulus that
new behaviors to minimize or eliminate naturally and automatically evokes
the issue. Old learning led to the a response. After repeated pairings,
development of a problem, and so the idea an association is formed and the
is that new learning can fix it. previously neutral stimulus will
come to evoke the response on its
There are three major areas that also draw own.
on the strategies of behavioral therapy: Operant conditioning focuses on how
reinforcement and punishment can
Cognitive-behavioral be utilized to either increase or
therapy relies on behavioral decrease the frequency of a
techniques but adds a cognitive behavior. Behaviors followed by
element, focusing on the desirable consequences are more
problematic thoughts that lie likely to occur again in the future,
behind behaviors. while those followed by negative
Applied behavior analysis uses consequences become less likely to
operant conditioning to shape and occur.
modify problematic behaviors.
Social learning theory centers on BEHAVIOR THERAPY BASED ON
how people learn through CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
observation. Observing others
being rewarded or punished for Classical conditioning is one way to alter
their actions can lead to learning behavior, and a number of techniques exist
 and behavior change. that can produce such change. Originally
known as behavior modification, this type
of therapy is often referred to today as
applied behavior analysis. There are For example, an individual with a fear of the
several different techniques and strategies dark might start by looking at an image of a
used in this approach to therapy. dark room, before moving on to thinking
 about being in a dark room, and then
 actually confronting his fear by sitting in a
FLOODING dark room. By pairing the old fear-
producing stimulus with the newly learned
This process involves exposing people to relaxation behavior, the phobic response can
fear-invoking objects or situations be reduced or even eliminated.

intensely and rapidly. It is often used to AVERSION THERAPY
treat phobias. During the process, the
individual is prevented from escaping or This process involves pairing an
avoiding the situation. undesirable behavior with an aversive
stimulus in the hope that the unwanted
For example, flooding might be used to behavior will eventually be reduced. For
help a person who is suffering from an example, someone suffering from
intense fear of dogs. At first, the client alcoholism might take disulfiram, a drug
might be exposed to a small, friendly dog which causes severe symptoms (such as
for an extended period of time during headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting)
which they cannot leave. After repeated when combined with alcohol.
exposures to the dog during which nothing
bad happens, the fear response begins to BEHAVIOR THERAPY BASED ON
fade. OPERANT CONDITIONING
SYSTEMATIC  Many behavior techniques rely on the

DESENSITIZATION
principles of operant conditioning, which
In this technique, a client makes a list of means that they use reinforcement,
fears and then learns to relax while punishment, shaping, modeling and related
concentrating on these fears. The use of techniques to alter behavior. These
this process began with psychologist John methods have the benefit of being highly
Watson and his famous Little Albert focused, which means that they can
produce fast and effective results.
experiment in which he conditioned a 
young child to fear a white rat. Later, Mary TOKEN ECONOMIES
Cover Jones replicated Watson's results
and utilized counterconditioning This type of behavioral strategy relies on
techniques to desensitize and eliminate the reinforcement to modify behavior. Clients
fear response. are allowed to earn tokens that can be
exchanged for special privileges or desired
Systematic desensitization is often used to items. Parents and teachers often use token
treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. economies to reinforce good behavior.
The process follows three basic steps.
First, the therapist teaches the client Kids earn tokens for engaging in preferred
relaxation techniques. behaviors and may lose tokens for
Next, the individual creates a ranked displaying undesirable behaviors. These
list of fear-invoking situations. tokens can then be traded for rewards such
Starting with the least fear-inducing as candy, toys, or extra time playing with a
item and working their way up to favorite toy.
the most fear-inducing item, the
CONTINGENCY
client confronts these fears under MANAGEMENT
the guidance of the therapist while
maintaining a relaxed state.
This approach uses a formal written

contract between a client and a therapist COGNITIVE THERAPY.
(or parent or teacher) that outlines
behavior-change goals, reinforcements,
rewards, and penalties. Contingency Cognitive therapy emphasizes what
contracts can be very effective in people think rather than what they do.
producing behavior changes since the rules Cognitive therapists believe that it's
are spelled out clearly, preventing both dysfunctional thinking that leads to
parties from backing down on their dysfunctional emotions or behaviors.
promises. By changing their thoughts, people can
 change how they feel and what they do.
MODELING
Major figures in cognitive therapy
This technique involves learning through include Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck.
observation and modeling the behavior of
others. The process is based on Albert AN OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY
Bandura's social learning theory, which OF CBT
emphasizes the social components of the
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is utilized in
learning process.
treating multiple types of psychiatric
problems. The treatment is typically done
Rather than relying simply on between 3 and 6 months, depending on the
reinforcement or punishment, modeling problem. The following is a list of
allows individuals to learn new skills or psychological problems where CBT has
acceptable behaviors by watching someone been utilized.
else perform those desired skills. In some
cases, the therapist might model the depression
desired behavior. In other instances,  anxiety
watching peers engage in sought-after eating disorders
behaviors can also be helpful.
 anger management
EXTINCTION marital crisis
obsessive-compulsive disorder
Another way to produce behavior change schizophrenia
is to stop reinforcing a behavior in order to post-traumatic stress disorder
eliminate the response. Time-outs are a chronic pain
perfect example of the extinction process.
There are 5 five areas that are believed to
During a time-out, a person is removed be interconnected and affecting one
from a situation that provides another. For instance, how one feels about
reinforcement. For example, a child who a certain situation can cause physical and
starts yelling or striking other children emotional feelings, resulting in varying
would be removed from the group and behaviors in response.
required to sit quietly in a place where
there are no opportunities for attention and situations
reinforcement. By taking away the thoughts
attention that the child found rewarding, emotions
the unwanted behavior is eventually physical feelings
extinguished. behaviors
understanding that they will be utilized in
their future.
CBT breaks problems down into smaller
pieces to give detailed attention to each In cognitive behavior therapy,
part. The techniques aid patients psychological problems are believed to
in disrupting negative, automatic develop through the use of cognitive
thoughts, and replacing them with more distortions. Aaron Beck’s work suggests
helpful ones. The overall goal is to teach that by correcting these distortions, a more
the skill of breaking down negative accurate experience of events is created.
thought patterns and changing them into a Through this work, a patient is better able
more helpful approach to handling daily to develop skills to properly process
life. exposure to life events.
KEY CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES Here is a list of Cognitive Distortions.

OF THE APPROACH
Personalization means the attribution
The patient’s active participation in of the negative feelings of others and
therapy is a key principle in CBT. Without the world around them. For instance,
it, this goal-oriented and problem focused a gymnastics coach is cross, so a
approach would not be effective. Sessions gymnast automatically feels it is her
in CBT are well structured and the client’s fault.
better understanding of the role of 
cognition in correcting behavioral Fallacy of change is assuming that
dysfunctions is paramount to their success. other people will change to suit them
This educative approach allows the client- if pressured enough. This is a common
therapist relationship to deepen, which is distortion found in relationships. For
also an important principle in this therapy. instance, a woman feeling that if her
partner improved himself, she would
CBT is a time limited approach, and work be happier.
outside of the therapy office is vital to 
success. While this approach is initially Emotional reasoning is the
present focused, an emphasis on adaptive distortion that occurs when feelings
thinking allows for relapse prevention. It are considered as facts. For example,
allows the patient to be saying, “I feel that way, it must be
taught techniques to change their true.”
thinking, mood, and behavior with the
Fallacy of Fairness is a distortion that Magnification means exaggerating the

measures all things by an imaginary importance of an undesirable event.
ruler of fairness. A person may feel For instance, allowing getting cut off
resentful because they feel that they by another driver as the impetus to ruin
have a clear definition of fairness, but your entire day. Filtering also includes
that others might not agree with them. selective abstraction. This is focusing
 on a single aspect of a situation and
 Polarization or “Black and White” ignoring others.
Thinking is a distortion that occurs
when things are all or nothing. Blaming occurs when a person holds
Someone might believe they have to someone else responsible for their
be perfect, or they are a failure. emotional pain, or hold themselves
 responsible for every problem.
Overgeneralization means coming to 
broad negative conclusions based on a Global labeling is a distortion that
single, insignificant event. An example occurs when a person generalizes single
would be telling yourself you’re a  qualities into a global judgment.
terrible baker based on failing at one For instance, “I failed a test,
recipe attempt. therefore I’m stupid.”
 
Control fallacies are distortions in Heaven’s Reward Fallacy is the
which a person would feel that distortion that self-sacrifice will
everything that happens to you is a eventually pay off.
result of external actions or of their 
own behavior. For instance, Shoulds are distortions that occur when
believing that your work is not good a person has hard set rules about how
because you’re dealing with every person should behave. An
disruptive coworkers. example would be saying, “I should
work out. I shouldn’t be so lazy.” The
Jumping to Conclusions is a distortion resulting emotional consequence is
that occurs when assumptions about guilt.
 another’s feelings or beliefs are made.
An example might be a child feeling Albert Ellis developed the ABC
that they know how someone else feels technique that is still utilized in CBT
about them. It can also be described as today. The ABC Technique of Irrational
perceived mind reading. Beliefs analyzes the first three steps in
 which someone might develop an
Catastrophizing is a distortion that irrational belief: A) Activating event B)
assumes the expectation that the Belief C) Consequences.
worst is going to happen. An example
is believing that a small error at work Activating Event. This is an event that
is going to result in you being fired. would lead someone to a type of high
 emotional response, and/ or negative
Always Being Right is a distortion that  dysfunctional thinking.
occurs when the person is always Beliefs. The client would write down
putting others on trial to prove their the negative thoughts that occurred to
opinions are absolutely correct.  them around the activating event.
 Consequences. These are the negative
Filtering is a distortion that includes feelings and behaviors that occurred as
both Minimization and Magnification. a result. The beliefs are to be viewed
Minimization means underplaying the as a bridge to the negative feelings and
significance of an event. For instance, behaviors that occurred as a result of
you are praised for your job the activating event.
performance, but you see it as trivial.
Ellis believed that it was not the activating scenario is explored with actionable steps
event (A) that causes the negative beliefs attached, so that control over behavior is
and consequences (C), but rather how the realized.
patient interprets or misinterprets the
meaning of the event (B) that helps cause A recent, popular technique being utilized
the consequences (C). in CBT is called Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy. It differs from
Helping a patient reinterpret their irrational traditional CBT in that it is not trying to
belief system helps to forge new ways for teach people to better control their
them to interpret their beliefs resulting in thoughts around their activating events;
alternative behaviors. A person can utilize instead this approach is teaching people to
this technique, even in the absence of a “just notice,” accept and embrace the
therapist. feelings around the activating events. This
approach utilizes techniques from CBT as
Journaling for the awareness of cognitive well, but ACT focuses on freeing the
distortions is a powerful way to better patient from the grip of the event itself.
understand personal cognition. A person
keeps track of their automatic thoughts Mindfulness techniques like deep
and an analysis of the presence of various breathing and Progressive Muscle
distortions is detected. Relaxation (PMR) play a big role in CBT.
These techniques allow the person to be
Once better understood, a person can present in the moment and calmly soothe
utilize different methods to reevaluate the unfocused mind. With the relaxation
these automatic thoughts with evidence. comes the stronger ability to tune in and
Well trained practitioners in CBT can aid alter automatic negative thoughts.
someone who has difficulty in unraveling
these distortions.
Cognitive restructuring is a
Rescripting is a technique used to help CBT technique that helps people examine
patients suffering from nightmares. When their unhelpful thinking. It helps them to
the emotion that is brought to the surface redevelop ways to react in situations that
from the nightmare is exposed, a therapist have in the past proven problematic.
can help the patient to redefine the Keeping a daily record of the automatic
emotion desired and to develop a new negative thoughts creates a way to find the
image to elicit that emotion. patterns in these thoughts. With an
identified pattern, alternative reactions and
Exposure therapy is used in OCD and adaptive thoughts can be forged.
anxiety phobias. Exposing yourself to the
trigger reduces the response to the trigger. Treating thoughts as guesses is a
Many therapists recommend mild exposure technique that helps to gather evidence to
3 times daily. While this may be combat automatic negative thoughts.
uncomfortable during the first exposures, When a person takes their thoughts to
the increase in exposure reduces phobic “court” proof of truth must be found for
reactions. the thought to be held as accurate. If any
proof against the thought is found, it must
The Worst Case/ Best Case/Most Likely be tossed and replaced with a more
Case Scenario technique is used to help accurate thought.
people overcome fear or anxiety. Allowing
the brain to ruminate to the point of A cognitive pie chart is a fun way for kids to
ridiculousness allows the person to “play utilize CBT. The first step is identifying the
out” the fear to an unrealistic end. Then automatic negative thoughts. For example,
the person is brought to the best case and “I’m dumb because I failed a test.” Step two
again allowed to let their thoughts “play is devising a list of alternative explanations
out” to the ridiculous. Then, a most likely to those ANTs.
Finding as many alternatives as possible is productive behavior, allowing you to

helpful. The third step is giving each develop more successful personal and
explanation a percentage in the professional relationships.
contribution to the outcome of failing the
test. Step four is placing these explanations Ellis theorized that many of our emotional
in a pie chart. and behavioral problems spring from basic
irrational assumptions or assumptions that
Activity Scheduling is a powerful are not totally grounded in reality and
technique in CBT. It helps people engage influence people to act in ways that are
in activities that they are not normally used inappropriate, unhelpful, or even
to doing. It presents as a way to slowly destructive (McLeod, 2015).
reintroduce rewarding behavior that has
been excluded from people’s routines. The Based on this idea, Ellis developed a
technique is helpful in increasing positive model to help explain, describe, and treat
emotion when performed incrementally. emotional and behavioral disturbances.
Graded exposure is a technique used to THE ABCDE MODEL OF

help expose anxiety sufferers to contact EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE
with what is feared. The underlying theory
is that people who avoid situations that Ellis hypothesized that irrational beliefs
induce fear or anxiety will increase the are the result of a person’s goals or desires
anxiety. The slowly increased exposure being inhibited or blocked. When we don’t
aids to decrease that fear. get or accomplish what we wanted to, we
may develop irrational beliefs about
Many deficits in social skills can be ourselves or the world that help explain
improved through CBT techniques. what happened.
Modeling, role playing, and instruction
can be used to increase social For example, imagine you are dead set on
skills like communication and getting a job you applied for. You study up
assertiveness. Communication skills, or on the company, practice your interview
rather the lack of, are a massive obstacle answers, and make sure you’re looking
for many. Improving these skills bolsters extra sharp the day of the interview.
confidence and abilities to interact with Although you prepared extensively, the
others, dramatically reducing levels of hiring manager decided to go with another
anxiety inducing situations. candidate.
RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR You may accept that this just wasn’t meant
THERAPY to be, or that you just weren’t the right fit
for the job. However, you may also be
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy heavily impacted by the decision and
(REBT) is a short-term form of develop an irrational belief about why you
psychotherapy that helps you identify self- didn’t get the job.
defeating thoughts and feelings, challenge
the rationality of those feelings, and You might think, “I didn’t get this job
replace them with healthier, more because they can see that I’m a loser. I’m
productive beliefs. REBT focuses mostly not good at anything and I never will be.”
on the present time to help you understand
how unhealthy thoughts and beliefs create Or, you might think, “The only reason I
emotional distress which, in turn, leads to didn’t get this job is because the hiring
unhealthy actions and behaviors that manager had it out for me. It’s like the
interfere with your current life goals. Once universe has it out for me!”
identified and understood, negative
thoughts and actions can be changed and Both of these are thoughts that can help you
replaced with more positive and explain why you didn’t get the job, but
they are irrational and can lead to negative consequences may be that you lose your
emotions and behavior down the road. self-confidence or frequently feel sad
(emotional) and stop applying to any jobs
Using this scenario as an example, this is (behavioral).
how the ABCDE model can explain the
development (and the solution) of such D – DISPUTES OR ARGUMENTS
problems:
At some point, you may realize that you
A – ACTIVATING EVENT / have an irrational belief that is causing you
ADVERSITY problems. You notice your loss of self-
confidence and negative thoughts about
An activating event or adversity is yourself and begin to argue against your
something that triggers you to form an irrational belief. If you’re working with a
irrational belief, such as being turned therapist, the therapist may help guide you
down for the position. It is the first step in in developing arguments against the belief
developing an irrational thought because and help you come up with evidence to the
the irrational thought is formed to help contrary, such as “I have an amazing
you deal with the event. spouse. My spouse wouldn’t be with a
‘loser’ so I must not be a loser.”
B – IRRATIONAL BELIEF
E – NEW EFFECT
The “B” stands for the irrational belief that
is formed in response to the activating When you have successfully countered the
event. This is a belief that you use to cope irrational belief, you will notice new
with the event, such as “I’m a loser, I’m (hopefully more positive!) consequences
useless, and I wouldn’t be able to do the or effects. In our scenario, these effects
job anyway.” While this is, of course, an might be increased confidence, applying to
incredibly hurtful thought, it can still be more jobs, and feeling good about your
more comforting than having no idea why abilities. These effects are the positive
you didn’t get the job. Irrational beliefs are outcomes of holding more rational
surprisingly easy to develop. thoughts, like “I just wasn’t a good fit for
that job, but I’ll find another” or “Maybe
C – EMOTIONAL AND the hiring manager really didn’t like me,
BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES but that’s her loss” (McLeod, 2015).
The third component is the consequences The ABCDE model can be extremely
of this irrational belief. Irrational beliefs helpful in tracing the development of
always have consequences, sometimes irrational thought and providing a high-
emotional, sometimes behavior, and level outline of how to challenge and
sometimes both. In this case, the replace it.
ourselves and others only leads to
disappointment, recrimination, regret, and
THE BASIC STEPS OF REBT anxiety.
In order to better understand how REBT CHALLENGE

looks, it is important to take a closer look IRRATIONAL BELIEFS
at the therapeutic process itself.
Once these underlying feelings have been
IDENTIFY IRRATIONAL THOUGHT identified, the next step is to challenge the
PATTERNS AND BELIEFS mistaken beliefs. In order to do this, the
therapist disputes these beliefs using very
The very first step in the process is to direct and even confrontational methods.
identify the underlying, irrational thoughts, Ellis suggested that rather than simply
feelings, and beliefs that lead to being warm and supportive, therapists
psychological distress. In many cases, need to be blunt, honest, and logical in
these irrational beliefs are reflected as order to push people toward changing their
absolutes, as in "I must," "I should," or "I thoughts and behaviors.
cannot." According to Ellis, some of the
most common irrational beliefs include:
GAIN INSIGHT AND CHANGE
Feeling excessively upset over other BEHAVIOR
 people's mistakes or misconduct
Believing that you must be 100% As you might imagine, REBT can be a
competent and successful in everything daunting process for the client. Facing
to be valued and worthwhile irrational thought patterns can be difficult,

Believing that you will be happier if especially because accepting these beliefs
you avoid life's difficulties or as unhealthy is far from easy. Once the
challenges client has identified the problematic

Feeling that you have no control over beliefs, the process of actually changing
your own happiness, that your these thoughts can be even more
contentment and joy are dependent challenging.
.
upon external forces 
While it is perfectly normal to feel upset
Holding such unyielding beliefs makes it when making a mistake, the goal of REBT
almost impossible to respond to activating is to help people respond rationally to such
situations in a psychologically healthy way. situations. When faced with this type of
Possessing such rigid expectations of situation in the future, the emotionally
healthy response would be to realize that it perceive themselves consciously, rather

is not realistic to expect success in every than how a counsellor can interpret their
endeavor. You made a mistake, but that's unconscious thoughts or ideas.
okay. Everyone makes mistakes. All you
can do is learn from the situation and move Created in the 1950s by psychologist Carl
on. Rogers, the person-centred approach
ultimately sees human beings as having an
While REBT uses cognitive strategies, it innate tendency to develop towards their
focuses on emotions and behaviors as full potential. However, this ability can
2 become blocked or distorted by certain life
well. In addition to identifying and
disputing irrational beliefs, therapists and experiences, particularly those the
clients also work together to target the experiences which affect our sense of
emotional responses that accompany value.
problematic thoughts. Clients are The therapist in this approach works to
encouraged to change unwanted behaviors understand an individual’s experience
using strategies such as meditation, from their perspective. The therapist must
journaling, and guided imagery. positively value the client as a person in
all aspects of their humanity, while aiming
to be open and genuine. This is vital in
HUMANISTIC THERAPY. helping the client feel accepted, and better
able to understand their own feelings. The
approach can help the client to reconnect
This approach emphasizes people's
with their inner values and sense of self-
capacity to make rational choices and
worth, thus enabling them to find their
develop to their maximum potential.
own way to move forward and progress.
Concern and respect for others are also
important themes. Humanistic The core purpose of person-centred
philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre, therapy is to facilitate our ability to self-
Martin Buber and Søren actualise - the belief that all of us will
Kierkegaard influenced this type grow and fulfil our potential. This
oftherapy. approach facilitates the personal growth
and relationships of a client by allowing
them to explore and utilise their own
a. Threetypesofhumanistic therapy strengths and personal identity. The
areespeciallyinfluential.Client- counsellor aids this process, providing
centeredtherapyrejects the idea of vital support to the client and they make
therapists as authorities on their their way through this journey.
clients' inner experiences. Instead,
The person-centred counsellor is not an
therapists help clients change by
expert; rather the client is seen as an
emphasizing their concern, care
expert on themselves and the person-
andinterest.
centred counsellor encourages the client to
Gestalt therapy emphasizes what it
explore and understand themselves and
calls "organismic holism," the
their troubles.
importance of being aware of the
here and now and accepting
There are three conditions believed to help
responsibility foryourself.
achieve this environment, particularly in
Existential therapy focuses on free will,
the therapy room.
self-determination and the search
formeaning.
Congruence - the counsellor must be
completely genuine.

Person-centred therapy, also known as Empathy - the counsellor must strive
person-centred or client-centred to understand the client's
counselling, is a humanistic approach that experience.
deals with the ways in which individuals
Unconditional positive regard - the B. GESTALT THERAPY

counsellor must be non-judgmental
“I do my thing and
and valuing.
you do your thing.
I am not in this
THE IMPORTANCE OF SELF- world to live up to
CONCEPT your expectations
And you are not in
Self-concept also plays an important role this world to live up
in person-centered therapy. Rogers defined to mine.
self-concept as an organized set of beliefs You are you and I
and ideas about the self. The self-concept am I,
play an important role in determining not And if by chance we
only how people see themselves, but also find each other, it’s
how they view and interact with the world beautiful.
around them. If not, it cannot be
helped.”
Sometimes self-concept lines up well with (Fritz Perls, 1969,
reality, which Rogers referred to as in Gladding, 2000)
congruence. In other cases, self-
perceptions are sometimes unrealistic or
Gestalt Therapy was developed in the
not in tune with what exists in the real
1940’s by Fritz and Laura Perls and
world. Rogers believed that all people
further influenced by the likes of Kurt
distort reality to some degree, but when
Lewin and Kurt Goldstein (Corsini&
self-concept is in conflict with reality,
Wedding, 2000). It was developed as a
incongruence can result. For example, a
revision to psychoanalysis and focuses on
young boy might perceive himself as a
an experiential and humanistic approach
strong athlete, despite the fact that his
rather than analysis of the unconscious
actual performance on the field reveals that
which was one of the main therapeutic
he is not particularly skilled and could use
tools at the time Gestalt Therapy was
extra practice.
employed.
Through the process of person-centered Gestalt Therapy rejects the dualities of
therapy, Rogers believed that people could mind and body, body and soul, thinking
learn to adjust their self-concept in order to and feeling, and feeling and action.
achieve congruence and a more realistic According to Perls, people are not made
view of themselves and the world. For up of separate components, this is, mind,
example, imagine a young woman who body and soul, rather human beings
views herself as uninteresting and a poor function as a whole. In doing so, one
conversationalist despite the fact that other defines who one is (sense of self) by
people find her fascinating and quite choice of responses to environmental
engaging. Because her self-perceptions are interactions (boundaries). The word
not congruent with reality, she may “Gestalt” (of German origin) refers to a
experience poor self-esteem as a result. “whole, configuration, integration, pattern
The client-centered approach focuses on or form” (Patterson, 1986).The form of
providing unconditional positive regard, Gestalt Therapy practiced today utilizes
empathy, and genuine support in order to ideas, data and interventions from multiple
help the client reach a more congruent sources, as well as some of the original
view of herself. techniques known to be ‘Gestalt Therapy
techniques. It is noted that Gestalt Therapy
has a history of being an approach which
creates or borrows specific techniques that
are focused on
assisting the client to take the next step in This enables the individual to grow in
their personal growth and development. his or her environment through
reacting to the environment and
KEY CONCEPTS changing.
Here and now: This is the individual
Several key concepts underlie Gestalt
living in and being conscious at the
Therapy, many of which are similar to that
present moment rather than worrying
of person-centred and existential therapy.
about the past or the future.
However, what does differentiate Gestalt
Responsibility: This refers to the
Therapy from these therapies are some of
individual taking responsibility for his
the ideas added by Perls and associates as
or her own life rather than blaming
well as distinctive therapeutic techniques
others.
that will be covered further down
(Seligman, 2006). The following are the
key concepts of Gestalt Therapy: Energy and blocks to energy: Gestalt
Therapists often focus on where
Wholeness and Integration: Wholeness energy is in the body, how it is used,
refers to the whole person or the and how it may be causing a blockage
individual’s mind and body as a unit (Corey, 2005). Blocked energy is a
rather than as separate parts (Seligman, form of resistance, for example,
2006). Integration refers to how these tension in a part of the body, not
 parts fit together and how the breathing deeply, or avoiding eye
individual integrates into the contact. Gestalt Therapy is about
environment. Often people who come finding and releasing the blockages
to therapy do not have these parts that may be inhibiting awareness.

fitting together in their environment,
Gestalt Therapy is about facilitating Growth Disorders: Growth disorders
clients to integrate themselves as refer to emotional problems that are
whole persons and help restore balance caused by people who lack awareness
in their environment. and do not interact with their
 environment completely. In doing so,
Awareness: Awareness is one of the people are unable to cope with the
 most important elements in Gestalt changes in their lives successfully and,
Therapy as it is seen as a “hallmark of instead deal with the problems in a
the healthy person and a goal of defensive manner (Seligman, 2006).

treatment” (Seligman, 2006). When
individuals are “aware”, they are able Unfinished business: Unfinished
to self-regulate in their environment. business refers to people who do not
finish things in their lives and is often
THERE ARE TWO MAIN CAUSES related to people with a “growth
LACKING AWARENESS: disorder” (Seligman, 2006). People
with unfinished business often resent
1. Preoccupation with one’s past, the past and because of this are unable
fantasies, flaws and strengths that the to focus on the here and now. One of
individual becomes unaware of the the major goals of Gestalt Therapy is
whole picture. to help people work through their
2. Low self-esteem. unfinished business and bring about
closure.
GENERAL IDEAS ABOUT

There are three ways people may achieve PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
awareness through therapy:
Gestalt Therapy deems that people cannot
be considered as separate from their
Contact with the environment: This
environment or from interpersonal
is through looking, listening, touching,
relations. The individual is seen as being
talking, moving, smelling, and tasting.
self-regulating and is able to motivate communication is seen to provide more

oneself to solve problems. Individuals are information about the real essence of the
able to work towards growth and develop person.
as their environments allow.
Thus, an important function of the Gestalt
A psychologically healthy person is Therapist is paying attention to the client’s
someone who is self-regulating through body language such as the client’s posture,
the changes in life and has developed a movements, gestures, voice, and
sense of “wholeness” between mind and hesitations as the body language is
body (Corsini& Wedding, (2000). considered to be reflective of what the
client is going through at that point in
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES & time.
METHODS OF WORKING
Experiments: Gestalt Therapists use
The most important goal of Gestalt the technique of experiments or
Therapy is that Gestalt Therapists do not learning experiences with their clients.
aim to change their clients. The therapist’s The experiments are designed for the
role is to assist clients in developing their individual and take the form of an
own self-awareness of how they are in the enactment, role play, homework, or
present moment. This will therefore allow other activity which promotes the
them to rectify issues affecting his or her  self-awareness (Seligman,
individual’s
2006).
life.
An example of this technique is with a
“The therapist’s job is to invite clients into man who feels insecure in social
an active partnership where they can learn situations. He has a work function to go to
about themselves by adopting an in two weeks’ time so the therapist gives
experiential attitude toward life in which him the experiment of starting a
they try out new behaviours and notice conversation at the function with someone
what happens” (Perls, Hefferline and he does not normally speak to. Spending
Goodman, 1954, in Corey, 2005). time thinking about what he might say
A focus of developing awareness is that of promotes self-awareness and the
clients’ awareness of their own realities. In experiment itself gives him more
order to do this, clients must first accept confidence in social situations.
responsibility for choosing their present
situations. Language plays a big part in Use of Language: Gestalt Therapists
accepting responsibility. The client may choose language that will encourage
attempt to use avoidance responses or change in the client. The following are
project individual traits onto other people
ways that this can be accomplished
(Seligman, 2006):
or external causes, for example “She
makes me so angry”; “It’s his fault”. Both Emphasis on statements rather than
avoidance responses and projection of questions to highlight a collaborative
traits attempt to displace ownership and client-therapist relationship.
responsibility onto an external cause.
“What” and “How” questions (when
Another goal of Gestalt Therapy is that questions are used) to keep the client
therapists should work to create an “I- in the present and promote integration.
thou” relationship with clients in which “I” statements are used to promote
both the therapist and client are present in client’s ownership of feelings rather
the here-and-now rather than focusing on than placing blame on others.
the past or future (Seligman, 2006). The present tense is used so the focus
is on the present rather than the past.
Also, an understanding of the whole of the Encouraging responsibility for clients
client’s experience is required by the of their words, emotions, thoughts, and
therapist. This involves considering the
client’s verbal and non-verbal
communication. In fact, the nonverbal
behaviors so they recognize and accept unconscious, rather on projections or

what they are feeling. aspects of the dreamer (Seligman,
2006). The therapist would get clients
Empty Chair: The empty chair to talk about their dream/s in terms of
technique is a “method of facilitating the significance of each role in the
the role-taking dialogue between the dream and this allows clients to take
patient and others or between parts of
responsibility for the dreams and
 the 
patient’s personality. It is generally
increase awareness of their thoughts
used in a group situation” (Patterson,
1986). Two chairs are placed facing and emotions.
 Fantasy: 
each other: one represents the patient Fantasy is used in Gestalt
or one aspect of the patient’s Therapy to increase clients’ self-
personality, and the other represents awareness of their thoughts and
another person or the opposing part of emotions and to bring about closure to
the personality. As the patient unfinished business (Seligman, 2006).
alternates the role, he or she sits in one Therapists use guided imagery
or the other chair. techniques (fantasy) to encourage
clients to imagine situations such as
The therapist may simply observe as the what they would do in a certain
dialogue progresses or may instruct the situation or by projecting themselves
patient when to change chairs, suggest  into different roles.
sentences to say, call the patient’s attention
to what has been said, or ask the patient to The Body as a Vehicle of
Communication: Gestalt Therapy sees
repeat or exaggerate words or actions.
that not only are thoughts and
In the process, emotions and conflicts are emotions important to creating a
feeling of “wholeness” for the client,
evoked, impasses may be brought about the physical sensations are also
and resolved, and awareness and important. Seligman (2006) has
integration of polarities may develop – identified three strategies to help with
polarities or splits within the patient, 
focusing attention on the physical
between the patient and other persons, or  sensations:
between the patient’s wants and the social
norms (Patterson, 1986). Identification: Gestalt Therapists
should be able to recognize physical
Topdog – Underdog: A commonly signs of their clients. For example, a
utilized Gestalt technique is that of the  client might be tapping their feeton
 top dog-underdog dialogue. This  the ground. The therapist may say
technique is used when the therapist “Become your leg and give it a voice?”
notices two opposing This creates awareness of the client’s
opinions/attitudes within the client.  physical sensations and emotions.
The therapist encourages the client to
distinguish between these two parts Locating emotions in the body: Gestalt
and play the role of each in a dialogue Therapists may ask clients where they
between them (Patterson, 1986). are experiencing the emotion in their
body. For example, a client may say
The tyrannical ‘top dog’ demands that they are feeling nervous about
things be a particular way whilst the something. The therapist may ask
where this is coming from in the body
‘underdog’ plays the role of disobedient
and the response from the client may
child. The individual becomes split be that the feeling is butterflies in the
between the two sides struggling for stomach. This helps the client to bring
control. about more awareness into sensations
Dreams: Dreams are used to bring and their emotions.
about integration by the client. The 
focus of a client’s dream is not on the
Repetition and exaggeration: If there is There is empirical research to support

repetition such as the example of the Gestalt Therapy and its techniques
client tapping their feet on the ground, (Corsini& Wedding, 2000).
the therapist would get them to Gestalt Therapy is equal to or greater
exaggerate the movement and talk
about feelings that come up. This in than other therapies in treating
various disorders, Gestalt Therapy
turn focuses on the emotion and should 
 help to release the blocked awareness. has a beneficial impact with
personality disorders, and the
Confusion: The technique of dealing effects of therapy are stable.
with confusion of the client is about Works with the past by making it
drawing attention to the client’s relevant to the present (Corey,
hesitation in talking about something 2005).
unpleasant. The hesitation can be
shown through avoidance, blanking Versatile and flexible in its approach
out, verbalism and fantasy (Patterson, to therapy. It has many techniques
1986). By drawing attention to the and may be applied to different
hesitation, it creates self-awareness for therapeutic issues.
 the client to work
the client and allows
 through the issue. WEAKNESSES
Confrontation: In Gestalt Therapy, For Gestalt Therapy to be effective, the
confrontation means ‘to challenge or therapist must have a high level of
frustrate the client’. The client is
personal development (Corey,
challenged with sensitivity and
empathy on the part of the therapist to 2005).
face the issues important to them. It is Effectiveness of the confronting and
an invaluable tool for bringing clients theatrical techniques of Gestalt
into clear awareness of their realities, Therapy is limited and has not
when used appropriately. However, been well established.

confrontation is not a technique that It has been considered to be a self-
can be used with all clients. centered approach which is
concerned with just individual
development.
Potential danger for therapists to abuse
the power they have with clients
APPLICATIONS (Corey, 2005).
Lacks a strong theoretical base.
Originally Gestalt Therapy was Deals only with the here and now.
predominantly used to treat individuals Does not deal with diagnosis and
who were anxious and/or depressed and testing.
who were not showing serious
pathological symptoms. Although still CONCLUSION
used in the treatment of anxiety and
depression, Gestalt Therapy has been Gestalt Therapy focuses on the integration
effective in treating clients with between the “whole” person and his or her
personality disorders such as borderline environment. This therapy sees a healthy
personality disorder. individual as being someone who has
awareness in his or her life and lives in the
Gestalt Therapy is also effective in here and now rather than focusing on the
counselling groups, couples, and families past or future. Gestalt Therapy has a
(Corsini& Wedding, 2000). number of successful techniques that are
applicable in therapy today and may be
STRENGTHS
utilized across a broad spectrum of
emotional issues.
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
THEORIES OF THE EXISTENTIAL
Existential therapy is a unique form of APPROACH
psychotherapy that looks to explore
difficulties from a philosophical A key element of existential counselling is
perspective. Focusing on the human that it does not place emphasis on past
condition as a whole, existential therapy events like some other therapy types. The
highlights our capacities and encourages approach does take the past into
us to take responsibility for our successes. consideration and together, the therapist
and individual can understand the
Emotional and psychological difficulties implications of past events.
are viewed as inner conflict caused by an Instead of putting blame on events from
individual's confrontation with the givens the past, however, existential counselling
of existence. Rather than delve into the uses them as insight, becoming a tool to
past, the existential approach looks at the promote freedom and assertiveness.
here and now, exploring the human Coming to the realization that you are not
condition as a whole and what it means for defined by your history and that you are
an individual. not destined to have a certain future is
often a breakthrough that offers liberation.
On this page, we will look at the
background of existential therapy, Practitioners of existential therapy say that
including the philosophers who influenced its role is to help facilitate an individual's
it, the associated theories and how it could own encounter with themselves and to
benefit you. work alongside them as they explore
values, assumptions and ideals. An
existential therapist will avoid any form of
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY:
BACKGROUND judgement and instead help the individual
speak from their own perspective.
The roots of existential psychotherapy lie
in philosophy from the 1800s, and more The therapist should enter sessions with an
importantly with philosophers whose work open mind and be ready to question their
dealt with human existence. The own biases and assumptions. The goal of
philosophers most commonly associated the therapist is to understand the
with existential therapy are Søren individual's assumptions with a clarity that
Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. the individual themselves may not be able
While the two influential thinkers were in to muster.
conflict regarding the ideologies of their
time, they were committed to the A belief that lies at the heart of existential
exploration of reality and how it was counselling is that even though humans
experienced. are essentially alone in the world, they
long to be connected with others. This
Kierkegaard theorized that human belief can help to explain why certain
discontent could only be overcome via concerns appear and may help the
internal wisdom, while Nietzsche individual understand why they feel the
introduced the idea of free will and way they do sometimes.
personal responsibility. By the 1900s,
philosophers like Sartre and Heidegger had Another interesting theory is that inner
begun exploring the role interpretation and conflict stems from an individual's
investigation had in the healing confrontation with the givens of existence.
process.Over the next few decades, other These givens were noted by influential
contemporaries began to acknowledge the psychotherapist Irvin D. Yalom, and
importance of 'experiencing' in terms of include:
achieving psychological well-being.
freedom and responsibility others), identity, personal characteristics

existential isolation and overall sense of self. Personal
meaninglessness strengths and weaknesses are also
death important as well as the question of being
authentic.
These four givens (also known as 'ultimate
concerns') are the cornerstones of The making realm:The final realm is
existential psychotherapy. Once the issue considered our 'ideal' world. Included
has been conceptualized by the therapist, a within it are religion, values, beliefs and
method of treatment can be developed.Due transformation. This is the dimension
to the all-encompassing nature of where we make sense of our lives and is
existential therapy, it is near impossible to considered the realm of transcendence.
identify one single cause for psychological
upset. The therapy instead treats each One of the primary aims of existential
person as an individual, exploring their therapy is to help people face anxieties of
life and to embrace the freedom of choice
experience and relating it to the experience
of all humankind. humans have, taking full responsibility for
these choices as they do so. Existential
therapists look to help individuals live
THE FOUR REALMS more authentically and to be less
concerned with superficiality. They also
Within existential psychotherapy, there is a encourage clients to take ownership of
description of four different levels of their lives, to find meaning and to live
experience and existence with which fully in the present.
people are inevitably confronted. These
can often help individuals understand the Individuals who are interested in self-
context of their concerns. It is believed that examination and who view their concerns
a person's orientation towards the world as issues of living rather than symptoms
and the four realms define their reality. of a psychiatric illness are more likely to
There are various names for the four benefit from this approach. Existential
realms within existential therapy, however, therapy is also well suited to those facing
the following are perhaps the best-known: issues of existence, for example, those
with a terminal illness, those
contemplating suicide, or even those
The physical realm :This world or going through a transition in their life.
realm is centred around physicality. It is
the world we share with animals, the INTEGRATIVE OR HOLISTIC
world of bodily needs. It is the world that THERAPY OR ECLECTIC
stores desire, relief, sleep/wake cycles and APPROACH
nature. Birth, death and physical
feelings/symptoms are also part of this Many therapists don't tie themselves to
realm. any one approach. Instead, they blend
elements from different approaches and
2. The social realm:Within the social tailor their treatment according to each
realm lies everything to do with client'sneeds.
relationships. Culture, society and
language are here as well as work, MBCT (MINDFULNESS BASED
attitudes towards authority, race and COGNITIVE THERAPY)
family. Emotions, friendships and
romantic relationships are also part of the MBCT is based on Jon Kabat Zinn’s
social world. Stress Reduction program at the
University of Massachusetts Medical
The personal realm: The personal Center, which was developed to help
realm is concerned with issues of the self. people suffering with chronic physical
This includes intimacy (with self and pain and disease. It includes simple
meditation techniques to help participants (Peterson, 2006a). Strongly influenced by

become more aware of their experience in Peterson’s seminal work Classification of
the present moment, by tuning into Virtues and Strengths (CVS; Peterson &
moment-to- moment changes in the mind Seligman, 2004), PPT which integrates
and the body. Participants learn the symptoms with strengths, resources with
practice of mindfulness risks, weaknesses with values, and hopes
meditationthroughacourseofeightweeklycl with regrets in order to understand
asses(theatmosphereisthatofaclass,rather inherent complexities of human
than a therapy group), and through daily experiences in a balanced way. Clients
practice of meditation skills while seeking therapy are neither mere
listening to tapes at home. MBCT also conglomerate of symptoms nor
includes basic education about depression embodiments of strengths. PPT
(and, in our new study, suicidality), and a systematically amplifies their positive
number of exercises derived from resources; specifically, positive emotions,
cognitive therapy that demonstrate the character strengths, meaning, positive
links between thinking and feeling and relationships, and intrinsically motivated
how best participants can care for accomplishments.
themselves when they notice their mood
changing or a crisis threatens to
overwhelmthem.
PLAY THERAPY
Play therapy is a therapeutic modality

wherein play is the principle therapeutic
factor. Because play is a child’s natural
medium of communication, play therapy
is an ideal modality in which to allow
children to express their feelings and deal
with their emotional problems. In essence,
play therapy is for children what ‘talk
therapy’ or counselling is for adults. Play
therapy provides the child with a
consistent and predicable therapeutic
relationship and environment in which to
explore their fears, difficulties, struggles
and pain, as well as hopes, dreams and
fantasies. The underpinning assumption of
play therapy is that, given this relationship
and environment, the child has the inner
resources to bring about growth and TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
change in their own lives. (TA) (IMPORTANT TOPIC)
POSITIVE PSYCHOTHERAPY (PPT)

The development of counseling and
psychotherapy over last 100 years has drawn
PPT is a therapeutic approach based on a
a significant number of influential
premise, articulated and empirically psychological theories on mental illness
explored by Chris Peterson, who from different perspectives. Transactional
emphasized that psychology ought to be analytic (TA) therapy has its root in
concerned with strength as with weakness; psychodynamic therapy, shares its
as interested in building the best things in philosophy with humanistic approach, and
life as in repairing the worst; and as its characteristics with the behavioral
concerned with making lives of normal approaches (Stewart & Tilney, 2000). The
people fulfilling as with healing pathology fundamental teaching of this process, as
determined by Berne (1961) is that there are change feelings, behavior, or

historical mal-adaptations embedded in what psychosomatic problems.
is known as the childhood script, namely the According to Claude
process of repeating childhood behaviors Steiner, a valid contract will
and ideas throughout life. These need to be fulfil the following four
addressed through problem solving as criteria:
opposed to avoidance or passivity in relation
to new challenges in the person’s life Mutual Consent: both parties (client
(Berne, 1961). and counselor) agree and commit
themselves to the terms of the
 contract
Transactional analysis is a type of Valid consideration: all parties
psychotherapy developed by Canadian involved need to have clear
psychiatrist Eric Berne in the 1940s. and specific benefits

Berne believed that communication Competence: all parties involved need
with others comes from three distinct
to be competent to enter into and
parts of self which he called ego states.
fulfil the terms of the contract
WHAT IS TA? Lawful object: all actions bound by the
contract need to be aligned with the
TA is a theory of personality and
law of the land, and accepted ethical
human relations offering systematic
norms of the individual, group,
methods for personal growth and
society or the organization.
professional development.
TA gives us a picture of how people
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF
are structured psychologically. EGO STATES
TA also provides a theory of
communication; how people An Ego State is a consistent pattern of
communicate and why feeling and experience directly related to
communication breakdowns occur. a corresponding consistent pattern of
TA offers a theory of child behavior.
development- the concept of life script
explains how our present life patterns Parent ego
originated in childhood- how state is the set
decisions made in childhood may of feeling s,
continue to influence behavior later in attitude s,
life despite painful consequences. values and
prejudi ces
and behavi ors
PHILOSOPHY OF TA:
taken in from
We all are born OK, as princes and parents and
princesses (I’m OK, You’re OK) significant
All of us have the capacity to think parental
except the severely brain damaged figures.
People decide their own destiny
and these decisions can be changed.
CONTRACTUAL METHODS:
A contract is an Adult commitment to
one’s self and/or to someone else to make
a change. Contracts can be established to
ego state is the Blind part (concept Natural Child (FC or NC).
from Johari Window) or the
unconscious part which is
While in Critical Parent people manifest
uncovered by asking from others or
coming in contact with others themselves as disappointed, aggrieved,
(religion, society, parents, etc.). feeling ‘always’ right, patronizing,
moralistic, judgmental, authoritarian,
Adult ego state is those feelings,
controlling, critical, putting down others.
attitudes, behaviors which are
As Nurturing Parent, people act loving,
direct response to current here-and-
reassuring, caring, concerned,

now reality.
encouraging, supportive, understanding,
Child ego state is the archaic feelings,
etc.
emotions, attitudes, and behaviors,
which are remnants of the person’s From adult we are open-minded,
past, significantly from childhood interested, confident, reality-based,
and childhood decisions. It is the process data, organize information,
hidden part (concept from Johari estimate probabilities, make logical
Window) that we do not show to statements, and provide non-
the world. judgmental feedback.
Rebellious Child is defiant and/or
The goal of TA is to help clients
strengthen their Adult Ego State and complaining, disobeys,
enhance their communications with other throws temper tantrums,
people. feels bored and distracts.
Adapted Child acts
THE FUNCTIONAL MODEL OF EGO
STATES compliant, passive, loyal,
withdrawn, pleases others,
Functionally ego states manifest as Critical
feels hurt, sulks and
Parent (CP), Nurturing Parent (NP), Adult
(A), Adapted Child (AC) and Free or ‘always’ feels one down.
(Sometimes RC and AC are seen as one one which responds. It can be from
and the same form that manifests rebellion any ego state to any other ego state.
and insecurity).
When we are in our Free Child (Natural
Child), we are curious, energetic, fun-
loving, spontaneous, excited and
enthusiastic, and we express our anger,
sadness and fear freelywithout any
inhibition.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:
THE METHOD
Definition of Transaction:A transaction
is defined as a transactional stimulus plus a
transactional response. It is the basic unit
of social discourse or communication. The
stimulus and response could be either
verbal or non-verbal or both CROSSED TRANSACTIONS: When
the transactional vectors are not parallel,
or in which the ego state addressed is not
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONS: the one which responds, it is called a
crossed transaction. Here the response
COMPLEMENTARY comes from an unexpected ego state.
TRANSACTIONS:In a complementary
transaction the transactional vectors are
parallel and the ego state addressed is the
ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS:They
happens when a person appears to be
sending one message overtly (social level)
but secretly sending the other
(psychological level).
Ego States -Structural and

Functional Models in TA.
Structural – The basic idea of ego
states (Parent, Child and Adult)
Functional – How the theory of
ego states is applied (CP, NP, A,
FC, AC/RC)

Games. How a series of
interactions between two or
more people follow predicable
patterns and outcomes.

Racket feelings. Feelings that the
child learns are acceptable and/or
desired, which are used to replace
the real feelings which a parent
THE KEY CONCEPTS AND
may find unacceptable.
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSACTIONAL
ANALYSIS
 

Transference and Counter-
transference. How memories KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
from past relationships can impact 
on your current relationships. Egogram: The egogram is a relation
diagram, depicting the amount of energy
Phenomenology. How our individual a person uses externally, or actively, as
perception can impact on how we one relates to others. It is a bar chart
conduct relationships (this idea is representing the person’s entire
also the basis personality. It is also drawn as a way of
of Gestalt ) providing feedback to someone regarding
 how others experience him or her.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


CONSTANCY

lesser energy available for his other
HYPOTHESIS:Egograms are based on ego states.

“constancy hypothesis”, which states that
STROKES: A stroke is defined as a “unit
the amount of psychic energy within a
of recognition”. They fulfil our hunger for
person remains constant. For example, if a
recognition. They can be verbal or
person starts to increase the energy in his
nonverbal, positive or negative, and
Natural Child (Free Child), there will be
conditional
 or unconditional.

For e.g., a positive stroke invites us to feel parents, justified by subsequent

OK about others and ourselves whereas a events, and culminating in a
negative strokeinvites us to feel now OK chosen alternative.
about others and ourselves.
It is an on-going programme
developed in the early childhood
under parental influences, which
SCRIPT:
directs the individual’s behavior
“All the world is a stage and all men and in the most important aspects of
women the actors” said Shakespeare. From his life.
the TA perspective also, one’s life is a long
LIFE POSITION:
drama, right from childhood to death
– it begins, progresses and ends. According to Eric Berne, Life positions
are psychological senses regarding self,
DEFINITION OF SCRIPT:
others and life, which the person takes.
Life scripts consists of a set of These positions determine the person’s
decisions that are made by the attitudes and perceptions. Depending on
child in response to the parental the experience and message the child
messages about self, others and the encounters, each child takes one of the
world. four life positions under stressful

situations. This is called the Basic Life
Script is a life plan made in early
Position.
childhood, reinforced by the
TheI’m OK—You’re their essence, not necessarily their

OK position is known as the behavior. This position is
healthy position and is generally characterized by an attitude of trust
game-free. It is the belief that and openness, a willingness to give
people have basic value, worth, and and take, and an acceptance of
dignity as human beings. That others as they are. People are close
people are OK is a statement of to themselves and to others. There
are no losers, only winners.
The I’m OK—You’re not OK is the TA therapists believe that past life events
position of people who project their (things that happened maybe in childhood)
problems onto others and blame hold the key to understanding what our
them, put them down, and criticize present difficulties are. This is known in TA
them. The games that reinforce this therapy as the presenting past.
position involve a self-styled
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONAL
 superior or one-up (the
ANALYSIS
“I’m OK”) who projects anger,
disgust, and scorn onto a Since the death of Eric Berne in 1970,
designated inferior, or scapegoat Transactional Analysis has developed

(the “You’re not OK”). This along differing theoretical paths,
sometimes referred to as 'Schools'.
position is that of the person who
needs an underdog to maintain his
The Classical School - sometimes
or her sense of “OKness.”
referred to as transactional
 analysis proper, includes ego
The I’m not OK—You’re OK is state analysis, life scripts and game
known as the depressive or one- analysis, is the original concept
down position and is characterized  based on the work of Eric
by feeling powerless in comparison Berne, Claude Steiner and several
with others. Typically, such people close associates.
serve others’ needs instead of their
own and generally feel victimized. The Re-decision School - developed
Games supporting this position by Bob and Mary Goulding who
include “Kick me” and “Martyr”— integrated TA with Gestalt to make
games that support the power of a powerful, vibrant means of
personal change.
others and deny one’s own.

The Cathexis School - developed
 The I’m not OK—You’re not initially by Jacquie Schiff who
 OK is known as the position of worked with clients who had been
hopelessness, futility and diagnosed with severe mental
frustration. Operating from this health problems. Her approach
place, people have lost interest in was very controversial and was
life and may see life as totally based on the theory of radical
without promise. This self- reparenting.
destructive stance is characteristic
of people who are unable to cope in Modern Schools of TA are referred to as
the real world, and it may lead to 'second wave' and have significantly
extreme withdrawal, a return to influenced TA practice in recent years.
Practitioners combine these new ideas
infantile behavior, or violent
with the Classical School to produce a
behavior resulting in injury or
contemporary, research-based approach to
death of themselves or others. client work.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS: Relational school - outlined by

MANY NAMES ONE MASTER Charlotte Sills and Helena
Hargaden in their book
The therapist analyses your past and how it “Transactional Analysis a Relational
affects the here and now, which is why it is Perspective”. This school draws
known as an Active Directive form of strongly on the humanistic idea that
therapy. the therapeutic relationship and
empathy are central to the healing
 process.
Integrative psychotherapy - get ‘lost in translation” especially for those

developed by Richard Erskin. Like who are not familiar with western
the relational school, this approach psychology. This therapy stresses
emphasizes the empathic nature of achieving autonomy through a progressive
the relationship in helping clients process including social control,
regain the parts of self, which symptomatic relief, transference relief, and
become lost or fragmented due to script cure, hence, TA may seem
traumatic experiences. confrontational on some points, the
therapist has to make efforts to respect
SUMMARY OF TA others’ cultural beliefs and values while
encouraging them break free from old
Transactional therapy is developed on the “script” and live their life in a new and
philosophical assumptions that human more resourceful way.
interact with others by subconsciously
utilizing three ego-states (Adult, Parent,
and Child) based on the life-script once DIALECTICAL BEHAVIOUR
written to meet survival needs in childhood THERAPY (DBT)
but may no longer valid, and everyone has
the capacity to consciously make decisions
and change through therapy (Stewart & It is a type of talking therapy which
Tilney, 2000). In the Theory of TA, it’s was originally developed by an
believed that individuals have three American psychologist named Marsha
separate, functional ego states: Child, Linehan. It is based on cognitive
Adult, and Parent. Child Ego State: behaviour therapy (CBT), but has been
childlike behaviors and feeling, including adapted to meet the particular needs of
Free Child & Adaptive Child. Free Child: people who experience emotions very
spontaneous, creative, impulsive, feeling intensely. In a nutshell, ‘dialectics’
oriented, and self – centered. Adaptive means trying to balance seemingly
Child: the compliant self, follows the rules contradictory positions. For example, in
learned in childhood to get needs met. DBT you will work with your therapist
Parent Ego Sate is originated in early to find a good balance between: •
childhood interactions, are carried through Acceptance – accepting yourself as you
the life span, including Nurturing Parent are. • Change – making positive
(comforts, praises) and Critical Parent changes in your life. You might
(disapproves, finds faults). Adult Ego State eventually come to feel that these goals
approaches life events by gathering the are not as conflicting as they seem at
facts from external and internal ego status, first.
processing information, and maintaining
Art therapyinvolves the use of creative
balance among Parent and Child ego
techniques such as drawing, painting,
states. In TA therapy, both counselors and
collage, coloring, or sculpting to help
clients must understand which ego states
people express themselves artistically
are functioning in their specific problem
and examine the psychological and
areas.
emotional undertones in their art. With
the guidance of a credentialed art
One of the limitations of TA may be its therapist,clientscan"decode"thenon-
emphasis of cognitive aspect of human verbalmessages,symbols,andmetaphors
relationship and personality, and leave oftenfound
very limited attention for exploration of intheseartforms,whichshouldleadtoabett
emotions. If this approach can be utilized erunderstandingoftheirfeelingsandbeha
with Gestalt approach, both cognitive and vior so they can move on to resolve
emotional dimension can be explored and
deeperissues.
integrated. Another limitation of TA is that
it seems to have plenty of labels and jargon
in this therapy, some clients may
Performing artgenerally includes According to Ryan and Deci, intrinsic

dance, music, songs, drama in motivation defines an activity done for its
organized fashion. Besides, painting, own sake without the anticipation of
sculpturing, Yoga, farming etc. are external rewards and out of a sense of the
the performing arts.Performing art sheer satisfaction it provides (2000).
therapyisthetherapeuticprocessinwhi
chperformingarttherapisttendstoexpl The right level of challenge, coupled with
oreone’sneeds, adequate skills, sense of control, curiosity,
values,crisisinthelifecycle;improvise and fantasy, are some key factors that can
performingartinsuchafashionthatclien trigger intrinsic motivation. And when
t can understand own needs and can combined with will power and positive
develop coping strategy to overcome attitude, these elements can help sustain
the crisis. In performing art, client is motivation over time.
not merely receptive but productive
and creative. Therefore, the Some studies show that intrinsic
objectiveoftherapistwillbetostimulate motivation and academic achievement
theclienttounderstandselfandsocially share significant and positive correlates
accepted coping strategies. It (Pérez-López &Contero, 2013). Intrinsic
develops adaptability motivation can direct students to
withinindividual. participate in academic activities to
experience the fun, the challenge, and the
novelty away from any external pressure
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION or compulsion and without expectations of
IN EDUCATION rewards (Ryan, & Deci, 2000).
Motivation itself has a vast scope to cater In contrast, extrinsic motivation describes
for, and several motivational theories are activities students engage in while
relevant to the learning domain. The anticipating rewards, be it in the form of
following theories contribute to the good grades or recognition, or out of
essential outcomes of the learning process compulsion and fear of punishment
without being dependent on any other (Tohidi, & Jabbari, 2021).
theories in the education domain:
Motivation can be cultivated extrinsically
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the initial stage, particularly when it
theory comes to activities that are not inherently
self-determination theory (SDT) interesting, as long as the ultimate goal is
the ARCS model to transform it into intrinsic motivation as
social cognitive theory the learning process unfolds. The rationale
expectancy theory for this has to do with a short shelf life and
a potential dependence on rewards.
Self-determination theory (SDT) and the
ARCS model are widely utilized in the Although extrinsic motivation can initially
motivation domain for learning discipline. spark a high level of will power and
The implementation level of theories such engagement, it does not encourage
as social cognitive theory and expectancy perseverance and is challenging to sustain
theory is still in initial stages but can over time due to hedonic adaptation.
significantly contribute to understanding Finally, external rewards or compliments
motivation in learning as well as other undermine the possibility that students will
aspects of life where motivation is crucial. engage in the educational activities for
their own sake or to master skills or
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC knowledge.
MOTIVATION THEORY
Nevertheless, both types of motivation
have their place in the process of learning.
While intrinsic motivation can lead to of external consequences on internal

greater levels of self-motivation, extrinsic motivation, draws our attention to the
motivation often offers that initial boost critical role autonomy and competence
that engages students in the activity and plays in fostering intrinsic motivation by
can help sustain motivation throughout the showing how it is vital in education, arts,
process of learning over time (Ti, & sports, and many other domains.
Lynch, 2016).
Second, Organismic Integration Theory
It is no easy undertaking to guide students (OIT) and Causality Orientations Theory
to learn how to be highly motivated, to (COT) further explain motivation as
face the challenges, understand the occurring along a spectrum from an
process, and to be able to apply their new- amotivational stage toward motivational
found knowledge in real-life states where the focus is on competence.
circumstances.
Next, Basic Psychological Needs Theory
2. SELF-DETERMINATION (BPNT), which classifies human needs
THEORY into three primary psychological needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness,
Self-determination Theory addresses shows how the satisfaction of those needs
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation further. It is crucial for engagement, motivation,
explains it in terms of self-regulation, healthy progress and well-being among
where extrinsic motivation reflects students (Gagne, & Deci, 2014).
external control of behavior, and inherent
motivation relates to true self-regulation Finally, Goal Contents Theory (GCT)
(Ryan, & Deci, 2000). shows the relationship between the
fundamental needs satisfaction and well-
SDT tells us that intrinsic motivation is being based on intrinsic and extrinsic goal
closely related to the satisfaction of basic motivation, where intrinsic goals lead to
psychological needs of autonomy, greater achievement and better academic
competence, and relatedness, and performance, especially within the social
illustrates how these natural human setting of the educational environment
tendencies related to several key features (Ryan, & Deci, 2000).
in the learning process.
3. ARCS MODEL
Here autonomy is related to volition and
independence, and competence is ARCS is an abbreviation for Attention,
associated with the feeling of effectiveness Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.
and self-confidence in pursuing and The ARCS model is an approach to
accomplish academic tasks. Relatedness instructional design that focuses on the
provides the feeling of safety and motivational aspects of the learning
connectedness to the learning environment environment by addressing four
where such enables and enhances students’ components of motivation:
academic performance and motivation
(Ulstad, et al., 2016). arousing interest
creating relevance
Self-determination theory evolved out of developing an expectancy of success,
five other sub-theories that further support and
its claims.First, the Cognitive Evaluation increasing satisfaction through
Theory (CET), which explains the effects intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
(Keller, 1983).
material that is relevant to their
experiences and needs.
The ARCS model stresses capturing
students’ attention as critical to gaining It recognizes how confidence is related to
and sustaining their engagement in the students’ anticipation of success and
learning and shows how this can be how positive feelings about the learning
accomplished through the use of attractive process lead to greater satisfaction from
and stimulating medium or learning the acquisition of knowledge (Keller,
2008).
4. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Social Cognitive Theory (SCT),

implemented today in various domains
from education and communication to
psychology, refers to the acquisition of
knowledge by direct observation,
interaction, experiences, and outside
media influence (Bryant, & Oliver, 2002).
It rests on the assumption that we construct

meaning and acquire knowledge though
social influence from daily communication motivate employees, strives to show the
to the use of the internet and explains the relationship between the expectations of
relationships between behavior, social and success and anticipation of rewards and the
physical environment, and personal amount of effort expended on a task and
factors. how it relates to the overall performance
(HemaMalini, & Washington, 2014).Simply
SCT illustrates how people gain and put, it explains motivation as a choice based
maintain several behavioral patterns and on the expectation of the results of selected
provides basic intervention strategies like behavior.
interactive learning, which allows students
to gain confidence through practice The expectancy theory explains
(Bandura, 1997). motivation in terms of reasons we engage
in specific behaviors where we expect that
5. EXPECTANCY THEORY effort will lead to better performance,
which in turn will lead to valued rewards.
Expectancy theory, originally developed to
explain how the work environment can
ATTITUDE OF THE STUDENTS–

In secondary schools, the students are
In the educational context this would between 12 to 18 years of age. They
translate into the student perception that possess the abilities to differentiate
their effort will lead to good or better between what is appropriate and what
performance (expectancy) followed by is inappropriate.Goal-
student’s belief that their performance will orientedstudentsusuallypossesspositivef
lead to achieving the desired goal and eelingsregardingtheirschool
rewards (instrumentality) and lastly, the experiences, they possess the traits of
value of the rewards is satisfactory and discipline, diligence, and
support the goals of the student (valence) resourcefulness, are avid readers and
(Bauer et al., 2016). tend to devote less time towards
recreation and leisure activities. It is
vital for the students to possess positive
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE thinking in terms of their schools,
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF teachers and academic subjects. With
THE STUDENTS: positive attitude, they will be able to
dedicate themselves wholeheartedly
The factors that influence the towards learning and generate the
academic performance of the desired academic outcomes
students have been stated as (Maina,2010).
follows:
SCHOOL RESOURCES– Within
schools, it is vital to make provision of
resources that can be utilized to ng.Itisvitalfortheteacherstopossessthetr

enhance the academic performance of aitsof professionalism and
students. The textbooks, notes, learning conscientiousness. They need to
materials, hand-outs, technology, possess an approachable nature, listen
library facilities and laboratory and provide solutions to the problems
facilities, especially in science subjects experienced by the students. They
should include the essential materials. should possess adequate knowledge
When students will be provided the andinformationregardingthesubjectsthat
necessarytoolsandequipment,theywillbe theyareteaching,usageof technology,
abletoacquireabetterunderstandingregar modern and innovative methods in the
ding academic concepts and how to teaching and learning processes,
perform the experiments. In some managingdisciplineanddirectingallofthe
cases, especially the students belonging classroomaswellasschoolactivitiesandfu
to deprived, marginalized and socio- nctions in a well-organized manner.
economically backward sections of the The teachers in some cases are strict,
society, cannot afford the books and but strictness should be maintained
materials required for learning, hence, within limits. The main objective of the
they are dependent upon the library teachers should only be to enhance the
facilities and fellow students to obtain academic performance
the books and other materials ofthestudentsandleadtotheireffectivedev
(Maina,2010). elopment(Maina,2010).
LEADERSHIP ASPECTS– The CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT–

principal, teachers and the The academic concepts are made
administrative staff members of the known to the students by the teachers
school are vested with the authority to within classroom. Teachers have the
implement the managerial functions of main job duty of completing the subject
planning, organizing, controlling, and syllabus. Therefore, it is vital that
directing the activities. The principal classroom environment should be
primarily has the right to disciplined, and well- ordered (Kudari,
makedecisions.Thedecisionscanbemade 2016). Within the classroom, it is vital
eitheratone’sowndiscretionortheymayc for the teachers and the students to
onsult others and seek ideas and implement the traits of morality and
suggestions from teachers and other ethics. It is vital to promote mutual
staff members of the school. The major understanding, amiability and co-
role of leadership aspects in influencing operation among the teachers and
the academic outcomes of the students students as well as among the fellow
is students. The efficiency in the
basedupontheadministrationandmanage management of the classroom,
mentoftheschool.Whenthereareproperru introduces a well-organized and
les, policiesandmanagement efficient management of the lesson
isputintopracticeinanappropriatemanner ,thentherewouldbe plans, instructional strategies, teaching-
learning processes and so forth. When
improvement in academic performance of the students
there is discipline and effective
(Maina,2010). communication among the individuals,
then it would help the students learn
SKILLS AND ABILITIES OF THE better and improve their academic
TEACHERS– Teachers have an performance.
imperative role in influencing the
academicperformanceofthestudents.The ROLE OF PARENTS–
yarebestowedwiththeauthoritytodirectal Homeisreferredtoastheplacefromwheret
lthe hefoundationoflearningand
classroomactivitiesandadministerlearni educationtakesplace.Inordertoproduceg
oodacademicoutcomes,itisvitalforthepa psychological and physical health.

rents, children and other family When a student is healthy, then he will
members to encourage a learning be able to contributeanactive
atmosphere within homes. For instance, roletowardslearning.Ontheotherhand,fa
when students experience problems in ctorssuchas,stress,anxiety, fear, trauma,
certain subjects, then parents are depression or physical health problems
responsible for providing help. This prove to be impediments within the
help may be in the form of private course of their academic achievement.
tuitions or they themselves may teach It is vital for the students to take
their children. They make provision of pleasure and look
technology and other learning materials towardstheirschoolandclassroomactiviti
at home to enhance the academic esfromapositiveviewpoint.Consuminga
performance of their children. Parents healthy
play an important role in leading to andnutritiousdiet,gettingengagedinextra
operative growth and development of -
their children (Kudari, curricularactivities,stayingcalmandtaki
2016).Inschools,whateverproblemsthatc ng pleasure
hildrengo through instudyingaresomeoftheaspectsthathelpi
regardingacademicsandother areas, nmaintaininggoodpsychologicaland
they normally communicate to their physical health (Srinivas,
parents. Parents are sources of security, &Venkatkrishnan,2016).
encouragement and help their children
in providing solutions to theirproblems. MOTIVATING AND
ENCOURAGING STUDENTS– In
SOCIAL CIRCLE– Children get academic learning, some of the concepts
enrolled in schools not only to learn are difficult to learn and understand.
academic concepts, but they When problems and difficulties are
alsolearn,howtointeractandsocializewit experienced by the students, then they
hothers.Studentsusuallyformfriendlyter need to obtain assistance from others.
msand relationships with the fellow When students are unable to achieve the
students. Forming a social circle and desired grades, then instead of getting
friendships have a positive angry on them, the teachers and parents
effectupontheacademicoutcomesofthest need to make provision of help and
udents.Aswhenonehastoworkonaproject assistance. They should motivate the
or students and encourage them to do well
prepareforatest,thengroupstudyisinmost in future. They need to understand their
casesbeneficial.Italsocausessocialsatisf weaknesses and help them. When
action and happiness in one’s student students find certain areas difficult to
life (Kudari, 2016). Forming a social learn, then teachers should repeat the
circle proves to be beneficial to the concepts, provide them class and
individuals in number of ways, such as, homework assignments, so that they are
solving academic problems, getting able to acquire complete understanding
involved in leisure activities, sharing
one’s joys and sorrows, and so forth. of the concepts (Srinivas,
&Venkatkrishnan, 2016).
HEALTH RELATED FACTORS–
Learningisnotaneasytaskforthestudents. VISUAL AND HEARING
Itisessentialforthem to possess IMPAIRMENTS– Visual and hearing
diligence, resourcefulness and impairments are stated as the disease
conscientiousness to enhance their related factors. There are students, who
learning. In order to generate positive experience these problems. But when
academic outcomes, it is essential for they are achievement-oriented, they do
the students to maintain their not let these problems become barriers
within the course of achievement of Inordertoenhanceone’sacademicperfor

their academic goals. When these mance,itisvitalfor the individuals to
problems are severe and the students do develop study skills within themselves.
not have the necessary resources to The students themselves need to
facilitate learning, then it is likely that generateawarenessregardingstudyskills,
their academic performance may get sothattheyareableto produce
affected in a negative manner. Visual desiredacademic outcomes. Some of
impairment usually imposes problems the study skills include, memorizing
in handwriting and observing the black- from the textbooks or other materials,
boards. Hearing impairment imposes making notes, practicing writing essays
problems in listening to the instructions and articles, especially in languages,
and explanations given by the teachers practicing calculations in mathematics
within classrooms and it is associated and so forth. One of the important areas
with poor language development. It is, when one
impedes the communication abilities of isstudying,itisvitaltocompletelyconcent
the students and hence their academic ratetowardsone’sstudies.Inabilitytocom
performance gets influenced in a pletely concentrate is one of the factors
negative manner (Srinivas, that leads to undesired academic
&Venkatkrishnan, 2016). outcomes. Memorizing is regarded as
one of the rare techniques, hence, the
COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE teachers encourage students to acquire
SERVICES– understanding of the concepts instead
Insecondaryschools,therearenumerousp of memorizing.
roblemsand difficulties that students
experience. Some may even get TIME MANAGEMENT–
involved into violent and criminal acts, Studentsinsecondaryschoolshaveabusys
drug abuse, HIV, other sexually chedule,henceitisvitalfor them to
transmitted infections, teenage generate awareness in terms of
pregnancies, induced abortions and effective time management. Research
unemployment. These factors have a has indicated that the normal schedule
direct impact upon not only their of the secondary school students
academic performance, but also their comprises of school hours, then they
lives. These may hamper their need to spend some time in completion
psychological approach and they may of home-work assignments. They also
even experience problems of get involved in some kinds of extra-
depression, trauma or stress to a major curricular activities and sports. Playing
extent. Counselling and guidance and getting engaged in creative
services need to be established in activities, not only help them
schools to help the students to provide concentrate better, but they are able to
solutions to their problems, focus upon stimulate their mind-sets. For the
their studies, and become responsible secondary school students, it is
members of the community (Maganga, important to get engaged in
2016). It is vital for the individuals, extracurricular activities and for this
who work as counsellors to specialize purpose, they need to implement proper
in a particular area and possess time management skills. It is essential
adequate knowledge, expertise and for the students to create a balance
skills. Counselling is related to various between all the tasks and activities. The
areas, such as career, academics, activities that are more important
depression, stress, health, family issues should be given more time and lesser
and soforth. amount of time can be spent on the
activities that are lessimportant.
DEVELOPMENT OF STUDY
SKILLS–
HOME ENVIRONMENT– The home APPROACHABILITY AND

environment should be amiable and PROFESSIONALISM– The teachers
pleasant in order to generate in school are required to be
appropriate academic outcomes. Within approachableandprofessionalintheircon
home, among the family members, it is duct.Theyaretheones,whomstudents’ap
vitaltoinitiatemeasurestoformeffectivete proach,
rmsandrelationships.Theyshouldcomm incasetheyhaveanyproblemsanddifficult
unicate with each other in an ies.Whentheteachersarefriendlyandgene
appropriate manner and minimize the rous, then the students feel comfortable
occurrence of conflicts and disputes. in not only approaching them, but also
Research has indicated that conflicts in clarifying their doubts. The
may take place with respect to the professionalism and approachable
Availability of attitude on the part of the teachers is of
Materials and amiable environmental cond utmost significance in influencing the
Itions within academic performance of the students
thehomeareessentialforthestudents to in a positive manner. On the other
focus upon studies and generate the hand, at home, parents or tutors are the
desired academicoutcomes. ones, who supervise their studies,
hence, it is vital for them to be
TEACHING-LEARNING professional in their conduct. Teaching
METHODS– The teaching-learning should be implemented in a calm and
methods and strategies should be pleasant manner. Any kind of harsh
appropriate and encouraging to the attitude should be avoided, as it may
students. The teachers in school are the demotivate thestudents
ones that contribute an imperative part
in promoting learning among the
TEACHER’S EFFECTIVENESS
students. It is essential for
themtoensurethattheteachingmethodsus There are various feedback devices to be
edshouldprovetobebeneficialtothestude used to modify the teacher behavior. The
nts. following are few commonly used such as
Forinstance,ifthestudentsareabletolearn Simulated Social Skill Training, Micro-
betterthroughdictationofnotes,thenteach Teaching, Programmed Instruction, Team
ers Teaching, Interaction Analysis and T.
shouldprovidenotes.Ifthestudentsareabl Group Training. These are briefly
etolearnbetterthroughverbalexplanation explained as below:
,then they should promote verbal
Simulated Social Skill Training: The
explanation and so forth. Within home,
simulation technique is to induce
if students are taking
certain behavior in an artificial
privatetuitionsofcertainacademicsubject situation. Pupil teacher has to play
ssuchas,mathematicsorscience,ortheirp several roles as a teacher, as a student
arents and as a
teachthem,thentoo,itisvitalfortheparents supervisor.It’safeedbackmechanism.Itis
andtutorstomakesurethateffectualteachi asocio-
ng learning methods are implemented, dramarelatedtopracticeandgivescontrol
which may encourage learning among over teaching variables. Important is
the students and help them pupil teacher is teaching in non-
understandbetter.
stressfulconditions.
Micro-Teaching:Micro-
Teachingprovidesteacherswithapractice
settingorinstructioninwhich the normal
complexities of class room are reduced and cited often and rated highly by
and in which the teacher gets feedback other teachers. This includes a
on performance. growing repository of open
education resources – online open
ProgrammedInstruction:Themethodi source instructional materials that
saindividualizedinstructioninwhichstud can be modified and customized by
entsareactive and proceed at his own endusers.
pace and provided with immediate
knowledge of result. The programmed Collaborate with and learn from
learning is a strategy in which various one another across geographic
kinds of intellectual, emotional and boundaries: The web
motor experiences are provided to shouldenableteacherstofindexcellen
learner in a controlled situation through tlessonplanscreatedbyothers,viewvi
a variety of devices like book, teaching deosoftop- notch delivery, and tap
machines, teacher, radio, television, the wisdom of other teachers in
etc. meeting their toughest challenges
via online discussion boards and
blogs, and via direct
Team Teaching: It is an instructional communication with otherteachers.
situation where two or more teachers
possessing Use online and software-based
complementaryteachingskillscooperativ tools to assess students regularly,
elyplanand implement theinstructionfor diagnose learning challenges, and
a singlegroup of students using flexible select the best responses to the
scheduling and grouping techniques to barrier’s studentsface.
meet the particularinstruction. Benefit from the trove of data
that should be generated if more
Interaction Analysis: It is a technique instruction happens online. The
for analyzing and observing the more students receive instruction
classroom behavior. It provides the and do their work online, the more
structure, component and flow of possible
behavior of classroom activities. It is a itshouldbetocapturedatafromtheirex
feedback device. periencesaboutthemosteffectiveway
stoconveycontent,motivate
T-
students, and address
GroupTraining:Itisalsoafeedbackdevi
students’challenges.
ce.Itisleaderlessgroupoftraineesnumberi
ngeight to twelve, discuss their own
problems of teaching without any ROLE OF A STATE FOR
agenda and suggest some solutions on IMPROVING TEACHER
basis of theirexperiences. EFFECTIVENESS
States are in a strong position to play
SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE several roles in this process:
TEACHER’S EFFECTIVENESS:
More easily access high-quality 
curricula aligned to the common, Committing to reaching
college and career- ready, increasing portions of students
with top-quintile instructors and
internationally-benchmarked instruction through various reach
standards: Teachers should extension methods (both in-person
increasingly be easily able to go and remotely with technology);
online and find a myriad of
resources linked to the specific Acceleratingprogressbycreatingde
standards they are teaching, with mandforoutstandingremoteinstructi
high-quality resources “rising to the
onwhereitcanhelp most (e.g., by 
requiring or encouraging districts to
top” because they are downloaded
offer it if they cannot fill teaching We have briefly described here the
slots with effective instructors, and unstructured and structured guidance and
by requiring that remotely offered counselling programme.
instruction meet a top-tier learning
progressstandard); NEED FOR GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING PROGRAMME

Reducing state-level policy GuidanceandCounsellingprogrammeai
barriers to the use of these mstofulfillthefollowingneedsofstudents
mechanisms (e.g., rigid seat-time inschool system.
requirements, upper-grade class
size maximums, teacher Educational Guidance Need: In
certification requirements that educational guidance the emphasis
would block high-quality out-of- is on providing assistance to
state instructors from teaching students to perform satisfactorily in
remotely); and, their academic work. Other needs
include selection of appropriate
course of study, overcome learning
Directing the benefits to students
 by difficulties, foster creativity, and
 who need them the most
providing funding or other  levels of motivation and
improve
inducements for hard-to-staff  soon.
 schools in particular to make use of
the emerging opportunities. Vocational Guidance Need:
Otherwise, the benefits of new Students also need guidance in
selection of a vocation and
technologies should tend to flow 
more naturally to advantaged  preparation for the same. Vocational
guidance enables students to acquire
schools and students first. information about career
opportunities, career growth and
educational/ trainingfacilities.

GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS:
NEEDS, ORGANIZATIONAL Personal,SocialandEmotionalGui
danceNeed:Guidanceconcernedwit
SET UP AND TECHNIQUES hpersonalneed of individuals enable
them to adjust themselves to their
InIndiavariouseducationcommissionsha environment so that they become
verecommendedimportanceoftheseservi productive and efficient human
cesinthe education system and thus two being. The main purpose of social
distinct points of view emerged. guidance is to make individual’s
effective and responsible citizen by
According to the first view point
enabling them to contribute to the
guidance and counselling services
society, assume leadership, conform
should be a integral part of the to social norms, develop healthy
educational process and positive attitude towards
andtheeducationalfunctionaries(namely different sections of the society, etc.
subjectteachers)shouldrendertheseservi Guidance also helps individuals in
cesduring attaining emotional maturity. In
teachingintheclassroom.Thesecondview
 assist individuals in maintaining
addition, guidance services also
pointemphasizesaseparateguidanceprog
rammeorganized by fully health, both
professionally trained guidance mentalandphysicalandspendingleisu
personnel. On the basis of these two retimemoremeaningfullybydevelopi
viewpoints guidance and counselling nggoodhobbies.
programmes can be categorized as
unstructured orstructured.
ROLE OF GUIDANCE AND providing occupational information to

COUNSELLING students related to general and
FUNCTIONARIES  vocationalsubjects.
administering psychological tests such
Guidance and counselling services are as achievement, general and special
rendered by trained professionals. They ability, interest, personality, etc. to
identify personalcharacteristics.
play the following roles to fulfill the 
guidance and counseling needs of assisting students in changing their
individuals. These roles are related to  academic options, ifnecessary.
guidance needs of an individual such as helping students in developing
educational, vocational and personal acquaintance with occupations during
social and emotional.  educationalvisits.
orienting students about vocational
EDUCATIONAL ROLES:It includes subjects and the career opportunities
available through individual counselling
 and group guidance activities.
interpreting the educational 
programmes to the parents and PERSONAL SOCIAL ROLE:It deals
thecommunity. with the following:
 helping parents understand theabilities 
and interests of their children and counselling students with adjustment
respective educational  and behaviouralproblems.
 opportunitiesavailable. providing counselling to students and
providing assistance to children in the their parents who are on the verge of
 choice  – academic
of elective subjects droppingout.
and vocational courses. 
maintenance of record of the students’ keeping personal record of students
 records card
progress in the form of cumulative about their personal characteristics and
(CRC). family background.
assisting students in exploring their 
 potentials through hobby clubs, ensuring involvement of other teachers
students’ house,etc. in all round development ofstudents.
orienting new students about curricular
 and 
co-curricular activities of
Tocatertotheseguidancefunctions,acoun
theinstitutions.
 assisting students and parents in sellor/careerteachercan organize
appraising students’ academicprogress.  variousguidance services in a school
 diagnosing learning difficulties instudents.
setting. The planning and organisation

 organizing remedial teaching based upon
of these services depend upon the needs
thediagnosis.
 identifying (gifted and disabled)
students of the students and availability of
with specialneeds. resources (time, budget and support).
 assisting in adjustment to
students
Here we are briefly describing these
schoolsubjects. 
conducting follow-up of school pass-outs. guidanceservices.
 ORIENTATION
VOCATIONAL ROLES:It includes
SERVICE:Under the school
 organizing group guidance activities  guidance programme, orientation
such as talks (orientation/ career / service assists the
class), exhibition, field visits, etc. to newstudentstoknowabouttheinstituti
help students in exploring world  onthroughorientationtalk,tourofthes
ofwork. chool,students’ handbooks
 andassemblies.
INDIVIDUAL INVENTORY
SERVICE:Individual analysis is
the activity of the school guidance
programmewhichfollowssystematic
assessmentprocedurestoidentifythec  PLACEMENT
haracteristicsand potentials of every SERVICE:Placement, as understood
student. Standardized test results, in the guidance field, usually
school records and observation indicates assistance offered to
reports such as anecdotal records, individuals in taking the next step,
rating scales, self-reporting whether toward further training, a
techniques, (questionnaires and job situation or a different course of
autobiography) are used for study. At present job placement in
collecting data about students’  selected areas is
family background, abilities, done by the employment
aptitudes, interests, achievements exchanges, however, many private
and other psychological variables. placement agencies are also
A counsellor/ guidance worker working to help people in their
takes help of teacher, peers and  proper placement. A counsellor/
parents to prepare a cumulative career teacher can
record (CRC) of students. provideinformation to students
  about such agencies.
CAREERS INFORMATION  
FOLLOW-
SERVICE:Careers information
UPSERVICE:Throughthisservice,
includes information about all types
arecordofschoolleavers(drop-
of occupations and industries,
outsandpass-outs) is kept. Before
educational and training facilities,
leaving the school, the students are
apprenticeship facilities,  told about follow-up and its
scholarships and stipends, local and
purpose and through
national employment trends and
questionnaires, interviews, letters
opportunities and occupational
and telephone calls, data is
structure of the country. For
collected. Professional institutions
providing such information to
use email for getting information
students, group guidance activities
 from the pass outs.
such as field trips, career
conference-cum-exhibition, career
REFERRAL SERVICE: Students
talks, etc. are organized. A Career with special needs and with specific
Information Corner may be set up problems (emotional, behavioural
to display career information or educational) may require special
materials such as booklets, referral to special institutions or
monographs, pamphlets and posters professionals for proper care and
and charts, newspaper cuttings on treatment. The counsellor or career
occupational and teacher keeps addresses of such
educationalopportunities. institutions/ agencies/ professionals
 COUNSELLING who can be  approached at the time
 of any need.
SERVICE:Counselling is generally
a one-to-one helping relationship
RESEARCH AND EVALUATION
which focuses upon the individuals’ IN GUIDANCE AND
growth and adjustment, and COUNSELLING:Research is
problem solving and decision- necessary for the advancement of the
making needs. The aim of profession of counselling, especially
counselling is self-understanding, to judge the effectiveness of various
self-acceptance and self-realization. techniques and methods being used
Counselling requires a high level of with particular groups. Evaluation is
professional training and skill a means of 
assessing
therefore; it should be done by theprogrammeeffectivenessandtoint
trained counsellors who have the
necessaryqualifications.
roduceimprovementsintheprogram information of thebeneficiaries.

me.Theevaluation could be done by
obtaining feedback or follow-up of
recipients of guidance activities. COMPONENTS OF A
The findings of evaluation COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE AND
programmes can be used to COUNSELLING PROGRAMME
establish the validity of the
guidance programme. A Gysbers and Handerson (1994) are of
counsellor/career teacher should the opinion that School Guidance
plan this aspect while planning Programme shouldbe comprehensive.
guidance programme in school. According to them an educational and
vocational guidance programme
comprises following four components:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE
SCHOOL GUIDANCE AND
AND COUNSELLING COUNSELLING
PROGRAMME CURRICULUM:
SCHOOLguidance and
A comprehensive guidance and counselling curriculum is designed
counselling programme should be systematically according to grade
characterized with the following: level so that it serves all students
at the classroom or group level.
Careful and consistent The main emphasis of this
developmentprogramme curriculum is on decision-making,
 It should be developmental, self-knowledge, career exploration
preventative, remedial andcorrective and career development. The
 the needs of
It should address
 theindividuals curriculum is organized around
 It should be goal-oriented and accountable
three majorareas:
Itshouldbeintegralpartoftheschoolcu LearningtoLive(Understan dingandappreciatingtheself

 rriculumandshouldbecomplementin ,others,homeandfamily; developing a sense of
gotherschool activities
It should be balanced,
 fields/areas of guidance e.g.
encompassing the four fundamental community; making
decisions and setting goals;
personal, educational, social, understanding safety
 andvocational/career
andsurvival);
It should determine the services to LearningtoLearn(Makingd
 be 
offered such as orientation,
ecisions,settinggoals,andta
information, counselling, etc.
 It as per the
should involve staff members kingaction;understanding
requirement of theprogramme interaction between home,

It should create and demonstrate an
family,schooland
 atmosphere of teamwork

It must beflexible
  community;and
Should take into account age,
location/environment, cultural understandingfactors
background, sex, economic status which affect school
 of the targetgroup achievement); and
benefit all students rather than just
Should Learning to Work
afew  (Learning the relationship
Should be printed and displayed for
between personal qualities
and work; exploring
careers; learning how to
use leisure time; learning
the relationship between
educationandwork;learning
toworktogether;andlearnin guidance curriculum, individual

ghowthecommunityrelates planning and responsive
towork). service.Thesupportfromthesystemr
equiredfortheseactivitiesincludeori
INDIVIDUAL entationofschool staff,
PLANNING:Individualplanningin identification and utilization of
cludesthe counseling community resources, budget,
activitiesmeanttoassist all students infrastructure and policy support.
to plan, monitor and manage their
own personal, educational, social ii) Activities implemented by
and career counsellor/teacher counsellor
development.Activitiesofthiscomp support educational programmes.
onentoftheprogrammeareofferedto The counsellor / teacher counsellor
allstudentstoassist them in the provides support to the educational
development and implementation programme includes the assistance
of their personal, educational, through individual planning
social and career components, in activities such as selection of
accordance with the skills and courses/ subjects and co-curricular
information they gather. This activities by student; linkage with
component generally offers special education programme and
students the opportunity for self- preparation of students’ personal
appraisal, and to plan for the world information including curricular
of work. One way would be to /co-curricular achievementsrecord
help students to understand with the help of schoolstaff.
themselves through individual or
group activities.
COUNSELLING
RESPONSIVE
SERVICES:Abovetwocomponent Guidance and Counseling is defined
as a planned and organized work aimed
sareforallstudents.Thiscomponentp
rovides special help to those at assisting the trainee
students who are facing problems tounderstandhimself/herselfandhis/hera
bilitiesanddevelophis/herpotentialitiesin
that interfere with their
ordertosolve problems and achieve
educational, or career or healthy
psychological, social, educational and
personal social development. This
professional compatibility, and also to
component includes activities such
achieveobjectiveswithintheframeworko
as individual and small group
fteachings.Guidanceisakindofadviceorh
counselling, consultation with staff
elpgiventothe individual especially
and parents and referral of students
students, on matters like choosing
and family members to other
course of study or career, work or
specialist or programmes, special
preparing for vocation, from a person
education, social worker, or
who is superior in the respective field
medical specialists, etc. Services
or an expert. It is the process of
like Counselling service, Referral
guiding,supervisingordirectingapersonf
service, Consultation service,
oraparticularcourseofaction.Counseling
Placement and Follow-up service,
isnotjustgiving advice or making a
Research and Evaluation service
judgment, but helping the client to see
are generally used for
clearly the root of problems and
responsiveservice.
identify the potential solutions to the
issues. The counselor also changes the
4) SYSTEM SUPPORT:This
viewpoint of the client, to help him/her
component has following twoparts:
take the right decision or choose a
course of action. It will also help the
i) Activities necessary to support
client to remain intuitive and positive in messages and makes inferences

thefuture. about the counselor and the
counseling situation.
Counseling takes place in the context
of a helping relationship in which the STAGE TWO: IN DEPTH
counselor and the client work together EXPLORATION - PROBLEM
to resolve a problem, change behavior ASSESSMENT While the
or foster personal growth and counselor and the client are in the
awareness. Although clients may have process of establishing a
a number of helping relationships with relationship, a second process is
friends or family, the counseling taking place, i.e. problem
relationship is different in a number of assessment. This step involves the
ways – collection and classification of
information about the client’s life
The counseling relationship
is not reciprocal. The situation and reasons for seeking
counselor’sjobistofocusonth counseling. Assessment refers to
eclients’concernsandofferth anything counselors do to gather
eirsupportandencouragemen information and draw conclusions
t.Thisis the clients’ 
time to about the concerns of clients.
 focus onthemselves. Assessment takes place at the
The counselor is a trained beginning of the counseling
 professional who has spent process. But, some degree of
several years learning about assessment takes place throughout
different ways the counseling process with
tohelpclients,resolvetheirpar purpose of finding missing pieces
 ticularproblem. if the puzzle, i.e. the client.
Thecounselingrelationshipis According to Seligman (1996),
confidential. Whereas with assessment should attempt to
friends or family, clients recognize the importance and
 might hope that theywill uniqueness of the client. In a way,
respect their privacy, a
saying to the person, “You are
counselor is ethically
special and I want to get to know
andlegallyboundbyconfident
you and understand why you are
iality.Unlesstheclientisanim
the way you are”. The counselor
mediatedangertothemselves
needs such knowledge about the
orothers, their conversations
client so that nothing is left out.
with a counselor will be
For example, you might have left
 private.
out an important piece of
Clients can depend on the information about your client
counselor to meet them  at which may affect the counseling or
their set appointmenttimes
therapeutic process.
STAGE ONE: RELATIONSHIP STAGE THREE: GOAL

BUILDING - INITIAL SETTING - COMMITMENT
DISCLOSURE The first step TO ACTION Setting goals is
involves building a relationship very important to the
and focuses on engaging clients to successofcounseling.Itinvolvesma
explore issue that directly affect kingacommitmenttoasetofconditio
them. The first interview is ns,toacourseofactionor an outcome.
important because the client is Goals are the results or outcomes
reading the verbal and nonverbal that client wants to achieve at the
end of counseling. Goals help the
counselor and client determine what
can and what
cannot be accomplished through In other words, Stage One or the

counseling. In goal setting, the building of a relationship does not
client identifies with the help of stop but is ongoing until Stage
the counselor, specific ways in Five which involves termination or
which they want to resolve the perhaps the client is referred to for
issues and what course of action further action. In this stage -
should be taken to resolve Closure discussed and planned;
theproblem. Appointment intervals lengthened;
Available resources and referrals
identified and accessed; Assurance
STAGEFOUR:COUNSELINGI provided to the client of the option
NTERVENTIONTherearediffere to return to counseling ifnecessary.
ntpointsofviewconcerningwhatago
od THE TOP TEN BASIC
counselorshoulddowithclientsdepe COUNSELING SKILLS
ndingonthetheoreticalpositionsthat
thecounselorsubscribes Research is increasingly finding
to.Forexample,theperson- that the type of therapy used is not
centeredapproachsuggeststhatthec a important to outcomes as are
ounselorgetsinvolvedratherthan specific counselor behaviors such
intervenes by placing emphasis on as (1) Enthusiasm, (2) Confidence,
the relationship. The behavioral Belief in the patient’s ability to
approach attempts to initiate change.
activities that help clients alter
their behavior. After completion of
the counseling intervention – Although there is nothing which
will ensure change, it would
appear that clients are more likely
to achieve their goals when a good
ilyfunctioning; and positive relationship exists
between them and their therapist.
In essence the counselor’s
supports being accessed; and interactions with the client are a
powerful tool in the helping
maintenance ofchange. relationship.
LISTENING
STAGEFIVE:EVALUATION,T a.Attending - orienting
ERMINATIONORREFERRAL
oneself physically to the
Terminatingthecounselingprocess patient (pt) toindicate one
willhave to be conducted with is aware of the patient,
sensitivity with the client knowing and, in fact, that the
that it will have to end. Note that client has your full,
each of undivided attention and
theseStagescontinueseventhoughth that you care. Methods
ecounselorandtheclientmovetothen include eye contact;
extstep.Forexample, after built a nods; not moving around,
relationship, the counselor moves being distracted, eye
to Stage Two which involves contact, encouraging
assessing the problem encountered verbalizations; mirroring
by the client. In the meantime, the bodyposturesand
counselor continues to strengthen language; leaning
the relationship that has been built. forward, etc. Researchers
estimate that about 80 and implicitmessages

percent of
communication takes ATTENDING – involves our
place non-verbally. behaviors which reflect our paying
b. Listening/observing - full attention, in an accepting and
capturing and supportive way, to theclient.
understanding the verbal
and nonverbal PARAPHRASING - Selective
information focusing on the cognitive part of the
communicated by that pt. message – with the client’s key
words and ideas being
TWO PRIMARY SOURCES OF communicated back to the patient
INFORMATION: in a rephrased, and shortened form.
There are four steps in
• CONTENT - what is effectiveparaphrasing:
specifically said. Listen
carefully for, not only what Listen and recall. The entire client
a person says, but also the message to ensure you recalled it
words, expressions and in its entirety and do not omit any
patterns the person is using, significantparts.
which may give you a Identify the content part of the
deeper insight. Counselors message by deciding what event,
should develop their ability situation, idea, or person the client
to remember what was said, is talkingabout.
as well as to clarify what Rephrase, in as concise a manner as
was said or finding out what possible, the key words and ideas the
was notsaid. client has used to communicate their
PROCESS - all nonverbal concerns in a fresh or
phenomena, including how differentperspective.
content is conveyed, Perceptioncheckisusuallyinthefor
themes, body language, mofabriefquestion,e.g.,“Itsoundsli
interactions, etc. ke...,”“Let me see if I understand
this,” which allows the client to
EMPATHY agree or disagree with the
accuracy of yourparaphrasing.
The ability to perceive another's
experience and then to communicate that Effectively reflecting on
perception back to the patient’s feelings-
individualtoclarifyandamplifytheirown
experiencingandmeaning.Itisnotidentif Affective reflection in an open-ended,
yingwith them or sharing similar respectful manner
experiences-- not "I know how ofwhattheclientiscommunicatingverballyan
youfeel"! dnonverbally,bothdirectlythroughwords
and nonverbal behaviors as well as
PRIMARY SKILLS ASSOCIATED reasonable inferences about what the client
WITH THE COMMUNICATION OF might be experiencing emotionally It is
EMPATHY INCLUDE: important for the helper to think carefully
about which words he/she chooses to
• nonverbal and communicate these feelings back to the
verbalattending client. The skill lies in choosing words
• paraphrasing content of which use different words that convey the
clientcommunications same or similar. For example, if a poorly
• reflecting patient feelings skilledhelperreflectedtotheclientthathe/she
was“veryangryanddepressed,”whentheclien Includes the following functions:

t had only said they were irritated by a
certain event, and had felt very sad over the a. Assisting client to identify and
death of a family pet, the result could be work on a specific problem
counterproductive to the process ofchange. from the various onespresented. b.
Reminding the client of the task
Genuineness and re-describing intent and
structure of thesession.
Ability of counselor to be freely themselves. Includes c. Using questions and suggestions
congruence between outer words or behaviors and to help the client clarify facts,
terms, feelings, andgoals.
innerfeelings;non-defensiveness;non-role-
playing;andbeingunpretentious.Forexample ,ifthehelper d. Use a here-and-now focus to

claims that they are comfortable helping a client explore emphasize process and content
occurring in current session,
a drug or sexual issue, but their behavior (verbally and
which may of help to elucidate
nonverbally) shows signs of discomfort with the topic the problem being worked on or
this will become an obstacle to progress and often lead to
improving the problem-solving
process.
client confusion about and mistrust of thehelper.
OPEN QUESTIONS
UNCONDITIONAL
POSITIVEREGARD A questioning process to assist the
client in clarifying or exploring
An expression of caring and thoughts or feelings. Counselor id
nurturance as well as acceptance. not requesting specific information
and not purposively limiting the
Includes conveying warmth natureof the response to only a yes
Also conveying acceptance by or no, or very briefanswer.
responding to the patient's
messages(verbaland a. Goal is to facilitate exploration –
nonverbal) with not needed if the client is already
nonjudgmental or noncritical doingthis.
verbal &nonverbalreactions. b. Have an intention or therapeutic
Respect- purpose for every question
abilitytocommunicatetothecou youask.
nselor'ssincerebeliefthateveryp c. Avoid asking too many
ersonpossesses questions, or assuming an
theinherentstrengthandcapacit interrogatoryrole.
ytomakeitinlife,andthateachpe
rsonhastherighttochoose his d. Best approach is to follow a
own alternatives and make his response to an open-ended
owndecisions. question with a paraphrase
or reflection which
CONCRETENESS encourages the client to
share more and avoids
Keeping communications specific -- repetitive patterns of
focused on facts and feelings of question/answer/question/an
relevant concerns, while avoiding swer,etc.
tangents, generalizations, abstract
discussions, or talking about 8. COUNSELOR’S SELF-
counselor rather than the client. DISCLOSURE
The counselor shares personal
feelings, experiences, or reactions
to the client. Should include collaboration with the client

relevant identify possible solutions and
contentintendedtohelpthem.Asarul alternatives.
e,itisbettertonotself-
discloseunlessthereisapressingclini
cal ***
needwhichcannotbemetinanyother UNIT 9 IS COMPLETED
way.Rememberempathyisnotshari
ngsimilarexperiencesbut
conveying in a caring and
understanding manner what the
client is feeling andthinking
9. INTERPRETATION
Any statement to the client which

goes beyond what they have said
or are aware of. In interpretation
the counselor is providing new
meaning, reason, or explanation
for behaviors, thoughts, or feelings
so that patient can see problems in
a new way. Interpretations can
help the client make connections
between
seeminglyisolatedstatementsofeve
nts,canpointoutthemesorpatterns,
or can offer a new framework
forunderstanding.Aninterpretation
maybeusedtohelpaptfocusonaspeci
ficaspectoftheirproblem, or
provide a goal.
a. Keep interpretations
short, concrete (see
concreteness), and
deliver them tentatively
and with empathy.
b. Use interpretations
sparingly and do not
assume a patient's
rejection of your insight
means they are resistant
or that you areright.
10. INFORMATION GIVING

AND REMOVING
OBSTACLES TOCHANGE
Supplying data, opinions, facts,

resources or answers to questions.
Explore with client possible
problems which may delay or
prevent their change process. In
CONTENTS
SOCIAL ISSUES & ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY.
ISSUES OF GENDER, POVERTY, DISABILITY, AND MIGRATION:Cultural bias

and discrimination. Stigma, Marginalization, and Social Suffering; Child Abuse and
Domestic violence.
PEACE PSYCHOLOGY:Violence, non-violence, conflict resolution at macro level, role of

media in conflict resolution.
WELLBEING AND SELF-GROWTH:Types of wellbeing [Hedonic and Eudemonic],

Character strengths, Resilience and Post-Traumatic Growth.
HEALTH: Health promoting and health compromising behaviors, Life style and Chronic
diseases [Diabetes, Hypertension, Coronary Heart Disease], Psychoneuroimmunology
[Cancer, HIV/AIDS]
PSYCHOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY INTERFACE:Digital learning; Digital etiquette:

Cyber bullying; Cyber pornography: Consumption, implications; Parental mediation of
Digital Usage.
UNIT
EMERGING
10
AREAS
SOCIAL ISSUES characterize a social issue or problem.
A social problem is any condition or These include:
behavior that has negative consequences

The public must recognize the
(i.e. preventing society from functioning at
situation as a problem.
an optimal level) for large numbers of
The situation is against the general
people and that is generally recognized as
values accepted by the society.
a condition or behavior that needs to be
A large segment of the population
addressed. This definition has both an
recognizes the problem as a valid
objective component and a subjective
concern.
component.
The problem can be rectified or
It is important to understand that not all alleviated through the joint action
things that occur in society are raised to of citizens and/or community
the level of social problems. Four factors resources.
have been outlined that seem to
Social issues are distinguished from immigration. There are also issues that
economic issues. Some issues have both don't fall into either category, such as
social and economic aspects, such as wars.
ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY however, not only a basic social science
Psychology plays a major role in that studies the nature and determinants of
understanding diverse social issues. This human social behavior; it is also an
includes using social-psychological applied discipline of relevance for all
theories and concepts for understanding kinds of societal problems and issues.
and predicting human behavior in the Applying social-psychology theory helps
context of intergroup relations and social in making sense of everyday human
unrest. The role of Social psychology is, behavior and provides tools to change
behavior in preferred directions.
An example in this case would be the PATH model.
Following a general overview of the Poverty

Disability
different stages in doing applied social
Migration: Cultural bias and
psychology, from problem definition to discrimination
problem solution, we start by illustrating Stigma
Marginalization
the disadvantages of a mono-theory Social Suffering
approach over a multi-theory approach in Child Abuse
explaining and predicting real-life human Domestic violence.
behavior. A systematic working tool,

called PATH (a method for accessing SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
scientific literature to answer practical GOALS (SDGS): INDIA
questions with empirical data and SDG 1: No Poverty
theory)developed by Buunk& Van Vugt in
SDG 2: Zero Hunger
2008, is provided that can help in applying
SDG 3: Good Health and Well-Being
social psychology theory to practical cases
to better understand human behavior and SDG 4: Quality Education
thus identify possible target points for SDG 5: Gender Equality

intervention programmes. Next, we make SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
the switch from behavior explanation to
SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic
behavior change. Behavior change is a
Growth
planned activity.
SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and
TYPES OF SOCIAL ISSUES
Infrastructure
Issues around Gender (majorly Gender
Discrimination)
SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Human-beings are born as male or female
Communities babies, BUT they become masculine or
SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and feminine as a result of child rearing
Production practices and socio-cultural variables.
SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals WHAT IS REFERRED TO AS

GENDER ROLES?
Expectations of appropriate behavior for

ISSUES OF GENDER
males and females set by a society. Gender
There are two Divisions of APA that
role expectations are very similar across
directly deal with these issues:
societies.
Division 35: Society for the
WHAT ARE GENDER
Psychology of Women, established
1973. DIFFERENCES?
Division 51: Society for the
Psychological Study of Men and Actual differences between males and
Masculinity, established 1995 females in terms of average capacity,
ability, or typical behavior.
Let’s first understand some key terms: WHAT ARE GENDER
WHAT IS GENDER? STEREOTYPES?
The perception of being a male or a “Widely held beliefs about females ’and
female. male’s abilities, personality traits, and
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN social behavior” (Weiten, 2001).
“GENDER” AND “SEX”?
WHAT IS ANDOCENTRICITY?
Gender refers to the psychological aspect
Most gender research, especially the initial
whereas sex refers to the physiological/
one, had been androcentric i.e., looking at
physical aspect of the same phenomenon.
issues from the male perspective. For
“Gender” refers to culturally constructed
example: for many years the researchers
categorization of “maleness” and
studying occupations concentrated upon
“femaleness” or masculinity and
men’s formal work and ignored female’s
femininity. The biologically based
domestic work and childcare. The other
distinctions between males and females are
extreme may be gynocentricity (female
referred to as “Sex” of the person.
centered) i.e., evaluating things from
WHO MAKES US BEHAVE AS
women’s point of view alone.
MALES OR FEMALES?
Before going deep into the concept of denied the right to franchise, to go for
social role and how it is shaped, let’s education, and profession. Woman was
ponder over some questions… treated as a second-rate citizen with
 Whybody  about
are women more conscious limited or no ability, little or lower grade
weight than men?
 men wear makeup as women
 Why don’t intelligence and non-trustable skill. These
do? 
 Can men become good “mothers”? were the major concerns that led to the
 Why are women not hired as guards?
beginning of the Feminist Movement to
 Why no men sew clothes at home but
most professional tailors are men? establish equality between men and
 Whycook men but very few men
most chefs are
at home? woman.
Why are women considered talkative
 whereas  on average men talk FORMS OF FEMINISM
more?
The answers to these questions pertain Liberal Feminism: (1960s- 1970s)
 role allocation and
to societal Liberal feminism had roots in classic
shaping. should have
 liberal thought; women
the same rights as men.
FEMINISM
Radical Feminism:They believed that
Feminism is a collection of political the cultural notion of gender needs to
be eliminated. In their view,men are
movements, social movements and the oppressors and women are the ones
who are being oppressed. A similar
ideologies that defend the political, the
 Racial or social classes.
Pattern of oppression was also seen in
economic, the personal and the social
Socialist Feminism: Rather than
rights of women.Feminist movements aim seeking liberation at individual level,
at achieving and establishing equality  men  should be together in
and women
this pursuit.
between women and men. Cultural Feminism:They insist
thatsocial change is a must and that
The modern feminist movement emerged 
societies need to accept and appreciate
traditionally feminine values.
from the west. Men and Women both
FEMINIST:
contributed to the cause of improving
A person who believes in the social,
women’s status in the society, in the
political and economic equality of the
political, economic, and social spheres.
sexes. They act, speak, write and advocate
All societies were patriarchal, male
on behalf of women's issues and rights and
dominated, where women were generally
identify injustice to females in the social
oppressed and home bound. Women were
status quo.
MYTHS AROUND FEMINISM:
Feminism is the belief that women are early 20th centuries, which dealt
superior mainly with suffrage, working
Feminism is hating men (misandry) conditions and educational rights
Feminism is male oppression for women and girls.
THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT:

First-wave feminism
A movement or way of thinking that involved a period of
feminist activity during the
proposes, advocates, supports, and 19th and early 20th
struggles for social equality of the two centuries, especially in
Europe and in the United
sexes. The difference between men and
States. 
 Key concerns:
women should be looked into from a

“gender” perspective rather than a “sexist”   (the
women's suffrage
right to vote)
perspective. The difference between the
  
the right to education
sexes is learned and attained, not ascribed 
or inherent. Society is the seed bed of our  
better working
conditions
gender roles, gender Identity, and gender

  and property
marriage
laws
stratification leading to social status and  
reproductive rights

ranking of the genders. Feminist
movement had its roots in struggle for The second wave (1960s-1980s)
dealt with the inequality of laws, as
enlightenment, women’s rights, and legal well as cultural inequalities and the
and political rights. role of women in society. By this
time, women in most countries had
The feminists advocate: been granted the right to franchise
and to contest election for public
The significance of change.
office. These feminists were active
Reintegration of humanity: all human
after 1960.They were working for
traits are found in all humans
equality, both economic and social.
(French, 1985).
They fought for the right to
Equal rights and elimination of gender
contraception, birth control and
stratification.
sexual liberation. Sexual liberation
Curbing and bringing an end to all
became a much-debated issue and
forms of violence against women.
was criticized by many feminists.
Promoting sexual autonomy.
THE THREE WAVES OF FEMINISM: Second-wave feminism is a
period of feminist activity
The history of the feminist movements and thought that first began
is divided into three "waves". in the early 1960s in USA
and spread all over the
 western world
The first wave refers to the movement  and beyond.
Key concerns:
of the 19th through
 social
 consciousness
raising
about identities, as
sexism and race, gender,
 patriarchy sexuality,
 and class,
raising contributes
consciousness about
to the
gender-based
violence, domestic specific type

abuseand marital of systemic
rape oppression
 and
 inequalitiesin the
workplace discriminatio
 n
 
legalizing abortion
and birth control experienced
 by an

sexual liberation of
women individual)

 The
The third wave of feminism (1990s- diversity of
2000s) is seen as both a "women" is
continuation of the second wave recognized
and a response to the perceived and
failures.  emphasis is
 The third wave of feminism placed on
(1990s-2000s) arose identity,
partially as a response to gender, race,
the perceived failures of nation,
 second-wave feminism.
social order
As the earlier feminists
and sexual
failed to see and deal with
variations within women. preference
Thus, the third wave  Changes on
feminists try to see how stereotypes,
different groups of women media
may be having different portrayals
 
needs, and circumstances, and language
and requiring different used to
solutions. Womanism, define
Queer theory, and Post- women.
Modern Feminism are a  Sexual
part of this wave. identities
 
Key concerns:
 Intersectiona SOME IMPORTANT HISTORICAL
lity (the
FACTS AND EVENTS:
theory that
the overlap Christine de Pizan: Generally
of various 
considered the first feminist writer.
Wrote in the medieval period.
 In the 1700’s women like Lady

Mary Wortley Montagu, Marquis  1946-52:Telengana agitation in which 
women were trained as guerrillas.
de Condorcet propagated the
 significance of women’s education 1972: Shahada and anti-price rise
 agitation 
in Maharashtra with
1785: The first scientific Society for women in the forefront
 Women  in Middleberg,
established  1972: 
Anti-alcohol agitation in parts of
Dutch, Republic. western India. Self-

 1791: “Declaration of the Rights
 of Employed Women’s Association
 The “Declaration of the Rights of
Women & the Female Citizen”  (SEWA) set up by Ela Bhatt.
 1973: 
Anti-price rise agitations
 in Gujarat.
Man and of the Citizen (1789) was  1974:NavNirman agitation.
paraphrased. It was the French  1978:  of socialist
First national conference
feminists in Bombay.
revolution’s central document.
 1792: Mary Wollstonecraft wrote  1979:StriSangharsh formed in Delhi.
her famous book: “A Vindication  1980-83: Campaigns against dowry.
 of the Rights of Woman”.
 1848: New York: The first   1987:  domestic
Campaigns against
violence and rape.
 Early ’80s: Establishment of
Women’s Rights Convention was
 held. Centre for Women’s Development
J.S. Mill wrote “The Subjection of  Studies.
Women” in the mid-1800s. He  1985: 
Agitations in solidarity with Shah
Bano.
 Harrietinfluenced
was  by his wife  1986: Movements against Muslim
Taylor.
 EmmelinePankhurstformed Women’s Bill.
 1987: Agitation against sati
  
WSPU/Women’sSocialand Late ’80s: Struggle for a safe
Political Union.  environment, demonstrations
Emma Goldman, Elizabeth Cady  against
Stanton, Dame Ethel Mary Smyth, early ’90s: Union Carbide
 after the
& Margaret Sanger were among Bhopal gas tragedy.
the 19th century feminists.

 In the East Qasim Amin an
Egyptian jurist is known as the DIFFERENT PHASES OF WOMEN’S
Father of Egyptian feminist MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
 movement. In 1899 he wrote
“Women’s Liberation” and proved If we go through the whole concept of
 to be a very influential writer women movements and their struggle, we
(Tahrir u Mar’a). will notice that no social change of much
importance had been brought about among
FEMINIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA them most of the women in villages are
still illiterate and backward they do not
participate in the political, any social and
1947: The freedom struggle 
saw active
participation by women.
economic life of the nation. Rural women who bitterly attacked women. For
remaining backward and orthodox, due to instance, the position of the nineteenth
tradition, illiteracy, ignorance, social evils century high –caste women need to be
and many other factors. Hence, women understood within the context of the
emancipation in rural India is still need patriarchal social system. The caste
some improvement and it is an essential hierarchy and gender hierarchy are the
notion for social progress of the nation. organizing principles of the Brahmanical
Let’s take a peek at some of the important social order and are closely
movements in India. interconnected. The Brahmanical
patriarchy in early India reveals that the
structure of social relations which shaped
SOCIAL REFORM
gender was by achieving the compliance
MOVEMENT:Social reform movement
of women. There was the case of
in India was a part of struggle that were
PanditaRamabai, whose father was an
made by different social reformers. During
unconventional social reformer who began
this time, on one side, India was suffering
with social transformation in his own
from stagnating traditional culture and
house by educating his wife Lakshmi Bai
society, while on the other hand, India
even at the cost of being exiled by his own
possessed a still traditional society in the
community for this. Lakshmibai taught her
creative excitement of modernizing and of
daughter as is recorded in, Pandita’s book
emerging as a new nation. The nineteenth
(1886) The high caste Hindu women. The
century initiated this process of
book argues on women oppression and the
transformation in the religious, social,
treatment given to Hindu women
economic, political and cultural spheres.
throughout their life. She argues about the
The impact of the British empire
evil in child marriage and the taboo
influenced administration, legislation,
associated with widowhood. She also talks
trade, network of communication,
about the money and commercial nature of
industrialization and urbanization in India,
arrange marriages. She raised the issue of
affecting not only society as a whole but
inhuman expectation from the young girl.
also the traditional pattern of life. British
Marriage was like a central theme as for a
scholars, educators and missionaries also
woman. According to her, marriage is like
impacted the cultural filed. The reformers
hypocrisy of old times, women were not
consciously reacted to the new situation
allowed to say a single word in the
and advocated deliberate changes in social,
decision making or in choice for her
religious and customs. This social and
husband, and Women were not considered
religious reform movement arose among
as capable of thinking about their future or
all communities of the Indian people.
any chance to give her opinion. Also, in
Reformers, worked for abolition of castes
early nineteenth century women were not
and untouchability, purdah system, sati,
encouraged to get an education. Some
child marriage, women education and
people believed that if women were well
social inequalities.
educated it would ruin their marriage
Raja Rammohan Roy, abolished Sati in prospects and to be harmful to their mind.
1929. His campaign against sati aroused Women’s career was very limited so
the opposition of the orthodox Hindus people didn’t think they needed the
education in which men did. A lot of the situation made women absolutely
focus was to teach women how to run a dependent on father in their childhood,
household. The live of Indian women then on husband in marital life and then on
th
began to change significantly in late 19 the sons during their old age. As per the
century when the colonial government customs, her life gets devoted in religious
critical of the treatment of both Hindu and practices wishing for the long and safe life
Muslims women, allies among Indian of the male members of her family.
reformers these men agreed that women Rassundaridevi, the author of the
should be educated and play some role in autobiographical, “Amar Jiban” she
public life. poignantly describes her in domitable
struggle for reaching the gateways of
education. She records her childhood
Pundit Ishwarchandravidyasagar
marriage, the daily task of household she
consolidated the way for the remarriage
explained the unspoken agony of a young
for socially forsaken widows through
girl. She has desire to read, she stole pages
the widow’s remarriage act no XV of
from a book and kept them in kitchen at a
1856. He empathetically lamented the deep
hidden place. She teaches herself
distress of Indian womanhood. The air of
domestically as she writes, “Is this my
reformation held high the urgency for
destiny that I am a woman”? Just because
castling the enlightenment of education on
of I am a woman does it necessarily mean
women. The British government eager to
that trying to educate myself is a big crime
prove their liberal, ethical and pro-
in a patriarchal society. Both
modernity attitude resorted to the women
PanditaRamabai and Rassundaridevi raised
question. This is the fundamental feminist
the issue related to women education and
question concerned with the rights and
child marriage. The Calcutta school society
progress of women. British denounced the
was built in 1816 to improve the status of
exciting insignificance of Indian
female education .The church missionary
womanhood and tried to initiate some
society tasted greater success in south India.
feminist welfare activities to show their
The importance of female education in India
social-cultural advancement. They took
cannot be over rated. Women education
help of the indigenous modern minds like
started spreading its wings. The outcome
Raja RammohanRoy,Vidyasagar and other
was the evolution of nineteenth century
prominent Indians. As mention above the
generation of the “new woman” .The later
early Vedic society, allowed girls to
half of this century started seeing the raise of
acquire knowledge, but in the later society,
Indian womanhood to freedom and
the orthodox Brahmins introduced blind
assertion.
superstition, rituals and rigid customs
Kamini Roy, PanditaRamabai,
which forbade girls from learning. We
Rassundari Devi were the celebrated
recognize a severe disappointment of the
examples of the “new woman” of this
western educational entrepreneurs with the
time.
oppression of social norms. In Bengal the
overriding tension was that ‘knowledge of
letter’ would teach female to oppress the The period between the 1930s- and 1947-
meaningless coercion. The terrible marks Indian women’s entry in to the
nationalist struggle for freedom. The The following section elaborates the
nationalist cause was gathering strength equality rights as per articles of the Indian
and women were called upon to serve the constitutions:
nation with their abilities of caring and Article 14-It guarantees equality before the
nurturing. Women have her own unique law and equal protection under the law. It
contribution to make for the purpose of allows the states to make classifications on
enriching life so that it may fulfill its own reasonable ground. The article embodies a
divine mission to perfection. So in the guarantee against arbitrariness.
struggle for freedom they are destined to
Article 15- I t prohibits discrimination on
play their legitimate part and bear their
the ground of religion, race, caste, sex and
share of the responsibility in breaking the
place of birth. As per 15(3), which allows
chain that weight heavily on people.
states to make special provisions for
Mahatma Gandhi had also discussed the
women.
importance of women in social revolution,
in reconstruction and in national struggle. Article16- It guarantees equality of
opportunity and prohibits discriminations
Women have worked and participated in
in matters of employment.
different way in the movements and
contributed their efforts individually.
Participation in the Nationalist JUDICIAL APPROACHES TO SEX
movement DISCRIMINATION

Resurgence in women’s political The sex discrimination case law remains
 activity overly determined by a formal model of
 Women’s empowerment equality. There are three major approaches
Role in Freedom struggle in relevance of gender differences
protectionist, sameness and corrective. As
PritilataWaddedar, the most celebrated
per protectionist approach women are
female martyr of the freedom movement
constituted as weak and subordinate and
asked an important question related to
are thus in need of protection. In this
dominant gender ideology of nationalism:
approach the courts understanding of
“I wonder why there should be any women’s differences is asserted as
distinction between males and females in a justification for differential treatment. This
fight cause of the country’s freedom. If our approach tends to essentialist the
brothers can join a fight for the cause of difference i.e. to take the existence of the
the motherland then why can’t the sisters’? differences as natural.
The pages of history are replete with high
As per sameness approach women are
admiration for the historic exploits of
constructed as same as men and treated
distinguished ladies. Then why should we,
similarly in law.
the modern Indian women, be deprived of
joining this noble fight to redeem our As per corrective approach women are
country from foreign domination?” seen to require special treatment as a result
of past discrimination. Within this
JUDICIAL APPROACHES TO approach gender differences are seen as
EQUALITY RIGHTS IN INDIA relevant and requiring recognition in law.
In the post-independent India, we had Anthropology, Ethnology, and

series of laws passed for the upliftment of Biology.
women status. This legislationhas been
The main issues are tackled in these
brought in orders to give equal rights and
theories: Who made us what we are? Were
privileges with men, to eliminate
we born like that or are we a product of
discriminations against women, remove
the environment and the society that we
inequality between sexes and remove
exist in?
external barriers coming in the ways of
their development. The important act
passed for the upliftment of women is: BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
The Hindu marriage Act of 1955 BETWEEN GENDERS
The Hindu adoption and maintenance Biological differences between males and
Act of 1956 females are found in three ways:
The Hindu succession Act of 1956: In chromosomes

That woman has got equal rights in the In hormones
inheritance of family property. In structure of the nervous system
The Dowry prohibition Act of 1961 Hormones and chromosomes are the:
The equal remuneration Act of 1976: • Bases of masculinity and
This act does not permit wage femininity
discrimination between male and female Structural units and carriers of heredity
workers. Play important role in various human
behaviors Endocrine system is a
network of glands that produce and
EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (All part
secrete chemical messengers
in Italics is out of syllabus and for
(hormones), directly into the blood
reference only)
stream. This activity is controlled
by hypothalamus: the important
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND relay station and significant brain
structure.
Two main viewpoints exist in psychology HORMONES AND CHROMOSOMES:

regarding gender differences: Hormones and chromosomes are not only
Gender variation is biological and bases of masculinity and femininity and
evolution-based in nature… hence structural units of heredity, they play
fixed and un-alterable. Biological important role in various human behaviors.
differences are there, BUT it is the Endocrine System is a network of glands
society that shapes and nurtures gender that produce and secrete chemical
roles. The biological approach has messengers that are called hormones,
roots in evolutionary psychology and directly into the blood stream. Theses glands
has an essentialist nature. are controlled by hypothalamus that is
The bio-social approach has a broader important relay station and significant brain
perspective and benefits from structure. Pituitary glands (also
knowledge and research in Sociology,
called master glands) stimulate or inhibit that disorders in sex chromosomes lead to
secretion of hormones from other glands. problems in gender role development,
Sex and reproduction hormones are called, intelligence, growth and hormone
Steroid hormones. Reproductive organs production.
ovaries (in females) and testes (in males)
are called gonads.
FEMALE SEX CHROMOSOME
ABNORMALITIES:
SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION AND • TURNER’S SYNDROME:This
ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES: syndrome occurs when individual
Sexual dimorphism is existence of two inherit only one X chromosome and
sexes (male & female) in a species, their sex chromosomal structure is XO.
including differences in genetics, gonads, Such cases are females in sex with
hormones, internal genitalia and external abnormal growth patterns. They are
genitalia. The process of sexual short in stature, averaging 4 foot 7
differentiation starts when conception inches as adults, and often have
takes place. Chromosomes are threadlike distinctive webbed necks (i.e., extra
structures that are structural carriers of folds of skin), small jaws, and high
heredity, play very important role in sex arched palates. They generally lack
differentiation. In human beings there are prominent female reproduction ability.
23 pairs of chromosomes. At the time of They haveexceptionally small, widely
conception half number of chromosomes is spaced breasts, broad shield-shaped
received from mother side and half from chests, and turned-out elbows. Their
father side. 23rd pair of chromosomes is ovaries do not develop normally and
called sex chromosome in females it is XX they do not ovulate. They also have a
and in males it is XY. Genes contain higher than average incidence of
genetic information carried on thyroid disease. In some individuals,
chromosomes. Researchers claim that XY there is slight mental retardation.
chromosomal makeup may not be as stable Turner’s syndrome is rare. Current
as XX and therefore play a role in higher estimates of its frequency range from 1
mortality rates for men. XX chromosomal in 3,000 female infants to 1 in 5,000.
makeup and the hormone estrogen seem to
make women less vulnerable to physical If diagnosed in early childhood,
problems so women live longer lives. regular injections of human growth
hormones can increase their stature by
a few inches. Beginning around the
SEX CHROMOSOMAL
normal age of puberty, estrogen
ABNORMALITIES: Sudden structural
replacement therapy can result in some
changes in the genes are called mutations.
breast development and menstruation.
These mutations lead to negative
These treatments allow Turner’s
consequences in individual’s development.
syndrome women to appear relatively
Sometimes deleted or duplicated number
normal.
of chromosomes also causes abnormalities
in an individual. Researchers have found
METAFEMALES OR TRIPLE-X low self-esteem. Klinefelter syndrome

FEMALES: Such females inherit is not diagnosed until they are tested
three X chromosomes. Their for infertility. Klinefelter syndrome
chromosomal structure is XXX. As males with more than two X
adults, these "super-females" are chromosomes usually have extreme
usually an inch or so taller than symptoms and are often mentally
average with unusually long body retarded.
structure. They have normal
development of sexual characteristics
and are fertile. They may have slight XYY SYNDROME: The individual
learning difficulties and are usually in with this abnormality receive extra Y
the low range of normal intelligence. chromosome and their chromosomal
They tend to be emotionally immature structure is XYY. As adults, these
for their size during childhood. This "super-males" are usually tall (above 6
type of chromosomal abnormality is feet) and generally appear and act
less rare than Turner syndrome. normal. However, they produce high
levels of testosterone. During
MALE SEX CHROMOSOME adolescence, they often are slim, have
ABNORMALITIES: severe facial acne, and are poorly
KLINEFELTER SYNDROME: coordinated. They are usually fertile
Individual with this syndrome inherit and lead ordinary lives as adults.
on extra X chromosome and their Majority remain unaware that they
chromosomal structure is XXY. They have a chromosomal abnormality.
characteristically have relatively high- Early studies of XYY syndrome done
pitched voices, feminine body contours in European prisons initially led to the
as well as breast enlargement, and erroneous conclusion that these men
comparatively little facial and body were genetically predisposed to
hair. They are sterile or nearly so, and antisocial, aggressive behavior, below
their testes and prostate glands are average intelligence, and
small. As a result, they produce homosexuality. Contributing to the
relatively small amounts of early view that XYY syndrome men
testosterone. The feminizing effects of have serious personality disorders.
this hormonal imbalance can be However, some researchers suggest
significantly diminished if Klinefelter that the high testosterone levels of
syndrome boys are regularly given XYY men can make them somewhat
testosterone from the age of puberty more prone to violence and that this
on. Klinefelter syndrome men are an may cause higher rates of wife beating.
inch or so above average height. They
SEX DIFFERENTIATION IN
also are likely to be overweight. They
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
usually have learning difficulties as
children, especially with language and X and Y chromosomes determine the sex
short-term memory. If not given extra of child being male of female. Both sexes
help in early childhood, this often leads have two sex related internal systems:
to poor school grades and a subsequent
• WOLFFIAN SYSTEM:The system

with a capacity to develop into the
male internal reproductive system.
• MULLERIAN SYSTEM:The system
with a capacity to develop into the
female internal reproductive system
THEORIES OF GENDER:
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO develop against the father at this stage.

GENDER ROLES The father is seen as stronger and
The theory proposes the interaction of unconquerable; this leads to a conflict. The
mental schema and social experience in defense mechanism of identification is
directing gender role behavior. The used for resolving the conflict. This gender
cognitive approach focuses upon the identification leads to sex-typed behavior
child’s “understanding”. A child’s and development of gender roles. Absence
understanding refers to the way he/she of a parent, particularly, the same-sex
perceives and tackles a phenomenon. parent affects the normal process of gender
Information about gender is organized into development. Stevenson & Black (1988):
sets of beliefs about the sexes i.e. gender boys with absent fathers around the
schema Gender schema (plural schemata oedipal stage show less sex-typed
or schemas) is a mental framework that behavior.

organizes and guides a child understands
of information relevant to gender. POVERTY
Example: information about which toys
are for girls and which toys are for boys
Let’s take a quick peek into the data first.
forms schema that guides behavior.
Example: If a child has seen women being
respected n his family, he will perceive POVERTY DATA: INDIA
women as a respectable being; and if he In India, 21.9% of the population lives
has seen women being battered and  below the national poverty line in
2011.
maltreated he will perceive them as some In India, the proportion of employed
population below $1.90 purchasing
low-grade creature.  power parity a day in 2011 is
21.2%.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC For every 1,000 babies born in India in
2017, 39 die before their 5th
APPROACH birthday.
Freudian Perspective Psychosexual stages

of development take place with possibility
of particular conflicts at different stages.
Gender roles develop as a result of
resolution process of conflict at phallic
stage Feelings of rivalry and hatred
material resources and wealth on a global

scale and within nations. Sociologists see
it as a social condition of societies with an
unequal and inequitable distribution of
income and wealth, of the de-
industrialization of Western societies, and
the exploitative effects of global
capitalism. Poverty is not an equal
s
opportunity social condition. Around the
The global economic crisis, natural
world and within the U.S., women,
disasters, high migration rates and unstable
children, and people of color are far more
political situations in different parts of the
likely to experience poverty than are white
world have caused a decrease in financial
men. While this description offers a
wealth among the global population and an
general understanding of poverty,
increase in poverty incidence rates.
sociologists recognize a few different
According to statistics by the World Bank,
types of it.
702.1 million people worldwide are living
in extreme poverty [World Bank, 2015]. Types of Poverty Defined: Absolute
poverty is what most people probably
Poverty is a social condition that is
think of when they think of poverty,
characterized by the lack of resources
especially if they think about it at the
necessary for basic survival or necessary to
global level. It is defined as the total lack
meet a certain minimum level of living
of resources and means required to meet
standards expected for the place where one
the most basic standards of living. It is
lives. The income level that determines
characterized by lack of access to food,
poverty is different from place to place, so
clothing, and shelter. The characteristics of
social scientists believe that it is best
this type of poverty are the same from
defined by conditions of existence, like
place to place. Relative poverty is defined
lack of access to food, clothing, and
differently from place to place because it
shelter. People in poverty typically
depends on the social and economic
experience persistent hunger or starvation,
contexts in which one lives. Relative
inadequate or absent education and health
poverty exists when one lacks the means
care, and are usually alienated from
and resources required to meet a minimum
mainstream society. Poverty is a
level of living standards that are
consequence of the uneven distribution of
considered normal in the society or U.S. climbed throughout the Great

community where one lives. In many parts Recession that began in 2008, and since
of the world, for example, indoor 2010 has declined. This is a case in which
plumbing is regarded as a sign of an economic event caused a cycle of more
affluence, but in industrial societies, it is intensive poverty that was fixed in
taken for granted and its absence in a duration (about three years). Collective
household is taken as a sign of poverty. poverty is a lack of basic resources that is
Income poverty is the type of poverty so widespread that it afflicts an entire
measured by the federal government in the society or subgroup of people within that
U.S. and documented by the U.S. Census. society. This form of poverty persists over
It exists when a household does not meet a periods of time stretching across
set national minimum income considered generations. It is common in formerly
necessary for the members of that colonized places, frequently war-torn
household to achieve basic standards of places, and places that have been heavily
living. The figure used to define poverty exploited by or excluded from
on a global scale is living on less than $2 participation in global commerce,
per day. In the U.S., income poverty is including parts of Asia, the Middle East,
determined by the size of household and much of Africa, and parts of Central and
number of children in the household, so South America. Concentrated collective
there is no fixed income level that defines poverty occurs when the kind of collective
poverty for all. According to the U.S. poverty described above is suffered by
Census, the poverty threshold for a single specific subgroups within a society, or
person living alone was $12,331 per year. localized in particular communities or
For two adults living together it was regions that are devoid of industry, good
$15,871, and for two adults with a child, it paying jobs, and that lack access to fresh
was $16,337. Cyclical poverty is a and healthy food. For example, within the
condition in which poverty is widespread U.S., poverty within metropolitan regions
but limited in its duration. This type of is concentrated within the principal cities
poverty is typically linked to specific of those regions, and often also within
events that disrupt a society, like war, an specific neighborhoods within cities. Case
economic crash or recession, or natural poverty occurs when a person or family is
phenomena or disasters that disrupt the unable to secure resources required to
distribution of food and other resources. meet their basic needs despite the fact that
For example, the poverty rate within the resources are not scarce and those around
them are generally living well. Case Theories about poverty often fall into two
poverty might be produced by sudden loss are a result of a unique “culture of
of employment, inability to work, or injury poverty” based on deviant values.
or illness. While it might at first glance The first view presumes that people are
seem like an individual condition, it is highly rational, hold coherent and well-
actually a social one, because it is unlikely informed beliefs, and pursue their goals
to occur in societies that provide economic effectively with no need for help. The
safety nets to their populations. Asset second view attributes to the poor a variety
poverty is more common and widespread of shortcomings that make them
that income poverty and other forms. It misguided, uninformed, impulsive, and in
exists when a person or household does need of paternalistic guidance in order to
not have enough wealth assets (in the form make reasonable choices. While there is
of property, investments, or money saved) no doubt that people—the poor included—
to survive for three months if necessary. In are at times methodical and calculating,
fact, many people living in the U.S. today and at other times fallible or misguided, a
live in asset poverty. They may not be third, alternate theory takes a different tack
impoverished so long as they are and is informed by recent behavioral
employed, but could be thrown research. According to this view, scarcity
immediately into poverty if their pay were experienced as a result of economic
to stop. instability and poverty reduces already
limited cognitive resources, resulting in
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF POVERTY
detrimental behaviors and ineffective
(Taken from the 2010–2011 IRP New
decision-making. Current policies
Perspectives in Social Policy Seminar
designed to improve outcomes for poor
given by SendhilMullainathan, Professor
of Economics at Harvard University on people may be effective when successfully
September 21, 2010.) implemented, but program administrators
Theories about poverty often fall into two

general categories: that the behaviors of
poor people reflect the best choices they
can make in unfavorable circumstances,
and, alternatively, that these behaviors
may find it difficult to get people in the one time. One must choose what to focus
door, and then to carry through with the on, although this choice is not always
program. Similarly, early childhood conscious. Numerous laboratory
programs that rely on parental experiments have demonstrated that
participation and complementary parental people have limited attention and that they
behaviors may not succeed if poor parents have the capacity to allocate this attention.
do not follow through. A variety of costly In a case when subjects must choose
behaviors by the poor such as debt between two things to pay attention to,
traps, failure to take available and unattended things are generally not
necessary medications, or obesity, may remembered at all. In the real world, this
further inhibit economic mobility. These means that parents may not be able to
behaviors, as suggested by the author, are attend fully to their jobs if they are also
a result of increased psychological stress worrying about problems at home, while
caused by poverty, and that it may be inattention at home could result in early
possible to design antipoverty programs symptoms of a child’s illness going
that make it easier for poor people to unnoticed, or medication for a chronic
succeed if this reduced functioning is condition not being taken. Mullainathan
considered. and his colleagues did a field study in
three countries that demonstrated that
PSYCHOLOGY OF SCARCITY simply directing someone’s attention to
Mullainathan argues that cognitive something they have stated they wanted to
resources, such as attention and self- do, but might otherwise forget, can have
control, are limited. Using both laboratory significant results. In this case, people
and field research, he demonstrates that voluntarily agreed to participate in a
scarcity further reduces those already savings program. Those who received a
limited resources, hampering the ability of single text message reminder if they failed
poor people to follow through on tasks or to meet their savings goal in a given
to make effective decisions. month had a 6 percent higher savings rate
than those who did not receive a reminder.
ATTENTION Similar kinds of studies on medication-
Attention is a scarce resource; people can taking by HIV patients have found very
only focus on a limited number of things at high compliance rates achieved with
simple reminders such as a pill bottle that
lights up and beeps if it is not opened each
day. In both cases, people have the the researchers confirmed their theory that
intention to do something, but on their own workers may face self-control problems
may fail to allocate some of their limited that limit their productivity, and that
attention to achieving that goal. Simply making a binding commitment to work
focusing people’s attention on the stated harder can actually produce that result. In
goal may be sufficient to get them to a data-entry firm, where workers are
achieve it. compensated on a piece-rate basis,
SELF-CONTROL employees were given the opportunity to

improve their production (and thus
Another limited cognitive resource with
increase their pay) by setting a threshold
similar consequences is self-control. The
for themselves. If they met the threshold,
Stanford marshmallow experiment,
they would be paid the regular rate, but if
conducted in 1972 by Walter Mischel, is a
they fell short, they would only earn half
classic illustration of self-control.Children
the rate. Economically, choosing to agree
were led into a room, given a choice of
to a threshold is clearly a bad deal, since
treats, then left alone in the room with the
they do not earn anything extra if they
instruction that they could eat the treat, but
meet it, and earn half what they would
if they could wait for 15 minutes without
have otherwise if they do not meet it. Still,
eating it, they would be rewarded with a
given this opportunity, workers chose to
second treat. Video of the children shows
set the threshold about a third of the time.
that this was a difficult task. Another study
Workers randomly assigned to receive the
conducted by Baba Shiv and Alexander
threshold offer on a given day (whether or
Fedorikhin demonstrated how depletion
not they chose it) had production and
limits self-control.Subjects asked to
earnings that were higher than those not
remember either a 2-digit or 7-digit
given the offer. This illustrates that lack of
number for 10 minutes waited in a room
self-control did limit productivity, and that
with a choice of cake or fruit salad. Those
it is possible for an individual to increase
working to remember the longer number
his or her self-control.
were considerably more likely to choose
cake than those asked to remember the
shorter number. Mullainathan and his HOW DOES SCARCITY TAX THESE
colleagues conducted a field study to RESOURCES?
investigate the real-world implications of Having established that cognitive
these psychological findings. In this case, resources such as attention and self-control
are both important and limited, the next itemsis foregone. In other words, having
issue is to demonstrate how having very fewer resources makesdecision-making
little of them taxes these resources. This much more complex. Complex
section begins with a conceptual argument, problemsdraw on limited cognitive
which is followed by experimental resources, which in turn meansthat there
evidence. are fewer resources available for self-
control.Evidence on the effects of
scarcityMullainathan and his colleagues
THE PACKING PROBLEM: A
have experimental evidencethat people
SUITCASE METAPHOR
with less money are much more likely to
The conceptual argument derives from the
knowhow much things cost than those
“knapsack problem” in complexity and
with more money, evenfor items things
computational theory. Imagine packing for
that poorer people were less likely to
a trip, using either a small or large
spendmoney on. In a study conducted in
suitcase. If you have a large suitcase, it is
Boston, people at a trainstation were asked
an easy task to pack everything important
what the initial fare was when you firstget
with room to spare. You may even choose
into a taxi. People with a low
not to completely fill the suitcase. With a
socioeconomic status(SES) were
small suitcase, however, the task becomes
considerably more likely to correctly
much more complex. If not, all important
identifythis amount than people with a
items will fit, you must consider trade-offs,
high SES, even though theywere much
such as what to take out if one more item
less likely to actually take a taxi. People
is added. The suitcase can represent any
withless money were paying better
resource, such as money. In that case,
attention to the price, becauseprices matter
someone with ample resources can easily
more to them. Similar studies have been
purchase all needed items with money left
donewith people leaving a supermarket,
over. They may consider the wisdom and
who are asked the priceof specific items
value of a particular small purchase, but
and the total amount they spent.
are not likely to explicitly consider what
Again,people with a low SES are much
another item must be given up in itsplace.
more likely to be able to answer these
In contrast, someone with limited funds
questions correctly than people with a high
must spenda lot of time and mental energy
SES.
thinking about what to purchase, as each
item chosen means some other item or
Mullainathan and his colleagues were also while those with above-median
able to show thatpoorer people have a incomeshowed little change.A final piece
clear and absolute understanding of of evidence that scarcity is depleting
thevalue of a dollar, while more wealthy comesfrom a real-world example, harvest
people may infer thevalue of a dollar based of sugar cane in India.Sugar cane is a crop
on the context. People were askedto that is harvested once a year, but
imagine that a friend went to buy an theharvests are staggered over some
appliance pricedat $100, $500, or $1,000. months, so the same calendar month could
The friend was informed that astore 45 be a pre-harvest month for some farmers
minutes away offered the same item on and a post-harvest month for others. Since
sale for $50less. Subjects were asked if sugar canefarmers receive all of their
they would advise their friendto travel to annual income at once, they willbe poor
the other store to save $50. The response immediately before the harvest, and rich
to thisquestion varied greatly depending on after. Thiscreates panel data that allowed
the income level ofthe respondents. In a the researchers to comparepre- and post-
high-income area, subjects were muchless harvest spending while controlling for
likely to advise traveling to save $50 as the montheffects such as festival spending and
initial priceof the item rose. In contrast, in seasonality. Farmerswere not very good at
low-income area, subjectswere much smoothing spending across the year;while
more likely to advise travel, and the initial expenditures on food were similar in pre-
priceof the item made little difference to and post-harvest months, post-harvest
their recommendation.An experiment spending on other items wasdramatically
conducted in a New Jersey mall showed higher. Study outcomes included the
thatasking poor people to think about Strooptest, a psychological test of
money depleted their cognitive resources. attention, as well as allostaticload, a
Participants were asked to consider physiological measure of stress.
eitheran easy or hard financial problem or
an easy or hard non-financial mathematics
Mullainathan andhis colleagues found that
problem. While they were consideringthe
farmers scored significantly betteron the
problem, they were asked to complete a
Stroop test in the month after harvest than
test of cognitivecontrol that required
they didin the month before harvest. They
concentration. For those with below-
also found that farmershad significantly
median income, there was a significant
lower stress levels after the harvest.
drop in the cognitivecontrol test score,
Theseresults support the researchers’ 100 percentinterest rate (one additional

argument that scarcity taxescognitive second in the current round“cost” two
resources. seconds from a future round), and the
remaining third could not borrow. The
intention of the borrowing condition was
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES
to allow participants to allocate their time
OF REDUCED COGNITIVE
accordingto how familiar they were with
RESOURCES?
each question, so that, ideally,they could
The evidence presented above shows that
have more time to answer questions with
scarcity can bedistracting, since managing
whichthey were less familiar. Those in the
tight resources requires moreattention and
poor group were morelikely to borrow
self-control. One final piece of evidence
than those in the rich group. Those in
froma laboratory experiment suggests
thepoor group were also less sensitive to
some of the implicationsof reduced
the interest rate; theywere nearly as likely
cognitive resources on the lives of the
to borrow at the 1:2 rate as at the 1:1rate,
poor, including facilitating self-destructive
while those in the rich group were much
credit practices. This experiment uses a
less likely toborrow seconds when they
“Family Feud” game to create a condition
cost more.As one would expect, those in
ofscarcity. Subjects played a game in
the poor group earned fewerpoints than
which they had to guesspopular answers to
those in the rich group. The more
a question. They earned points for
interestingresult, however, comes from
correctanswers, and received a monetary
comparing the different borrowing
reward based on their totalnumber of
conditions within each group. Those in the
points over 20 rounds. All participants had
rich groupgained no particular benefit
theopportunity to complete practice rounds
from being able to borrow, butsince they
before playing formoney. Half of the
did not borrow often, it did not particularly
subjects were in a “rich” group, and
hurtthem either; there is no significant
hadample time (50 seconds) to complete
difference between pointsearned in the no-
each round of the task,while the other half
borrow and 1:2 interest rate conditions.
were in a “poor” group, and had
Forthose in the poor group, however,
quitelimited time available for each round
borrowing consistentlylowers their point
(20 seconds). Withineach group, one-third
total, and higher interest rate
were permitted to “borrow” secondsfrom a
borrowinglowers their points more. The
future round, one-third could borrow at a
data show that this is becauseof over-
borrowing; those in the poor group tended In his seminar, Mullainathan concluded
to borrowseconds a lot in the early rounds, that these resultshave important public
thus leaving themselveslittle time for later policy implications, particularly related to
rounds. take-up and retention in programs
designed to helpthe poor. As currently
designed, many of these programsactually
This experiment illustrates two important
create cognitive burdens, thus adding
points. First, attention was required;
unnecessarychallenges for those they are
participants needed to choose howmuch
intended to assist.One example of this can
time to focus on the current problem, as
be seen in programs designed toincrease
compared tofuture problems. Those in the
college attendance for low-income teens,
“poor” group tended to focuson the current
whichtends to be much lower than for their
problem to the exclusion of future
higher-income peers.Prevailing wisdom
problems,and to their ultimate detriment.
would say that reducing the cost
In this situation, credit turnsout to be a bad
wouldincrease attendance, but simply
thing; it may help with the current
making Pell Grants available did not
problem,but hurt with future problems, and
significantly increase low-income
thus overall. Second, thisexperiment was
attendance.Another explanation is that the
done with Princeton undergraduate
student aid application wastoo
students,so one can assume that outside
complicated, and required more attention
factors such as financial literacy,
than peoplehad. Having an administrator
upbringing, and early childhood
complete the form, rather thanjust
development have noeffect in this
providing information about it, resulted in
particular case. Nor could they have any
significantlyhigher college enrollment.
effectin the sugar cane experiment, since
the same people werebeing compared at
two different times. This supports Simplification works becauseinstability
Mullainathan’s contention that detrimental makes dealing with complexity
decision-making bythe poor is attributable particularly challenging; forms are tough
to the condition of having very little,not to for all of us, but toughest whenattention is
shortcomings that are unchangeable most depleted. Forward-looking actions
characteristics ofpoor people. requireattention and self-control.
Instability taxes both of these, andthus
makes economic mobility harder.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS
POLICY RESPONSES
over the next four months in order
Mullainathan identified two broad
toreceive a training certificate. This
categories of policy responses—creating
approach would presentsome challenges,
stability, and creating mobility
since new curricula would be required,
programsthat are resistant to the effects of
butthe effort could pay off in creating a
instability. An example ofthe first type of
program that was mucheasier for
policy response would be
participants to follow through on.Poverty
supplementingUnemployment Insurance
and economic instability reduce cognitive
with wage or hours worked insurance to
resourcessuch as attention and self-control.
help maintain a consistent salary for
These conditions make itmuch harder for
people facinga cutback yet retaining their
the poor to behave in a way that will
job. Another approach wouldbe a crisis-
improve their economic fortunes, and
triggered social safety net card that people
much easier for them to make decisions
couldhave in-hand in the event of a sudden
that impede their mobility. Public
drop in income. Newlyavailable financial
policiesshould be designed to offset this
products such as a debit card that includesa
scarcity phenomenon.
saving mechanism could also help in this
area.As currently constructed, many
mobility programs rely onstability as a (For References – Just go through once,
condition of success. How could these don’t dwell into detail. Know the word
programs be structured differently in order Easterlin Paradox)
to remove this condition? An illustration of THE EFFECT OF POVERTY ON
this is training classes. Most of theseare AFFECT AND STRESS:
designed so that each class builds on the CORRELATIONS BETWEEN
last, makingthem particularly prone to POVERTY, AFFECT, AND STRESS
instability. If you miss one class,it is much
harder to get yourself to the next class, and For several decades, the prevalent view
thisonly gets more difficult the more you onthe relationship between income and
miss. An “instabilityproof” alternative psychologicalwell-being was what became
would be to have rotating training knownas the Easterlin Paradox,
classopportunities, where one could, for according towhich income, self-reported
example, attend threeof the next 10 classes happiness, and lifesatisfaction are
correlated within but not acrosscountries
and are uncorrelated above incomelevels
required to meet basic needs. In been obtained in infants andchildren.

addition,higher incomes were thought to Together, these findings show that
be uncorrelatedwithincreased happiness povertycorrelateswith unhappiness,
and satisfactionover time. However, larger depression, anxiety,and cortisol levels. But
and newer data setsnow suggest that higher is this relationship causal?
incomes are associatedwith more
happiness and life satisfaction both within CAUSAL EFFECT OF POVERTY ON
and across countries, that no AFFECT AND STRESS
saturationpoint exists (although there are
decreasing happinessreturns to income), The effect of reductions in poverty on
and that as countriesgrow richer, they also affect andstress is usually studied in the
grow happier. context of randomizedfield experiments or
natural experimentssuch as lottery wins.
In addition to happiness and life One such study examined the effects of an
satisfaction,poverty is also more broadly unconditional cashtransfer program in
related tomental health. According to the Kenya on
2003 WorldHealth Report, the poorest psychologicalwellbeing.Households were
population quintilesin rich countries randomly chosen to receiveunconditional
exhibit a depression and anxietydisorder transfers of either $0, $400,or $1500.
prevalence that is 1.5 to 2 times as high as Psychological well-beingwas
that of the richest quintiles. A recent measuredwith the happiness and life
comprehensivereview of 115 studies on satisfaction questionsfrom the World
therelationship between mental health and Values Survey, and stress and
povertyin low- and middle-income depressionwere measured using the Center
countries finds a negativeassociation forEpidemiologic Studies Depression
between poverty indicators andgood Scale, Cohen’sPerceived Stress Scale, and
mental health outcomes in 79% of studies. levels of the stress hormonecortisol in
Finally, income and socioeconomic status saliva. The study finds
are alsocorrelated with levels of the stress substantialimprovements in all of these
hormone cortisol.Several studies have variables when householdsreceive positive
shown elevated cortisollevels in persons transfers, but thestress hormone
with lower income and educationand lower cortisolwas only reduced in thosewho
lifetime economic positionas measured by received large transfers. Similarly,several
occupational status. Similarresults have other studies reports results
fromrandomized controlled trials that show it is robustto controlling for physical

that cashtransfers reduce distress and activity, suggestingthat changes in labor
depression scores.Similarly, using natural supply are not the drivingfactor; the
experiments such asthe introduction of plausibility of this alternative accountis
guaranteed incomes, lotterypayouts, access further reduced by the fact that the
to a pension scheme, and payoutsto Native increase incortisol levels is mirrored by an
Americans from a casino opening,several increase in self-reportedstress. Another
studies find that the resulting increasesin study measured cortisollevels in a sample
income lead to a reduction in of 354 Swedish blue-collarworkers before
hospitalizationfor mental health problems, and after a subset of these workerslost
lower consumptionof anxiolytics, and their jobs. Cortisol levels were
increases inself-reported mental health. significantlyhigher in those workers who
Less directalleviations of poverty have lost their jobs.Importantly, the layoffs
also shown effects;several randomized were due to a plantclosure, arguing against
controlled trials report increasesin the possibility that jobloss might be a
psychological well-being when consequence rather than a causeof high
participantsreceive health insurance, cortisol levels in individual workers.
improvedhousing, and access to However,the fact that only one plant was
water.Conversely, the effect of increases in studiedand attrition among participants
povertyon well-being is usually studied over the courseof the study was non-
using unexpectedshocks such as spells of negligible weakens thefinding. A further
bad weather forfarmers. One such study study (50) uses declining industries as an
examined whether randomnegative income exogenous source of variationfor job loss
shocks to farmers in Kenya,generated by and finds an effect of job loss onfamily
periods of drought, lead to increasesin mental health using this approach.These
cortisol levels. The study finds that findings thus suggest causal links between
farmershave higher levels of cortisol and poverty, psychological well-being,
self-reportedstress during drought periods andstress levels. Altogether, we identified
when crops arelikely to fail. This 25 studies that report the effect on
relationship does not hold fornonfarmers psychological wellbeingof an increase or
and is more pronounced amongfarmers decrease in poverty,induced either in
who depend solely on agriculture fortheir randomized controlled trialsor natural
income than among those who also experiments [see the
haveother sources of earnings. In addition, supplementarymaterial (51)]. Of these, 18
studies show a positiveeffect of poverty

alleviation on psychologicalwell-being or (Referenced from a well-versed article by
stress, 5 studies show effects onsome Prashant Srivastava & Pradeep Kumar,
psychological variables related to published in the Delhi Psychiatric Journal)
wellbeingor stress (e.g., certain mental
OVERVIEW
disorders),but not others, and 2 show no
In India, the numbers of disabled are so
results. The mixedor inconsistent findings
large, their problems are complex,
in these studies may reflect deficiencies or
available resources also scarce, social
noise of some of the measuresused,
stigma still attached and people attitudes
heterogeneity in the interventions tested, or
so damaging. Attitudinal barriers
heterogeneityin the effect of changes in
engrained as part of India’s historical
poverty on particularpsychological
response to disability must be changed
constructs; future studiesneed to assess
through education programs for both
these different explanations.Thus, the large
teachers and the general populace. These
majority of the findings suggeststhat
programs require financial and collaborative
increases in poverty often lead to
commitment from key national and state
negativeaffect and stress, and decreases in
education stakeholders, and partnership with
poverty havethe opposite effect. We now
universities to support research-based
ask whether negativeaffect and stress
initiatives. It is only legislation which can
influence risk-taking and
eventually bring about a substantial change
timediscountingand could therefore be
in a uniform manner. Although legislation
among thechannels through which poverty
cannot alone radically change the fabric of a
affects economicbehavior.
society in a short span of time, it can
nevertheless, increase accessibility of the
disabled to education and employment, to
public buildings and shopping centres, to
means
of transport and communication.
Therefore, in country like India
mainstreaming of these people is
challenging issue. For achieving this task
DISABILITY it’s necessary to change public attitudes,
remove social stigma, provide barrier free
environment, needs reformation in the area DEFINING DISABILITY

of policy and institutional level.
Disability – refers to anindividual
Throughout centuries, the disabled have limitation or restriction of an activity asthe
been oppressed marginalized and result of impairment. Handicap – refers to
stigmatized in almost all societies. They thedisadvantage to the individual resulting
constitute a section of the population, from animpairment or disability that
which is most backward least served and presents a barrier tofulfilling a role or
grossly neglected. Person with disability reaching a goal.
are the poorest of the poor and weakest of
the weak, who have been socially,
Disability is arelative term in so far as
educationally and economically
different cultures definetheir norms of
disadvantaged; thus, having customarily
being and doing differently.Conceptions of
denied their right to self-assertion, identity
disability are therefore highlycontextual
and development. Now where is this
and subjective.As per 2001 census, 21.9
victimization more glaring than in matters
million or 21,906,769people are disabled
of education, employment and physical
in India, who constitutes 2.13
access. Disability is not all alone
sometimes impairment and handicap were per cent of the total population. Out of the
used interchangeably, but these terms has 21,906,769people with disabilities,
different meanings and describedifferent 12,605,635 are males and9,301,134 are
concepts. To promote appropriate use females.This includes persons withvisual,
ofthese terms, in 1980 the World Health hearing, speech, locomotor and
Organizationestablished the international mentaldisabilities. Seventy-five per cent of
classification ofimpairment, disability and persons withdisabilities live in rural areas,
handicap, which definethese concepts: 49 per cent of disabledpopulation is
Impairment – refers to the loss literate and only 34 per cent areemployed.
orabnormality of psychological, physical, The earlier emphasis on
or anatomicalstructure or function at the medicalrehabilitation has now been
system or organ levelthat may or may not replaced by an emphasison social
be permanent and that may ormay not rehabilitation. The experience of
result in disability. disabledpeople in rural India suggests that

this medical modeldoes not adequately
capture the phenomena ofdisability. What
prevents disabled peoples in villagesfrom FACTORS OF DISABILITY

living a life like anyone else, going to
There are some factors which responsible
school,participating in family celebrations
for disability, such as : Poverty and
and working infields is not individual’s
Disability -There is a high correlation
impairment, but how societyinterpreted
between disability and poverty but very
and reacts to it. Life is made difficultnot so
few studies have investigated how poverty
much by the individual’s medical
and disability influence each other and
condition,but mainly by a hostile physical
with their combination create new forms
and socialenvironment which excludes
of barriers. In general, people with
disabled people fromall spheres of social
disabilities are estimated to make up to 15
life. It is not the medicalimpairment, but
to 20% of the poor in developing countries
the way in which society reacts toit, that
Inequitable economic and social policies
exclude disabled from taking part
have contributed to large numbers of
incelebration, political decision-making or
people living in extreme poverty. Poor
religiousworship.
families often do not have sufficient
income to meet their basic needs.
CAUSES OF DISABILITY Inadequate shelter, unhygienic living
Analysis of the causes of disability from conditions, lack of sanitation and clean
amedical or bio-centric standpoint tends to drinking water combined with poor access
emphasisedisease, hereditary and birth to health facilities lead to disability.
defects over systemicand environmental
factors. Genetic factors and lackof access
MALNUTRITION AND DISABILITY-
to basic services can also lead to a
Malnutrition in its various forms is a cause
personbecoming disabled, for example,
of disability as well as a contributory
before birth (poornutrition, improper
factor in other ailments that increase
medication, taking drugs,
susceptibility to disabling conditions.
smokingcigarettes, mother exposed to
Common micro-nutrient deficiencies that
disease, mental orphysical trauma), During
affect disability include:
birth (premature delivery,
Vitamin A deficiency – blindness, Vitamin
complicated delivery), After birth
complex deficiency – beri-beri
(Malnutrion, Lack of vaccination,
(inflammation or degeneration of the
Infections like meningitis polio, accident,
trauma, toxic substance).
nerves, digestive system and heart), standards. For example, 44,000 people lost
pellagra (central nervous system and their limbs in industrial accidents during
gastro-intestinal disorders, skin the period of Vietnam War in which
inflammation) and anaemia, Vitamin D 17,000 American soldiers became
deficiency – rickets (soft and deformed disabled.4 Wars and Disability- War has
bones), Iodine deficiency – slow growth, been the single largest factor responsible
learning difficulties, intellectual for causing permanent disablement not
disabilities and goitre, Iron deficiency – only to combatants in the battlefield but
anaemia, which impedes learning and also to civilians who are forced to bear the
activity, and is a significant cause of hazards of lethal, chemical and nuclear
maternal mortality, Calcium deficiency – weapons. Based on figures from a study
osteoporosis (fragile bones). carried out in 206 communities, including
Afghanistan and Cambodia, landmine
triggered disability rate among survivors is
At the present rate, by the year 2010 there
about 0.9%. About 6% of households in
could still be some 680 million chronically
Afghanistan are affected by landmine
undernourished people whose disabilities
accidents alone. Surveys of four countries
are likely to have roots in micro-nutrient
in 1995 found that between 12% & 60%
deficiencies.
landmine victims and to sell assets to meet
their medical bills.
OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS-
Around 90% of the workforce in India is in

CRIME AND DISABILITY –
the unorganised sector, which is
Violent crimes underline shortcomings in
characterised by low levels of technology,
the social, political and economic
low standards of safety and hazardous
arrangements of a society. Many children
working conditions. Occupation-related
and women are abducted to be used in
health problems of workers employed in
prostitution, slavery and beggary. The
stone quarrying, leather industry,
Bhagalpur blinding case in India is a well-
glasswork, weaving, diamond cutting,
known and documented illustration of this
hand embroidery, and children employed
menace. Traffic Hazards- Unplanned cities
in carpet, cracker and match industry have
with narrow roads, rapid growth in number
been recognised but have not received
of vehicles and disregard of traffic
appropriate and sustained attention by
regulations have been responsible for
those responsible for regulating work
increasing the number of road accidents in including disabled are: Article 15(1): It
India. If current trends continue, road enjoins on the Government not to
accidents may become the leading cause of discriminate against any citizen of India
death and disability in the country. An (Including disabled) on the ground of
expert in the field, Dr Leslie G Norman, religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
estimates that for every road accident Article 15(2): It states that no citizen
death there are 30-40 light injuries and 10- (including the disabled) shall be subjected
15 serious injuries, which may lead to to any disability, liability, restriction or
disability. It is estimated that by 2020, condition on any of the above grounds in
road traffic accidents will be ranked as the the matter of their access to shops, public
third leading cause of disability in the restaurants, hotels and places of public
Asian and Pacific region. Quadriplegia, entertainment or in the use of wells, tanks,
paraplegia, brain damage and behavioral bathing places (ghats), roads and places of
disorders are some common disabilities public resort maintained wholly or partly
among survivors of traffic accidents. out of government funds or dedicated to
the use of the general public. Article 17:
No person including the disabled
CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
irrespective of his belonging can be treated
IN INDIA
as an untouchable. It would be an offence
The Constitution of India applies
punishable in accordance with law. Article
uniformly to very legal citizen of India,
Every person including the disabled
whether they are healthy or disabled in any
has his life and liberty guaranteed. Article
way (physically or mentally) and
There can be no traffic in human
guarantees a right of justice, liberty of
beings (including the disabled), and
thought, expression, belief, faith and
beggar and other forms of forced labour is
worship and equality of status and of
prohibited and the same is made
opportunity and for the promotion of
punishable in accordance with law. Article
fraternity. To safeguard the interests of the
29(2): The right to education is available
disadvantaged sections of the Society, the
to all citizens including the disabled. No
Constitution of India guarantees that no
citizen shall be denied admission into any
person will be denied ‘equality’ before the
educational institution maintained by the
law (Article 14 of the Indian Constitution).
State or receiving aid out of State funds.
Relevant Articles in Indian Constitution
Article 32: Every disabled person can
providing constitutional guarantees to all
move the Supreme Court of India to
enforce his fundamental rights and the educational facilities,as well as other
rights to move the Supreme Court.7 rights and entitlement). The specific
objectives of the Act are: Prevention and
EarlyDetection of Disabilities, Education –
ACTS FOR DISABILITY
all Governmenteducational institutions
The legislative framework for the
reserves more than 3% seatsfor disabled.
protection of the rights of disabled people
Employment – with 3% reservationsthe
is covered by given acts: The
disability vacancies not filled upto be
Rehabilitation Council of India Act 1992:
carriedforward for next three years and
Act sets out to regulate the training
after that thevacancy will be filled by a
ofprofessionals in rehabilitation and sets
non-disabled person.Schemes for ensuring
out aframework for a Central
employment of person withdisabilities are:
Rehabilitation Register. Inorder to give
Training and welfare, Relaxation ofupper
statutory powers to the Council forcarrying
age limit, Regulation the employment,
out its duties effectively the
Healthand safety measures. Affirmative
RehabilitationCouncil of India Act was
Action –Preferential allotment of land for
passed by the Parliamentwhich came into
certain purpose –overnment or local
force with effect from 1993.
authorities for: House; Settingup business;
Theamendment in the Act in 2000 gave the
Setting up special recreation
additionalresponsibility of promoting
centers;Establishment of special school;
research to the Council.The major
Establishment ofresearch centers;
functions of the council include
Establishment of factories byentrepreneurs
therecognition of qualifications granted by
with disability.
Universitiesin India for Rehabilitation
Professionals and also therecognition of
qualification by Institutions outside India. CRITICISM OF PERSON WITH
The Persons with Disabilities DISABILITIES ACT 1995:
(EqualOpportunities, protection of Rights The Persons withDisabilities Act (PWD),

and fullParticipation) Act 1995: This act 1995 has been landmarklegislation for the
provides 3%reservations for disabled disabled in India. This Act that isrelated to
people(blind or low vision,hearing mental illness (MI) and
impairment and locomotor disability providesrecommendations aimed at
orcerebral palsy in poverty alleviation making it an officialinstrument for equal
programs,government posts, and in state opportunities, participation andprotection
of rights Act in its true sense. But thereare based services duringthe period of crises
some serious flaws in the Act that have to in the family of persons withdisability; To
beset right to ensure equitable distribution deal with problems of persons
of benefitsto all. The Act defines a withdisability who do not have family
disabled person as onewho is “suffering support.10 NationalPolicy for Persons
from 40% or more disability”. with Disabilities Act 2005:The National
However, as far as MI is concerned, this Policy, released in February
quantification is a mystification because 2006recognizes that Persons with
such a tool isunavailable. The PWD Act Disabilities are valuablehuman resource
unfortunately, turns outto be an instrument for the country and seeks to createan
of injustice and discriminationalbeit environment that provides them
unwittingly. According to the chairperson equalopportunities, protection of their
ofthe Amendments Committee, MI missed rights and fullparticipation in society. Its
thisopportunity for employment rights aim is to ensure bettercoordination
because of theabsence of a well-informed between various wings of the State
advocacy platform thatcoalesced into a andCentral Governments. The focus of the
lobby.9 The National Trust forWelfare of policy is onthe following: Prevention of
Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Disabilities,Rehabilitation Measures,
Mental Retardation and Physical RehabilitationStrategies, Early
MultipleDisabilities Act 1999: This Act Detection and Intervention,Counselling &
provides for theconstitution of a national Medical Rehabilitation. In additionto the
body for the Welfare ofPersons with legal framework, extensive infrastructure
Autism, Cerebral Palsy, MentalRetardation hasbeen developed in India for disabled
and Multiple Disabilities. The persons underthis Act and includes the
mainobjectives are: To enable and establishment of thefollowing institutions:
empower persons withdisability to live as Institute for the PhysicallyHandicapped,
independently and as fully aspossible New Delhi, National Institute ofVisually
within and as close to the community Handicapped, Dehradun, National
towhich they belong; To strengthen Institutefor Orthopedically Handicapped,
facilities to providesupport to persons with Kolkata, NationalInstitute for Mentally
disability to live within theirown families; Handicapped, Secunderabad,National
To extend support to Institute for Hearing Handicapped,
registeredorganization to provide need Mumbai,National Institute of

Rehabilitation Training &Research,
Cuttack, National Institute The Central Government accepted the

forEmpowerment of Persons with Multiple reportand the list of posts identified for
Disabilities,Chennai. A 2004 survey in Persons withDisabilities has been
India revealed thefollowing: Limited published vide NotificationNo.16-
information on the definition ofdisability; 15/2010-DD-III dated 29th July
Limited information on access to 2013.11Programmes and concessions for
educationto disabled people; No mention thedisabledGovernment of India has taken
on disability in theIndian constitution; No the responsibilityof providing optimal
standardized sign language. environment to ensure fullparticipation of
the persons with disabilities. In
thiscontext, it has introduced a number of
Ministry of Social Justice and
welfareprograms, schemes, concessions
Empowerment,in pursuance of the
and facilities foreducational, vocational
provisions of Section 32 of thePersons
and economic rehabilitation.
with Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities,Protection of Rights and
Full Participation) Act, 1995{1 of 1996}, EDUCATION:
had constituted an Expert Committeeon Children’s educational allowance-The
the 30th December, 2010 under the reimbursement of tuition fee in respect
Chairmanshipof Additional Secretary, ofphysically handicapped and mentally
Ministry of Social Justiceand retardedchildren of the Central
Empowerment. The Expert Committee, Government employee hasbeen enhanced
withthe help of three sub-committees, from Rs.50/- to Rs.100/- per
made an in-depthstudy of various jobs month.Scheme of integrated education for
performed in Government ofIndia the disabledchildren - Under the scheme,
Ministries/Departments, public handicapped childrenare sought to be
sectorundertakings and autonomous bodies integrated in the normal schoolsystem.
including Universities. The Sub- 100% assistance is provided to the
committees also reviewedjobs notified in States/UTs for education of children
2007 and prepared a detailed list ofGroups suffering from certainmild handicaps in
A, B, C and D posts which were common schools with the help ofnecessary
identifiedsuitable for persons with aids, incentives and specially
disabilities. The ExpertCommittee trainedteachers. Financial assistance to
submitted its report on 24th January,2012. persons withdisabilities: - The National
Handicapped Financeand Development school for urbanareas. Conveyance

Corporation NHFDC, a subsidiaryunder allowance: Orthopedicallyhandicapped
the Ministry of Social Justice and with disability of lower extremities willbe
Empowerment, Government of India, paid transport allowance at double the
promotes infrastructuredevelopment normalrates. Handicapped employees who
schemes directly leading to have beenprovided with government
incomegeneration. This corporation accommodation within adistance of 1 km
provides self-employment opportunities to from the place of work orwithin the
the persons withdisabilities by providing campus, the allowance shall be
loans at very low rates ofinterest. Travel admissibleat normal rates.
concession: By Rail- Orthopedically
handicapped persons / mentally
MISCELLANEOUS PROGRAMMES:
retardedpersons with an escort, on
Family pension to disabled children -
production of a medicalcertificate, are
Handicapped children shall be eligible for
eligible to 75% concession. By Air-
the benefit offamily pension even if they
Locomotors disabled persons with 80%
have been born afterthe retirement of the
disability areallowed 50% concession in
Government Servant from amarriage
Indian Airlines.Employment of
solemnized after retirement. Ad-
handicapped: Assistance todisabled
hocallotment of central pool residential
persons in getting gainful employment
accommodation to the physically
eitherthrough special cells in National
handicapped employees- Government
EmploymentExchanges or through Special
employees suffering from tuberculosis,
EmploymentExchanges for physically
cancer and physically handicapped
handicapped. Up to 100%financial
personsmay get adhoc allotment of general
assistance is provided in the case of
pool residentialaccommodation on request
specialcells and 80% in the case of Special
after recommendationof the special
EmploymentExchanges to state
recommendation committee and onthe
governments / union
approval of the urban development
territoryadministrations. Communication:
ministry.
Educatedunemployed persons are eligible
for allotment ofSTD, PCOs. The
educational qualifications for theapplicants (ONLY FOR REFERENCE)
are 8th or middle class passed from CERTIFICATION IN DISABILITY
ruralareas, at least matriculation or high
The medical boards have been constituted a medical board comprisingof

atthe State level, District level and Taluk thefollowing members:
level to assessthe percentage of disability /
the level of disability/and then to issue
(a) The Medical
disability certificates whosedisability is
Superintendent/Principal/Director/Head of
more than 40% and above.
the institution or hisnominee Chairperson,
Thecomposition of the Medical Board is as
Psychiatrist—Member,
follows: StateLevel Medical Board,
District Level Medical Board,Taluk Level Physician — Member.
Medical Board.Because of the UN

proclamation in 1981,subsequent At least two of themembers, including
declaration of Decade for Disabled andthe Chairperson of the board mustbe present
BiwakoMillenium Framework of Actions and sign the disability certificate.
in 2003,extended further from 2003- Thecertificate would be valid for a period
2012,to which India isa signatory, it is of five yearsfor those whose disability is
binding on the member countries toprotect ‘temporary’ and arebelow the age 18
the rights, provide equal opportunities years. For those who acquirepermanent
andempower persons with disability. The disability, the validity can be shown as
guidelinesnotified, are for assessment of ‘permanent’ in the certificate. When there
disability in therespective area/body part are nochances of variation in the degree of
(function) and to quantifyin terms of disability, apermanent disability certificate
percentage of disability, to avail facilities& is given. The PWDAct (1995) did not
concessions viz. Reservation in job, prescribe guidelines for evaluationand
Travelconcession, soft loan for assessment of mental illness and the
entrepreneurship development, specificprocedures for certification. With
Scholarship, Income Tax / Custom rebate, regard toassessment of disability related to
Agerelaxation in employment etc. As per mental illness itwas agreed that the Indian
the Act,authorities to give a disability Disability Evaluation andAssessment
certificate will be amedical board duly Scale (IDEAS, 2002) developed by
constituted by the central andstate theRehabilitation Committee of the Indian
government. According to the PWD PsychiatricSociety (IPS) through a Task
Rules,1996, the Committee recommended Force should be usedwith modifications
that certificationof disability for the for the purposes of the Act.
purposes of the Act had to becarried out by
appropriate forin- patients. Rating should
MEASUREMENT OF DISABILITY be done only based oninterviews of the
FOR MENTAL ILLNESS: Primary Care Givers. Case records

andpatients’ interviews can be used to
The assessment tools have already been
supplementinformation. Only in rare
existedfor the visually impaired, hearing
instances when no primarycare giver is
impaired andorthopaedic handicap and
available should be the rating is basedonly
persons with mentalretardation. These
on patient interview. This should then
people are certified by the
bedocumented. The gender specification
authentic body and become eligible by
“he” hasbeen used for convenience and
havingdisability certificates to avail the
refers to bothgenders. Patients with only
benefits under thePWD Act 1995. But
the following diagnosisas per ICD or DSM
there were no assessment toolsfor the
criteria are eligible for disability benefits:
certification of mentally ill people and
Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder,
yetthese people are not availed any
Dementia,and Obsessive-Compulsive
benefits even asdisabled. Looking that
Disorder.
perspective and to justifythese people
rehabilitation committee of
IndianPsychiatric Society has developed DURATION OF ILLNESS:
the assessmenttool for disability The total duration of illness should be

certification in 2002. This tool isknown as leasttwo years. For the purpose of scoring,
Indian Disability Evaluation the numberof months the patients were
andAssessment Scale in short IDEAS. This symptomatic in the lasttwo years (MI 2Y –
IDEA hasopened new horizon for mentally months of illness in the last twoyears)
ill people. Thiscommittee has developed should be determined.Only the Psychiatrist
clear guideline to makeuse of it very easy. can do diagnosis andcertification. Trained
General Guidelines: IDEASare suited best social workers, psychologist,or
for the purpose of measuring andcertifying occupational therapists can do
Disability, It is therefore a brief and administration ofIDEAS. Psychiatric
simpleinstrument, which can be used, even Disability will be reassessedevery two
in busy clinicalsettings. Some training is years and re-certified. The feasibility
required in the use ofIDEAS. This is to be ofdoing this in the rural areas will however
used only on out patients andthose living have to beexamined. Items in IDEAS:
in the community. Not Self-care: Includestaking care of body
hygiene, grooming, and healthincluding 1 – Mild Disability,

bathing, toileting, eating and taking care 2 - ModerateDisability,
ofone’s health. Interpersonal Activities
3 – Serve Disability,
(SocialRelationship) : Includes initiating
4 – ProfoundDisability.
and maintaininginteractions with others in
a contextual and sociallyappropriate Total Score (range 0-20).
manner. Communication and Under-

standing: Include communication and PERCENTAGE:
conversationwith others by producing and
For the purpose of welfare benefits, 40%
comprehendingspoken/ written/ nonverbal
will becut off point. The scores above 40%
messages. Work: Threeareas are
have beencategorized as Moderate, Severe,
Employment/ House work/
and profoundbased on the Global disability
Educationmeasures any one aspect. 1-
score. This gradingwill be used to
Performing in Work/Job: Performing in
measures change overtime. 0-Nodisability
work / employment (paid)employment /
0% , 1-7 – Mild Disability = < 40%,
self-employment family concern
8and above = > 40%, (8-13 moderate
orotherwise. Measures ability to perform
disability; 14-19 Severe Disability; 20
tasks atemployment completely and
Profound Disability).14
efficiently and in proper time. Includes
seeking employment.
HURDLES IN ACCESSING THE

PERFORMING IN HOUSEWORK:
BENEFITS & SERVICES
Maintaining household includingcooking,
Apart from that there are many problems
caring for other people at home, taking
facingby People with Disabilities to access
careof belongings etc. Measures ability to
the serviceseasily, such as: Employment -
takeresponsibility for and perform
There seems to bea lack of coordination
household taskscompletely and efficiently
between different governmentservices so
and in proper time. Performing in school /
that people with disabilities are
college: measures performance in
unclearabout which Commonwealth or
education related tasks.
State agencies canprovide them with
Scoring:
assistance. Information about thefinancial
0 – NoDisability, and health impacts of entering the
openworkplace is hard to find, there is Individuals with psychiatric

limited or delayedaccess to open disabilityexperiences a wide range of
employment services. symptoms that affectpsychological and
Financial -Additional transport, support cognitive function, and their needsare
and other costsassociated with work, many multifaceted and complex. Although the
of which are not subsidized foregoing the benefitsof medication in the treatment of
Disability Support Pensionand associated psychiatric disabilityare substantial,

benefits, such as the PensionersHealth medication usually does not cure
Care Card. Inflexible workingenvironment thecondition but rather controls the
Difficulties with physical access tothe symptoms.Individuals often have residual
workplace, and getting to and from symptoms, deficitsand impairments as a
work,inadequateadjustmentsand result of their condition andmany are
adaptations toworkplace equipment, subjected to periodic relapses

inflexible working hours. withrecurrence of symptoms. Individuals
with psychiatricdisability may be
More limited opportunities for people
particularly vulnerable to stressand may
withdisabilities - Poor links between State-
lack the ability to withstand the pressureor
administeredschool and post-school
to cope with the normal stressors of
programs and Common-wealth-
everydaylife. They may have limited
administered disability employment
problem-solving abilityor find it difficult
servicesunder-representation in the
to engage in self-directed activity.Others
vocational, education andtraining systems,
experience subjective distress, such as
limited scope and variety of jobsoffered to
aninner sense of weakness, jealousy, or
people with disabilities, lower
anxiety,although function in most of their
possibilitiesfor promotion, lower paying
life is minimallydisturbed. Some
jobs & lower retentionrates.Issues related
psychiatric disabilities arecharacterized by
to Psychiatric DisabilityImpact of
disorganization of mentalcapacities, which
disability on Psychiatric Disability isbased
can be affect individual’s ability
on the major four functional aspects of
tofunction in an unstructured environment.
personwhich are:
(II) LIFESTYLE ISSUES OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES OF PSYCHIATRIC DISABILITY –
PSYCHIATRIC DISABILITY- Thedegree to which psychiatric disability
affects individual’s lifestyle depends to a
great extent onthe nature of the condition. more accepting ofindividuals with mental
Some psychiatricdisabilities so severely illness, family members maycontinue to be
impair individual’s ability tocarry on the resistant to recognizing the problemand
activities of daily living that pursuing the appropriate treatment. If,
constantsupervision or hospitalization is howeverindividuals manifest bizarre,
necessary. In otherinstances, individuals abusive, or sociallyoffensive behavior,
are able to carry on theseactivities, but in family members or others withina social
an altered manner. At times thetreatment group may avoid the individual altogether,
itself requires lifestyle changes. leaving him or her socially isolated.
Individualsmay need to rearrange their Otherpsychiatric disabilities may lead to
schedules so that theycan attend therapy social withdrawal.Families of individuals
sessions. Some medications usedin the with psychiatric disability mayexperience
treatment of psychiatric disability may a variety of stresses engendered by
requirespecial lifestyle considerations. For thecondition. In some instances, the
example, the use of MAO inhibitors in the demand of caregiving may require family
treatment of depressionrequires careful members to curtail theirsocial activities or
monitoring of diet. Othermedications have alter their relationship with friendsand
side effects, such as drowsinessand acquaintances. The time commitments of
sedation that also affects daily functioning. caregiving may lead to neglect of other
Inaddition, subjective manifestations of family member’sneeds, further disrupting
lowered self-esteem and self-confidence the family as a unit. Socialbarriers are
may make it moredifficult for individuals frequently erected against individualswith
to form intimate relationship. mental disorders and against their
families.Social stigma may be the result of
fear of individual’sbehaviour, ignorance
(III) SOCIAL ISSUES OF
PSYCHIATRIC DISABILITY- about psychiatric disability, orfeelings of
Theimpact of a psychiatric disability on inadequacy interacting with those
social functionalso depends on the nature whohave psychiatric disability. Regardless

of the causethe result can be a source of
of the condition.Individuals who
continuing stress forindividuals and their
experience mania as part of theirdisability
may enjoy the euphoria and feel that families, as well as barrier tosocial activity
itcontributes to their social well-being. and interaction.
Even thoughattitudes of society become
(IV) VOCATIONAL it is believed thatpeople with psychiatric

Issues of Psychiatric Disability-Individuals disability have beensignificantly
with psychiatric disability have a condition discriminated against in the workplace,the
that limits theircapacity to perform certain extent to which discrimination exist is
tasks and functions andtheir ability to difficultto determine because of lack of
perform certain roles. The ability towork relevant data.
depends on the type of disability, the type
ofwork in which they are involved, and the PSYCHOSOCIAL ISSUES OF
attitude ofthose within the work setting. MENTAL RETARDATION
Although work isimportant to increase
The opinions and expectations most people
self-esteem for those with anumber of
haveabout themselves are influenced to a
disabilities, it can be an especially strong
great degreeby the behaviour of those
therapeutic tool for those with a
around them. Whenminimum expectation or
psychiatric disability.Job restriction may
lack of belief in individual’sability to
be related to job pressure orability to work
achieve is communicated, the chances
with others, regardless of theindividual’s
forindividuals to progress in attaining goals
level of skill or physical and
arediminished. Because a number of
cognitiveability to perform work related
inaccurate andstereotypical ideas about
tasks. Some medications used in treatment
individuals with mentalretardation still exist,
may produce sideeffects such as
barriers to reaching optimalfunction and
drowsiness or sedation that couldadversely
independence continue to be
affects work performances.
present.Although societal and employer
Individual’sreactions to the work
attitudes are changing slowly, there is
environment, including noiseand
continued need foreducation and
distractions, should be considered asshould
integration of individuals with MR
their level of personal responsibility and
intosociety and into the workplace.
abilityfor self- direction and decision
Although allindividuals with MR can
making. Someindividuals may need more
experience stresses due tosocietal
structured workenvironment; in some
stereotypes and attitudes, individuals
instances, a workshopenvironment may be
withmild MR may confront specific
preferable. The unemploymentrate for
stresses becausethey may appear normal to
individuals with psychiatric
others and consequentlylimitations may
disabilitiescontinues to be high. Although
not be recognised as a disability. Lackof
acceptance and devaluation can resultant BRIEF ABOUT MIGRATION:

in lowself-esteem and isolation, which in Just 20 years ago the geographer Julian
turn can lead todeviant behaviours or Wolpert (1965) published his influential
acting out. In more severecases, a conceptual paper, "Behavioral Aspects of
psychiatric disorder may be developed asa the Decision to Migrate” which led to a
means of coping. Vocational issues of landmark change in the introduction of
MentalRetardation - The level of Migration as a topic of focus in
occupational functioningfor individual Psychological researches.
with MR depends to some extent onthe
Migration is the movement of a person from
degree of disability. Because mental
one location to another. It can be understood
retardationis often accompanied by other
to take many forms, including a relatively
medical conditions,the physical limitations
permanentchange of residence from one city
associated with any medicalcondition must
or rural area to another, a move fromone
also be considered. Individuals withMR
neighborhood to another within the same
usually perform better in a
city (residential mobility),temporary moves
structuredenvironment. Many individuals
for purposes such as seasonal employment
may need to betaught how to function
or to attendschool (circulation), and
independently and may needaccompanying
voluntary or involuntary movements across
social skill training. Although therehas
national boundaries (immigration,
been heightened effort and interest
international labor migration, refugee
towardsincreasing integrated employment
movements). Migration is one of the main
opportunities forindividuals with mental
factors in population redistributionand thus
retardation, rehabilitationoutcomes,
plays a dynamic role in such areas of critical
especially for individuals of racial
concern as rapidurbanization of the world's
andethnic underrepresented groups, have
been less thanideal.
population, the balance between
populationand resources, and human
MIGRATION: CULTURAL impacts on the natural environment.
BIAS AND DISCRIMINATION Moststudies of migration have been

conducted from a macroeconomic
(Taken from Migration Psychology: New
orsocial-demographic perspective, looking
Behavioral Models by James T. Fawcett)
at migration as an aggregatephenomenon.
A complementary perspective is taken in Division of Population and Environmental

migration psychology, wherethe Psychology.
conceptual focus is at the microlevel.
Migration psychology is the studyof
MIGRATION IN CONTEXT
individual behavior with respect to
movement across space. Studies inthis Although often identified with massive
field often deal with the subjective refugee movements, migration is usually
correlates of migration behavior,such as undertaken to increase economic or socio-
underlying attitudes, values, perceptions cultural opportunities for the migrant.
and migration intentions. Two broad Migrations are local, national or
questions define the scope of migration international. They involve small groups
psychology: What factors are responsible of varying size as well as mass
for a person's voluntary change of displacements of entire populations.
location? And, what are the consequences
for the person of the new environmental The history of migration to Britain
factors associated with a change of highlights some of the reasons why people
location? The first question points toward migrate. Significant migration to Britain
the application of motivational constructs started in the nineteenth century. Irish
and decision models in migration immigration has been marked by periods
psychology. The second question relates to of influx and efflux to and from Britain, as
adjustment, acculturation, or adaptation people have come to either settle
models and brings in issues of permanently or work temporarily with
environmental stress, mental health, and ultimate return to Ireland as a goal.
community intervention. We will focus Eastern European Jews came at the latter
here only on the motivational and part of the nineteenth century to escape
decisional approaches to migration both religious persecution and poverty,
behavior. (For psychologically-oriented with additional numbers arriving in Britain
reviews on the consequences of migration, both before and after World War II. In the
see Brody, 1969; Olmedo, 1979). 1960s, employers, especially in urban
Psychological studies of the determinants areas, recruited people from the West
and consequences of migration would Indies to fill low paying jobs which were
seem to be a natural focus for the less attractive to the local population.
American Psychological Association's People from the Indian subcontinent

migrated to Britain for educational and
economic reasons, the peak of which origin. This kind of circular travel
occurred about the same time as the West characterizes traditional nomadism,
Indian migration. Asian people expelled by episodic wage work in mining (Africa) or
Idi Amin's government came from Uganda agriculture (United States), pilgrimages
in the late 1970s. The 1980s saw a change (Mecca, Hindu sacred places) and tourism.
in the immigration laws limiting the
Although there exists no systematic history
numbers of people allowed to relocate to
of migration, this phenomenon invariably
Britain. Today, people from around the
occurs in response to high regional or
globe choose to migrate to the UK as well
international imbalances of populations and
as other developed countries, both legally
resources on the one hand; on the other, to
and illegally, for better educational and
new perceptions of opportunity, changes in
employment opportunities, to escape
transportation, and politico-
persecution, to relocate after catastrophic
military events. One important
events, including terrorism, disasters and
concomitant of migration has been
war, and/or to join relatives who migrated
epidemic disease, such as the influenza
at an earlier time.
pandemic of 1919-21 and the great
Most migrations are voluntary; however, African cholera epidemic of 1974.
forced resettlement is as ancient as the
Notable migrations include those resulting
Babylonian captivity of the Jews and as
from Alexander's conquests and Greek
recent as the vast population transfers
city building from Egypt to Central Asia.
following the separation of India and
From about 100 B.C. to 600 A.D., Eurasia
Pakistan. In the United States, the policies
from the Pacific to the Atlantic witnessed
of Andrew Jackson led to the expulsion of
very large population movements, such as
the "civilized tribes" from the Southwest to
the migration of the Huns from eastern
Oklahoma, the Trail of Tears still
Mongolia to Europe and India. But these
anguishing the Choctaw, Cherokee and
earlier migrations have been far
other Indians. Perhaps the greatest forced
overshadowed by the upwellings of
migration has been the African diaspora
Europeans and Chinese since about 1850.
resulting from 1,000 years of Arab and 350
The former populated the Americas,
years of European slaving. All migrations,
Australia and New Zealand, and Siberia;
even slaving, lead to permanent transfers
the latter, Manchuria and Southeast Asia.
of populations and produce groups which
Today, the great migratory movement,
return to areas of
especially in the Third World, is nations has been associated with

urbanization. Even cities as grim as economic, educational, social and political
Calcutta, where thousands are permanently reasons.
homeless, attract villagers seeking a better,
The process of migration has been described
freer, more exciting life. Delhi today is
as occurring in broadly three stages. The
serviced by entire villages of commuters,
first stage is pre-migration, involving the
who retain a part-time village life.
decision and preparation to move. The
Migration can be classified in a number of second stage, migration, is the physical
ways; e.g., by the reasons for the relocation of individuals from one place to
migration, the social class and education of another. The third stage, postmigration, is
the migrating people, the duration of defined as the "absorption of the immigrant
relocation and the geographic distribution within the social and cultural framework of
of the resettlement. Further, a distinction the new society". Social and cultural rules
can be made in the classification of and new roles may be learnt at this stage.
migrants according to whether their The initial
contact with the 'majority' or 'dominant' stage of migration may have
culture is deemed voluntary. Migrants can comparatively lower rates of mental illness
be classified as immigrants and sojourners and health problems than the latter stages,
when the change in their location results in due to the younger age at the initial stage
contact voluntarily, whereas refugees are of migration and the problems with
deemed to change their location acculturation and the potential discrepancy
involuntarily. For example, immigrants between attainment of goals and actual
choose to migrate, and thus be in increased achievement in the latter stages. It is worth
and regular contact with the 'majority' noting that the stages are often not discrete
culture in preparation for migration, for and merge into one another.
potential economic and/or educational
advancement, whereas refugees are forced CULTURAL BIASES IN MIGRATION
to migrate, and thus be in contact with the Culture is not new to the study of
'majority' population involuntarily, to migration. It is interesting to see how
escape persecution. Additionally, rural- culture manifests itself in the migration
urban migration has been associated with process for three groups of actors: the
economic and educational reasons for migrants, those remaining in the sending
relocation, whereas migration across areas, and people already living in the
recipient locations. Actors behave these costs are that migrants might have to
differently, within a group there are leave family andfriends (combined with
economically important shared beliefs the non-existence of a social network at
(customs, values, attitudes, etc.), which we the new destination; Munshi2003), have to
commonly refer to as culture. Culture and cope with different cultural traits and
identity play a central role in our habits or with higher prices or even
understanding of migration as an economic unavailabilityof origin-specific local goods
phenomenon and also in sorting the in the new destination. A complementary
determinants of identity and the interpretation ofnon-monetary psychic
determinants of culture (prices and migration costs are that they represent
incomes, broadly defined). labour market frictions, preventingthe
efficient allocation of labour. Labor
‘Culture matters’ has become a general market search imply that individuals
wisdom in the economics literature. accept wage offers only when they
Indeed, recent literatureshows that norms arecompensated for migration cost. That
and values, such as trust, which is an gross migration is larger between
important component of culture,determine culturally more similar counties implies
economic activity and eventually growth. that searching for a new job is not random,
Specifically, cultural biases hinder but directed toward more similar
economic exchange across location. Since regions.This leads to inefficient search
culture onlychanges slowly over time, it is behavior in terms of wage income as
also a main source of the legacy of history individuals missbetter paid job
emphasized byeconomic historians. opportunities elsewhere. The individual,
however, is compensated by a
Conceptually, the decision to migrate, and higherfamiliarity with the destination
where exactly to go, is determined by region, but one can wonder whether
comparingthe costs and benefits of moving society as a whole doesnot suffer from
to the costs and benefits of alternatives such labor market frictions.
(Todaro 1969; Harrisand Todaro 1970).
Benefits and costs can be monetary or non- PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF
monetary; also including thenon-monetary MIGRATION
psychic migration costs of moving from a Migration has contributed to the richness
familiar to an unfamiliar in diversity of cultures, ethnicities and
surrounding(Sjaastad 1962). Examples for
races in developed countries. Individuals thought of as a biological factor as well as

who migrate experience multiple stresses in cultural terms. Personality is influenced
that can impact their mental wellbeing, by cultural factors and influences patterns
including the loss of cultural norms, of child rearing, responding to stress and
religious customs, and social support accepting social support. National
systems, adjustment to a new culture and character and personality factors are
changes in identity and concept of self. interlinked.
Indeed, the rates of mental illness are
increased in some migrant groups. Mental CULTURAL BEREAVEMENT
health practitioners need to be attuned to
The loss of one's social structure and
the unique stresses and cultural aspects
culture can cause a grief reaction, as has
that affect immigrants and refugees in
been described by Eisenbruch. Migration
order to best address the needs of this
involves the loss of the familiar, including
increasing and vulnerable population.
language (especially colloquial and
If the individual feels isolated from his or
dialect), attitudes, values, social structures
her culture, unaccepted by the 'majority
and support networks. Grieving for this
culture' and has a lack of social support, a
loss can be viewed as a healthy reaction
consequent sense of rejection, alienation
and a natural consequence of migration;
and poor self-esteem may occur. During
however, if the symptoms cause
the stages of migration, there may be
significant distress or impairment and last
factors that predispose individuals to
for a specified period of time, psychiatric
mental disorders. Pre-migration factors
intervention may be warranted. Eisenbruch
include the personality structure of an
has defined cultural bereavement as "the
individual, forced migration, and
experience of the uprooted person - or
persecution, among others. Migration
group - resulting from loss of social
factors include bereavement, culture
structures, cultural values and self-
shock, a discrepancy between expectations
identity: the person - or group - continues
and achievement, and acceptance by the
to live in the past, is visited by
new nation are potential post-migration
supernatural forces from the past while
factors. These factors can be thought of as
asleep or awake, suffers feelings of guilt
vulnerability factors along with biological,
over abandoning culture and homeland,
social and psychological variables. For
feels pain if memories of the past begin to
example, personality structure can be
fade, but finds constant images of the past
(including traumatic images) intruding into Ethnicity typically incorporates both race
daily life, yearns to complete obligations and culture. Race is based on biologic
to the dead, and feels stricken by anxieties, constructs, such as sharing certain physical
morbid thoughts, and anger that mar the attributes; it may or not be also a social
ability to get on with daily life". and political construct. For example,
people from the West Indies, Africa and
CULTURAL IDENTITY
parts of North and South America may
It is important to define basic sociologic share the same race but have different
terms of identity to understand cultural beliefs, value systems, social norms and
identity. Culture is learned and passed idioms of distress.
through generations and includes the
beliefs and value system of a society.
CULTURAL CONGRUITY
Culture has been described as features that
are shared and bind people together into a Migrating people come from diverse
community. Identity is the totality of one's cultural backgrounds, with already formed
perception of self, or how we as cultural identities. As noted above, cultural
individuals view ourselves as unique from identity is influenced by various factors
others. Bhugra notes that racial, cultural both during and after the migration
and ethnic identities form part of one's process, and cultural bereavement is a
identity, and identity will change with potential inherent consequence in people
development at a personal as well as at a who have migrated. Cultural identities
social level along with migration and interact, as people who have migrated
acculturation. Social identity can be come into contact not only with people of
thought of as the culturally defined the majority culture but also with
personality characteristics, which are immigrants of both similar and disparate
ascribed to social roles, such as the role of cultures. Resultant feelings of a sense of
being a father, mother, friend, employer, belonging and comfort or a sense of
employee, etc. Ethnicity is a source of alienation and distress may occur. Bhugra
social identity. Ethnic groups are and Jones proposed that various personal
composed of people who may or may not and relational factors during the migration
share the same race but do share common process impact the mental wellbeing of
cultural characteristics, including history, migrating people. During the post-
beliefs, values, food and entertainment migration phase, personal factors of
preferences, religion and language. importance in coping with adversity
include cultural identity, social support STIGMA, MARGINALIZATION, AND

networks, self-esteem, and self-concept. SOCIAL SUFFERING
Achievement, racism, ethnic density, (Taken some parts from Prof. S.N.
social isolation and unemployment are Chaudhary’s article on ‘Social Problems
among the relational factors of importance and Marginalized Groups)
in migrants during the post-migration
phase.
The issue of social exclusion has become
Ethnic density, the size of a particular the centrality of current development
ethnic group in proportion to the total paradigm in India. Social exclusion is one
population in a specified area, may be a of the negative effects of economic
factor that influences the rates of mental restructure and transformation. It is a
illness in ethnic minorities. Additionally, a phenomenon wherein individuals, social
sense of alienation may occur if the groups, or geographical areas tend to
cultural and social characteristics of an experience political, economic and/or
individual differ from those of the social disadvantages, lack of confidence, a
surrounding population, whereas a sense of sense of powerlessness or a degree of
belonging tends to occur if the individual social alienation. In other words, it is used
and surrounding population have similar to describe a situation in which an
cultural and social characteristics. individual, group or class is unable to
participate in the basic political, economic
and social functions of society (Silver
(Let’s define Discrimination: It is the 1994; Haan 1998; Byrne 1999). Social
phenomenon of treating a person exclusion is, therefore, not merely a
differently from other persons based on problemofeconomicdisadvantagessuchaslo
group membership and an individual’s wincomeorunemployment,butitisalso
possession of certain characteristics such social
as age, class, gender, race, religion, and disintegration,alienation/isolationfromsoci
sexuality. Discriminatory behavior can ety,powerlessnessandinabilitytotakepartin,
take various forms from relatively mild andcontributeto,mainstreamdevelopment.S
behavior, such as social avoidance, to acts ocialexclusionisamulti-
of violence, including hate crimes and dimensionalconcept.Itreferstoexclusion(de
genocide.) privation)ineconomic,socialandpoliticalsph
eres.Itgoesbeyondtheanalysisofresourceall
ocationmechanisms,andincludespowerrelat significant segment of population who

ions,agency,cultureandsocialidentity.Socia wereplaced outside for fold Varna system,
lexclusioncanrefertoastateorsituation,butito who are today constitutionally known as
ftenreferstoaprocess,tothemechanismbywh ScheduledCastes. Irrespective of their
ichpeopleareexcluded. achieved background, SCs are perceived
Combating social exclusion of certain as marginalised groups.STs are outside the
groups or classes from main stream Varna system. They are animist with
development has become an essential distinct cultural heritage. It isclaimed that

feature of the long-term development they are the victim of geographical
paradigm in most developed and segregation and maternal exploitation
st byoutsiders. It is claimed that with the
developing economies of the 21 century.
passage of time, due to multiple reasons,
The term “social exclusion” was originally
theirsubjugation has become intense. They
coined by Rene Lenoir in 1974, the French
are another category of marginalised
Social Action Secretary of State in the
groups. Womenas a category are perceived
Chirac government (published a document
as marginalised because in the patriarchal
entitled Les Exclus: Un Francaissur Dix)
framework, historicallythey have suffered
referring to various social categories of
people, such as the mentally and denial and subjugation.
physically handicapped, single parents, After becoming independent and adopting

substance users and other groups democratic form of governance, India
unprotected by social insurance. made effort to enlarge space meant for
marginalised groups. Today its boundary
is more spacious and in broad comparison
THE INDIAN CONTEXT
to situation few decades back. There are
No society is free from marginalised
many groups and social categories which
groups and weaker sections. However, the
have been termed as marginalised or who
corebases of marginalisation differ from
are making effort to be declared as
society to society. While in most of the
marginalised groups. Important among
European andWestern societies, skin
these groups are widows, war victims,
colour is one of the important bases of
persons with disability, destitute, lesbians,
marginalisation of blacks, inIndian society,
trans-genders, AIDS victims and so on. It
division of population on the bases of birth
is the moral responsibility of the state to
as per the preambles of Varnasystem
identify, protect and promote concerns of
became core base of marginalisation of
all these segments of population. Many relyaproblemofeconomicdisadvantagessuc

policies and schemes have been haslowincomeorunemployment,butitisalso
formulated in favour of such population. socialdisintegration,alienation/isolationfro
Social suffering is eventual resultant msociety,powerlessnessandinabilitytotakep
caused by cumulative interactions of artinandcontributeto,mainstreamdevelopm
disadvantages such as income, health, ent.
education, access to services, housing,

debt, quality of life, dignity and autonomy THORAT’S CONCEPT OF SOCIAL
(Cheetam and Fuller l998; Barry 1998). EXCLUSION
The consequences of social exclusion are
According to Thorat (2007), social
manifested through social disintegration,
exclusion and discrimination are closely
rapture of social bonds and loss of social
associated and reinforcing factors. In
cohesion, resulting in state dependency,
India, the groups such as SCs, STs, OBC
family breakdown, homelessness, rising
sand minority have been excluded from
cases of criminality and substance abuse
main stream development. Exclusion of
(Bynner 1998) and also institutional
these social groups has to be seen within
problems in education, health,
the purview of the forceful obstruction to
nourishment, crime violence, social
exercise of their rights and intrusions
division, racism and xenophobia (Klasen
against the vector of freedom (Thorat,
1998).
2007). These processes of elimination are
Nevertheless,there is lack of clarity about
more critical than the outcome facing the
the concept of social exclusion and unde
marginalized social groups. Such forms of
restimation of its consequences affecting
exclusion are not just worrisome, but they
the human being.
simultaneously, culminate in similar
Itisaphenomenonwhereinindividuals,soci
typologies of anti-welfare customs.
algroups,orgeographicalareastendtoexperie
Untouchability,
ncepolitical,economicand/orsocialdisadvan
forinstance,isoneoftheoutcomesofthisproce
tages,lackofconfidence,asenseofpowerless
ssofexclusion.InIndia,exclusionisstructure
nessoradegreeofsocialalienation.Inotherwo
daroundthesocietalprocessesthatexclude,di
rds,itisusedtodescribeasituationinwhichani
scriminate,isolateanddeprivessomecommu
ndividual,grouporclassisunabletoparticipat
nitiesonthebasisoftheirsocialgroupcharacte
einthebasicpolitical,economicandsocialfun
ristics,forinstance,casteandethnicity.Alarge
ctionsofsociety(Silver1994;Haan1998;Byr
sectionoftheIndianpopulationconstitutessu
ne1999).Socialexclusionis,therefore,notme
chgroups,whichincludeSCs,STs,OBCsandt associated with bearers of stigma may also

heMuslimsandothers.Evenafterseveraldeca experience some of the negative effects of
desofindependence,thereisstillvisibleinequ stigma, a phenomenon known as stigma by
alityamongmarginalizedsectionsand association.
(Scheduled Caste and Tribes) in human
Stigma does not reside in a person but in a
development and socio-economic
social context. For example, within the
variables. Over a period of time, the
United States, gays and lesbians are
disparity between these two sections of
stigmatized across a range of situations,
society was found to be decreased but at a
but not in a gay bar. African Americans
slower pace.
are stigmatized in school but not on the
STIGMA
basketball court. This contextual aspect of
Stigma is an attribute or characteristic that stigma means that even attributes that are
marks a person as different from others not typically thought of as being
and that extensively discredits his or her stigmatizing may nonetheless lead to
identity. Ancient Greeks coined the term social devaluation in some social contexts
stigma to describe a mark cut or burned (e.g., being heterosexual at a gay pride
into the body that designated the bearer as rally). Some marks, however, are so
someone who was morally defective, such pervasively devalued in society that they
as a slave, criminal, or traitor. Sociologist cause bearers of those marks to experience
Erving Goffnan resurrected the term, stigmatization across a wide range of
defining stigma as an attribute that spoils a
situations and relationships. The
person’s identity, reducing him or her in
consequences of stigmatization are far
others’ minds “from a whole and usual
more severe for these individuals than for
person to a tainted, discounted one.”
those who experience stigmatization only
Stigmatizing marks are associated with in very limited contexts.
negative evaluations and devaluing
stereotypes. These negative evaluations STIGMA TYPES AND DIMENSIONS
and stereotypes are generally well known
Goffman categorized stigmatizing marks
among members of a culture and become a
into three major types: tribal stigma,
basis for excluding, avoiding, and
abominations of the body, and blemishes
discriminating against those who possess
of character. Tribal stigmas are passed
(or are believed to possess) the
from generation to generation and include
stigmatizing mark. People who are closely
membership in devalued racial, ethnic, or
religious groups. Abominations of the different set of concerns. Although they

body are uninherited physical may be able to “pass” or hide their stigma
characteristics that are devalued, such as from others, they may be preoccupied with
obesity or physical deformity. Blemishes figuring out the attitudes of others toward
of character are individual personality or their (hidden) stigma and with managing
behavioral characteristics that are how and when to disclose their stigma to
devalued, such as being a child abuser or others. They must live with the fear of
rapist. others finding out about their stigma, and
of being discredited. They may also have a
Stigmas also differ on important
harder time finding others like themselves
dimensions, such as the extent to which
to interact with, which may lead to social
they are concealable, controllable, and
isolation and lowered self-esteem.
believed to be dangerous. These
differences have important implications for
how the stigmatized are treated by others,
FUNCTIONS OF STIGMA
and how stigma is experienced by those
who have a stigmatizing condition.
Most scholars regard stigma as socially
constructed, meaning that the particular
Some marks (e.g., obesity) are visible or
attributes or characteristics that are
cannot be easily concealed from others,
stigmatized are determined by society.
whereas others (e.g., being a convicted
This view is supported by evidence of
felon) are not visible or can more easily be
variability across cultures in the attributes
concealed. Individuals whose stigma is
that are stigmatized. For example, obesity
visible must contend with different issues
is severely stigmatized in the United
than do those whose stigma is invisible.
States, far less so in Mexico, and is prized
The visibly stigmatized are more likely to
in some cultures. Even within the same
encounter avoidance and rejection from
culture, the degree to which a particular
others than those whose stigmas are
attribute is stigmatizing can change over
concealed. Consequently, the former may
time. For example, in the United States,
be more likely to interpret others’ behavior
being divorced was much more
in terms of their stigma and be more
stigmatizing in earlier than it is today.
concerned with managing others’
Some commonalities exist across cultures,
treatment of them. People whose stigmas
however, in what attributes are
are concealable, in contrast, have a
stigmatized.
Social stigma occurs in every society. This Stigmatization has profound and wide-
universality suggests that stigmatization ranging negative effects on those who bear
may serve some functional value for (or who are thought to bear) stigmatizing
individuals, groups, or societies. At the marks. Stigmatization has been linked to
individual level, putting someone else lower social status, poverty, impaired
down may make one feel better about cognitive and social functioning, poorer
oneself as an individual. At the group physical health, and poorer mental health.
level, devaluing other groups may help These negative effects can occur through
people feel better about their own groups several pathways.
by comparison. At the societal level,
DIRECT EFFECTS
negatively stereotyping and devaluing
people who are low in social status may Stigma has direct negative effects on bearers
make their lower status seem fair and by increasing their likelihood of
deserved, thereby legitimizing social experiencing social rejection, exclusion,
inequalities in society. Stigmatization may prejudice, and discrimination. Research has
also serve a fourth function. Evolutionary established that the stigmatized are
psychologists propose that it may have vulnerable to a variety of types of social
evolved among humans to avoid the rejection, such as slurs, slights, derision,
dangers that accompany living with other avoidance, and violence. People who are
people. Specifically, they posit that stigmatized also receive poorer treatment in
humans have developed cognitive the workplace, educational settings,
adaptations that cause them to exclude healthcare system, housing market, and
(stigmatize) people who possess (or who criminal justice system. Stigma even has
are believed to possess) attributes that (a) negative effects on family relationships. For
signal they might carry parasites or other example, parents are less likely to pay for
infectious diseases (such as a having a the college education of their daughters who
physical deformity or AIDS), (b) signal are heavy than of daughters who are thin.
that they are a poor partner for social Discrimination can be interpersonal (e.g.,
exchange (such as a having a criminal when a woman is rejected by a man because
record), or (c) signal they are a member of of her weight) or institutional (e.g., when a
an outgroup that can be exploited for one’s woman is denied a job as a flight attendant
own group’s gain. because of institutionalized height and
weight requirements).
CONSEQUENCES OF STIGMA
Stigma also can have direct, negative eyes of others, know the dominant cultural
effects on the stigmatized through the stereotypes associated with their stigma,
operation of expectancy confirmation and recognize that they could be victims of
processes. When people hold negative discrimination. These beliefs are collective
beliefs about a person because of the representations, in that they are typically
person’s stigma (e.g., believe that someone shared by others who bear the same
who has been hospitalized for mental stigma. These collective representations
illness is dangerous), their beliefs influence how bearers of stigma approach
(incorrect or correct) can lead them to and interpret situations in which they are
behave in certain ways toward the at risk of being devalued, negatively
stigmatized that are consistent with their stereotyped, or targets of discrimination.
beliefs (e.g., avoid the stigmatized, watch For some, their stigma may become a lens
them suspiciously, refuse to hire them). through which they interpret their social
These behaviors can cause the stigmatized world. They may become vigilant for signs
to respond in ways that confirm the initial of devaluation and anticipate rejection in
evaluation or stereotype (e.g., they get their social interactions.
angry, hostile). This can happen without
the stigmatized person even being aware Collective representations can have
that the other person (perceiver) holds negative effects on the stigmatized by
negative stereotypes, and even when the increasing their concerns that they will be
perceiver is not conscious of holding negatively evaluated because of their
negative stereotypes. stigma, a psychological state termed

identity threat. Identity threat is not
INDIRECT EFFECTS chronic, but situational; it occurs only in
situations in which people are at risk of
Stigma also has indirect effects on the
devaluation because of their stigma. When
stigmatized by influencing how they
experienced, identity threat can interfere
perceive and interpret their social worlds.
with working memory, performance, and
Virtually all members of a culture,
social relationships and can increase
including bearers of stigma, are aware of
anxiety and physiological stress responses.
cultural stereotypes associated with
One form of identity threat is stereotype
stigma, even if they do not personally
threat, concern that one’s behavior will be
endorse them. People who are stigmatized
interpreted in light of or confirm negative
are aware that they are devalued in the
stereotypes associated with one’s stigma.
Stereotype threat occurs in situations in Collective representations associated with

which negative group stereotypes are stigma influence how bearers of stigma
relevant and may be applied to the self and perceive, interpret, and interact with their
can impair performance in those domains. social world. Through this process, stigma
can have negative effects on bearers in the
Collective representations can also lead
absence of any obvious forms of
bearers to experience attributional
discriminatory behavior on the part of
ambiguity in situations in which their
others, even if a stigmatizing mark is
stigma is relevant. Attributional ambiguity
unknown to others, and even when no
stems from bearers’ awareness that they
other person is present in the immediate
may be targets of prejudice and
situation.
discrimination. As a consequence of this
awareness, bearers of stigma (particularly COPING STRATEGIES
those whose stigma is visible) who are
Some psychological theories describe
treated negatively may be unsure whether
bearers of stigma as passive victims who
it was caused by something about
cannot help but devalue them-selves
themselves (such as their performance or
because they are devalued by society. In
lack of qualifications) or was caused by
fact, research shows that not all bearers of
prejudice and discrimination based on their
stigma are depressed, have low self-
stigma. Positive outcomes can also be
esteem, or perform poorly. Indeed,
attributionally ambiguous. As noted
members of some stigmatized groups have
earlier, bearers of stigma are often exposed
higher self-esteem on average than do
to inconsistent treatment and are aware of
members of non-stigmatized groups. How
discrepancies between how the non-
bearers of stigma respond to their
stigmatized feel and how they behave
predicament varies tremendously. An
toward the stigmatized. As a consequence,
important determinant of their response is
bearers of stigma may mistrust the
how they cope with the threats to their
validity, sincerity, and diagnosticity of
identity that their stigma poses.
positive as well as negative feedback. This,
in turn, can negatively affect their social
Bearers cope with stigmatization in a
relationships as well as interfere with their
variety of ways. Some coping efforts are
abilities to make accurate self-assessments.
problem focused. For example, the
stigmatized may attempt to eliminate the
mark that is the source of stigmatization,
such as when an obese person goes on a their self-esteem from domains in which
diet or a stutterer enrolls in speech therapy. they are negatively stereotyped or fear being
This strategy, of course, is not available to a target of discrimination and investing
bearers whose stigma cannot be themselves more in domains in which they
eliminated. Bearers may also cope by are less at risk. When they encounter
trying to avoid stigmatization, such as negative treatment, another coping strategy
when a person with a concealable stigma they may use is to (often correctly) shift the
“passes” as a member of more valued blame from stable aspects of themselves (“I
group, or an overweight person avoids am stupid,” “I am unlikable”) to the
going to the gym or the beach. This coping prejudice of others. This strategy may
strategy may severely constrain the protect their self-esteem from negative
everyday lives of the stigmatized. The outcomes, especially when prejudice is
stigmatized may also cope by attempting blatant. Bearers of stigma may also cope by
to overcome stigma by compensating, or identifying or bonding with others who
striving even harder in domains where they share their stigma. Similarly, stigmatized
are negatively stereotyped or devalued. For others can provide social support, a sense of
example, one study showed that belonging, and protect against feelings of
overweight women who believed that an rejection and isolation. Furthermore,
interaction partner could see them (and bonding with others who are similarly
hence believed their weight might stigmatized may also enable bearers to enact
negatively affect the interaction) social changes that benefit their stigmatized
compensated by behaving even more group, as demonstrated by the success of the
sociably compared with overweight civil rights movement and the gay pride
women who thought their interaction movement. In sum, through various coping
partner could not see them. Although this strategies, bearers of stigma may
strategy can be effective, it can also be demonstrate resilience even in the face of
exhausting, especially in the face of social devaluation.
enormous obstacles.
CHILD ABUSE AND
Other coping strategies focus on managing DOMESTIC VIOLENCE.
the negative emotions or threats to self-
esteem that stigmatization may cause. For
(Referred from APA and an articleChild
example, the stigmatized may cope with
threats to their identity by disengaging Sexual Abuse in India: Current Issues
and Research by David K. Carson &Nishi substance abuse, self-mutilation, bulimia,

Tripathi) unsafe or dysfunctional sexual behavior,
somatization, aggression, suicidality, and
personality disorders. Hence, the
CHILD ABUSE
experience of CSA can have a profound
influence on a child’s functioning.
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a serious and Common sequelae for adult survivors of
widespread problem in India as it is in CSA include: mental health problems
many parts of the world today. The trauma (e.g., depression, anxiety, substance abuse,
associated with sexual abuse can posttraumatic stress), relational challenges
contribute to arrested development, as well (e.g., sexual health, intimacy, and
as a host of psychological and emotional increased risk for sexual assault and
disorders, that some children and domestic violence), and spiritual concerns
adolescents may never overcome. When (e.g., shattered assumptions about life,
sexual abuse goes unreported and children people, and self, as well as changing belief
are not given the protective and therapeutic systems, following the trauma) (Chawla
assistance they need, they are left to suffer 2004; Davidsonetal.2009; Deb and Sen
in silence. 2005). However, some adult survivors of
CSA demonstrate resiliency and
Child maltreatment in India is a pervasive posttraumatic growth (Wright et al. 2007).
problem that often results in immediate Hence, healing and change are possible.
negative effects on children, followed by
the potential for numerous problems
KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
throughout the lifespan. Research has
documented that child sexual abuse (CSA)
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is defined as
may hinder proper growth and
the misuse of power and authority,
development (Cicchetti and Toth 2006;
combined with force or coercion, which
Foster2011; Goodman et al. 2010) and
leads to the exploitation of children in
place children at risk for a host of mental
situations where adults, or
health disorders, including but not limited
children sufficiently older than the victim
to: anxiety, depression, anger, cognitive
to have greater strength and power, seek
distortions, posttraumatic stress,
sexual gratification through those who are
dissociation, identity disturbance, affect
developmentally immature, and where, as
dysregulation, interpersonal problems,
a result, consent from the victim is a non- the form of unwanted sexual contact,
concept. Such gratification an involve physical abuse, and psychological
explicit sexual acts, or may involve maltreatment.
invasive and inappropriate actions not Sexual Assault is a class of sexual
directly involving contact (Miller et al. conduct prohibited by the law that
2007). includes forcible sex offenses such as rape
Child sexual exploitation can involve the and sodomy of a perpetrator toward or
following: possession, manufacture and upon a victim. The victim
distribution of child pornography; online may be a minor or an adult.
enticement of children for sexual acts; OVERVIEW OF CHILD SEXUAL
child prostitution; child sex tourism; and ABUSE IN INDIA
child sexual molestation.

Estimated Incidence Rates of Child Sexual
Trauma is defined as “the realization of
Abuse India has a large child population
one’s worst fears, the experiences that
that is vulnerable to all types of abuse,
every human being would never want to
neglect and exploitation (Chawla
have”(Klempner 2000,p.77).
2004;Deb2005, 2009; Priyabadini 2007).
Grooming is defined as methods used by
According to Deb (2002,2009), Deb and
perpetrators to earn trust and keep children
Mukherjee (2009), and Iravani (2011),
involved in sexual acts. Common
child sexual abuse (CSA) in India has been
strategies for such manipulation include
an age-old and deep-rooted social
giving the victim gifts or special treatment
problem, and child trafficking for
or privileges, which is often a confusing
commercial sexual abuse has become a
experience for the child victim (Lanktree
serious issue for policy makers. Of the
and Briere 2008). Abusers gain access to
total population in modern day India,
their child victims and attain their trust
about 44.4 % are under
through the giving of special attention and
18 years of age (children and adolescents),
time. Perpetrators often trick or deceive
and one in every two children is deprived
the child and others in order to ensure that
in terms of not receiving primary
the abuse is kept secret.
education, adequate nutrition and medical
Re-victimization is that which places a care (National
person who was sexually abused as a Family Health Survey 2005–2006).
minor at greater risk for further abuse in Presently there is a dearth of information
adulthood. Re-victimization may occur in about the extent
of CSA in India with the exception of a recent study, Deb and Walsh (2012)
few recent studies. However, there appears found, for example, that of 160 boys and
to be a gross under-reporting of crimes 160 girls who were randomly selected
against children in India (as in the United from Grades 8 and 9 in school in the state
States and of Tripura an average of 18 % of the
other countries), including various types of children had experienced sexual abuse in
child sexual abuse. Thus, there is also a the home environment. Girls reported
general consensus that the problem of higher incidences of sexual abuse than
child abuse is much more prevalent than boys, whereas boys were more likely to
what is commonly have experienced physical and
understood or acknowledged (Chawla psychological abuse in the home. Overall
2004; Deb and Mukherjee 2009). social adjustment scores for girls were
significantly lower than those for boys.
Researchers in India estimate that between
18 % and 50 % of their country’s According to Iravani’s(2011) examination of
population may have experienced some studies ofCSA in India based on lengthy
type of sexual abuse in their life time interviews with adults, approximately 30
(Chatterjee et al. 2006; Chawla of men and 40 % of women
rememberhaving been sexually molested
2004;Deb2006,2009;DebandMukherjee20 during childhood, with “molestation”
09; Deb and Walsh 2012). These statistics defined as actual genital contact and not
may not account for the number of just exposure. This researcher noted that
children (1 in 5) who are sexually solicited about half of these incidenceswere directly
while incestuous with family members (although
using the internet, and the high number of withthe knowledge or complicity of other
victims who never disclose their sexual caretakers in at least80 % of the cases) and
abuse from in and outside the family. the other half occurred with perpetrators
outside the immediate or extended family.
Children who fail to disclose may be Other studiesexamined in this article
between 30 % and 87 % support these high incidences of CSA.
(Deb2005,2009;DebandMukherjee2009,20
11). There is additional empirical evidence Iravani (2011) concluded that:
which supports the assertion that
incidences of CSA in India are high. In a
“These experiences of seduction are not lower status in the family and society, are
just pieced together from fragmentary particularly vulnerable to CAN, including
memories, but are remembered indetail, sexually abusive acts (Chawla 2004; Deb
are usually for an extended period of time and Mukherjee 2009). Further, girls in
and havebeen confirmed by follow-up India, especially in rural areas, are
reliability studies in 83 % ofthe cases, so discriminated against in terms of
they are unlikely to have been fantasies. education, nutrition, and medical care, are
Theseductions occurred at much earlier more likely to experience infanticide, and
ages than had beenpreviously assumed, are often treated as more of a burden to the
with 81 % occurring before pubertyand an family (Deb 2006;India Country Report on
astonishing 42 % under age 7 (p. 151).” Violence against Children 2005). In
addition, boy children are typically valued
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND FAMILY and preferred in Indian families, and boy
FACTORS children often reap the better fruits of what
parents have to offer. All of these factors
Involved in Child SexualAbuse in India. put girl children especially at greater risk
The most significant challenges to for child sexual abuse and exploitation.
addressing all types of childabuse and Another socio-cultural factor in child
neglect (CAN) in India include sexual abuse is family secrecy. In India the
overpopulation that involves poor service business of the family stays in the family,
delivery for children and families, poverty, especially with regard to any actions that
illiteracy, abandonment of children, are considered inappropriate or taboo
underreporting of CAN, and cultural (Choudhury 2006). This is because in
beliefs and practices pertaining to parental India there are cultural elements of blame
rights and styles. These include parents and shame (including in family systems),
believing that children are their personal and families will go to great lengths to
property, and that the rights and choices of protect the reputation of the family in the
children solely belong to the parents (Deb community (Baradha
2009; Deb and Mukherjee 2009). Deb 2006;Choudhury2006). It is also not
(2005) and Deb and Mukherjee (2009) also unusual for children to be blamed for their
note that parents and/or close relatives are own abuse because the rights and
the most common perpetrators of CAN, statements of adults tend to trump those of
which includes child sexual abuse (Virani children (Baradha 2006; Priyabadini
2000). Girl children, who occupy a
2007). Moreover, since the child’s identity “..... with an increasing incidence of child
is rooted in the family’s identity and abuse, India needs both legislation and
standing in the community, anything that large scale interventions to address this
would embarrassment the family or tarnish problem”(2008, p. 98). Widespread public
their good name is kept private –in some education about child sexual abuse and
cases even from other immediate or exploitation is also sorely needed,
extended family members (Patnaik 2007; especially in Indian schools and families
Priyabadini 2007). This practice of secrecy (Deb and Mukherjee 2009; Priyabadini
only serves to protect the sexual 2007). The protection of children against
perpetrator and allows the cycle of abuse all forms of child abuse and exploitation
to continue (Baradha 2006; Patnaik 2007). needs to be a chief priority at the local,
In addition, the parents or caregiver’s state and national level, and current laws
refusal to believe the child victim about need to be enforced when children and
the sexual abuse or cover it up further adolescents become victims of a
exacerbates the child’s distress (i.e., perpetrator’s acts, including perpetrators
betrayal trauma) and prevents her or him being prosecuted to the full extent of the
from getting therapeutic help when needed law.
(Priyabadini 2007).
According to Kacker and Kumar (2008), THE CHILD ABUSE AND
traditionally the care and protection of PREVENTION TREATMENT ACT
children in India has been the

The Child Abuse and Prevention
responsibility of families and
Treatment Act defines child abuse and
communities. They may be correct in their
neglect or child maltreatment as:
observation that a strongly knit patriarchal
family system has seldom held the belief Any recent act or failure to act on the part
that children are individuals with their own of a parent or caretaker, which results in
rights. These authors note that even though death, serious physical or emotional harm,
the Constitution of India guarantees many sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or
fundamental rights to children, these rights failure to act which presents an imminent
are more needs based than rights based, risk of serious harm.
and the government has the challenging
task of implementing constitutional and
statutory provisions for children. Hence,
Neglect is a failure to meet the child’s Lack of knowledge about normal child

basic needs, e.g., not providing enough developmentandunrealistic

food, shelter or basic supervision, expectations, frustration and/or
necessary medical or mental health inappropriate methods of discipline.
treatment, adequate education or
FAMILY RISK FACTORS
emotional comfort.

Physical abuse refers to the injury of a
Children living with single parents are
child on purpose, e.g., striking,
more likely to live in poverty with
kicking, beating, biting or any action
fewer social supports, which may
that leads to physical injury.
 contribute to stress and increase risks
Sexual abuse is the use, persuasion or
of maltreatment.
forcing of a child to engage in sexual 
Children in violent homes may witness
acts or imitation of such acts.
intimate partner violence, may be
victims of physical abuse themselves
Abuse and neglect of children occurs in
and may be neglected by parents or
families from all walks of life, of all
caregivers who are focused on their
incomes, religions and ethnicities. There is
partners or unresponsive to their
no single cause of child maltreatment;
children due to their own fears.
rather, it occurs as a result of many forces 
Stressful life events, parenting stress
working together to impact the family.
and emotional distress (e.g., losing a
PARENT OR CAREGIVER RISK job, physical illness, marital problems
FACTORS or the death of a family member) may
worsen hostility, anxiety or depression
Low self-esteem, poor impulse control, among family members and increase
depression, anxiety or antisocial
the level of family conflict and
behavior.
 maltreatment.
Experiencing or witnessing violence as 
Maltreating parents or caregivers are
a child, which teaches violent behavior
less supportive, affectionate, playful
or justifies it as proper behavior.
 and responsive with their children and
Substance abuse, which interferes with
are more likely to use harsh discipline
mental functioning, judgment, self-
and verbal aggression than positive
control, ability to be protective of
parenting strategies (e.g., using time
one’s child and making the child’s
needs a priority.
outs, reasoning, and recognizing and physically abused child may develop
encouraging the child's successes). aggressive behaviors that lead to
recurring maltreatment.
CHILD RISK FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS
Infants and young children, because
they are small and need constant care, The vast majority of parents or caregivers
are more likely to experience certain who live in these types of environments
forms of maltreatment such as being are not abusive. However, these stresses
shaken by parents or caregivers can increase the risk of abuse for some:
frustrated or overwhelmed by
 Poverty and unemployment can
persistent crying. Teenagers, on the
increase the likelihood of
other hand, are at greater risk for
sexual abuse. maltreatment, especially in
 combination with family stress,
Children with physical, cognitive and
depression, substance abuse and social
emotional disabilities or chronic
isolation.
illnesses may be at greater risk of
 Parents with less material and
maltreatment. Parents or caregivers of
emotional support and who do not
children with disabilities are more
have positive parenting role models
likely to experience high levels of
feel less pressure to conform to
stress, depression and anger. Children
conventional standards of parenting
with disabilities may not understand
 behaviors.
that abusive behaviors are
 Children living in dangerous
inappropriate and are unable to defend
neighborhoods are at higher risk than
themselves.
 children from safer neighborhoods for
Aggression, attention deficits, difficult
severe neglect, physical abuse and
temperaments and behavior problems
sexual abuse. It is possible that
in children have been associated with
violence may seem an acceptable
increased risk for maltreatment,
response or behavior to individuals
especially when parents have poor
who witness it more frequently.
coping skills, are unable to empathize
with the child or have difficulty
Child abuse and neglect can result in
controlling emotions. Maltreatment
physical and psychological developmental
often exacerbates the problem. A
delays. A neglectful mother may not feed
her baby properly, which can slow brain Children’s optimism, high self-esteem,
development, or an emotionally abusive intelligence, creativity, humor and
father may damage his child’s ability to independence, which enhance their
form trusting relationships. Abused or coping skills in the face of adversity.

neglected children can see the world as an The acceptance of peers and positive
unstable, frightening and dangerous place, influences such as teachers, mentors
which can undermine their sense of self- and role models

worth and their ability to cope with and The family’s access to social supports,
adapt to their environments as they grow neighborhood stability and access to
up. If unaddressed, maltreatment may safe schools and adequate health care

contribute to later problems, such The child's experience of love,
alcoholism/substance abuse, depression, acceptance, positive guidance and
domestic violence, multiple sexual protection from a caring adult, which
partners and exposure to sexually encourages trust that their parents or
transmitted diseases, suicidal thoughts and caregivers will provide what they need
attempts. to thrive

Parent's or caregiver’s respectful

The impact of abuse can vary depending
communication and listening,
on:
consistent rules and expectations, and
safe opportunities that promote
Age and developmental status of the
independence
child when the abuse or neglect 
Parents or caregivers who can cope
occurred,
 with the stresses of everyday life and
Type of abuse (physical abuse, neglect,
have the inner strength to bounce back
sexual abuse, etc.),
 when things are not going well.
Frequency, duration and severity of 
Parents or caregivers with a social
abuse,
 network of emotionally supportive
Relationship between the victim and
friends, family and neighbors
his or her abuser. 
Families who can meet their own basic
WHAT FACTORS PROTECT A needs for food, clothing, housing and
CHILD FROM RISK OF ABUSE OR transportation and know how to access
NEGLECT? essential services such as childcare,
health care and mental health services
WHAT PREVENTIONS ARE For victims of CSA, processing and working

THERE FOR CHILD through their sexual abuse is often an
MALTREATMENT? extremely difficult task (Oz 2005). Common
challenges that counselors need to prepare
Psychologists are heavily involved in
for when the counseling process begins are:
the development and implementation
of prevention programs for child abuse (a) increased symptomatology for some
and neglect. Primary prevention
period of time in treatment, (b) non-linear,
 programs raise awareness among the
public, service providers and slowed or halted progress, and (c) drop out.
policymakers about the scope of issues
Counselors are encouraged to confront these
involved in child maltreatment.
Secondary prevention programs target challenges through providing adequate
populations with one or more risk
levels of challenge and support for the child
 factors for child maltreatment.
Tertiary prevention programs target and the child’s family. Moreover, exposure
families where maltreatment has
to traumatic memories and content before
already taken place and aim to reduce
the impact and prevent it from the child is ready can be damaging to the
reoccurring.
child’s well-being and therapeutic
CHALLENGES FOR COUNSELORS relationship. The concept of the therapeutic
IN THE TREATMENT PROCESS window helps avoid both re-traumatization
There are two major goals in working with and failure to move towards recovery
child victims of sexual abuse (Anderson (Briere and Scott 2006). Therefore, when
and Hiersteiner2008; Briere and Scott implementing any therapy with sexually
2006). First is to help the victim express abused children, therapists must determine
and work through her/his emotions whether the child is ready for trauma
regarding the abuse, including about and treatment or initially needs to be stabilized
toward the perpetrator, in the here and and made to feel safe following the abuse
now. This is a long-term process for many (and establish a safe place they can learn to
victims of CSA. The second goal is to help go to in their thoughts and feelings). It is
the child or adolescent movefrom a sense important to remember that children often
of victim to survivor to victor; i.e., the experience some ambivalence between
Resilient Self –characteristics that include: having a desire to protect the secret of CSA
independence, connectedness, creativity, as well as unburden their story to a safe and
insight, play and humor, morality, self- caring person (Crenshaw and Hardy 2007).
regulation, initiative, and spirituality. In order to begin the unburdening process,
children must feel secure, supported, and process theirexperience (Foster 2011).
believed about the abuse. Therapy begins Children may initially fear recallingtheir
with stablishing a therapeutic relationship trauma, believing that the remembering
between the child and counselor. will lead to anunbearable reliving of the
Developing a relationship with children events. It is important to help thechild
who have experienced extreme trauma, distinguish between a memory (past events
including sexual abuse, has been described that are goneand not operating in the
as “a harrowing feat” (Crenshaw and present) and the here-and-now and tomake
Hardy 2007) and the counselor’s role as sure that the child understands this
one of an “empathetic witness of injustice” difference.Whenfears are expressed, it is
(Kaminer2006, p. 488). Due to the nature helpful for the counselor to explainthe
of CSA, trust is rationale of the trauma narrative and what
acentralissue.Manyabusedchildrentendtore the counselorwill do if symptoms arise. It
spondtootherswith either blind trust (that is also important to assure thechild that
does not distinguish between safeand they will work at his/her own pace. At this
unsafe people) or an inability to trust stage, it isvital for the counselor to be an
anyone in anycircumstance. Other victims empathetic, nonjudgmentallistener as the
of CSA fear that the counselor willbetray child becomes ready to tell his or her
their trust and they will be harmed again. story(Kaminer2006). When children share
An importantcomponent to the healing trauma in the form ofthe narrative, they
process is for children to learn how totrust are actively involved in the process
others again, a process which begins in the ofmoving towards closure.
counselingrelationship and continues over Closure is defined as the survivor
time (Kaminer2006). Failure toestablish a becoming free fromhabitually thinking
safe, trusting relationship often leads to about the trauma in such a way that
thefailure ofany method or technique causesdistress (Klempner2000). During
employed since the efficacy ofcounseling this process, children seekto understand
is directly related to the therapeutic their trauma andits impact, which may
relationship(Gil 2006). involveaddressing why the trauma
During the trauma narrative process (the happened to them and understand that in
child telling orsharing her/his abuse story), no way isanything their fault. It also
the counselor works closely withthe child involves exploration of the waysin which
to help them recall, write about, and the experience has changed their view of
self, others,and the world. Children (when and alone. Adults may also fear
they are developmentallycapable) can thatopenlytalking about the abuse will re-
explore and discover personal meanings traumatize the child, and therefore they
withinthe traumatic experience. The act of avoid the topic altogether (Ogawa 2004).
making meaning out Childrenare aware of whether or not the
ofone’strauma(e.g.,“that which does not abuse can be talked aboutopenly with their
kill me makes mestronger”) often helps parents, and theytoo may avoid the topic
children attain some level of outof fear that it will make their parents
closure(Briere and Lanktree2008). sad or angry. However,bringing the trauma
Integrating the traumatic experience into out in the open and helping the
one’s life is the last portion of trauma childexpress her/his thoughts and deep
recovery. Forchildren, the ability to adapt inner feelings helps “demystify”the
and move forward often lies intheir experience of CSA for them and
courage to face their pain and process the emotionallywork through the trauma.
emotionalimpact of the abuse on them, Children also need to know what toexpect
while at the same time learningnew ways in sessions, what their role is and the role
of coping with life. It is important to of thecounselor. Parents and caregivers
remember thatchildren needample time to should also be informed ofthe potential
successfully complete treatment. increases in symptoms and decline in
Finally, involvement of supportive parents functioningfor some period during
or caregivers intreatment is recommended treatment with some children and howto
for children who have experiencedsexual respond to their child during these
abuse (Lanktree and Briere2008). This sensitive periods.
improves treatment outcomesfor children

(Cohenand Mannarino2008)andhelps DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
promote positive family relationships
(Referred Article: Domestic Violence,
(McPherson et al.2012). One of the major
Psychological Trauma and Mental Health
goals is to increase
of Women: A View from India an article
parents’andcaregivers’ability to talk
by L. N. Suman)
openly about the trauma with theirchild
The recognition of domestic violence as a
(Cohen and Mannarino2008). Many adults
serious social problem is an achievement
have difficulty talking about sexual abuse,
of second wave feminism originating in
which often leaves childrenfeeling isolated
the late 1960s. Feminist activists provided
safety and shelter for women and children against girls and women by treating them
escaping violence, and located the roots of as crimes. Domestic violence against
domestic violence in gender inequality in women in India is especially significant in
social relationships. terms of prevalence and consequences.
With more than half a billion-female According to the Domestic Violence Act
population, India has the second largest of India, domestic violence includes
population of females in the world. This physical violence, emotional abuse and
immense resource needs to be provided economic abuse. The National Family
safety, security and nurturance for society, Health Survey of India for the period
and thereby the nation, to benefit in 2005-2006 examined the prevalence of
multitude ways. It goes without saying that domestic violence among 83,703 women
at first the girl child has to be given a in the age range of 15 to 49 years. Results
chance to be born and subsequently, not revealed that 34% of the women had
only accepted, but cherished. This requires experienced domestic violence and that
an attitudinal shift in the way the girl child domestic violence was higher among
is perceived and treated in the patriarchal women who had low educational and
Indian society. Several social ills that economic status. Physical violence was
plague Indian society target the girl child more prevalent than sexual and emotional
and women. These include female feticide, abuse with one third of the victimized
neglect of the girl child, sexual abuse of women reporting cuts, bruises, burns,
the girl child, trafficking of girls and dislocations, deep wounds, broken teeth
women, dowry harassment and domestic and bones. However, 75% of them did not
violence. Such violence against girls and seek help to end the violence and the data
women impairs their physical and also suggested that neither education nor
psychological health which necessitates wealth implied a greater likelihood that
health professionals to be sensitive to such women would seek help against
issues. Health professionals, including violence.Domestic violence, especially
mental health professionals, need to be physical violence, has been found to be
made aware of the underlying strongly associated with poor mental
psychological trauma in order to ensure health among women and it has also been
adequate and appropriate interventions. implicated as an important factor in
The government of India has passed women seeking safety in shelter homes. In
legislations to punish abuse and violence a review of studies on domestic violence

in India, reported that sexual violence by
husbands led to higher odds of women cross cutting competencies to understand

reporting gynecologic symptoms like trauma reactions. A similar situation exists
blood after intercourse, vaginal discharge, in India with little aware-ness about
burning micturition, pain during psychological trauma and its
intercourse, and symptoms suggestive of manifestations among counselors. Hence,
sexually transmitted infections. Further, it is important to train counsellors and
the risk for infant mortality was 36% other mental health professionals in
higher among mothers who experienced trauma informed care. It was with this aim
domestic violence compared with mothers that a ‘Trauma Recovery Clinic’ was
who did not. In this context, it should be started in 2014 at NIMHANS urban well-
noted that alcohol abuse has been found to being centre. The objectives of the clinic
be a significant factor among men who are to enable survivors to come to terms
indulge in domestic violence.Interpersonal with the trauma and reclaim their lives by
victimization of girls and women reducing emotional symptoms of trauma,
significantly impacts their ability to cope enhancing self-esteem and resilience,
and can result in symptoms of improving social sup-port and preventing
psychological trauma such as dissociation, re-traumatization. The clinic also conducts
somatization, intrusive thoughts and awareness and capacity building
images of the traumatic events, self-harm, programmes for psychologists and
and social withdrawal. Further, re- counsellors. However, several such clinics
traumatization and multiple traumatization are required in India to bring about a
contribute significantly to the risk of Post- noticeable difference in the quality of life
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). of girls and women in the country and
However, Cook and Newman report-ed ensure a life of freedom, empowerment
that mental health practitioners lack and dignity for them.
evidence-based knowledge, assessment
and psychotherapy skills to effectively
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE VS
treat trauma survivors. They recommended
INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE
training for psychologists in ‘Trauma
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is defined
Psychology’ to obtain competencies in
as any behavior within an intimate
psychosocial trauma focused assessment,
relationship (married, unmarried, and live-
trauma focused psychosocial interventions
in) that causes physical, psychological, or
and trauma informed professionalism apart
sexual harm to those in that relationship.
from obtaining scientific knowledge and
This definition encompasses physical, have experienced sexual violence. The

sexual, and psychological incidence across South Asia ranges
aggression/abuse or controlling behavior between 8% and 50%, and almost 31% of
of any kind. IPV differs conceptually from Indian women have experienced IPV at
domestic violence. Domestic violence is some point in their marital life.
defined as the physical, sexual, and
emotional maltreatment of one family
PEACE PSYCHOLOGY: VIOLENCE,
member by another. It typically includes
NON-VIOLENCE, CONFLICT
all types of family violence such as elder
RESOLUTION AT MACRO LEVEL,
abuse, child abuse, and marital rape;
ROLE OF MEDIA IN CONFLICT
however, IPV is limited to acts of
RESOLUTION.
aggression between intimate partners. As
females are more likely to be hurt in cases PEACE PSYCHOLOGY:
of IPV, male-to-female partner violence
has been studied in much greater detail, Psychologists have been interested in war
though both male-to-female and female-to- and peace since the beginning of modern
male partner violence exist; and the rates psychology. Though philosophizing about
of female-to-male partner violence equal peace has ancient roots, the discipline of
or exceed male-to-female partner violence; peace psychology essentially began soon
in general household population. Almost after the establishment of modern
50% of IPV are bidirectional, and the rest scientific psychology with the 1910 essay
divided between male-to-female only and by William James, “The Moral Equivalent
female-to-male only partner violence. of War.”
One in three ever-partnered women William James, the first peace

worldwide has experienced physical and/or psychologist, was a most distinguished
sexual violence by an intimate partner. Of scholar and also an insistent public voice
these women, 42% sustained immediate on issues of war and peace. He, in a
physical injuries, and 13% were fatally speech at Stanford University in 1906,
injured. Nearly 13%–61% of women have coined the phrase “the moral equivalent of
experienced physical violence by a partner war” (James, 1910/1995, p. 22). James
sometime in their lifetime. About 4%–49% argued that war provides human beings
have experienced severe physical violence, with opportunities to express their spiritual
and 6%–59% inclinations toward self-sacrifice and
personal honor; consequently, to end war, Gordon Allport, Edna Heidbreder, Ernest
societies must find alternative “moral Hilgard, Otto Klineberg, RensisLikert, and
equivalents” for the expression of these Edward Tolman) circulated a
profoundly important human values. “Psychologists’ Manifesto: Human Nature
and the Peace: A Statement by
Peace can be defined as a positive societal
Psychologists” (reprinted in Jacobs, 1989,
state in which violence, whether direct or
and in Murphy, 1945), which was signed
structural, is not a likely occurrence, and in
by almost 4,000 psychologists (M. B.
which all humans, animals, and ecology
Smith, 1999). The Manifesto argued that
are treated with fairness, dignity, and
“war can be avoided: War is built, not
respect. Peace psychology is the study of
born” and urged lawmakers to work
mental processes and behavior that lead to
toward peace with attention to “the root
violence, prevent violence, and facilitate
desires of the common people of all lands”
nonviolence as well as promoting fairness,
respect, and dignity for all, for the purpose Direct violence comes from individuals
of making violence a less likely occurrence who hurt others in acute and discrete
and helping to heal its psychological incidents. In a war, there will be a
effects. multitude of such incidents. Structural
violence is inflicted on people through the
The Division of Peace Psychology
structures of society and involves chronic
(Division 48), which was established in forms of harm such as poverty,
1991, shares with the American
environmental damage, misallocated
Psychological Association (APA) a
resources, or dangerous working
commitment to promoting human well-
conditions.
being. The goals of peace psychology are
to “increase and apply psychological Structural violence is embedded in the
knowledge in the pursuit of peace . . . values, social norms, laws, social
[including] both the absence of destructive structures, and procedures within a society
conflict and the creation of positive social or community which systematically
conditions which minimize destructiveness disadvantage certain individuals and
and promote human well-being” groups so that they are poorer, sicker, less
educated, and more harmed than those
By the close of World War II, 13 well- who are not disadvantaged.
known American psychologists (including
‘Positive’ peace denotes the simultaneous people relate those perspectives to each
presence of many desirable states of mind other within some coherent framework.
and society, such as harmony, justice, Leaders who take an oversimplified,

equity, etc. ‘Negative’ peace has inflexible approach are more likely to
historically denoted the ‘absence of war’ escalate conflicts. More flexible leaders,
and other forms of wide-scale violent able to understand the other side’s
human conflict. perspectives, are less likely to get into a
war. Content analysis of public speeches
and similar documents before various wars
and conflicts shows that a fall in
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
integrative complexity scores is a good
INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY: predictor of whether war will be the
outcome (Conway, Suedfeld, &Tetlock,
One concept for understanding the 2001).
decision-making process for wars is
integrative complexity. This construct has - MECHANISMS OF MORAL
two features: differentiation or the degree DISENGAGEMENT:Albert Bandura and
to which people see differences among colleagues argue that the most inhumane
perspectives on a particular problem; and behavior occurs when original ideas of
integration, which is the degree to which moral conduct are disengaged. People
disengage by changing how they think Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis:

about the act, comparing it to worse One of the earliest proposed explanations
conduct, scapegoating, deferring to of aggression was the Frustration–
authority, discounting the effects, or Aggression Hypothesis, which holds that
discounting the victims. when people are thwarted from attaining
an expected goal, aggression follows
COMPARTMENTALIZING:It is
(Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears,
related—putting different parts of life into
1939). Many but not all laboratory
different compartments, sealed off from
experiments showed frustration leading to
one another. The officers ordering a
greater aggression.
massacre may go to church on Sunday and
profess beliefs contrary to their actions. Catharsis: Freud believed that if anger
They are not thinking of their actions when builds up, it can explode into poorly timed,
they make those statements. inappropriate action. If anger were aimed at
an inanimate or symbolic target instead, it
INTELLECTUALIZING:It refers to dissipates. The buildup subsides. He
the focus on reasoning that allows for
termed this process “catharsis.” This
violence, avoiding the accompanying
hypothesis has been tested extensively for
negative emotions. Discounting the victim
decades.
is described in detail by Brennan (1995)
who gives various categories of “linguistic Cognitive Dissonance and Effort
warfare” used to facilitate violence: Justification: The theory of cognitive
describing people as deficient humans, dissonance is that people find it stressful to
nonhumans, nonpersons, animals, have two different ideas in conflict with
parasites, diseases, inanimate objects, or each other. To reduce this tension, they
waste products. He offers an array of might take actions or make arguments that
quotations from throughout history to seem illogical. Suggestions of a
depict these attitudes aimed at vulnerable contradiction are then met with
groups. belligerency. For wars, this can include
effort justification—the belief that more
THEORIES: effort is required to protect and justify the
effort already made. If one must otherwise
A range of theories has focused on
admit all the effort was wasted, then the
emotions and drives as bases for violent
effort must be continued. The continuation
behavior.
of the American war in Vietnam for Rights Movement of the 1960s, the
several years is one of the most cited struggle of Blacks to gain social and legal
examples. equality with whites. Similarly, many gay
people join the same-sex marriage
Realistic Group Conflict Theory: It
movement in order to acquire the same
posited that hostility is likely to occur legal recognition of their marriages
when groups are in competition for scarce enjoyed by straight people.
resources (Campbell, 1965; Sherif&Sherif,
1953). Realistic group conflict is likely to In some cases, relative deprivation has
increase as resources grow scarcer and been cited as a factor driving incidents of
environmental problems become more social disorder like rioting, looting,
pressing (Winter, 2000; Winter & Koger, terrorism, and civil wars. In this nature,
2004). Depletion of natural resources such social movements and their associated
as clean water, arable land, and precious disorderly acts can often be attributed to
minerals, combined with population the grievances of people who feel they
growth and displacement, will increase are being denied resources to which they
dramatically in the next decades. During are entitled.
such conflicts, attributional biases can
Development of the concept of relative
cascade into scapegoating, antagonistic
deprivation is often attributed to American
ideologies, and blaming.
sociologist Robert K. Merton, whose study
RELATIVE DEPRIVATION of American soldiers during World War II
THEORY: revealed that soldiers in the Military
Police were far less satisfied with their
As defined by social theorists and political opportunities for promotion than regular
scientists, Relative Deprivation Theory GIs.
suggests that people who feel they are
being deprived of almost anything - ABSOLUTE DEPRIVATION
considered essential in their society— THEORY:
whether money, rights, political voice or
Relative and absolute deprivation are
status—will organize or join social
measures of poverty in a given country.
movements dedicated to obtaining the
Absolute deprivation describes a
things of which they feel deprived. For
condition at which household income falls
example, relative deprivation has been
below a level needed to maintain the basic
cited as one of the causes of the U.S. Civil
necessities of life like food and shelter. (Deutsch, 1973, 1985). Competitive
Relative deprivation describes a level of relations are fraught with impaired
poverty at which household income drops communication, suspicion, criticism,
to a certain percentage below the country’s disagreement, power plays, coercion, and
median income. For example, a country’s the belief that solutions benefit one party
level of relative poverty could be set at 50 but not all parties. However, competitive
percent of its median income. While features of a relationship can be
absolute poverty can threaten one’s very transformed by emphasizing cooperation,
survival, relative poverty is more likely to which is characterized by effective
limit one’s ability to participate fully in communication, friendliness, helpfulness,
their society. coordination of effort, shared values and
beliefs, willingness to enhance the other’s
In 2015, the World Bank Group set the
power, and the viewpoint that conflict is a
worldwide absolute poverty level at $1.90
mutual problem to be solved.
a day per person based on purchasing
power parities (PPP) rates. Various conflict resolution techniques
used to reduce tension and conflict include
CONFLICT RESOLUTION AT
negotiation, mediation, arbitration,
MACRO LEVEL:
diplomacy, interactive problem solving,
cooperation on superordinate goals, and
Conflict management broadly to refer to
unilateral initiatives.
efforts that prevent violent episodes by
containing differences in views (conflict
Approaches to conflict resolution tend to
management) or by reaching an agreement
fall within two broad categories:
(conflict resolution).
1. INTEREST BASED
One of the earliest and most important
insights about conflict resolution is that it The interest-based approach was pioneered
often requires finding “integrative by Fisher and Ury (1981) in their best-
solutions,” that is, outcomes that satisfy selling and highly influential book on
the needs of all parties (Follett, 1924). negotiation strategies, Getting to Yes.
However, conflicts often arise out of
This technique has helped negotiators by
negative interdependence between parties
encouraging intergroup empathy and
that have mixed motives with both
mutual understanding, separating thinking
competitive and cooperative dimensions
about players’ personalities from the workshops not only induce change in the
problem, avoiding criticism of the parties individuals participating but serve as a
by each other while critically analyzing the catalyst for change in wider political
issue, inventing options that yield mutual communities. IPS has been applied in
gains, and using objective criteria to judge many conflicts, including those in
whether proposed agreements satisfy Northern Ireland (Hall, 1999), Cyprus
everyone’s interests. This “principled (Fisher, 2001b), Israel/Palestine (Kelman,
negotiation” tends to yield creative 1995; Rouhana&Kelman, 1994),
options, positional flexibility, mutually Argentina (Mitchell, 2000), Sri Lanka
satisfying (win– win) solutions, and (Hicks & Weisberg, 2001), and the Horn
improved relationships through mutual of Africa (Beyna, Lund, Stacks, Tuthill,
learning and problem solving. &Vondal, 2001).
2. NEEDS BASED - Role of media in conflict resolution:

The successive evolution in
needs-based approach called interactive
communication technology has
problem solving (IPS) has been applied in
significantly altered the conduct of
a large variety of settings marked by
conflicts, warfare and conflict resolution
violent episodes. Pioneered by Kelman and
in the world today. Compared to people of
Fisher, IPS uses unofficial representatives
earlier ages, people around the world
of groups or states, who come together for
today know much more and much sooner
several days to engage in dialogue and
about major developments in international
problem solving. The facilitators of these
relations. Similarly, there is millions of
workshops are typically academics or
global news networks that broadcast live
other well-regarded citizens. IPS is
from all corners of the world, and via the
designed to promote greater mutual
internet, providing immediate access to
understanding between parties, stronger
unfolding events and under certain
intergroup relationships, new perspectives
conditions, influencing the way those
on old problems, and a loosening of
events develop and end. As a result, this
entrenched and polarized positions.
has prompted a general feeling that media
Agreements are nonbinding because
coverage, especially television, has had an
participants do not officially represent
increased influence on conflict
their governments; but because
management.
participants are widely respected,
Triggered by rapid technological change in Mega FM has promoted peace in Northern

the media, information no longer simply Uganda with positive effects since 2002.
describes on-scene developments, but
Conflict is an inevitable part of the society
increasingly shapes the dynamics by
today, the ability to manage it well is of
influencing perceptions, opinions and
importance as far as development is
loyalties (Jakosben, 2000; Galtung, 2004).
concerned. Conflict in it right is not evil
This has made information to be an
but it management if not addressed with
important means of warfare used by
the keenest of attention can destroy
governments, military and leaders in all
developmental process. The media has a
ages everywhere for propaganda or
role to play in conflict and should be
disinformation purposes or for great
guided by the core ethics of if functions to
potential to promote peace building.
handle conflict situations in the better of
- MEDIA INFLUENCE interests.
History has shown that media can incite IMPORTANT TERMS

people towards violence. Hitler used the
Hate speech - Is a form of speech that
media to create hatred for Jews (Vladimir
degrades others and promotes hatred and
&Schirch, 2007). Joseph Goebbels,
encourages violence against a group on the
Hitler’s Minister of Propaganda,
basis of a criteria including religion, race,
masterminded the most effective effort of
color or ethnicity
mass persuasion, heavily relying on
propaganda messages in motion pictures
Media - Refers to the several media or
and radio broadcasting (Jowett &
channels used in an organized manner to
O'Donnell, 1999).
communicate information to groups of
people, as a service to the public. It is
Apart from the negative roles of media,
divided into print media and electronic
several cases have also linked media to the
media.
promotion of peace and reconciliation. For
example, in Northern Uganda where the
Peacekeeping - A technique designed to
Lord Resistance Army (LRA) has camped
preserve the peace, however fragile, where
for decades, media has been used to create
fighting has been halted, and to assist in
the common good for the people to
implementing agreements achieved by the
promote peace. Struges (2007) found that
peacemakers.
Peace building - Involves a range of explores hidden agendas; highlights peace

measures targeted to reduce the risk of ideas and initiatives from anywhere at any
lapsing or relapsing into conflict by time.
strengthening national capacities at all
levels for conflict management, and to lay THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
the foundation for sustainable peace and
development.
There are millions of global news networks
that broadcast live from all corners of the
Peacemaking - Include measures to
world, and via the internet, providing
address conflicts in the progress and
immediate access to unfolding events and
involves diplomatic action to bring hostile
under certain conditions, influencing the
parties to a negotiated agreement.
way those events develop and end. As a
Peace Enforcement - Application of result, this has prompted a general feeling
military force or the threat of its use, that media coverage, especially television,
normally pursuant to compel compliance has had an increased influence on conflict
with resolutions or sanctions designed to management since the collapse of the Soviet
maintain or restore peace and order. Union (Jakosben, 2000). Over the past few
decades, awareness has increased with
Peace Journalism- Peace Journalism is regard to the role local civilian population
defined “when editors and reporters make play in armed conflict. They are no longer
choices - of what to report, and how to considered to be a passive factor, but instead
report it - that create opportunities for
their needs and perceptions have explicit
society at large to consider and value non-
influence upon the success of a mission.
violent responses to conflict”.
Triggered by rapid technological change in
the media, information no longer simply
This is journalism with peace as the main
describes on-scene developments, but
aim i.e. a normative mode of responsible
increasingly shapes the dynamics by
and conscientious media coverage of
influencing perceptions, opinions and
conflict that aims at contributing to
loyalties (Jakosben, 2000; Galtung, 2004).
peacemaking, peacekeeping, and changing
This has made information to be an
the attitudes of media owners, advertisers,
important means of warfare used by
professionals, and audiences towards war
governments, military and leaders in all
and peace. It shows backgrounds and
contexts of conflicts; hears from all sides;
ages everywhere for propaganda or HISTORY OF MEDIA INFLUENCE

disinformation purposes or for great
History has shown that media can incite
potential to promote peace building.
people towards violence. Hitler used the
The policies of the military and the media to create hatred for Jews (Vladimir
attitudes of the press and the public &Schirch, 2007). Joseph Goebbels,
towards media coverage of wars were Hitler’s Minister of Propaganda,
influenced enormously by the experiences masterminded the most effective effort of
of the Vietnam War. The power of media mass persuasion, heavily relying on
influence in conflict was witnessed in the propaganda messages in motion pictures
Vietnam War during the US involvement and radio broadcasting (Jowett &
in the war due to the significant growth in O'Donnell, 1999). In the 1992-5 Balkan
information technology posed by conflict, electronic and print media helped
discovery of television (Praeger,1994). As promote ethnic conflict and hatred leading
remarked by Colonel Harry G. Summers – to violence. While the explicit broadcast of
a battalion and corps operations officer in hate messages was rare, the cumulative
the Vietnam War; “....there is a tendency impact of biased coverage fuelled the
to blame our problems with public support hatred over a long period polarizing local
on the media .... it was this horror, not the communities to the point where violence
reporting, that so influenced the American became an acceptable tool for addressing
people,” (Kull, 1995). Thus, the military grievances (Buric, 2000; Sadkovich,
realized after the Vietnam experience that 1998). In the past four years, the African
to be able to wage war it would have to continent experienced several political
control the media, particularly the uprisings in Arab countries. Some of these
television media, so that the horrible uprisings were claimed to be engineered
images of war would not make it back to and subsequently escalated by media.
the home-front. Using the Libyan civil war as a case study,
Viggo (2011) explored the media’s role in
In order to objectively understand the modern conflicts. Emphasizing on the
nature and the role of media in peace and media’s shortcomings in its reporting and
conflict management, it is important to analysis of the conflict, he highlighted the
understand the various ways through double standards that the media gave by
which media influence conflict and drawing parallels between the wars in Iraq
conflict management. and Libya in an effort to illustrate the
errors repeatedly carried out by mass country and further economic decline
media. Eventually, Viggo concluded with (ibid).Apart from the negative roles of
reference to Muammar Qaddafi’s media, several cases have also linked
captureand subsequent killing on October media to the promotion of peace and
20, 2011, “.... the power of media in reconciliation. For example, in Northern
conflict cannot be assumed.... speed and Uganda where the Lord Resistance Army
technology with which images of the event (LRA) has camped for decades, media has
recorded on cell phones were transmitted been used to create the common good for
around the world via social media the people to promote peace. Struges
platforms, and widely disseminated even (2007) found that Mega FM has promoted
before Qaddafi’s death was confirmed....” peace in Northern Uganda with positive
effects since 2002.
During the 2010 general elections in Côte
d’Ivoire, the media landscape was rife with The station has encouraged LRA members
partisan polemic and misinformation from to come out of the bush, joined radio
opposing sides and incitements to phone-in talk shows and hold discussions
violence, while members of the media with government and civil society
themselves were frequent targets of representatives, a good step in peace
violence and intimidation (Media building. Likewise, Open Broadcast
Foundation for West Africa, 2011). During Network (OBN), a media network
the post-election crisis that followed after established in Bosnia two decades ago, is
the announcement of the presidential one of the most ambitious and earliest
results, the print media and public intentional media attempts to reduce
television were used by both presidential violent conflict. To this day, it remains the
candidates Laurent Gbagbo and only television network established to
AllassaneOuattara as a tool for propaganda promote peace and reconciliation. This
and a means for mobilizing their electorate followed the initial assessments of the
against their opponents (Electoral Reform Bosnian conflict that propaganda, through
International Services, 2011).The media ethnic television stations, was instrumental
occupied a central role in the post-election in spreading messages of hate that incited
crisis and the descent into civil war that and fuelled the conflict (Sadkovich, 1998).
saw the displacement of more than 1 Search for Common Ground (SFCG), a
million people, the effective termination of US based NGO dealing with conflict
many government services in parts of the resolution, launched Studio Ijambo in
1995 at the height of ethnic and political well-being reflects dimensions of affect
violence in Burundi and neighbouring judgments of life satisfaction.
Rwanda. The studio was established with Psychological well-beingis simultaneously
the intention of promoting reconciliation, the absence of the crippling elements of
understanding and foster nonviolent the human experience–depression, anxiety,
conflict resolution (SFCG, 2004). Since its anger, fear–and the presence of enabling
inception, Studio Ijambo has had a ones–positive emotions, meaning, healthy
significant positive impact in mitigating relationships, environmental mastery,
conflict through high-quality radio engagement, self-actualization.
programs that promoted reconciliation, Psychological well-beingis above and
dialogue, and collaboration, in addition to beyond the absence of psychological ill-
its credible, unbiased programming which being and it considers a broader spectrum
included news, special features, round- of constructs than what is traditionally
table discussions, telephone call-ins, conceived of as happiness (Seligman
music, and highly popular soap-opera andCsikszentmihalyi,2000;
series (Slachmuijlder&Nkurunziza, 1972). Seligman,2011).
The concept of well-being has received

WELLBEING AND SELF-
considerable interest in recent years, both
GROWTH: TYPES OF
in the scientific and lay literature. As such,
WELLBEING [HEDONIC AND well-being is frequently cited as a national
EUDEMONIC], CHARACTER priority for government policy around the
STRENGTHS, RESILIENCE world (Beddington et al. 2008). However,
AND POST-TRAUMATIC depending upon one’s professional and

personal perspective, the notion of well-
GROWTH.
being can have quite different
connotations. For instance, economists
Psychological well-being refers to inter- may interpret well-being in terms of
and intraindividual levels of positive economic capacity and prosperity, the
functioning that can include one’s growth in both individual and national
relatedness with others and self-referent economic wealth.
attitudes that include one’s sense of
Psychological wellbeing includes the
mastery and personal growth. Subjective
absence of disorders, such as major
depression or schizophrenia. An individual
suffering from mental disorders can hardly SWB to be a function of the independent
experience psychological wellbeing. dimensions of general positive and
However, absence of those disorders does negative affectivity.
not guaranty psychological flourishing.
Since society traditionally supports mental
illness within its healthcare system, it
TYPES OF WELLBEING (HEDONIC
belongs in the health domain and it will
AND EUDEMONIC)
not be a focus of this chapter. Only some
of the interventions described below can (Referred from an article by Henarath)
both alleviate mental illness and improve According to the scientific literature, there
positive psychological functioning. Most are two relatively distinct perspectives for
empirical inquiries into happiness. The
of the recommendations in this chapter are first perspective is hedonism that reflects
aimed at amplifying psychological health maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain
which was articulated thousands of years
assets. Subjective well-being (SWB)- good ago by the Geek philosopher, Arsttuppus
mental states, including all of the various (Watson, 1895).
evaluations, positive and negative, that His concept of hedonism has been further
people make of their lives and the affective elaborated by many others. Accordingly,
Epicurus (342 – 270 BCE) introduced
reactions of people to their experiences, is ethical hedonism which holds our primary
part of psychological well-being. It is often moral obligation to maximize experience
of pleasure (Brunschwin and Nussbaum,
conceptualized as a set of two interrelated 1993). Later, David Hume (1711 – 1776)
elements: and Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) used
the philosophy of hedonism to develop a
foundation of utilitarianism (Peterson et
al., 2005) the doctrine, based on the fact
Life evaluation–a reflective that utility promotes happiness. Bentham
assessment on a person’s life or defined happiness, based on psychological
some specific aspect of it. experience as the cumulative value of
Affect –a person’s feelings or pleasure and pain and he further argued
emotional states, typically that moral quality of human action should
measured with reference to a be judged by its consequence on human
particular point in time. happiness (Veenhoven, 2010). Hedonism
is being promoted even now, under the
The notion of subjective wellbeing (SWB) name of hedonic psychology (Kahneman
is the currently dominant conception of et al., 1999). Preconceived understanding
among hedonic psychologists is that,
happiness in psychological literature. happiness or well-being comprises of
There are several empirically informed subjective happiness and all good or bad
judgments of life, based on pleasure versus
models which aim to determine the
displeasure (Ryan and Deci, 2001).
structure of SWB. Bradburn (1969) found Further, they stated that hedonic viewpoint
focuses on Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Similar position was further advanced by

equated with positive affect and greater
John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873) and
pleasure. Although, there is a continuous
philosophical debate on validity and stressed that how self-fulfillment
desirability of hedonism, most of the
facilitates sense of happiness.
researchers who appreciate hedonism are
still using SWB measurements to assess Eudaimonism is an ethical doctrine which
happiness, irrespective of availability of
facilitates to recognize one’s unique
many tools, to evaluate pleasure and pain
continuum in human lives. As an example, potentials and live according to virtues
Diener (2000) highlighted that people’s
(Waterman, 1993). Further, he emphasizes
own evaluation of their lives must figure
prominently in assessing the success of the that eudemonic happiness arrives when an
society in terms of democratic notion.
individual’s life is governed according to
Further, Peterson (2005) pointed out that
pursuit of pleasure is widely endorsed as a virtues and is fully engaged. In line with
mean of happiness, especially by the
eudemonic principles, Ryff and Singer
western world.
(1996) elaborated concept of
The second perspective is eudemonism,
Psychological Well-Being (PWB), which
which stands in contrast to hedonism
emphasizes life-time developmental
reflecting the need of realizing one’s true
perspectives from six distinct aspects of
nature, in order to earn happiness. Many
life: autonomy, personal growth, self-
philosophers, religious masters and
acceptance, life purpose, mastery and
visionaries from both Western and Eastern
positive relatedness. Ryff and Singer
worlds, challenged the hedonic view of
(1998) argued that model of SWB is
happiness (Ryan and Deci, 2001).
narrow as a measure of well-being and not
Eudemonic theories hold the stance that all
reflects key aspects of a healthy life. Frey
desires and all outcomes that a person
and Stutzer (2002) explain happiness from
appreciates may not yield happiness or
two perspectives: objective happiness
quality of life, (Ryan and Deci, 2001).
related to physiological measures and
Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE) clearly rejected
subjective happiness related to
Aristaeus’s view on happiness and
psychological measures. Most importantly,
emphasized that true happiness entails
Ryan and Deci (2000) presented the Self-
only after identifying one’s virtues,
Determination Theory (SDT), which posits
cultivating them and living according to
the fact that satisfaction of basic
them (Aristotle, 2000). Freud saw hedonic
psychological needs fosters both SWB and
happiness as a short-lived orgasmic
PWB. SDT is based on three basic
experience that arrives due to release of
psychological needs: autonomy,
primitive urges (Veenhoven, 2010).
competence, and relatedness and theorizes
that the achievement of such needs is According to Peterson and Seligman

essential for both SWB as well as (2004) character strengths are ubiquitous
eudemonic well-being (Ryan and Deci, traits which are valued in their own right
2001). Further, they stated that eudemonic and not necessarily tied to tangible
viewpoint focuses on PWB, which defines outcomes. Character strengths do not
in terms of fully functioning of a person. diminish others; rather they elevate those
who witness the strength
expression, producing admiration not
CHARACTER STRENGTHS
jealousy.
The research and practice of character

Let’s understand it by digging into the
strengths is an emerging science that has
concept a little more.
already elucidated important discoveries
yet is marked by significant potential.
Human beings have the unique ability to
Researchers in the science of character are
think about themselves: Who are we? We
drawing a number of fascinating
can recall our past and make predictions
connections between the use of character
aboutour future. Our ability to think about
strengths and positive outcomes and the
ourselves, about our past and the future,
manifestation of optimal states. Novel
however, is marked by negativity. We are
synergies of character strengths education,
hard-wired to focus on weaknesses than on
research, and practice are being
strengths, and we are more risk aversive
conceptualized (e.g., Niemiec& Wedding,
than gain sensitive (Kahneman & Tversky,
2008). Practitioners are finding quick and
1984).
effective strategies for helping their clients
Evolution has made most of us more adept
get closer in touch with their best qualities,
at worrying than at appreciating. When we
face suffering and challenges withstrength,
encounter challenges, we are more likely
and pursue life goals by capitalizing on
to recall shortcomings, failures, and
their strengths. In the end, this leads clients
setbacks - our own and those of others -
to be better informed to answer the
and if we do this persistently, we develop
question on identity that we opened with,
psychological distress. Riding on this
and taken a step further, helps the clients
default wave of negativity, psychology has
use their positive core toward flourishing.
enumerated far more than two hundred
different varieties of psychological distress
and numerous efficacious therapies to classify core human strengths,

remediate this distress. Nonetheless, it has acknowledging that character strengths are
also largely made psychology a remedial morally desired traits of human existence
or correctional discipline. Until recently, but at the same time they present them as
there wasn't a single coherent system descriptive traits open to empirical
which could reliably classify, define, and examination. Much like psychology has
measure characteristics and conditions shown that individuals who experience
which make life worth living. negative emotions such as anger, hostility,
In the past decade, positive psychology has vengeance, or narcissistic traits are more
made concerted empirical efforts to likely to develop a host of psychological
advance the science behind what is ills, individuals who experience gratitude,
strongest and best in people. Most forgiveness, humility, love, and kindness
prominent in these efforts is the field of are more likely to report being happier and
character strengths. Whereas symptoms, in satisfied with life. Hence, character
their varying combinations and severity, strengths describe various shades and
help us to understand nuanced levels of dimensions of human flourishing and well-
stress, sadness, and anxiety, character being.
strengths help us to understandways one According to Peterson and Seligman

can experience flourishing, positive (2004) character strengths are ubiquitous
relationships, engagement, meaning, and traits which are valued in their own right
well-being. and not necessarily tied to tangible
Character strengths are capacities of outcomes. Character strengths do not
cognition, affect, volition, and behavior. diminish others; rather they elevate those
They are the basic psychological who witness the strength expression,
ingredients that enable us to act in ways producing admiration not jealousy. Some
that contribute to our well-being. Fearing individuals strikingly embody strength
that character strengths carry prescriptive while others may have what appearsto be
and value-laden tone, psychology no perceivable level of a given strength.
relegated them to philosophy and made the Societal institutions, through rituals,
troubled aspects of human life the focus of attempt to cultivate character strengths.
its empirical investigation. Christopher Peterson (2006) distinguishes character
Peterson and Martin Seligman (2004) strengths (e.g., kindness, teamwork, zest)
spearheaded the first systematic effort to from talents and abilities. Athletic
prowess, photographic memory, perfect overuse and underuse, and their expression
pitch, fine dexterity, physical agility, and would exist in degrees. Character strength
such constitute talents and abilities. use varies by context so there is no perfect
Character strengths have moral flavor mean other than to reflect what Aristotle
whereas talents and abilities do not. Also, (2000) expressed as the golden mean of
talents, by and large are not buildable. the expression of the right combination of
Clearly, self-regulation and optimism can strengths to the right degree in the right
improve one's swimming performance but situation. From this angle, depression
these increments tend to be relatively might be viewed as an underuse of the
small. To swim like Michael Phelps and character strengths of hope/optimism,
run like Usain Bolt, one needs certain humor/playfulness, and zest;
physical abilities. Character strengths can simultaneously, it may often be
be built on even frail foundations, and with characterized as the overuse of the
enough practice, persistence, and good character strengths of judgment/critical
mentoring can take root to make life worth thinking as well as of perseverance as
living. Also, one can squander a talent, but reflected in thought rumination. Likewise,
a character strength is usually not anxiety nearly always has an element
squandered. involving the underuse of bravery/courage

and the narrowing of attention reflects an
The field of psychology has placed a
underuse of the character strength of
predominant emphasis on weaknesses
perspective. Knowing and using
which has led mental health professionals
something positive that one already has
and consumers to think of psychological
increases one's self-efficacy to deal with
disorders primarily as the presence of
challenges confidently and adaptively.
symptoms. Taking a similar categorical
What follows are some arguments for why
approach, disorders, can also be
character strengths are important,
conceptualized as an overuse and/or
particularly in therapy, counseling,
underuse of multiple character strengths.
coaching, and teaching. While there is
However, we believe a dimensional
emerging research to support these points,
approach makes more sense in attempting
further research is necessary before final
to understand the complexities of the
conclusions can be drawn.
character strength-psychopathology
Repairing or fixing weakness doesn't
relationship. Such a dimensional approach necessarily make you stronger: The 
would view strengths in terms of their assumption that fixing all weaknesses
will make us happy or happier is a confidence at a young age and tend to

misconception. In writing or editing a reap a "cumulative advantage" that
paper one may correct all spelling and continue to grow over a lifetime (Judge
grammatical errors but this does not & Hurst, 2008). This is not dissimilar
necessarily make the paper excellent in to Fredrickson's (2001) broaden-and-
quality. Writing an excellent paper build theory of positive emotions,
entails expressing creative however, applied to character strengths
craftsmanship. would state that strengths broaden a
Using strengths helps to reinterpret repertoire of action potentials in the
and reframe problems adaptively: present and build resources in the
Using strengths increases one's self- future.
efficacy and confidence in ways Using strengths to promote
focusing on weakness cannot. Because, resilience: Adversities, traumas, and
being aware of our character strengths, losses undermine physical and
in addition to weaknesses, facilitates us emotional health and pose a significant
to reinterpret and reframe problems risk for thwarting growth. These
 from 
a strength's perspective rather challenges can strike anytime and are

than from a weakness perspective.

Fixing weakness doesn't necessarily often unexpected. Knowing and using
cultivate happiness:A popular strengths, in good times helps you to
working principle many practitioners learn strategies which, you can use in
take is that fixing weaknesses is of turn, during tough times. Being aware
of and using strengths not only
utmost importance for happiness and
promotes resilience but also prepares
strengths will simply take care of individualsto encounter challenges
themselves. A paralleled conception is  adaptively.
that working on something one is Using of strengths to find balance in
already good at is wasting time and daily interactions and manage
energy which could better be spent on relational challenges: If daily
correcting weaknesses. Much like interactions between two partners,
weaknesses require fixing, strengths friends, or colleagues focused more on
require nurturance. Fixing weakness each other's weakness and deficits then
yields remediation while strengths unease, tension, and resentment is
nurturance produces growth and most likely going to mark these interactions.
 likely, greater happiness. A balanced approach is going to
Be wary of trite proclamations: address conflict as well as cooperation,
There are many popular statements that grudge as well as gratitude, hubris as
are more likely to be misconceptions well as humility, and self-centeredness
than conventional wisdom, e.g., "you as well as empathy. This will likely
can do anything, if you work hard at it" 
lessen tension and create more positive
and "the sky is the limit." Instead of opportunities in these interactions.
chanting these mantras, consider using
your character strengths. A strengths-
based approach helps frame specific,
practical yet realistic goals geared
alleviation of depressionand
 toward
creating enduring life satisfaction.
Strength awareness builds a
cumulative advantage: Evidence
shows that people who are aware of
their strengths are able to build self-
CHARACTER STRENGTHS AND core character strengths stating it involves

OPTIMAL EXPERIENCES the self-regulation of attention while
Strengths can be used to build optimal employing an attitude of curiosity,
states such as flow. Mihaly openness, and acceptance with what one
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) articulated the places their attention on (Bishop et al.,
phenomenology of flow as an engrossing 2004). Thus, the use of these character
and enjoyable state that is worth doing for strengths and others may help facilitate
its own sake. During flow, time passes, greater mindfulness (Niemiec, Rashid,
and attention is razor sharp on the present &Spinella, in press), and in turn, the
moment activity. The individual becomes practice of mindfulness has been shown to
one with the activity, thus both conscious nurture a variety of character strengths
experience of emotion and the self fades, (e.g., kindness, forgiveness,zest,
but only in the immediacy of the spirituality).
experience because the aftermath of flow SIGNATURE STRENGTHS

is invigorating. Flow is maintained through Signature strengths are those highest
the balance between skill and challenge in strengths of character that an individual
which the activity is not so easy that the self-consciously owns and celebrates,
person finds it boring, nor is it too difficult which he or she feels a sense of ownership
that one is frustrated. Flow is intrinsically and authenticity ("this is the real me"); the
motivating and highly enjoyable. Seligman individual feels excited while displaying
(2002) has proposed that one way to build these signature strengths, learns quickly as
flow is to identify the salient character they are practiced, feels more invigorated
strengths of individuals and then help them than exhausted when using them, and
to find opportunities to use these strengths creates and pursues projects that revolve
more often. Mindfulness is another optimal around them. One particular intervention
state that involves observing one's ever- used widely by practitioners around the
changing present moment experience. world is the "use signature strengths in
Researchers operationally defined new ways" intervention. This involves the
mindfulness as two client first taking the VIA Inventory of
Strengths (www.viasurvey.org) to receive
their rank ordering of character strengths
per the VIA Classification, and second
using one of their highest strengths in a
way that is new and unique for that client Additional lines of research (Sheldon &
(Linley et al., 2010; Madden et al., 2011; Houser-Marko, 2001; Linley et al., 2010)
Mitchell et al., 2009; Mongrain&Anselmo, have provided empirical evidence that
2009; Rust, Diessner, & Reade, 2009; employing signature strengths enhances
Peterson & Peterson, 2008; Seligman et people's well-being by facilitating a
al., 2005). This intervention has been motivational sequence of goal selection
found to boost happiness and decrease (e.g., you select a goal that is meaningful
depression for up to six months. But, the for you), goal pursuit (in pursuing the goal
benefits of using character strengths is you use your best internal resources), and
mounting beyond increases to happiness goalattainment (you successfully complete
and decreases to depression. a project which you find enjoyable,
Character strengths use has been linked to engaging, and meaningful). The whole
increased work satisfaction, work process of goal pursuit creates an upward
engagement, meaning, self-efficacy, self- spiral of well-being (Fredrickson & Joiner,
esteem, goal achievement, positive affect, 2000). This spiral is not only therapeutic
vitality, and lower perceived stress but also helps individuals to flourish.
(Govindji& Linley, 2007; Linley et al.,

2010; Littman-Ovadia&Davidovitch,
2010; Littman-Ovadia& Steger, 2010;
Park, Peterson, & Seligman, 2004; Proctor,
Maltby, & Linley, 2009; Wood et al.,
2011).
RESILIENCE demonstration of manifested behavior on
Human beings typically encounter a social competence or success at meeting
variety of difficulties and challenges any particular tasks at a specific life stage”
during the course of their lives, ranging Resilience is that ineffable quality that
from daily hassles to major life events. A allows some people to be knocked down
significant chunk of Indian youth is by life and come back stronger than ever.
contributing tremendously to the global Rather than letting failure overcome them
pool of education, business and and drain their resolve, they find a way to
information technology. At the same time, rise from the ashes. Psychologists have
frt8l9they have counterparts who cannot identified some of the factors that make
deal with competitiveness and the stress to someone resilient, among them a positive
perform. The young adults, therefore are attitude, optimism, the ability to regulate
able to bounce back from setbacks and emotions, and the ability to see failure as a
deal with daily hassles and stressors form of helpful feedback. Even after
through the process called Resilience. misfortune, resilient people are blessed
The term resilience stems from Latin word with such an outlook that they are able to
'resiliens’ to refer to the pliant or elastic change course and soldier on.
quality of a substance (Joseph, 1994). CLOSELY RELATED TERMS FOR

Although resilience remains a familiar PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE
word in everyday English language, the Relevant psychological literature on
term resilience carries different meanings resilience hasn't always used the term
across different contexts. 'resilience' or 'psychological resilience'.
Resilience is also a process of adapting Consider searching for material using
well in the face of adversity, trauma, synonyms or closely related keywords,
tragedy, threats or significant sources of such as (major terms in bold):
stress such as family and relationship Adaptive Coping
problems, serious health problems and Adversity Quotient
Emotional Intelligence (Daniel
financial stressors. It means "bouncing Goleman)
back" from difficult experiences. Hardiness
Learned Optimism (Martin Seligman)
Moreover, Luthar and Cicchetti (2000) Learned Resourcefulness (Rosenbaum)
defined resilience as a “positive Life Orientation
Resourcefulness
adaptation…is considered in a Self-esteem, Self-concept, Self-
confidence, Self-efficacy
10. Self-healing personality (Howard allows to study and understand as to why

Friedman)
some youth grow up to be healthy adults
11. Sense of Coherence (Aaron
Antonovsky) in spite of risks exposure (Garmezy,
Sense of Meaning (Viktor Frankl)
1991). Further, while each of these models
Thriving (Al Siebert - Thrivenet)
depicts different pathways of resilience, it
CHARACTERISTIC OF RESILIENCE
seems that a model that can explain the
Ability to "bounce back" and "recover
combination of protective, challenge and
from almost anything".
Have a "where there's a will, there's a compensatory effects of promotive and
way" attitude.
risk factors on the individual would be
Tendency to see problems as
opportunities. beneficial.
Ability to "hang tough" which things
are difficult.  COMPENSATORY MODEL
Capacity for seeing small windows of (GARMEZY ET AL.1984)
opportunity and making the most of This Model is an important one in the
them.
Have deep-rooted faith in a system of domain of Resiliency Theory, and
meaning.
examines how different variables (called
Have a healthy social support network.
Has the wherewithal to competently compensatory factors) may directly and
handle most different kinds of independently reduce negative outcomes
situations.
Has a wide comfort zone. associated with risk factors. Compensatory
Able to recover from experiences in factors are variables that neutralize
the panic zone or of a traumatic nature.
exposure to risk or operate in a
ESTABLISHED MODELS AND
counteractive fashion against the potential
THEORIES OF RESILEIENCE
negative consequences introduced by a
The concept of Resilience can be risk. Both the risk and compensatory
explained with the help of certain models. factors contribute additively in the
The three models mentioned below are prediction of the outcome. Parental
based on the Resiliency Theory which support, for example, was found to
works on a strength-based approach. It compensate for risks associated with
highlights the promotive factors of fighting and being around violent adults
resilience that are known to operate in (Zimmerman, et al., 1998). Here, parental
opposition to the risk factors. These support is a positive compensatory factor
promotive factors are the positive working in opposition to the risk factor of
contextual, social and individual variables violence which predicts less violent
that help in overcoming the negative behavior in adolescents.
effects of risk exposure. Resiliency theory
exposure. These protective factors are

known to foster positive outcomes and
healthy personality characteristics despite
unfavourable or aversive life
circumstances. (Bonanno, 2004; Ungar,
Risk Factors 2004)
Outcome
Risk Factors Outcomes
Compensatory
Factors
Protective
Factors
RISK-PROTECTIVE MODEL OF
RESILIENCE (GARMEZY ET AL.
1984; RUTTER, 1985)
As per this model, by means of an
interaction between the protective and risk
factors, the probability of negative
outcomes is reduced. The model examines
whether protective factors modify the
effects of risks in an interactive fashion.
Although they may have direct effects on  CHALLENGE MODEL OF
the outcomes, protective factors mainly act RESILIENCE (RUTTER, 1987)
as moderators. Brook et al (1990) This model is based on the idea that
proposed that effects may be associated exposure to moderate level of risks, helps
with a ‘risk- protective mechanism’ or a in preparing individuals to overcome
‘protective- protective mechanism’. A risk subsequent exposures. It is vital that the
protective variable functions to lessen the initial exposure is challenging enough to
negative effect of a risk factor, whereas help develop the coping mechanisms to
protective- protective variables enhance overcome its effects. This suggests that
the positive effects of promotive factors exposure to low levels and high levels of a
found to decrease negative outcomes. risk factor are associated with negative
Thus, resilience here can be said to outcomes, but moderate levels of the risk
moderate the negative influences of risk are related to less negative (or positive
outcomes). The underlying idea is that The authors postulated that a resilience
individuals exposed to moderate levels of cycle may be used by people facing
risks develop skills to overcome it, adversity. The researchers suggest that
whereas very high levels of risk may even the most resilient individuals
overwhelm their capacity to adapt. experience a ‘Rollercoaster Effect’ as they
Moderate levels of risk may therefore be work through a traumatic experience. A
beneficial as long as the risk exposure is four-cycle phase to resilience was defined
challenging enough to elicit a coping by the researchers, and includes: a
response, enabling the individual to learn deteriorating phase, an adapting phase, a
from the process of overcoming the risk. recovery phase, and a growing phase.
An example of this is provided in the form Resilience capacity, for the most part,
of resolution of interpersonal conflicts in a largely determines where in the cycle the
friendly way, which later can help in individual finds himself. Thus, if a person
solving a more heated social disagreement, is unable to adapt to his challenging
which might lead to a violent response if experience, he will most likely sink into a
not resolved appropriately. dysfunctional level and will be unable to
cope or survive the adversity. However,
some individuals may adapt but not fully
recover, thus reaching survival level. Some
may reach the recovery phase and return to
the status quo. However, a small minority
of individuals, those who are ‘thrivers’, are
likely to reach the growing phase and
achieve a strengthened resilience level.
This growing phase is referred to as
Outcome 1 Outcome 2 Outcome 3
thriving, where because of the crisis, the

individual seems to begin to flourish.
Risk 1 Risk 2 Risk 3
RESILIENCE CYCLE (PATTERSON

AND KELLEHER, 2005)
REVIEW OF LITERATURE: to repair yourself” (p. 5). Other notable

definitions are:
The literature review seeks to better
understand the construct of resilience and A dynamic process encompassing positive
provide a context for how it can further be adaptation within the context of significant
studied in graduate and postgraduate adversity (Luthar et al.,2000).
students. More specifically, the literature Resiliency is also defined as a “positive

review is organized around 2 central adaptation…is considered in a
questions: demonstration of manifested behavior on
How is resilience defined; social competence or success at meeting
any particular tasks at a specific life stage”
Is resilience an innate quality or a
(Luthar&Cicchetti, 2000, p. 110).
dynamic process;
All of the theorists’ definitions of
RESILIENCE DEFINED
resilience contain two core ideas – that a
Nearly fifty years of research in resiliency
person has experienced serious risk and
has brought forth various perspectives and
has demonstrated positive functioning in
voices. Despite the vast body of research
some way. Thus, both these aspects were
on resilience, there is little agreement on a
considered in the operational definition
single definition of resilience among
that was constructed.
scholars. In fact, scholars define the
construct of resilience in a multitude of
ways (Carle &Chassin, 2004). RESILIENCE: AN INNATE
QUALITY OR DYNAMIC PROCESS?
Richardson and his colleagues (1990)
contended that resiliency is “the process of Despite the debate on resilience as a
coping with disruptive, stressful, or process or an ability, majority of the
challenging life events in a way that members of the group were largely
provides the individual with additional convinced that resilience is more of a
protective and coping skills than prior to process and thus this aspect was included
the disruption that results from the event” in the operational definition. Some of the
(p.34). Similarly, Higgins (1994) described studies that support this view are
resiliency as the “process of self-righting During early waves of resilience research,

or growth” (p. 1), while Wolins (1993) researchers tended to regard and label
defined resiliency as the “capacity to individuals who transcended their adverse
bounce back, to with stand hardship, and circumstances as “hardy,” “invulnerable,”
or “invincible” (Werner & Smith, 1982). (individual, family, and environmental).

Such labels implied that these individuals The model also emphasized that resilience
were in possession of a rare and is a process that empowers individuals to
remarkable set of qualities that enabled shape their environment and to be shaped
them to rebound from whatever adversity by it in turn. Garmezy defined resilience
came their way – almost as if these as, “not necessarily impervious to stress.
fortunate individuals possessed a sort of Rather, resilience is designed to reflect the
magical force field that protected them capacity for recovery and maintained
form all harm. Increasingly, however, adaptive behavior that may follow initial
researchers have arrived at the consensus retreat or incapacity upon initiating a
that resilience is not some remarkable, stressful event” (Garmezy, 1991a).
innate quality but rather a developmental Hence, implicit in the concept of resilience
process that incorporates the normative as a dynamic process is the understanding
self-righting tendencies of individuals that resilience can grow or decline over
(Masten, 2001). time depending on the interactions taking
In her book, Fostering Resiliency in place between an individual and their
Children, Bonnie Benard (1995) claimed: environment and between risk and
We are all born with an innate capacity for protective factors in an individual’s life.
resilience, by which we are able to develop Therefore, an individual may be resilient
social competence, problem-solving skills, at certain times - and not at others -
a critical consciousness, autonomy, and a depending upon the circumstances and
sense of purpose (p. 17). relative strength of protective factors

compared to risk factors at the given
Researchers increasingly view resilience
moment (Winfield, 1991).
not as a fixed attribute but as an alterable
set of processes that can be fostered and
cultivated (Masten, 2001; Pardon, RESILIENCE PROMOTING WELL-
Waxman & Huang, 1999). BEING AND COMPETENCE
Garmezy’s (1991) triadic model of A large body of research also showed the
resilience provided a widely accepted positive effects of resilience on overall
ecological framework for understanding well-being and competence. These aspects
the resilience process. The triadic model were also considered important by the
described the dynamic interactions among group members and thus were included in
risk and protective factors on three levels
the operation definition. Some of the and a sense of purpose and future.
research include: Children and adolescents actually acquire
Resilience shows a positive correlation much of their belief about their own
with psychological well-being (Picardi et competence from their families and home
al., 2012; Sagone& De Caroli, 2013). environments. A strong sense of
Souri and Hasanirad (2011) found that competence is most likely to develop in a
resilience is also a positive and significant home environment that offers some
predictor for psychological well-being and challenges, encourages, sets high but
this relationship is mediated by optimism. realistic aspirations, contains positive role
Furthermore, positive emotions predicted models, provides and supports mastery
increase in both resilience and experiences, and teaches how to deal with
psychological well-being (Cohn, difficulties. The ability to apply problem-
Fredrickson, Brown, Mikels& Conway, solving skills to interpersonal problems or
2009). Due to these empirical findings and conflicts, to show empathy for the feelings
changes in laws and regulations of others, and to voluntarily help others,
surrounding health care and the way health are hallmarks of positive development.
care is funded, promoting mental health Adolescents with good intimacy skills—
through cultivating resilience has become that is, those who are able to be
common practice in regard to treatment emotionally close to another individual—
and prevention in counselling, mental are also more likely to be resilient. (Hair et
al., 2002).
health services, school environments and
community programs (AIESG, 2010;
Ager, 2013). Promoting mental health by
enhancing resilience fits current financial
cut backs because it locates resources
within the individual and the community
rather than in government programs and
initiatives (Ager, 2013). Therefore, the
demand for interventions that promote
resilience and well-being is growing.
Resilient adolescents show such

characteristics as social competence,
problem‐solving skills, mastery, autonomy
POST-TRAUMATIC GROWTH
After the attack, Wilson had flashbacks
As Kay Wilson struggled to make her way and deep survivor's guilt. But like many
through a Jerusalem forest after being people who have survived trauma, she has
repeatedly stabbed by a Palestinian found positive change as well—a new
terrorist, she distracted herself from her appreciation for life, a newfound sense of
agony by playing the song "Somewhere personal strength and a new focus on
Over the Rainbow" in her mind, helping others.
composing a new piano arrangement while

Post-traumatic growth (PTG) is a theory
she fought for breath and forced herself to
that explains this kind of transformation
put one bare foot in front of the other.
following trauma. It was developed by
Wilson, then 46, had been working as a psychologists Richard Tedeschi, PhD, and
tour guide when, on Dec. 18, 2010, she Lawrence Calhoun, PhD, in the mid-
and a friend were ambushed by terrorists. 1990s, and holds that people who endure
Wilson witnessed her friend's murder and psychological struggle following adversity
was herself viciously stabbed with a can often see positive growth afterward.
machete, ultimately playing dead as her

"People develop new understandings of
attacker plunged his knife into her chest a
themselves, the world they live in, how to
final time.
relate to other people, the kind of future they
She eventually recovered from her severe might have and a better understanding of
physical wounds and is healing from her how to live life," says Tedeschi.
psychological trauma. She now speaks to

How can clinicians use PTG theory to help
global audiences about her survival,
patients? How has new research helped
hoping to "dispel hatred, whether toward
refine understanding of it? Here's a look at
Arabs or Jews."
developments in the field.
The work "helps me make meaning out of

SIGNS OF POST-TRAUMATIC
something so senseless," says Wilson, who
GROWTH
is also writing a book about her
experiences. PTG can be confused with resilience, but
the two are different constructs (see "The
post-traumatic growth inventory" below).
"PTG is sometimes considered this terrible thing happened to them and

synonymous with resilience because what it means for their world view.
becoming more resilient as a result of
To evaluate whether and to what extent
struggle with trauma can be an example of
someone has achieved growth after a
PTG—but PTG is different from
trauma, psychologists use a variety of self-
resilience, says KanakoTaku, PhD,
report scales. One that was developed by
associate professor of psychology at
Tedeschi and Calhoun is the Post-
Oakland University, who has both
Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI)
researched PTG and experienced it as a
(Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1996). It
survivor of the 1995 Kobe earthquake in
looks for positive responses in five areas:
Japan.
Appreciation of life.
"Resiliency is the personal attribute or 
Relationships with others.
ability to bounce back," says Taku. PTG, 
New possibilities in life.
on the other hand, refers to what can 
Personal strength.
happen when someone who has difficulty 
Spiritual change.
bouncing back experiences a traumatic
event that challenges his or her core
The scale is being revised to add new
beliefs, endures psychological struggle
items that will expand the "spiritual
(even a mental illness such as post-
change" domain, says Tedeschi. This is
traumatic stress disorder), and then
being done "to incorporate more
ultimately finds a sense of personal
existential themes that should resonate
growth. It's a process that "takes a lot of
with those who are more secular" as well
time, energy and struggle," Taku says.
as reflect cross-cultural differences in
perceptions of spirituality.
Someone who is already resilient when
trauma occurs won't experience PTG
A PREDISPOSITION FOR
because a resilient person isn't rocked to
GROWTH?
the core by an event and doesn't have to
seek a new belief system, explains How many people experience PTG?
Tedeschi. Less resilient people, on the Tedeschi prefers not to put a hard number
other hand, may go through distress and on it.
confusion as they try to understand why
"It all depends on the trauma, the Women also tend to report more growth
circumstances, the timing of the than men, says Tedeschi, but the
measurement … [and] on how you define difference is relatively small.
growth using the PTGI, looking at total
Age also can be a factor, with children
score, means, factors or individual items,"
under 8 less likely to have the cognitive
he says. However, he estimates that about
capacity to experience PTG, while those in
one-half to two-thirds of people show
late adolescence and early adulthood—
PTG.
who may already be trying to determine
Some PTG researchers have tried to their world view—are more open to the
corroborate self-reported growth by type of change that such growth reflects,
questioning friends and family members says Tedeschi.
about whether growth "sticks."
There also may be genetic underpinnings
"We are getting more studies that show for PTG, but researchers are just beginning
that PTG is generally stable over time, to tease this out. In a 2014 study in the
with a few people showing increases and a Journal of Affective Disorders, for
few showing decreases," Tedeschi says. "It example, Harvard social and psychiatric
is now up to us to learn what is going on epidemiologist Erin Dunn, ScD, and a
with those who change over time, but the team of researchers examined data
evidence is for stability in general, and previously collected from over 200
also corroboration by others." Hurricane Katrina survivors and found that
variants in the gene RGS2 significantly
There appear to be two traits that make
interacted with levels of exposure to the
some more likely to experience PTG, says
hurricane to predict PTG. RGS2 is linked
Tedeschi: openness to experience and
to fear-related disorders, such as post-
extraversion. That's because people who
traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder
are more open are more likely to
and anxiety.
reconsider their belief systems, says
Tedeschi, and extroverts are more likely to Dunn calls the results "very interesting"
be more active in response to trauma and but notes that "we have to be somewhat
seek out connections with others. cautious in interpreting it because we were
unable to find a similar sample to replicate
that finding."
Sarah Lowe, PhD, of Montclair State

University, who worked with Dunn on the
research, says one difficulty with gene
studies for PTG is the concept's
complexity. "If you look at what predicts
PTG, it is often psychological stress and
dysfunction—but also more positive
personality traits like optimism and future
orientation, which you'd expect would
have a very different genetic basis," she
says.
THE POST-TRAUMATIC GROWTH

HEALTH: HEALTH
INVENTORY PROMOTING AND HEALTH
COMPROMISING
To evaluate whether and to what extent
BEHAVIORS, LIFE STYLE AND
someone has achieved growth after a
trauma, psychologists look for positive
CHRONIC DISEASES
responses in five areas. [DIABETES, HYPERTENSION,
CORONARY HEART DISEASE],
Appreciation of life
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOG
Relationships with others Y [CANCER, HIV/AIDS]
New possibilities in life

HEALTH PROMOTING AND
Personal strength HEALTH COMPROMISING
BEHAVIORS
Spiritual change
(Referred from an article on Health- be delivered at various levels including

Promoting and Health-Compromising individual, family, school, community and
Behaviors Among Minority Adolescents national levels. The interventions at school
by Clark, R.) level can be single issue, curriculum-based
education and “whole school” organisation
and behavior management interventions.
A huge proportion of the world's
population - more than 1.75 billion is In India, health promotion is now
young, aged between 10 and 24 years. receiving an increasing attention regarding
Adolescents (aged 10 to 19 years) have the prominent role it plays in health.
specific health and development needs, Health promoting lifestyle is one factor
and many face challenges that hinder their that positively contributes to quality of
wellbeing, including poverty, a lack of life. When a person engages in health
access to health information and services, promoting lifestyle, he/she has a greater
and unsafe environments. Interventions potential to remain healthy and possibly
that address their needs can save lives and live longer without the burden of the
foster a new generation of productive disease (Raj S,Senjam et al., 2012).
adults who can help their communities‟
progress. Many boys and girls in
Promoting health through schools is a
developing countries enter adolescence
“life-course‟ approach to promote healthy
undernourished, making them more
behaviour among children. Many of
vulnerable to disease and early death.
today’s and tomorrow’s leading causes of
Conversely, overweight and obesity
death, disease and disability can be
another form of malnutrition with serious
significantly reduced by preventing
health consequences - is increasing among
behaviour that is initiated during youth,
other young people in both low- and high-
through health education, understanding
income countries. Adequate nutrition and
and motivation; and fostered by social and
healthy eating and physical exercise habits
political policies and conditions. Almost
at this age are foundations for good health
all children attend school and spend 6-7
in adulthood. (WHO Facts on Adolescent
hours of their time every day in that
Health 2008). Viner R. et.al., 2005 in a
learning environment. Incorporating health
clinical review on health promotion in
into the school curriculum can have
adolescence has suggested that health
substantial influence on health promoting
promotion strategies and interventions can
behaviors (HRIDAY PHFI report 2010).
of health-compromising behaviors to be
HEALTH COMPROMISING
targeted for intervention, the next step in
BEHAVIORS AMONG
building effective prevention programs is to
ADOLESCENTS
understand the factors associated with these
behaviors among adolescents at different
The major causes of adolescent mortality stages of development. Numerous studies on
are not diseases, but are primarily related health-compromising behaviors among
to preventable social, environmental and adolescents indicate that these D. Neumark-
behavioral factors (Irwin and Millstein, Sztainer et al. behaviors tend to
1986; Millstein, 1989). The three primary co-occur, leading to a health-
causes of mortality during adolescence are compromising life-style (Donovan and
injuries, homicide and suicide; together Jessor,1985; Donovan et al., 1988, 1991;
they are responsible for 75% of all Osgood, 1991; Neumark-Sztainer et al.,
adolescent deaths (Millstein et al, 1993). 1996). Research on Problem Behavior
Major sources of morbidity include injury Theory suggests that alcohol and
and disability associated with the use of marijuana use, delinquent behaviors, and
motor or recreational vehicles, pregnancy sexual intercourse may constitute a
complications, sexually transmitted 'syndrome' of problem behavior in
diseases and consequences of substance adolescence. However, strengths of
abuse (Millstein et al.,1993). Among associations between health-com-
adolescent females, eating disorders are promising behaviors differ, suggesting that
another significant source of morbidity, there may be greater shared etiologic
and the use of unhealthy weight loss factors for certain sets of behaviors than
methods may have numerous for others (Osgood, 1991; Elliot, 1993).
psychological and physical health Studies on covariations of health-
consequences (Nylander, 1971; Pugliese et compromising behaviors provide
al.,1983; French and Jeffery, 1994; information for hypothesis generation
Neumark-Sztainer,1995). To improve about common underlying factors leading
adolescent health, it is essential to reduce to the clustering of behaviors.
the frequency, delay the onset and aim
The identification of etiologic factors
towards the prevention of behaviors
common to an array of health-
associated with morbidity and mortality
compromising behaviors may foster the
among youth. Following the identification
design of more effective and cost-efficient
prevention programs. Social Cognitive as a guide in developing a theoretical

Theory (SCT) discusses the importance of framework for the present study and in
personal, socio-environmental and selecting variables whose associations
behavioral factors on behavior and the with health-compromising behaviors were
reciprocal relations between all of these to be examined (see Figure1). Personal
factors (Bandura,1977, 1986). SCT has factors include those from the
particular relevance for explaining psychological domain: self-esteem,
involvement in health-compromising emotional well-being and risk-taking
behaviors among youth. Jessor has disposition. Socio-environmental factors
developed a model specifically aimed at include both actual and perceived
explaining adolescent risk components such as family structure and
behavior/lifestyle which incorporates a family connectedness, school
number of principles similar to those in connectedness, and stressful life
SCT (Jessor,1991, 1992, 1993). Personal, experiences such as past physical and
socio-environmental and behavioral sexual abuse. Behavioral factors include
factors are shown to influence adolescent school achievement, involvement in
risk behavior with reciprocal relation-ships extracurricular activities and attendance at
among all of the factors. However, religious services. It should be noted that
personal factors are separated into the placement of these variables into these
biological and personality domains while larger categories is not clear-cut as most of
the social environmental factors are these variables have personal socio-
divided into actual and perceived domains. environmental and behavioral
Jessor indicates that both risk factors and components(e.g. school connectedness and
protective factors may exist within each achievement, religiosity and physical and
domain. Both of these models were used sexual abuse).
LIFE STYLE AND CHRONIC transition is change in our lifestyle toward
DISEASES [DIABETES, the unhealthy continuum, e.g., tobacco
HYPERTENSION, CORONARY use, excessive alcohol consumption,

unhealthy dietary habits and physical
HEART DISEASE],
inactivity. This means that death from
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOG
lifestyle diseases like hypertension,
Y [CANCER, HIV/AIDS] diabetes and cancer are now the primary
causes of death.
Modern science through improved
sanitation, vaccination, antibiotics and Lifestyle is the way a person lives. This
medical attention has eliminated the threat includes patterns of social relations,
of death from most infectious diseases. But consumption, entertainment and dress. The
now, too many people are dying relatively term lifestyle also reflects an individual's
young from noncommunicable diseases attitudes, beliefs and, essentially, the way
like heart diseases and cancer. The main the person is perceived by himself/herself
contributing factor for this epidemiological and, at times, also how he/she is perceived
by others. This rapidly growing epidemic
of noncommunicable diseases is
responsible for 60% of the world's deaths.
At least
50% of the deaths in the US each year are serious mental illness like depression and
due to unhealthy lifestyle. In India also, psychosis. Physical, emotional, social and
the situation of lifestyle diseases is quite sexual change makes adolescents
alarming. The disease profile is changing overloaded with stress, which can result in
rapidly. The World Health Organization anxiety, withdrawal, aggression, poor
(WHO) has identified India as one of the coping skills and actual physical illness.
nations that is going to have most of the Adolescents constitute about 22.8% of the
lifestyle disorders in the near future. population of India.
Nowadays, not only are lifestyle disorders
It is well documented that behaviors
becoming more common but they are also
developed during this period influence
affecting the younger population. Hence,
health in adulthood. Several health-
the population at risk shifts from 40+ to
compromising behaviors (e.g., smoking,
maybe 30+ or even younger. Already
alcohol) as well as health-enhancing
considered the diabetes capital of the
behaviors (e.g., physical exercise,
world, India now appears headed toward
nutrition) are adopted in adolescence, and
gaining another dubious distinction of
they often persist into adulthood. The
becoming the lifestyle-related disease
WHO estimates that 70% of premature
capital as well. A study conducted jointly
deaths among adults are due to behavior
by the All India Institute of Medical
(smoking, illicit drug use, reckless driving)
Sciences and the Max Hospital shows that
initiated during adolescence. Therefore,
the incidence of hypertension, obesity and
helping adolescents establish healthy
heart disease is increasing at an alarming
lifestyles and avoid developing health risk
rate, especially in the young, urban
behaviors is crucial and should be started
population.
before these behaviors are firmly
In most of these lifestyle diseases, the established. The demands on young people
onset is insidious and is usually after the are new and unprecedented; their parents
age of 30 years. By the time interventions could not have predicted many of the
are planned and implemented, the damage pressures they face. How we help
to health has already occurred. adolescents meet these demands and equip
them with the kind of education, skills and
Adolescents are a unique population with outlook they will need in a changing
specific health concerns and needs. environment will depend on how well we
Adolescence is the peak age of onset for
understand their world.
There is a definite need to investigate the hypertension. Accordingly, diabetes and

health behavior of adolescents rather than hypertension are closely interlinked
focus on adults since it will be far more because of similar risk factors, such as
difficult for adults to change their endothelial dysfunction, vascular
unhealthy habits adopted in their youth. inflammation, arterial remodeling,
Many studies have demonstrated a positive atherosclerosis, dyslipidemia, and obesity.
relationship between health-promoting There is also substantial overlap in the
lifestyle and quality of life. McDaniel cardiovascular complications of diabetes
found a positive correlation between and hypertension related primarily to
health-promoting lifestyle and quality of microvascular and macrovascular disease.
life in 91 older adults, aged 60-92 years. It Common mechanisms, such as
was also demonstrated that there exists a upregulation of the renin-angiotensin-
relationship between positive health aldosterone system, oxidative stress,
outcomes and such behaviors as regular inflammation, and activation of the
exercise, not smoking, maintaining ideal immune system likely contribute to the
weight, eating a well-balanced diet and close relationship between diabetes and
managing stress. hypertension.
DIABETES, HYPERTENSION, INTRODUCTION:

CORONARY HEART DISEASE
TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS AND
HYPERTENSION
DIABETES & HYPERTENSION:
Hypertension and type 2 diabetes are The prevalence of obesity and type 2
common comorbidities. Hypertension is diabetes (T2D) continues to rise
twice as frequent in patients with diabetes worldwide as lifestyles associated with
compared with those who do not have low energy expenditure and high caloric
diabetes. Moreover, patients with intake are increasingly adopted,
hypertension often exhibit insulin particularly in lower-income and
resistance and are at greater risk of developing countries. It is predicted that
diabetes developing than are normotensive the number of cases of T2D will rise from
individuals. The major cause of morbidity 415 million to 642 million by
and mortality in diabetes is cardiovascular 2040.Hypertension is even more common,
disease, which is exacerbated by rising in prevalence in the same countries,
with a recent worldwide estimate of 1.39 hypersecretion of insulin to maintain

billion cases. homeostasis: Glucose intolerance ensues if
this endocrine pancreas response is
Although T2D and hypertension can be
inadequate, although some obese
simply diagnosed at the bedside, they are
individuals avoid T2D by virtue of a
each complex and heterogeneous
supranormal B-cell response. Recently, the
phenotype associated with an elevated risk
role of adipose tissue in these associations
of life-threatening cardiovascular disease
has been increasingly appreciated.
(CVD). Their frequent coexistence in the
same individual is not a coincidence, Diabetes is associated with both
because aspects of the pathophysiology are macrovascular (involving large arteries
shared by both conditions, particularly such as conduit vessels) and microvascular
those related to obesity and insulin (involving small arteries and capillaries)
resistance. For example, in the San disease. Chronic hyperglycemia and
Antonio Heart Study, 85% of those with insulin resistance play an important role in
T2D had hypertension by the fifth decade the initiation of vascular complications of
of life, whereas 50% of those with diabetes and involve a number of
hypertension experienced impaired mechanisms including (1) increased
glucose tolerance or T2D. formation of advanced glycation end
products (AGEs) and activation of the
In health, insulin maintains glucose
receptor for advanced glycation end
homeostasis by integrated actions on
products (RAGE) AGE-RAGE axis, (2)
carbohydrate, protein, and lipid
oxidative stress, and (3) inflammation. In
metabolism. Loss of sensitivity to aspects
addition, emerging evidence suggests a
of insulin action (insulin resistance)
role for microRNAs (miRNAs) in the
principally affects the liver, muscle, and
vasculopathy of diabetes (see further on).
adipose tissues and is selective for glucose
Hypertension is an important risk factor
and lipid metabolism, e.g., sparing
for diabetes-associated vascular
insulin's action to retain sodium in the
complications, because hypertension itself
distal tubule.Reduction in insulin-mediated
is characterized by vascular dysfunction
glucose disposal leads to compensatory
and injury (Fig. 1).
MACROVASCULAR DISEASE of a previous myocardial
infarction.Moreover, patients with T2D
CLINICAL FEATURES
have poorer outcomes after an acute
coronary syndrome and higher rates of
Macrovascular (or cardiovascular) disease
reinfarction and heart failure.
of larger conduit arteries is a complex
inflammatory process leading to
Elevation of CVD risk begins at the stage
myocardial infarction, stroke, and
of prediabetes in association with insulin
peripheral artery disease. The primary
resistance and impaired glucose tolerance.
pathologic process associated with
As well as being the diagnostic hallmark
macrovascular disease is atherosclerosis,
of T2D, hyperglycemia is the principal
which in diabetes is accelerated with
determinant of microvascular complications
extensive distribution of vascular lesions.
of T2D and plays an important role in the
T2D confers an approximate 2-fold
pathogenesis of CVD. However, in
elevation in CVD risk, equivalent to that
established T2D, it is a relatively weak
modifiable risk factor compared with
hypertension, dyslipidemia,
and (unfortunately in many populations) lipid profile: elevated concentrations of

cigarette smoking. small dense low-density lipoprotein
cholesterol, high concentrations of
PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL triglycerides, triglyceride-rich remnants,
FEATURES very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol,
and apolipoprotein B, usually in
Insulin resistance is detectable for several
combination with low levels of high-
years before the onset of T2D. It is
density lipoprotein cholesterol. This
associated with obesity, particularly
profile is associated with increased
central obesity, but may be present in lean
production of leptin, decreased production
individuals with hypertension. During
of adiponectin, higher circulating levels of
calorie excess, adipocytes in obese
nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs), and
humans—whether in subcutaneous or
activation of mitochondrial oxidative
visceral areas—undergo hypertrophy.
stress pathways in vascular endothelial
Visceral adipocytes are more susceptible
7
cells.
to cellular death as they begin to enlarge
and their stromal vascular fraction
These proinflammatory and metabolic
becomes infiltrated with macrophages.
consequences of obesity and insulin
resistance result in endothelial
These macrophages around dead
dysfunction, a key antecedent and
adipocytes form “crown-like structures,” a
modulator of atherosclerosis that has been
histologic appearance that is associated
demonstrated not only in hypertension but
with expression of cytokines (including
also in prediabetes, first-degree relatives
tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α],
of individuals with T2D, and even insulin-
interleukin-6 [IL-6]), and inducible nitric
resistant healthy individuals.It is
oxide synthase. These changes have been
characterized by disruption of the intricate
shown to coincide with the onset of insulin
physiological balance between
resistance and provide a
vasoconstrictors (endothelin, angiotensin
pathophysiological link between metabolic
II) and vasodilators (nitric oxide,
and vascular disease.
prostacyclin), growth promoting and
In addition to these proinflammatory inhibitory factors, proatherogenic and
changes, adipocyte hypertrophy is antiatherogenic factors, and procoagulant
associated with larger triglyceride stores, a and anticoagulant factors.A substantial
higher lipolytic rate, and an atherogenic body of evidence suggests that impaired
endothelium-dependent vasodilation may leukocyte counts, particularly neutrophils

in turn contribute to or exacerbate insulin and lymphocytes, that correlate with
resistance by limiting the delivery of insulin sensitivity, which is in part
substrate (glucose) to key target tissues. mediated by inflammatory changes of
adipose tissue. Inflammatory biomarkers
In addition to these functional changes, an
are also useful in developing targeted
associated low-grade inflammation in
cardiovascular therapies in the context of
endothelial and smooth muscle cells of the
metabolic dysfunction. The link between
vascular wall causes cell proliferation,
inflammation and T2D is further supported
27
hypertrophy, remodelling, and apoptosis.
by genetic studies and clinical trials
This accelerates disruption of the balance showing protective effects of immune-
between the arterial wall scaffolding proteins targeted therapies and anti-inflammatory
elastin and collagen that determine vascular
actions of classic antidiabetes
compliance, a form of “vascular aging,”
drugs.Circulating and locally produced
which is a characteristic
effector cytokines such as TNF-α,
phenotype in hypertension.Vascular
interferon-γ, IL-1β, and IL-12 may
stiffening leads to widening of arterial
influence insulin sensitivity of peripheral
pulse pressure and increased pulsatile
tissues and can modulate insulin release in
shear, exacerbating endothelial
the pancreatic islets.Increased
dysfunction and vascular disease.
glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity have been
associated with immune cell infiltration of
INFLAMMATION AND THE
target tissues, thereby affecting diabetes-
IMMUNE SYSTEM
associated target organ damage and
Links between inflammation and the cardiovascular complications,including the
immune system with metabolic development of metabolic
dysfunction, hypertension, and cardiomyopathy.Inflammation is a key
cardiovascular morbidity are supported by modulator of metabolic and diabetic CVD.
extensive experimental data.This
GENETIC EVIDENCE
encompasses a number of immune
metabolic aspects, including the key role
Although genome-wide association studies
of the tricarboxylic cycle or sphingosine-1-
(GWAS) for insulin resistance or T2D
phosphate in the regulation of vascular
have not shown strong associations with
inflammation.Clinical studies have shown
immune-related genes, numerous
that patients with T2D have increased total
metabolic traits are linked to immune- diabetes as well as insulin sensitivity and
related loci. Studies integrating obesity.
metabochip approaches with GWAS have
A recent large proof of concept trial of
shown that classic immunometabolic genes
anti-inflammatory therapy in patients after
including JNK signalling pathways (such
myocardial infarction (A Randomized,
as MAP3K1), nuclear factor kappa B
Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Event-
(NF-κB) regulators (MACROD1),
driven Trial of Quarterly Subcutaneous
inflammasome activators (NRF3), and
Canakinumab in the Prevention of
interferon-γ receptor genes associate with
Recurrent Cardiovascular Events Among
T2D.This also corresponds to results of
Stable Post-Myocardial Infarction Patients
recent large T2D GWAS that identified
With Elevated hsCRP [CANTOS];
genes related to macrophage function and
canakinumab targeting IL-1β) showed a
antigen presentation (MAEA, ST6GAL1),
clear reduction in the rate of
and T-cell signalling (CMIP or
cardiovascular events, albeit with an
PTPRJ).While trying to interpret these
associated increase in the rate of severe
important studies, it should be appreciated
infections. These results were particularly
that GWAS approaches have limitations,
evident in high-risk patients, although
because only a small component of
effects on metabolic profile remain
heritability of complex traits is directly
unclear. However, evidence that IL-1β
explainable by single-gene variability.
targeting may have significant metabolic
CLINICAL EVIDENCE benefits has been well established, as
evidenced by improved profile insulin
Increasing clinical evidence indicates an sensitivity in response to IL1-β blockade.
immune component in T2D and its The potential beneficial effects of anti-
cardiovascular complications. Immune- inflammatory and immune-modulating
targeted therapies currently available for agents in T2D and its complications may
the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and relate to direct vasoprotective effects.
autoimmune disorders, including anti-TNF These studies have led to the rapid
therapies, may prevent insulin resistance as development of the concept of
well as cardiovascular risk.A recent meta-
immunometabolism, clearly linking
analysis of studies with anti-TNF agents
metabolic changes in the tissues to the
supports an overall protective effect of
regulation of inflammation as well as
anti-TNF therapies on lifetime risk of
metabolic status of immune cells to their
activation.The latter can be characterized involve inhibition of NF-κB and that they
by a switch between oxidative also prevent diabetes and improve insulin
phosphorylation and anaerobic glycolysis, resistance in experimental models and
which is observed in macrophages and T humans.Drugs such as glicazide and
cells.This also emphasizes the importance troglitazone, as well as N-acetylcysteine,
of the interplay between vascular oxidative decrease inflammatory markers in patients
stress and the development of with diabetic nephropathy and diabetic
inflammation in adipose tissue and the retinopathy.
vasculature.
Epigenetics is another mechanism that
ANTI-INFLAMMATORY may influence inflammation and
PROPERTIES OF ANTIDIABETIC immunometabolism in diabetes.Histone
THERAPIES deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors cause NF-
κB inhibition through acetylation of the
Classic approaches improving metabolic
p65 subunit. Givinostat (formerly
health, such as weight reduction and the
ITF2357), an orally active HDAC
use of metformin, statin drugs,
inhibitor, has been shown to prevent the
pioglitazone, and insulin have been shown
development of diabetes. Similarly,
to have anti-inflammatory effects.
activation of sirtuin1, which is involved in
Metformin reduces C-reactive protein
inflammation, metabolism, and aging, has
levels by 13%. More recently, a novel anti-
been shown to have anti-inflammatory
inflammatory mechanism of metformin
properties in diabetes.
affecting M1/M2 polarization of
macrophages has been shown to reduce DIABETES, VASOPROTECTION,
obesity-associated low-grade AND POTENTIAL NEW THERAPIES
inflammation, possibly because of
Data from landmark clinical trials in T2D
adenosine monophosphate-activated
including UKPDS, ADVANCE, and
protein kinase (AMPK) activation. These
Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in
effects were modulated by AMPK and the
Diabetes (ACCORD) demonstrate that
AMPK analogue 5-aminoimidazole-4-
treating comorbidities including
carboxamide ribonucleotide, effects that
hypertension and hypercholesterolemia is
appear stronger than those of metformin.
a more effective strategy for reducing
Recent studies have shown that salicylates
have anti-inflammatory effects that cardiovascular complications than
targeting blood glucose levels with
conventional agents. Antihypertensive in diabetic mice, suggesting that

drugs such as angiotensin-converting upregulation of Nrf2 may have therapeutic
enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor potential to limit diabetes-associated
blockers, mineralocorticoid-receptor vascular damage. Another example
blockers, and calcium-channel blockers includes inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase-
may have direct vasoprotective effects, and 4 by linagliptin, which reduces obesity-
their use may contribute, at least in part, to related insulin resistance and inflammation
reduced vascular complications in patients by regulating M1/M2 macrophage status.
with diabetes and concomitant Other therapies on the horizon for the
hypertension. Tight control of BP has been treatment of cardiovascular complications
shown to reduce cardiovascular risk in of diabetes include pentoxifylline
T2D: most recent US and Canadian (methylxanthine derivative and
guidelines recommend a target of < 130/80 nonspecific phosphodiesterase inhibitor
Hg. Statin drugs and clopidrogel are with anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic
also vasoprotective and may have extra effects), ruboxistaurin (selective protein
benefit in patients with diabetes. Some of kinase C-β inhibitor), pirfenidone (TGF-β
the beneficial effects of these drugs have inhibitor), bindarit (MCP-1/CCL2
been attributed to their antioxidant and inhibitor), sulodexide (an oral formulation
anti-inflammatory properties. composed of 2 glycosaminoglycans),
AKB-9778 (Tie2 activator), baricitinib
New therapeutic approaches targeting
(JAK/STAT inhibitor), and Nox inhibitors.
oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis
The clinical benefit of these compounds
are currently being developed to treat
awaits further confirmation, and novel
diabetes-associated cardiovascular nanotherapeutic approaches are being
complications. In particular, drugs that developed to target inflammation.
increase Nrf-2 activity, such as
bardoxolone methyl, and strategies to CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
inhibit the pyrin domain containing 3 (CVDS)
(NLRP3) inflammasome, may have
(Sourced from WHO)
therapeutic potential. A novel bardoxolone
methyl derivative, dh404, has been shown
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a
to attenuate endothelial dysfunction,
group of disorders of the heart and blood
reduce Nox1 expression, decrease
vessels and they include:
oxidative stress, and inhibit inflammation
Coronary heart disease – disease of alcohol, hypertension, diabetes and

the blood vessels supplying the heart hyperlipidaemia.
muscle;
 CORONARY HEART DISEASE:
Cerebrovascular disease – disease of
the blood vessels supplying the brain;
 Coronary heart disease happens when your
Peripheral arterial disease – disease
coronary arteries get narrower and reduce
of blood vessels supplying the arms
the blood flow to the heart. It is the usual
and legs;
 underlying cause of a heart attack
Rheumatic heart disease – damage to
the heart muscle and heart valves from Coronary heart disease is associated with

rheumatic fever, caused by age and is a lifelong condition that affects
streptococcal bacteria; many people.Coronary arteries are like

Congenital heart disease – small pipes that supply blood to your
malformations of heart structure heart. They get narrower when fatty
existing at birth; material gradually builds up inside and

Deep vein thrombosis and clogs them.
pulmonary embolism – blood clots in
the leg veins, which can dislodge and The fatty material is called plaque. The
move to the heart and lungs. process of plaque building up is called

atherosclerosis. This can start when you
Heart attacks and strokes are usually acute are young and may be well advanced by
events and are mainly caused by a middle age.Stable plaque is generally not
blockage that prevents blood from flowing harmful but if it narrows the arteries too
to the heart or brain. The most common much, they may sometimes not deliver
reason for this is a build-up of fatty enough blood to your heart. The first
deposits on the inner walls of the blood effects of this are pain and discomfort
vessels that supply the heart or brain. called angina. Angina needs to be treated.
Strokes can also be caused by bleeding
from a blood vessel in the brain or from Unstable plaque has more fat, a thin cap
blood clots. The cause of heart attacks and and is inflamed. It may not severely
strokes are usually the presence of a narrow the artery, but it can develop a
combination of risk factors, such as crack on the surface, exposing the contents
of the plaque to the blood. Blood cells try
tobacco use, unhealthy diet and obesity,
to seal the gap in the surface with a blood
physical inactivity and harmful use of
clot. The blood clot partially or completely coronary angiogram or coronary computed
blocks the artery. tomography angiogram (CCTA)

echocardiogram (heart ultrasound)

A heart attack occurs when a blood clot
blood tests

completely blocks the flow of blood and
myocardial perfusion study.
seriously reduces blood flow to the heart
muscle. TREATMENT
If you have had a heart attack, you have There’s no cure for coronary heart disease.
coronary heart disease. But there are treatments and lifestyle
changes that can help you avoid a heart
There are risk factors that increase your
attack.
chance of getting coronary heart disease.
Know your risks
LIFESTYLE CHANGES
You may need to make some changes to
Coronary heart disease is sometimes
stop your heart disease getting worse.
referred to as CHD.
Read more about looking after yourself.
SYMPTOMS
PROCEDURES AND DEVICES
Many people don’t know they have heart
If your coronary heart disease is causing
disease until they have chest pain (angina
serious heart problems your doctor may
or a heart attack).
want you to have a procedure done, like
angioplasty and stent implantation, or
If you are worried about your risk of heart
coronary artery bypass graft surgery
disease, see your doctor or health
(CABG).
practitioner to discuss your risks.
DIAGNOSIS CARDIAC REHABILITATION

If you’ve had a heart attack or a procedure,
Your doctor will get some tests done to you should be given information about a
check your heart health. They may
cardiac rehabilitation program where you
include:
can get help with living with coronary
heart disease to reduce the risk of more
electrocardiogram (ECG)
problems.
IF YOU WANT TO KNOW MORE detection and management

ABOUT CVDS (NOT FOR using counselling and
SYLLABUS): medicines, as appropriate.
DATA ON CVDS: RISK FACTORS FOR

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
CVDs are the number 1 cause of death
globally: more people die annually The most important behavioural risk
from CVDs than from any other cause. factors of heart disease and stroke are

An estimated 17.9 million people died unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, tobacco
from CVDs in 2016, representing 31% use and harmful use of alcohol. The
of all global deaths. Of these deaths, effects of behavioural risk factors may
85% are due to heart attack and stroke. show up in individuals as raised blood

Over three quarters of CVD deaths pressure, raised blood glucose, raised
take place in low- and middle-income blood lipids, and overweight and obesity.
countries. These “intermediate risks factors” can be

Out of the 17 million premature measured in primary care facilities and
deaths (under the age of 70) due to indicate an increased risk of developing a
noncommunicable diseases in 2015, heart attack, stroke, heart failure and other
82% are in low- and middle-income complications.
countries, and 37% are caused by
Cessation of tobacco use, reduction of salt
CVDs.
 in the diet, consuming fruits and vegetables,
Most cardiovascular diseases can be
regular physical activity and avoiding
prevented by addressing behavioural
harmful use of alcohol have been shown to
risk factors such as tobacco use,
reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. In
unhealthy diet and obesity, physical
addition, drug treatment of diabetes,
inactivity and harmful use of alcohol
hypertension and high blood lipids may be
using population-wide strategies.
 necessary to reduce cardiovascular risk and
People with cardiovascular disease or
prevent heart attacks and strokes. Health
who are at high cardiovascular risk
policies that create conducive environments
(due to the presence of one or more
for making healthy choices affordable and
risk factors such as hypertension,
available are essential for motivating people
diabetes, hyperlipidaemia or already
to adopt and sustain healthy behaviour.
established disease) need early
There are also a number of underlying most often on one side of the body. Other
determinants of CVDs or "the causes of symptoms include sudden onset of:
the causes". These reflect the major
numbness of the face, arm, or leg,
forces driving social, economic and
especially on one side of the body;
cultural change – globalization, 
confusion, difficulty speaking
urbanization and population ageing. Other
or understanding speech;
determinants of CVDs include poverty, 
difficulty seeing with one or both eyes;
stress and hereditary factors. 
difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of
COMMON SYMPTOMS OF balance or coordination;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES severe headache with no known cause;
and
Symptoms of heart attacks and strokes 
fainting or unconsciousness.
Often, there are no symptoms of the

People experiencing these symptoms
underlying disease of the blood vessels.
should seek medical care immediately.
A heart attack or stroke may be the first
warning of underlying disease. (THE ITALICS PART IS NOT
Symptoms of a heart attack include: IN SYLLABUS BUT ONLY FOR
REFERENCE AND MEANING
pain or discomfort in the centre of the
MAKING OF THE ABOVE
chest;
 CONTENT)
pain or discomfort in the arms, the left
RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE
shoulder, elbows, jaw, or back.
Rheumatic heart disease is caused by
In addition, the person may experience
damage to the heart valves and heart muscle
difficulty in breathing or shortness of
from the inflammation and scarring caused
breath; feeling sick or vomiting; feeling
by rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever is
light-headed or faint; breaking into a cold
caused by an abnormal response of the body
sweat; and becoming pale. Women are
to infection with streptococcal bacteria,
more likely to have shortness of breath,
which usually begins as a sore throat or
nausea, vomiting, and back or jaw pain.
tonsillitis in children.
The most common symptom of a stroke is

Rheumatic fever mostly affects children
sudden weakness of the face, arm, or leg,
in developing countries, especially where
poverty is widespread. Globally, about 2% health care services which respond to

of deaths from cardiovascular diseases is their needs. As a result, many people
related to rheumatic heart disease. in low- and middle-income countries
are detected late in the course of the
SYMPTOMS OF RHEUMATIC
disease and die younger from CVDs
HEART DISEASE
and other noncommunicable diseases,
often in their most productive years.
Symptoms of rheumatic heart disease
The poorest people in low- and middle-
include: shortness of breath,
income countries are affected most. At
fatigue, irregular heartbeats, chest
the household level, sufficient evidence
pain and fainting.
 is emerging to prove that CVDs and
Symptoms of rheumatic fever include:
other noncommunicable diseases
fever, pain and swelling of the
contribute to poverty due to catastrophic
joints, nausea, stomach cramps and
health spending and high out-of-pocket
vomiting.
expenditure.

WHY ARE CARDIOVASCULAR At macro-economic level, CVDs place
DISEASES A DEVELOPMENT a heavy burden on the economies of
ISSUE IN LOW- AND MIDDLE- low- and middle-income countries.
INCOME COUNTRIES?
HOW CAN THE BURDEN OF
At least three quarters of the world's CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
deaths from CVDs occur in low- BE REDUCED?
and middle-income countries.
 “Best buys” or very cost-effective
People in low- and middle-income
interventions that are feasible to be
countries often do not have the benefit
implemented even in low-resource settings
of integrated primary health care
have been identified by WHO for
programmes for early detection and
prevention and control of cardiovascular
treatment of people with risk factors
diseases. They include two types of
compared to people in high-income
interventions: population-wide and
countries.
 individual, which are recommended to be
People in low- and middle-income
used in combination to reduce the greatest
countries who suffer from CVDs and
cardiovascular disease burden.
other noncommunicable diseases have
less access to effective and equitable
Examples of population-wide interventions treatment with the following medications

that can be implemented to reduce CVDs are necessary:
include:
aspirin

comprehensive tobacco control beta-blockers

policies angiotensin-converting enzyme

taxation to reduce the intake of foods inhibitors

that are high in fat, sugar and salt statins.

building walking and cycle paths to
The benefits of these interventions are
increase physical activity
 largely independent, but when used
strategies to reduce harmful use of
together with smoking cessation, nearly
alcohol
 75% of recurrent vascular events may be
providing healthy school meals to
prevented. Currently there are major
children.
gaps in the implementation of these
At the individual level, for prevention of interventions particularly at the primary
first heart attacks and strokes, individual health care level.
health-care interventions need to be
In addition, costly surgical operations
targeted to those at high total
are sometimes required to treat CVDs.
cardiovascular risk or those with single
They include:
risk factor levels above traditional
thresholds, such as hypertension and
coronary artery bypass

hypercholesterolemia. The former
balloon angioplasty (where a small
approach is more cost-effective than the
balloon-like device is threaded
latter and has the potential to substantially
through an artery to open the
reduce cardiovascular events. This
blockage)
approach is feasible in primary care in 
valve repair and replacement

low-resource settings, including by non-
heart transplantation

physician health workers.
artificial heart operations
For secondary prevention of

Medical devices are required to treat
cardiovascular disease in those with
some CVDs. Such devices include
established disease, including diabetes,
pacemakers, prosthetic valves, and
patches for closing holes in the heart.
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY (NOT PART OF THE SYLLABUS

[CANCER, HIV/AIDS] BUT IMPORTANT TO
UNDERSTAND
(This is a vast topic filled with complex
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY)
and big terminologies. Don’t go very
deep into the topic. Simply grasp the idea BACKGROUND
and certain name of the terms used here.
This topic has been referred from an The immune system is an integral part of
article by healthline) the body involved in protection of body

from various diseases. Its presence and
Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of role in protection against disease was
interactions be-tween behavior, the brain, known since ancient times. Its anatomy
and the immune system. It addresses how and physiology have become clearer only
psychological factors influence the in the last fifty years or so. Broadly, its
immune system and physical health components can be divided into the
through neural cellular and humoral components. The
andendocrinologicalpathways. These cellular componenti.e.the cell- mediated
relationships are especially relevant to immunity is constituted by the T-
immunologically mediated health lymphocyteswhich are derived from the
problems, including infectious disease, thymus gland. The T-
cancer, autoimmunity, allergy, and wound lymphocytesconstitute about the 75% of
healing. all lymphocytes. The humoralcomponent
is constituted by the bone marrow derived
This new field of B-lymphocytes which make about 10% of
psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) has all lymphocytes. The rest15% of cells
developed over the past 10 to 15 years. belong to a heterogeneous group which
primarilyinclude natural killer cells. These
cells are histologically andphysiologically
different and can be recognized by the
presenceof unique cluster determinant
antigens (CD) present on their
cellmembrane. T-lymphocytes are further
differentiated into variouscategories
depending on their functions and presence
of CDmarkers. The T-helper (Th) cells and regulate the development of nervous
the T-suppressor (Ts) cellsare the main system. Likeother body responses, the
two categories of T lymphocytes which act response of immune system can also
to increaseand decrease the immune beconditioned. The neurons have receptors
response, therefore they work for interleukins and theimmune cell
incoordination with each other to maintain respond to the neurotransmitters through
homeostasis. They alsoplay an important thesereceptors. Under the stressful
role in cancer immunity and various situation whether physical orpsychological
autoimmunediseases. The B-lymphocytes the CNS release stress biochemicals such
act by synthesis of antibodies – as cortisolthrough HPA activation;
aspecialized form of protein molecules activates ANS to prepare the body forfight
active against the particleslike bacteria, and flight response. However, such
viruses, etc. which are pathogenic and/or activation paradoxicallylowers the
foreign tothe organism. The recognition of immune functions and makes the organism
self and non-self molecules isagain susceptibleto infections and other
determined by a complex system of pathologic processes as the requirement
molecules in which theMajor atsuch times is a “strong defense”. The
Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is the evidence to this conclusionhas come from
most important.Both cell-mediated and various animal and human studies. In the
humoral-mediated immunity also workin depressiveand anxiety disorders the
coordinated way through secretion of indices of immune functioning havebeen
cytokines and inter-leukinsfrom consistently seen to be lower than the
lymphocytes which guide their normal. Under socialisolation and
interaction.Although the immune system is ambiguous situations, the immune
perfectly specialized systemof the body response isconsistently seen inadequate in
involved in defense against foreign and various studies. The CNS-ImmuneSystem
pathogenicparticles, it also interacts interaction is quite intricate one.Despite
bilaterally with the other body plethoraof studies the exact mechanism of
systemsincluding the CNS. This this interaction is still beyonda reasonable
interaction attracted the researchers allover level of understanding. Clearly more
so much that it acquired a separate studies arerequired to elucidate this
meaning and status complex mechanism.
aspsychoneuroimmunology. The immune
molecules particularly theMHC also
LET’S UNDERSTAND THIS IN with each other, but they only recently
SIMPLER TERMS WITH A PINCH started to understand how they do it and
OF DETAIL. what it means for our health.
WHAT IS The nerves in your brain and spinal cord

PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY? make up your CNS, while your immune
system is made up of organs and cells
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a
that defend your body against infection.
relatively new field of study that looks at
Both systems produce small molecules
the interactions between your central
and proteins that can act as messengers
nervous system (CNS) and your immune
between the two systems. In your CNS,
system. Researchers know that our CNS
and immune system can communicate
these messengers include hormones and Here’s a look at some of the recent
neurotransmitters. Your immune system, research and discussions around PNI in
on the other hand, uses proteins called the medical community:
cytokines to communicate with your CNS.
A 2016 reviewof existing studies
found that stressful experiences during
childhood can increase the release of
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS
cytokines by your immune system.
This is associated with an increased
There’s plenty of existing research about
risk of mental illness in adulthood.
the effects of stress on the immune
Researchers believe that this early
system. Many of these studies focus on the
release of cytokines may cause
release of cytokines in response to both
changes in the brain that increase a
physical and psychological stress.
person’s risk of developing a mental
A cytokine is a small protein that’s illness later in life.
released by cells, especially those in your A 2015 article noted that rats produced
immune system. There are many types of different types of cytokines depending
cytokines, but the ones that are generally on the type of stress they experienced.
stimulated by stress are called pro- For example, an injury produced one
inflammatory cytokines. type of pro-inflammatory cytokine.
Meanwhile, exposure to a social
Under normal circumstances, your body
stressor, such as separation from a
releases pro-inflammatory cytokines in
close family member, released a
response to an infection or injury to help
different type of pro-inflammatory
destroy germs or repair tissue. When
cytokine.
you’re physically or emotionally stressed,
Another 2016 reviewfound that both
your body also releases certain hormones,
sleep disturbances and sleeping too
including epinephrine (adrenaline). These
much seemed to trigger the release
hormones can bind to specific receptors
of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
that signal for the production of pro-
A 2011 review exploring the link
inflammatory cytokines.
between stress and the immune system
found that stress may play a role in
conditions that affect the immune
system, such as cancer, HIV, signals for cortisol production. This, in

and inflammatory bowel disease. turn, can trigger the release of pro-
inflammatory cytokines by your
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES immune system. These cytokines then
OF PNI?
trigger an overgrowth of skin cells.
What does all of this new knowledge mean

In addition, people with psoriasis often
for our health? Keep reading to learn more
report having psychological conditions,
about the role that PNI plays in several
such as depression, increased stress, and
common conditions.
suicidal thoughts. Previous research has
linked an increase in cytokine levels
PSORIASIS
with major depression.
Psoriasis is a great example of how your
There’s currently no cure for psoriasis,
immune system, CNS, mental health,
but new developments in the field of PNI
and stress levels are all intertwined. It’s a
could change this in the future. In the
chronic condition that causes your skin
meantime, here’s how to manage it at
cells to grow too quickly. Your body
home.
usually sheds extra skin cells, but if you
have psoriasis, these extra cells build up
CANCER
on your skin’s surface. This can lead to
intense itching and pain. A 2013 review of many studies exploring
the relationship between PNI and cancer
The overgrowth of skin cells in psoriasis
found evidence to suggest that:
is due to the release of cytokines from
your immune system. We know that Women with genetic risk factors for
psychological stress may worsen or trigger developing cancer showed
episodes of psoriasis. Indeed, people with immune system abnormalities in
psoriasis tend to have increased levels of response to stress.
cortisol, a stress hormone. There appears to be a link in people
with breast cancer between
Your hypothalamus, which is part of your
depression, the quality of social
CNS, is responsible for cortisol production.
support they have, and immune
When it senses stressors, it signals your
cell activity.
nearby pituitary gland, which
People with breast, cervical, or PSYCHOLOGY AND

ovarian cancer who reported TECHNOLOGY INTERFACE:
feeling stressed or lonely had
DIGITAL LEARNING;
abnormalities in their immune
DIGITAL ETIQUETTE: CYBER
systems.

Communication between the immune BULLYING; CYBER
system and brain may impact PORNOGRAPHY:
symptoms that are related to cancer CONSUMPTION,
treatment, including fatigue,
IMPLICATIONS; PARENTAL
depression, and difficulty sleeping.
 MEDIATION OF DIGITAL
Stressful experiences and depression
USAGE.
may be associated with a poorer
survival rate for several types of
cancer. Technology is everywhere ... at work,
home or at leisure time. Obviously, this is
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE
not new, since cars, computers, mobile
A review from 2010 looking at the phones (especially, smartphones) and the
relationship between stress, immune various gadgets which had occupy our
function, and coronary artery disease existence for quite a while.In the twentieth
echoed other studies suggesting that century, the exponential growth in various
psychological stress increases the technical fields and the emergence of
production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. moderntechnologies (consecutive,
especially to the progress of computer
This increase in pro-inflammatory science) caused the appearance of
cytokines is associated with an increase thepsychological ambivalence, because,
in heart rate and blood pressure. In modern technologies, generate, in the
addition, the production of cytokines by same measure, comfort and disasters.
your immune system promotes feelings
of sickness or fatigue. According to this Between the two extreme positions
review, this reaction isn’t immediately formed, represent by technophiliaand
harmful. However, long-term stress and technophobia, arose a variety ofissues on
cytokine production may contribute to the the psychological and social impact of
development of cardiac disease. modern technology, which has fueled and
will further fuel a intensedebate on the suchtechnology ... The phenomenon would
advantages and simultaneously carrying affect about one third of all population.The
dangers involves by the development of avoidance of the new technologies by some
techniques (andtechnologies!), but also on people, has led to the hypothesis of
how its rules. At the psycho-dynamic "technophobia" or"computerophobia"
level, technophilia(attraction to (these terms are used interchangeably).
technology)generates its psychological When factors as anxiety and attitude, or
opposite, namely, technophobia (rejection morespecifically, the computer anxiety
of technology). Technophilia and the attitude toward computer are
andtechnophobia are the two extremes of beginning to combine, the first condition is
the relationship between technology and a requirement for the second, heving as
the human being, but especially,between result the appearance of irrational fears
technology and society. and anxieties expressed by
avoidingbehavior, paradoxical, sometimes
absurd. Basically, the technophobia
TECHNOPHILIA AND beginning to take shape.Mental resistance
TECHNOPHOBIA – TERMINOLOGY to new technology, manifested in the form
of avoidance of computers was well
The person attracted to technology, the presentedin the literature, by the term
"technophile", takes the most or all "technophobe" or "computerophobe", used
technologies in a positive to describe people who refuse to
manner,enthusiastically adopting new usecomputers when they has this
forms of technology and view this as a opportunity or are required to do.
way to improve his living conditions Although we can’t speak about a phobia in
andcombat social problems (Amichai- theclassic sense of the term (as in
Hambrurger, 2009).However, it was found agoraphobia, for example), but there are
that, with the continued proliferation of many similarities at etiology and
modern technologies in almost every "treatment", that justify the term of
aspectof our existence, the number of "technophobia".
people who manifest fear of them is Technophobia not mean fears about giving
increasing. Fear can go from up, change the job or concerns about
avoidingtechnology to organic symptoms radiation emitted from thescreen, but
such sweating and palpitations, even if rather an emotional response and negative
they only think about using attitudes relative to technology, that the
technophoberecognizes to be irrational. environmental and social impact of

The prejudgement that technophobia is a technology on society.The technophiles
phenomenon that only affects the has no fear about the effects of
elderlypopulation, has been disproved long technological development on society, as
time ago. Current research shows that is the case fortechnophobes. Technophilia
things are far from beeing improved. refers to "technological determinism",
theory emphasize that human society has
TECHNOPHILIA not thepower to resist towards the
influences of technology. A number of
Technophilia (from the Greek τέχνη - technologies are used as an expression of
technē, "art/ artifact, skill and personal narcissism. The technophiles
understanding" and φίλος - philos, enjoy using technology and focus on its
"love"),refers generally to the enthusiasm egocentric benefits.
generated by the use of technology,
particularly new technologies, such The concept of addiction is often
as:personal computers, Internet, mobile associated negatively with technophilia,
phones and even the technologies of while targeting only thosetechnophiles
"home cinema". The term emerged in who become excessive and obsessive
the1960s, is mainly used in sociology, bound to the forms of technology they
when is examinated the interaction possess.So far as, in the eighteenth
between individuals and century, industrialized societies (notably
society.Technophilia is defined as the UK and France) have relied ontheir
attraction, enthusiasm of the human development and expansion of the
individual determinated by the activities multiplication and improvement techniques
which involve the use of advanced in order to obtain effective /efficient to their
technologies. It is expressed by easily producers and confortto consumers it can be
adaptation to the social changes broughtby said that such societies
technological innovations. The term of are by their naturetechnophiles.
technophilia is used to highlight how Undoubtedly, technophilia tend to be the
technology can evoke strongfuturistic norm in most contemporary societies. As
positive feelings. However, reverent technophilia isassociated with the
attitude towards technology that phenomenon of psychological and social
determines technophilia cansometimes "normality", we will not insist on this
prevent a realistic assessment of theoretical
approach. We remember only that in the psychologist, named Ivan Goldberg in

extreme forms, such as Internet Addiction 1995 (but he use it in the pejorative sense).
that we expose briefly, in thefollowing Currently, IAD is anosographicentity
lines -, technophilia can acquire a present in textbooks of DSM (Diagnostic
pathological aspect. and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders), from DSM-IV.Although in the
INTERNET ADDICTION DSM-IV, Internet Addiction has emerged
as independent entity, American Medical
Internet Addiction or Internet Addiction Association(AMA) and the American
Disorder (IAD) is now known mainly as Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) are
the compulsive internet use (CIU). against to inclusion of Internet Addiction
as a
The tendency is to avoid the term formal diagnosis in DSM and recommends
addiction, reflecting the long-term the study of addictions, especially relative to
dependence and is not limited to a single video games. (in Price,2011).In the opinion
cause.Online activities (e.g., shopping on of I. Goldberg, Internet Addiction is more a
the net) are considered problematic if its symptom and not a disorder itself. To
has a compulsive nature. Otheractivities, describehypothetical Internet Addiction,
such as reading or playing video games Goldberg draws an analogy with gambling.
become problematic only when Goldberg notes that "Internet addictioncan
excessively interferes with dailylife. In cause the denial or the avoidance of other
1949, Otto Fenichel was the one who current issues of life." The
would speak first of "addiction without addictivebehaviour expresses the
drugs", which is the direct socioemotionalimmaturity in the
expression of Internet addiction.The individual's inability to build a true and
Anglophone term Internet Addiction was solid psychosocial identity.
first used by the American psychologist Thecyberdependence is characterized by
Kimberly Young, ata colloquium of the "all mental disorders related to the use of
American Psychological Association computer equipment, harmful to thehuman
(APA), in Toronto (1996) and was individual". This latest disorder can be
subsequently takenover in specialized diagnosed with tests which highlighted the
terminology. However, the term IAD was obsessional behavior. Theresults of these
originally proposed, also by an American tests should be interpreted, but with
caution.Associated to the Internet
Addiction apppear the Communication to anexaggerated and unjustified fear.

Addiction Disorder (CAD or Although the accent is on pathological,
compulsivetalking), behavioral disorder abnormal aspects, some of these fears
linked to the need to constantly maybe rightly justified (e.g., radiation
communicate with others, even when there exposure). Technical progress can
is no realjustification for such sometimes be detrimental to ecosystem
communication. CAD is a "theoretical" health.
disorder in which users become to be The main reasons for the opposition in
addicted to social terms of technical development are not
networks (or "social media elements" of only ecological (it is considered
the Internet!), such as Facebook or thattechnology destroys the environment),
YouTube. Sometimes it happens thatthese and ethics (biometrics and video
activities generate intrapsychic conflict surveillance, for example, are regarded
and guilt. (Bucy, &Newhagen, 2004). asindicating serious damage of individual
freedom, creating a progressively social
TECHNOPHOBIA control likely to degenerate into a new
form of totalitarianism).
Technophobia (from the Greek τέχνη - Some examples of technophobe ideas can
technēand φόβος - phobos, "fear") is fear, be found in various art forms: from literary
dislike or discomfort by usingmodern works such asFrankenstein, movies like
technologies and complex technical Metropolis or famous Charlie Chaplin’s,
devices (especially computers). The term Modern Times. Many of these works
is related to cyberphobia.Technophobia is portray thedark side of technology as
defined as an irrational fear or anxiety perceived by technophobes.
caused by side effects of advanced
DIGITAL LEARNING
technologies. Definitioninvolves two
components: first the fear for side effects
Online Collaborative Learning (OCL)
of technological development on society
proposes a modern learning theory with
and the
such a framework that considers the
environment; and second, the fear of using
universality of the Internet and the societal
technological devices such as computers
shift toward collaborative learning. It
and advanced technology.A number of
features the intellectual growth rather than
authors consider that technophobia always
the conventional teaching approach.
has a pathological character, since it refers
Proposal is an Online Collaborative To what regards the use of Information

Learning (OCL) which renders a model of and Communication Technology (ICT) as
learning in which students are encouraged a digital learning resource for OCL,
and supported to work together toward educational stakeholder’s attitudes and
knowledge. To invent, to explore ways to perceptions of ICT’s significantly impact
innovate, and, by so doing, seek to their student’s digital literacy. The
understand, therefore, student’s use of ICT is related to teacher’s
stimulate a sharp solution-finding rather confidence level of their digital
than presenting literature statements. This competencies. Evidence shows a
learning method is collaborative so that significant relationship between the
students are expected to work collectively efficient use of ICT as a learning
through it, alternatively to the approach methodology and the “respondents’ age”,
that merges individual and closed as well as, high relationship between
decisions to accomplish an outcome. A teachers “technological
constructivist framework approach points anxiety” and age. Nevertheless, educators
to the value of educators as key drivers for may require continuous professional
the OCL instructional process. development and training regarding their
Aforementioned encourages an inherent ICT capabilities. Skillful teachers in a poor
disposition from student’s awareness ICT learning environment can perform
through real-case scenarios and encourages better. Moreover, a survey reported that 20
curiosity and discussions that support their to 25 percent of European students are
autonomy. Likewise, the term participatory taught by digitally competent teachers.
pedagogy represents a shift in educational ICT supports the learning process by the
paradigm that combines instruction with a use of text, images and audio and by that,
net-worked and each person can
connected education. The results create their story and engage in an in-
mentioned above ends in a promotion of depth learning. Digital Storytelling stands
the student’s engagement and their as one technology application that is well
enthusiasm to focus on enhancing positioned to take advantage of user-
theoretical transmission of knowledge. directed content and to help instructors use
technology productively in their classes.
DIGITAL LEARNING SUCCESS Nonetheless, the use of innovative ICTs
alone does not guarantee effective learning
processes and outcomes in OCL
environments. There is evidence to favor learning outcomebut autonomy support

that digital storytelling (DST-OCL, here doesn’t. Yet, if both are combined,
and further on) is more effective than a autonomy support is able to stimulate
lecture-based (G-OCL, here and further greater outcomes.
on) instructional strategy. Adopting a
DST-OCL strategy promotes student’s ADVANTAGES:
cooperation in learning activities, such as
script review, image selection and 1. Extendibility, Accessibility, and
storyboarding as well as, “online Suitability - Users can proceed through
a trainingprogram at their own pace
communication”, “interactivity” and and at their own place. They can also
“privacy”. There is evidence to conclude access the trainingat any time,
receiving only as much as they need.
also thatusing a DST-OCL student are In other words, “just in time andjust
relatively more motivated to have a enough."
discussion between group members, in a Quicker (and cheaper) turnaround of
finished product.
constructivist point of view. To what Collaborative and exploratory learning
regards digital problem-based learning environments.
Easy and affordable training delivery -
(PBL) research, concludes that students
Chances are (and you’ll want to access
that are provided with autonomy support thisbefore embarking on WBT) your
have a greater sense of autonomy and audience has access to a browser.
Validate whatbrowser(s) your audience
those who received structural directives, has and what version(s) and you can
clear expectations, guidance and capitalize on thedelivery vehicle.
Cross Platform - WBT can be accessed
procedures contributes experience greater
by web browsing software on any
sense of competence. The study in matter platform:windows, MAC, Unix, etc.
also concludes that both autonomy support Basically, you can deliver your
training course to anymachine over the
and structure in a OCL promotes a positive Internet or company intranet without
effect on intrinsic motivation. Even with a having to develop a differentcourse for
each unique platform.
single aforementioned dimension, students
Inexpensive worldwide distribution -
fostered their intrinsic motivation, No separate or distinct
therefore, they are mutually supportive. distributionmechanism is needed (i.e.,
distributing CD-ROMs for CBT
However, if both are absent, autonomy
training). WBT can beaccessed from
support and structure, evidence shows a any computer anywhere in the world
low intrinsic motional usage of ICTs. while at the same time keepingdelivery
costs down.
Nonetheless, this study also confirmed that Reduced technical support - Web-
structure OCL strategy has a positive based training courses decrease some
of themore “potent and deadly” Directaccess to many other training

technical support issues that often resources - The Internet gives access to
enshroud technology-based training. thelargest library in the world.
Ease of content update - The changes Capitalize on the offerings that have
you make to any of your content already beencreated, and use them to
areimmediately available to your enhance the learning you are
learning audience across the world. distributing.
Installation options on private
networks for security or greater
bandwidth. If youopt for intranet
delivery, you have more control over DISADVANTAGES:
plug-ins and bandwidth, givingyou
more options for inclusion in your
WBT. Limited formatting of content in
current browsers - The WBT you
Travel cost and time savings -
create will notresemble the CBT you
Learning is delivered directly to the
learner insteadof the other way around. might be familiar with because of Net
bandwidth constraints.So if your
Web browsers and Internet connections
content relies on a lot of media “bells
are widely available - Most
and whistles,” or particularformatting,
computerusers have access to a
the Net might not be the best delivery
browser, such as IE4 or Netscape and
medium.
are connected to acompany's intranet,
and/or have access to the Internet. Bandwidth/browser limitations may
restrict instructional methodologies -
WBT-based development is easier to
Again, you are constrained by the
learn and pick up then CBT-
technology. If your content relies on a
baseddevelopment. You should be able
lot of video,audio, or intense graphics,
to draw from a larger pool of WBT
and your audience isn’t on a T1 line,
developersthan is available for creating
Net delivery willonly frustrate your
traditional CBT.
learners.
Vast, untapped market for training -
Limited bandwidth means slower
The untapped WBT market is still
performance for sound, video, and
large. Ifyou’re looking for commercial
largegraphics. Know the bandwidth
markets, the Internet also offers a huge
available to your audience—and
audiencehungry for material via the
Net. what’s reasonable“wait” time for
them—before you commit to the Net.
Accessis controllable - You can direct
On average, most mobile end-users are
and monitor who receives web training
still running on a 28.8 kpbs
-when, how many times, and in what
connection.
sequence.
Someone must provide web server
Billing options - You can bill—and
access, control usage, and bill users
collect on that bill—through Net
(ifapplicable) - The Net doesn’t
distribution,billing by user ID, number
magically solve all of your resource
of accesses, date/time of access, or any
issues. Plan onhaving someone oversee
other means bywhich you want to
some of these issues.
assess usage.
Time required for downloading
applications - Again, be very, very
aware ofdownload times—and we still WBT game.Validate what works well,

recommend looking at delivery options when, and at what it cost.
considering a28.8 kpbs modem if you
are delivering training to an external DIGITAL ETIQUETTE: CYBER
audience or over theInternet. Your BULLYING
training might be great, but if your
audience isn’t patient enough towait
for it to download, it doesn’t matter. (This section is also important for paper
Student assessment and feedback is I. This section has been referred from an
limited - The Internet provides a article by Jennifer Preece)
wonderfulmeans to get all kinds of
information back and forth to your
audience, but it alsomakes it harder to Digital etiquette is a term that describes
assess some types of student feedback the positive behavioral or attitude of
and information.
digital technology users. The scope of this
Many, if not most, of today's web-
based training programs aretoo static, term is wide, encompassing not only
withlittle if any interactivity - This is internet usage but also other technologies
probably due to the bandwidth
limitation, but if we deliver poor, page- such as mobile phones, tablets etc. Some
turningtraining, we can’t expect stellar also refer to the term as Digital citizenship
results from our learners.
in view of the virtual world created by the
Cannot design and develop robust
multimedia courses - The usage of various technologies. Hence
bandwidthlimitations of the Net technology users are called digital citizens
constrain what can be delivered
effectively. (Ribble, Bailey & Ross, 2004). In a
Are computers replacing human focused scope of internet, this etiquette is
contact? - The Net is not right for all called netiquette while the Internet users
training.
Newness- It may take longer designing are often referred to as online citizens or
and developing WBT courses, the first nettizens (Preece, 2004). In another
timearound. Because of its recent
perspective, this virtual world is also
emergence to the training arena, new
technologiesalways require time, called the cyber-world. The power of the
experience, and money in order to take world-wide web is now bigger than its first
full advantage of itscapabilities. The
great thing, however, is you’ll learn initial introduction. This technology made
new skills and knowledge witheach the impossible possible (i.e. people all
new course.
over the world could read one piece of
Web-based training has high-fixed
costs- Some people assume that since content from the same source at any given
youdon’t need a CD-ROM drive, you time and location).
have no additional costs. Not so. It’s
importantthat you consider doing a
pilot before proceeding further into the
While we were cheering at the success of Knowledge management is interpreted as

the technology, the setback was just the ability to ‘selectively capture, archive
around the corner. The different and access the best practices of work-
backgrounds of internet users determine related knowledge…for both employees
the interpretation of content. As and managers’ (Bergeron, 2003, pg. 6). In
highlighted by Preece (2004), “Internet order to achieve this, a supportive working
users come from many cultures and walks culture is essential within an organization.
of life. They arrive with a mix of By cultivating positive digital activities
expectations using a variety of from an early age, such working culture is
technologies, which they access in feasible as a developing mind is easily
different ways.” The technology has also molded and influenced
been misused by users in many ways. It (Siegel, 2012). The importance of digital
has acted as a gateway for criminals to etiquette from a knowledge management
freely conduct their activities in (KM) perspective is that it indirectly
anonymity. This is referred to as cyber- allows the children to be aware of
crimes. Despite the various setbacks, the acceptable online interactions at an early
diversity of internet usage alleviates its age. Such indirect training strengthens a
value with an increase in the demographic child’s positive social norms, which would
background of users accessing it especially be brought into their adulthood and
at different ages range for different working environment. This training would
purposes. The technology has now reached provide a platform for developing an
our children as early as four months old. effective knowledge management
Without proper guidance, these children structure, which depicts the best practices
could become potential victims to various for an organization. In recent years, there
crimes in the virtual world. is a significant increase in the number of
internet usage among children (Madden et
al., 2013) where not all children will use
the Internet wisely according to the cyber
ethics. “Cyber-ethics is the discipline of
using appropriate and ethical behaviors
and acknowledging moral duties and
obligations pertaining to online
environments and digital media”. Children
like to use internet for socializing purposes
at home and they may have been exposed thefun. But times have changed. Today’s
only to the basic online awareness via their settlers flock online in the millions. A
parents. Although Internet use provides single wordaptly summarizes these settlers
numerous valuable benefits but misusing it – ‘diverse’. These Internet users come
can cause serious risks. Due to the lack of from manycultures and walks of life. They
awareness and knowledge about digital arrive with a mix of expectations using a
etiquettes, it can lead to undesired negative variety oftechnologies, which they access
impacts on children. Therefore, it is in different ways.The new settlers include
important to expose and make them children and adults, healthy and infirm,
understand about unethical online eager and reluctant.English-speakers
activities (Freestone & Mitchell, 2010) dominate but other languages and cultures
such as plagiarism, software piracy and are gaining prominence. Thenumber of
privacy violation, (Jung, 2009) not to women matches the number of men. Even,
mention the existing online threats low-income families and thosewith limited
(Lazarinis, 2010) such as viruses. education are beginning to appear (Pew,
2003). This diversity can have itscharm,
WHY IS ETIQUETTE ONLINE
but also can lead to unpredictable
IMPORTANT?
encounters,misunderstandings,and
frustratedexpectations. One person’s
As Internet settlers form cyber-
clever joke is another person’s offensive
communities, the importance of etiquette
insult.Connecting with others tops the ‘to
grows. Lack ofetiquette is weakening
do’ lists for new settlers. Internet
sociability and even destroying online
shopping, gaming,and searching for
communities. Etiquetteonline is not just
information, particularly health information,
nice to have, it is necessary.Like the
are also near the top. Thenew settlers are a
pioneers of the wild west, early Internet
social bunch compared with the early
adopters were a rough and tumble gang.An
pioneers, who focused onprogramming and
occasional sarcastic comment, expletive,
information-oriented tasks.Different types of
or confrontational challenge was part of
technology require different forms of
etiquette (Marx, 1994). Textingvia a mobile
phone is different from instant messaging
and worlds apart from theasynchronous
experience of email. A short abrupt
comment that is acceptable
in instantmessaging may not be in email mélange of users, goals, technology, and

where some people expect to be addressed access conditionspresent new challenges
by name.Emotional affordances, syntax to etiquette online, particularly for the
and semantics vary across technology too. growing number of supportcommunities
Furthermore,new technologies may where kindness, help, and empathy is
challenge previously accepted norms. Who anticipated. Good approaches forfostering
would have guessedthat having a stranger etiquette online are therefore needed.
edit one’s fastidiously composed prose
without first askingpermission would be HOW DOES ETIQUETTE DEVELOP?
acceptable? Yet this is exactly what
happens in Wikis, which aredesigned for Widely accepted ways of behaving reflect
developing collaborative web pages. the attitudes and values of a community or
Therefore, rules of etiquette are neededthat society at large - they are its norms
preserve this spirit of flexibility while (Morton, 2003). Social norms are people's
supporting reasonable behavior and good beliefs
will.With such a wide range of about behaviors that are normal,
communications software now available to acceptable, or even expected in a
user’s etiquette ischallenged when users particular social
move from one type to another. It’s context (Postmes, T., Spears, R. and Lea,
particularly easy to forgetmore subtle M., 2000).
differences between the
technologies.Access conditions may also Norms, including rules of etiquette, are
cause poor etiquette. Hundreds of miles learned through experience in a
and many time zonesseparate some community. For
participants; most cannot rely on face-to- example, children observe how adults and
face meetings to learn about eachother’s other children behave, absorb these norms,
norms. In addition, access to and and
experience with technology differs. learn their community’s etiquette at an
Unwanted early age. This role-modeling process
messages and large attachments that continues
slightly annoy high-bandwidth users can throughout life. Other community
bedistressing for users with unreliable, members correct those who do not
expensive, dial-up facilities in remote conform toexpectations. Problems arise
locations.The complexity of this rich when people go into other cultures with
different norms,particularly when the “Receiving notes with inappropriate

differences are subtle. automated signatures or not addressing
me by
Gift giving provides a good example of an my name and ending without a farewell
etiquette norm. If I receive a gift greeting and the sender’s name – that’s
fromAmerican friends, I open it, thank rude and unfriendly.”
them and comment enthusiastically to
show mypleasure. In Japan, I would Another said:
instead thank the person and carefully put
my gift aside to beopened later; opening “One-word answers and comments that
the gift there and then would not be polite. don’t refer to our conversation. How am I
My behavior wouldcontravene the norm in supposed to remember what ‘Yes’ refers to
Japanese society and be interpreted as poor when I get 70-100 emails a day?”
etiquette.In each culture, norms preserve “Attaching large files that take a long time
or enforce comfort and empathy in the to down load is thoughtless.”
community.Consequently, when norms of
etiquette are broken, discomfort, Surveys also provide examples of
confusion, annoyance,embarrassment and annoying behavior. A recent Internet
even fear may ensue. survey used
convenience sampling to collect opinions
WHAT PROBLEMS OCCUR from 4155
ONLINE? participants(istudio.vantagenet.com/cgi-
bin/pollresults/002, accessed 10/03). The
To understand how to create and support survey asked:
etiquette norms online, first we must
understand “Which netiquette issues aggravate you
what challenges them. Ask Internet users most?”
what offends them most online and you
will get The following problems were
a slew of comments. For example, two identifiedand they are listed in order of
friends offered the following: most to least mentioned: sending spam:
forwarding bogusvirus warnings; sending
dumb jokes; typing in all caps or all lower
case; lack of basicgrammar and
punctuation; including my email address in Rice, 2002). This knowledge has given
the CC. or TO. with a list ofother email riseto new interfaces that support identity
addresses; not editing emails; including no and social interaction online (e.g., Preece,
hello or thank you; and poor useof 2000).Two well-known approaches that
formatting styles.These responses suggest specifically address etiquette solutions are
different reasons for the underlying setting rules(often called netiquette) and
behavior: unintentionallyannoying moderating discussions. These can be
behavior that is due either to poorly effective but oftenprove inadequate. New
developed skills (e.g., not mixing caps approaches are called for that combine
andlower case, not editing emails, poor human judgment withtechnical efficiency.
grammar) or failing to appreciate what The following discussions reviews current
others careabout (e.g., wasting time by practice and suggestssome other
sending dumb jokes); potentially malicious approaches.
behavior (e.g.,sending spam); and absence
HUMAN-ORIENTED
of courtesy (e.g., including hello and thank
you).Surprisingly, aggressive comments –
PROCESSES
known as ‘flames’ - are not mentioned.
Flames are NETIQUETTE
comparatively infrequent but when they do

occur, they can be devastating to The usual approach is to develop written
anindividual or community. lists of rules for online behavior.

Typing‘netiquette’ in Google produces a
WHAT ARE THE SOLUTIONS? stream of links to rules for online

etiquette. Recentexamples like Nokia’s
Many researchers have reported “Don’t b a txt msg abuser” offer the
breakdowns in etiquette online over the following guidance for textmessagingwith
years (e.g.,Shapiro and Anderson, 1985; cell phones (www.thefeature.com accessed
Sproull and Kiesler, 1992). We also know 10/03):
much about thecauses of poor etiquette in

textual communication; for example,
absence of non-verbalfeedback and
reduced sense of responsibility between
people who may never have toaddress each
other face to face (e.g., Katz and
COMMON COURTESY STILL It seems obvious that role models could be

RULES.
used more online. After all, it’s the
Contrary to popular belief, composing an
waychildren learn etiquette (Morton,
SMS whileyou’re in a face-to-face
2003). Online moderators and early
conversation is just about as rude as …
adopters tend to berole models for those
LEAVE THE SLANG TO THE
KIDS. that follow. By greeting, acknowledging
Don’t expect your stodgy superiors at and praising participantsthey encourage a
work to be hip tothe lingo of the SMS climate of appreciation and respect that
streets. And don’t expect to win points fosters etiquette.Watching what others do
with your kids bytrying to be cool. is also a common strategy for newcomers
REMEMBER THAT YOUR to an onlinecommunity. It enables them to
PHONE HAS AN OFF BUTTON!
These basic, common sense rules can be judge the tone of the community before
effective, but they are often read and launching in, andso avoid causing offense,
forgotten.When upheld by moderators, being ridiculed or put-down (Preece,
community leaders and participants they Nonnecke and Andrews,2004). Even
are more likely tosuccessful; particularly established community participants adopt
for setting standards in the early days of a this wise strategy when joiningnew
community’s life. communities because each community has

its own standards and ways of
MODERATORS behaving.What is acceptable in one may

not be in another.
Moderating is a well-known practice for

preventing impolite behavior online. Evidence of constructive discussions,
However,moderating can be demanding information exchanges and empathic
and time-consuming, particularly in active support arethe trademarks of most
communities.Knowing when to control successful communities. But there are
groups, when to let go, and how to bring in other models forcommunity. Some, like
non-participants isnot as obvious as it the saloons of Wild West, are rough and
might seem. tumble places that thriveon sarcasm,

bawdiness and punchy comments.
ROLE MODELS Problems only arise when expectations

arenot met, especially in communities that
are normally helpful and supportive.
MENTORS moderate theirown behavior. If someone

steps out of line, community members
Mentoring could be helpful in technical, remind the offenderabout what is expected
specialist and cross-cultural communities. gently or sternly, as the situation warrants.
Thisapproach has been used successfully This behavior isparticularly noticeable in-
in education environments. Based on patient support communities. For example,
principles advocated by the well-known in a health supportcommunity one
psychotherapist Carl Rogers students were participant told another who was miserable
given templatesto teach them polite and in pain not to be a wimpand to “tough
critiquing skills (Zimmer and Alexander, it out” (Maloney-Krichmar and Preece,
1996). These templatespromote addressing 2004). Quickly three people cameto the
a person politely by name and being rescue with comments like:
careful to check that youunderstand what
she is trying to say before jumping in with “Nonsence! A macho approach … cannot
questions, suggestions orcriticism; for avoid all problems, you were just lucky.”
example:
How does a community become self-
“[Name] What I think you mean is … My regulating? Participants who take on
own experience differs in this way …” specific rolesin the community help to
“[Name] Please tell me what you want to establish the community’s norms and
do here, so that I can understand express its values(Postmes et al., 2000).
yourpoint of view” Good community management and skillful
moderating can help tomake this happen
This approach encourages empathy and by ensuring that people treat each other
shared understanding, which is important politely and with respect.
onlinewhere non-verbal cues are reduced Evencommunities with a high turnover can
or missing. develop strong etiquette norms and
become self-regulating.Mary, a member of
CITIZEN REGULATION a vibrant patient support community that
has existed foreight years, describes how
Communities in which home-grown this happens:
etiquette norms develop with little outside
influencetend to be particularly successful. “Folks with different values eventually
These citizen-regulated communities weed themselves out or are invited to
leave.There is definitely respect granted to specify which filtersthey want in operation

members of the board. … I am (Figure 1). Some text filters also substitute
constantlyamazed at how well members of URLs, obscenities andother unwanted
the board get on on a day to day basis.” words with a message such as “Hi there!”,
“Cool it!” or nonsense wordslike
TECHNICALLY ORIENTED “Hubbubb!”
PROCESSES
COMMUNITY TOOLS
Some tools exist to support etiquette online
but more are needed. Many community-building software
applications provide tools for moderators
FILTERS to identify,approve, reject, delete, and edit
messages, or to request the sender to edit it
Obvious obscenities and unwanted spam herself.Moderators can also delete whole
messages can be detected and eliminated threads or lock a topic so that no further
usingfilters. Email systems enable users to discussion canoccur and send autoreplies.
set their own filters. Spam detecting Some systems also make it easy for
software likeSpamKiller and participants to requesthelp directly from a
SpamAssassin offer increasingly moderator.
sophisticated filtering capabilities.
Thesoftware comes with a large list of pre- SEARCH AND VISUALIZATION
set filters that check senders’ email TOOLS
addresses, subject lines, message bodies
and embedded URLs for unwanted Tools are available for identifying, rating
material. These lists areupdated regularly and rewarding contributors to
with revised ones which can be onlinediscussions. Some offer data mining
downloaded free of charge. In and visualization, such as Microsoft’s
addition,users can set their own word Netscan(netscan.research.microsoft.com).
lists,email addresses and URLs for Using Netscan researchers can search for
filtering. For example,ePrism the mostactive UseNet Newsgroups, or the
(http://www.stbernard.com/products/epris most active contributors within a group or
m/products_eprism-spam.asp groups, andthe most valued members
AccessedDecember, 2003) provides a (Smith and Fiore, 2001). Results for
checkbox interface so that users can different types of searchescan be displayed
in ranked tabular form (Figure 2), enables moderation to be anopen process

graphically as a treemap for that involves community members.
showinghierarchical relationships (Figure Schemes like this provide a basis forself-
or in clusters, as appropriate. A similar government in which communities
approachcould be adopted for etiquette if determine and maintain their own
dictionaries of good and bad etiquette were etiquettestandards. They encourage
added. commitment and community service.
Becoming a moderatoris an honor.
RATING AND REWARD SCHEMES
WHAT IS THE WAY FORWARD?
Led by Amazon and e-Bay, several e-
commerce sites have rating schemes for Just as today’s Internet settlers have
customersto evaluate their products and different needs from the early pioneers,
services. Often a five-point scale is used in tomorrow’ssettlers will be different too.
which “1”represents “poor” and “5” More people from different cultures will
represents “excellent”. Individual and come online.Ensuring good etiquette
average scores are thendisplayed for future online will challenge moderators’ and
customers to see.Slashdot, a large, community leaders’ unlessbetter processes
technical discussion community that and tools for supporting good etiquette are
receives several thousandmessages per developed. This should be awelcome
day, has a more sophisticated scheme challenge for researchers and developers.
known as “karma” for evaluating It is an opportunity to build
participants’ contributions. Moderators bridgesbetween people from different
award karma points to each contributor for cultures, religions, genders, ages and
themessages and stories they submit to the educationalachievements.The way forward
board. Karma can be rated as: “Terrible”, is to develop processes that bring together
“Bad”,“Neutral”, “Positive”, “Good”, and the best human-orientedapproaches with
“Excellent”. Karma ratings are also good technical support. New processes
influenced bymeta-moderating in which need to include rich socialstructures as
one moderator evaluates the ratings of well as being labor-saving and scalable.
another moderator ensures that moderation Processes that encouragecommunities to
is done fairly and can adjust karma points develop self-governing etiquette standards
if it is not. This cleverscheme therefore are promising. Creative newsocio-
also checks moderator performance and technical processes are needed that take
account of knowledge about: cross- assaulting face-to-face, etc.) or indirect

culturalcommunication, counseling, group (i.e. rumors, gossip, etc.).
facilitation strategies, conflict
management,community development, TRADITIONAL BULLYING VS.
personal and group identity online, as well CYBERBULLYING
as strong technicalknow-how. In addition
to preventing obvious breaches of Technology’s progression is often equated
etiquette, processes are neededfor dealing with the advancement of human societies.
with subtle etiquette problems such as Pivotal innovations, such as the Internet,
clever pranks designed to incitereactions have forever changed how people interact.
and inadvertent impoliteness due to Though these developments have al-lowed
cultural misunderstandings. A deeper the human race to make great strides in
knowledge of semiotics is needed to build many fields, they have also allowed forms
these kinds of applications (de Souza, of transgression to become more rampant
2004).As the Internet population continues and widespread. This is evident when
to grow and diversify etiquette will considering how traditional bullying has
becomeincreasingly important. Strong evolved into an issue today known as
etiquette online is no longer just nice to cyberbullying. While bullying and
have it isnecessary. cyberbullying are often similar in terms of
form and technique they also have many
differences. Unlike traditional bullying,
CYBERBULLYING cyberbullying allows the offender to mask
(Important for paper I too. Referred from his or her identity behind a computer. This
an article by R. Donegan) anonymity makes it easier for the offender
to strike blows against a victim without
The word “bully” can be traced back as far having to see the victim’s physical
as the 1530s. (Harper, 2008). In its most response. The distancing effect that
basic sense bullying involves two people, a technological devices have on today’s
bully or intimidator and a victim. The youth often leads them to say and do
bully abuses the victim through physical, crueler things compared to what is typical
verbal, or other means in order to gain a in a traditional face-to-face bullying
sense of superiority and power. These situation.
actions may be direct (i.e. hit-ting, verbally
TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
As technology has evolved, bullying has purchasing a cell phone for their child for
proliferated. With the advent of the protective reasons, the opposite may be
Internet, chat rooms soon followed. Online true as many youths admit to utilizing their
forums provided a communal breeding phones as an instrument for cyberbullying.
ground for youth to assault one another Further progress on the Internet brought
(Subrahman-yam & Greenfield, 2008). about more and more websites and with
Chat rooms were supplemented by AOL this came the advent of social media. The
Instant Messenger (AIM), an online site MySpace is often considered the
communication program that allowed teens pioneer of social media. MySpace allows
to spend hours talking to one another in individual users to create their own unique
private, one-on-one conversations or in profiles and interact in cyberspace with
public chat rooms. The program further friends and foes alike.
allowed youth to create group-specific chat
rooms. This exclusive forum allowed for Online publication of personal information
youth to get together with select groups of is dangerous because it allows many
friends and talk about the latest gossip. people to see a side of a person more often
Online innovations have continued due to kept private in a face-to-face interaction.
telecommunication advances. The advent This vulnerability puts many teens in a
of cell phones in the late 1960s and early position as either the victim or active
1970s changed the way people offender partaking in cyberbullying
communicated (Shiels, 2003). However, actions. Another aspect of social media
these portable communication devices did that can be misleading and hazardous is
not become widespread, or make it into a the ability to create alias profiles. The
majority of youth’s hands, until the ability for teens to mask their identities
appearance of the second generation of provides them with an opportunity to say
digital network phones in the 1990s. After anything to another individual without the
that, they spread like wildfire. According worry of any repercussions. Social media
to a study conducted by the Pew Research sites, such as Facebook and Google+, are
Center, 75% of 12-17-year-olds own cell prone to abuses like
phones, which increased from 45% in cyberbullying.Anonymous blogging is
2004 and one-in-three teens sends 3,000 another technological advancement that
text messages per month (Lenhart, 2010). has fostered cyberbullying activity and
Though many parents believe that they are fueled ethical debate. On sites, such as
College ACB and Juicy Campus, which
have both recently faced tightened VICTIMIZATION

regulations due to their verbally abusive
nature, youth (typically of college age) According to their results, cyberbullying
were able to login and comment victimization rates have varied in the past
anonymously in an open forum. The forum few years, ranging between 18.8 percent in
included harsh topics ranging from “Most May 2007 and 28.7 percent in Nov. 2009
Attractive” to “Worst Hookup.” The sites with a mean of 27.32 percent based on 7
even included certain topic headings that different studies from May 2007-Feb.
were simply a person’s name under which 2010. Cyberbullying offending rates have
people could post insulting comments. varied in a broader spectrum than
These blogging sites are illustrative of the victimization rates, ranging between 20.1
most dramatic forms of cyberbullying thus percent in June 2004 and 11.5 percent in
far. Nov. 2009 with a mean of 16.76 percent
based on 7 different studies from June
STATUS OF CYBERBULLYING 2004 to February 2010 (Hinduja&Patchin,
2010g, p. 1).Several specific types of
Studies have indicated that the number of victimization and cyberbullying were
youth reporting cyberbullying instances discovered through a survey taken in 2010.
varies greatly depending on the definition The survey discovered that the highest
of the term and the age of those surveyed. concentration of victimizations and
In the following study, Sameer Hin-duja cyberbullying offenses occurred in the
and Justin W. Patchin, of the following areas respectively: mean or
Cyberbullying Research Center, sampled hurtful comments posted online (14.3%,
4,441 teens, ranging in age from 11 to 18, 8.8%), rumors online (13.3%, 6.8%),
from a large school district in the southern threats through a cell phone text message
U.S. In this study, the researchers defined (8.4%, 5.4%) (Hinduja&Patchin, 2010e, p.
cyberbullying as “when someone 1).Another important factor that Hinduja
repeatedly makes fun of another person and Patchin brought to light was what type
online or repeatedly picks on another of technology a teen primarily uses.
person through email or text message or According to a 2010 study, which asked
when someone posts something online teens what role technology played in their
about another person that they don’t like” daily lives, cell phones were used the most
(Hinduja&Patchin, 2010c, p. 1). (83%), followed by the Internet for school
work (50.8%), and then Facebook (50.1%)
(Hinduja&Patchin, 2010h, p. 1). This can result in a snowball effect of lasting

points to cell phones and the Internet as the painful emotions and negative impacts.
two primary mediums used for
cyberbullying. Cyberbullying proved to GENDER AND BULLYING
vary by gender as well. Based on a 2010 Though many students tend to deny the
study involving a random sample of 2,212 emotional harm caused by bullying tactics
teen males and 2,162 teen females, the such as name-calling, rumor spreading,
male to female ratio varied the most in the and teasing, research suggests the
following three areas: victimization within opposite. In a study that utilized a sample
a person’s lifetime (16.6% for males vs. of over 3,000 students, researchers found
25.1% for females), admitted to a that “38 percent of bully victims felt
cyberbullying offense within a person’s vengeful, 37 percent were angry and 24
lifetime (17.5% for males vs. 21.3% for percent felt helpless.” Furthermore, in a
females), and had a hurtful comment study conducted by the Cyberbullying
posted about oneself online (10.5% for Research Center involving a sample size of
males vs. 18.2% for females) 468 students revealed that females are
(Hinduja&Patchin, 2010b, p. 1). This typically more emotionally affected by
information may be biased due to the cyberbullying than males. The females in
reticence among males about admitting a the study reported being frustrated
past bullying experience. Nevertheless, it (39.6%), angry (36%), and sad (25.2%)
is interesting that females reported a higher more often than males who reported lower
percentage in all categories. percentages in each category (27.5%,
24.3%, 17.9% respectively). This is not
CLINICAL surprising due to the fact, as mentioned
PERSPECTIVE/REPERCUSSIONS earlier, that males have a reluctance to
admit weaknesses especially from an
At first, one may believe that the effects of emotional standpoint. In reality, one would
bullying are limited to initial responses expect males to be at least equal if not
that tend to fade within a few days or a higher in emotional response concerning
week, at most. However, research indicates anger and frustration. (Hinduja&Patchin,
that the harm inflicted by 2009c, p.1).
bullying, whether physical or
psychological, has many implications and AGE AND BULLYING
In another study conducted by the primary role in the client’s treatment”

Cyberbullying Research Center, the (Mitchell, Finelhot& Becker-Blease, 2007,
emotional repercussions of cyberbullying p. 48). This evidence proves that
across age groups were observed. The cyberbullying is having noticeable clinical
study discovered that anger and frustration effects on today’s youth. In his “General
remain the dominant responses among Strain Theory,” sociologist Robert Agnew
senior and junior high students, but hypothesized that the strain and stress
students at the elementary level are more exerted on an individual as a result of
likely to feel sad as a result of being bullying “can manifest itself in
bullied (Hinduja&Patchin, 2009c, p.1). problematic emotions that lead to deviant
This is likely because at a younger age behavior,” possibly leading to delinquency
child are not battling with the same kind of (Agnew, 2006, pp. 659-660). This theory
competitive social hierarchy typically stresses the vicious cycle that many teens
found within upper level schools. So, may go through while being victimized.
rather than feeling the need to prove The cyclical repercussions of this process
themselves among their peers, students at are particularly alarming if it leads a
the elementary level tend to well-up within victim to antisocial behaviors when they
the initial emotional responses to bullying. try to find an outlet for their emotions. In
This points to the idea that younger 2001, the Office of Juvenile Justice and
children may keep their initial emotional Delinquency Prevention reported that “60
responses to themselves rather than acting percent of males who were bullies in
out. Unfortunately, regardless of the initial grades 6 through 9 were convicted of at
emotional reaction to bullying, these least one crime as adults, compared with
emotions have the ability to continue to 23 percent who did not bully; 35 to 40
develop, with serious clinical implications. percent of these former bullies had three or
A 2003 intensive survey study, which more convictions by the age of 24,
focused on the clinical effects of compared with 10 percent of those who
cyberbullying, reported an increase in did not bully” (Ericson, 2001). Offenders
emotional distress specifically related to are likely to utilize bullying tactics as an
cyberbullying. The study involving 512 outlet for other insecurities or problems in
professionals coming from psychology, their lives. This utilization of bullying as a
psychiatry and social work backgrounds coping mechanism contributes to the
reported that for “one-third (34%) of these cyclical nature that the process evidently
youth, the Internet problem played a has on victims and offender alike. Not
only do these flawed coping mechanisms cyberbullying as well as offenders proved

fail to resolve the emotional distress to be much more likely to have attempted
caused by bullying, they also expand the “bullycide,” the act of committing suicide
overall problem of deviant behavior. This due to the effects of bullying, than youth
inability for bullied victims and offenders who had not been affected (High, 2007).
to find adequate relief for emotional
wounds, coupled with the fact that youth PREVENTION
are unlikely to seek relief though a mentor,
explains why some youth begin to feel As cyberbullying draws more attention, a
helpless. Feeling lost in emotional distress universal definition has begun to take
with seemingly no way for relief allows shape within the law. Though not
suicidal or even thoughts of violent acknowledged across all states, a common
response to creep in to a youth’s definition in congruence with a wider
consciousness. recognition of the problem makes
addressing the elusive issue a bit easier.
The extreme consequences of bullying are The problem is that technology will
suicidal thoughts or thoughts of violent inevitably continue to advance. So, as
revenge. According to a National Vital technology progresses, local and national
Statistics Report, suicide is the 3rd leading anti-bullying policies and laws must
cause of death among youth ranging in age continue to evolve at a parallel rate. Many
from 15 to 24 (Anderson & Smith, 2003). of the issues faced by federal and state
Furthermore, the U.S. Department of governments concern-ing cyberbullying
Health and Human Services reported are avoidable for schools and communities
“substantial increases in both homicide at the local level through the
and suicide rates among males from 2000 implementation of procedures to limit the
to 2003”. This statistic becomes chillingly effects of cyberbullying.
relevant as more information is uncovered
concerning the link between cyberbullying RECOGNITION OF THE PROBLEM
and suicidal ideation or action. According
to Rigby and Slee, “Youth who are bullied One of the most notable issues that need to
or who bully others, are at an elevated risk be addressed is recognition of the problem
for suicidal thoughts, attempts, and itself. Many people, whether parents,
completed suicides” (Rigby &Slee, 1999, teachers, or even law enforcement officers,
p. 119). Statistically both victims of do not know what their specific state laws
are in regards to cyberbullying. In a formal concerted and coordinated effort – a

survey of approximately 1,000 officers, partnership if you will – among our
“over 85 percent . . . said that families, schools, youth organizations, and
cyberbullying was a serious concern that communities” (Morino, 1997). If
warrants the response of law enforcement. American communities and schools
90 percent of the school’s resource officers address the issue with a clear preventative
had dealt with a cyberbullying case pro-gram that keeps each level of
‘sometimes’ or ‘often.’” Despite this prohibition on the same page, children will
obvious concern, “25 percent of the school in turn receive a consistent message from a
resource officers and over 40 percent of young age, which will presumably
the traditional law enforcement officers resonate effectively. This message should
did not know if their state had a law cause children to feel comfortable with
specific to cyberbullying” (Patchin, 2011). confronting and reporting the problem by
These statistics are alarming considering portraying any form of bullying as
that the number of states without some unacceptable. Furthermore, this
kind of bullying or harassment specific law consistency across a given program will
can be counted on one hand change the overall environment rather than
(HI,MI,MT,SD) and the number of states just focusing on individual cases.
with cyberbullying specific laws are According to Dorothy Espelage and Susan
increasing. Every person that deals with Swearer’s book Bullying in American
children (i.e. education, parenting, law Schools, “A comprehensive program . . . is
enforcement, etc.) should know the generally more powerful in reducing
bullying or harassment law specific to his bullying and increasing school safety than
or her state, the physical and emotional concentrating on individual students”.
signs of bullying, and his or her
community or school prevention plan,
including how to deal with and report a
problem.
Along with recognizing the problem and POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS

being able to identify solutions, it is vital Credited with initiating the first systematic
that cyberbullying be addressed in a bullying research in the early 1970s, Dr.
consistent way. To effectively put a Dan Olweus is primarily known for his
harness on the problem will require “a bullying prevention programs. The Olweus
Bullying Prevention Program, enacted by within their school as well as about their
Norway’s Ministry of Education, develops thoughts on the issue in general. Based on
methods of dealing with bullying on a the interview results, the following six
variety of levels including school-level components were identified as essential
components, individual-level components, elements to a preventative cyberbullying
classroom-level components, and program: “the importance of a reporting
community-level components. This all- procedure; curriculum integration; student-
encompassing structure creates a cohesive centered productions through mediums
plan in which each level reinforces the such as Broadcast Journal-ism; a focus on
next. Since its creation, the Olweus prevention rather than solely on
Bullying Prevention Program has been punishment; the importance of punishment
adopted in schools across the world. as a part of an effective policy; and
According to a series of evaluations keeping up with changes in technology”
involving 40,000 students from 42 schools (Wiseman, 2011).
over a two-and-a-half-year period, the
program proved to be successful. The CYBER PORNOGRAPHY:
studies verified the program’s success by CONSUMPTION, IMPLICATIONS
reporting “reductions by 20 to 70 percent
in student reports of being bullied and It is important to note that, Indian law
bullying others,” “reductions in student nowhere defines the term 'Pornography'.
reports of antisocial behavior, such as Even the term is not statutorily defined in
vandalism, fighting, theft, and truancy” the UnitedStatesofAmerica .It is also felt
and “clear improvements in the class-room that as there is no uniform standard of
social climate” (Olweus, 2005, pp. 389- moral culture and ethics there cannot be
402). A mixed-methods research design any fixed/uniform definition of this term
carried out in Nevada, in which 118 .Pornography is often described as hard to
middle school principals were surveyed define but easy to recognise.
about cyberbullying, identified
components of a successful preventative The Internet is a vast matrix of computers
program. Of those surveyed, 66 responded that are interconnected with each other and
and 10 agreed to participate in a one-on- which facilitates the individual to
one interview. From these ten, three were communicate and to collect information in
selected and questioned intensively about very short time ,and at cheaper cost .It s
cyberbullying and preventative strategies impact and influence on our daily lives is
Ate the Internet and still others are trying

immeasurable.It has changed the way to legislate.
individual communicate with another IndividualswhochoosetoviewCyberpo
person ,anywhere in the world ,and rnhavechallengedtheselegislations.Pornogr
provides information on any topic aphyhasbeenanissueofgreatcontroversyaro
imaginable.Irrespective of caste ,race, undtheworldforyears.Ithasitshistory,inconti
economic background, gender ,andage nentalEuropesince!660's.Duringthosedays’
,Internetprovideseveryone,aplatformthroug pornographywasassociatedwithvariousand
hwhichtheycanadvancetheirideas,withoutfa wide-
cingthebiasorprejudiceofothers.Thewaypeo rangingideas,spanningfrompoliticalmessag
pledoonlinetrading,isjustonesimpleexampl estoobscenity.Whenpornographywasfirstla
eofwhytheInternetwillcontinuetoshapethe beledassuchinFranceintheearlyeighteenthc
waywecommunicateandtransactbusinesses enturyitwasprimarilyusedinpoliticalcartoon
worldwide.Theworldhastrulybecome a lot stohelp organizers
smaller.Unfortunately,theInternetisnotallfl stanceagainsttheFrencharistocracy.Thistyp
owersandsunshine.Thereareelementswithin eofpornography,referredtoas"politicalporn
itthathavegrowntobecomesourcesofconcer ography",wasstrikinglydifferentfromthepor
nwithinoursociety.Amongthemisthepersist nographythatweknowtoday.Themonarchy
entavailabilityofPornographyormorecomm wasoftenthesubjectofmuchofthepornograp
onlyknown as Cyberporn. hywrittenbetween1500and1800.Theking'sb
odyandthebodyofthenationwerefrequentlyu
Cyberpornhasbecomethemostcontroversial sedbycartooniststodramatizethepoliticalco
topicarisingfromtheuseofInternetinrecenty ncernsofthecitizenry.Inaddition,pornograp
ears.ItsavailabilityontheInternethas caused hywasalsousedtocriticizetheexcessoftheCat
fearanda'moralpanic'amongthegovernment, holicChurch.TheChurchwasrepeatedlyrefer
lawenforcementbodies.Thereisnosettleddef redtoasthe"WhoreofRome"bypornographic
initionofpornographyinamulti- pamphletsprintedduringthistime,andpornog
nationalenvironmentsuchastheInternet.Cult raphicwriterswouldusearichandobscenewo
ural,moralandlegalvariationsallaroundthew mantodepicttheceremoniesassociatedwithR
orldmakeitdifficulttodefine'pornographicco omanChurch.Towardstheendoftheperiodbe
ntent'inaglobalsociety.Itisbecauseofabover tween1500and1800,pornographylostitspoli
easonthathascausedmanycitizensworldwid ticalroleandinstead,begantobeproducedonl
etoputpressureontheirlawenforcementmech yforindividualsexualgratification.Anindust
anismtomonitortheInternet.Manynationsha rywascreatedthatproducedmassquantitiesof
Veframedlegislationsthatwould strictly regul publicationsthatwerenotintendedtobepoliti
calorculturalcritiques.Once
politicalpornographyevolved(ordevolved)t BeforetheInternet,onewishingtopurchaseor
othisphase,itceasedbeing viewpornographicmaterialhadtogotoaplace
politicalandbegantobeprofitmaking.Thepol whichprovidessuchmaterial.Thisallowedth
iticalhistoryofpornographyhasshapedthepo egovernmenttoregulatechildren'saccesstop
st- ornography.Italsoprovidedthegovernment
moderndefinitionthatweunderstandtoday.T withanenforceablemethodofensuringthatill
hischangeiswhatleadstothedevelopmentoft egalpornographicmaterialwasnotsold.Byre
hetypeofpornographythatwearemostfamilia viewingthematerialsoldintheestablishments
rwithtoday.Tounderstandtoday'spornograp sellingpornography,andbyrequiringpublish
hy,itisnecessaryto ersofthepornographicmaterialstoprovidepr
understandandincorporatethepoliticalhistor oofoftheageofthesubjectsinthephotographs,
ythatpornographyhasandtheinfluencethatits illegal
historycontributedtoourunderstandingofpor pornographicmaterialssuchaschildpornogra
nographyinthispost- phyandbestialitycouldbemonitored.Now,w
modernperiod.Itwasnotuntiltheearly1800's iththedevelopmentoftheInternet,theregulati
whenpornographybecameassociatedwithth onofpornographicmaterialhasbecomemuch
ehumanistandmaterialmovementsthatitwas moredifficult.Childrencanaccesspornograp
consideredobsceneandregulatedbytheState. hicmaterialsfromtheirhomesorevenfrompu
Bothofthesemovementswerelinkedtothespr bliclibraries,andillegalmaterialscaneasilybe
eadofdemocracyandcorrespondingrejection disseminated.Anyonewithascannerandamo
ofthemonarchyandthehierarchyoftheCathol demcanpostobscenephotographs
icChurchinEurope.Theemphasisthatbothhu (whichareavailabletomillionsofpeople).Ind
manismandmaterialismbeplacedontheindiv eed,eachdayadditionalsitesdedicatedtoporn
idualwasthreateningthepoliticalorderofthep ographyarecreated.TheInternetwasoriginall
eriod.Thisresultedinthecreationofpornogra ydesignedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentof
phyasacategoryofpublications,allowingthe Defenseasameansofprovidingdecentralized
Statetoregulateandcontrolthepublicationof computercontrols.Thetheorywasthatifparto
pornographicworks.Sincethattime,variousd fthecountryweredestroyedbyanuclearattack
evelopmentsintechnologyhavechangedthe ,thecomputersystemscontainingwarplannin
waypornography gwouldstillbefunctional.Soontheopportunit
isdisseminated.However,itwasnotuntilthea iesoftheInternetbecamecleartotheprivatese
dvancementinInternettechnologythataccess ctor.Universitiesandbusinessescreatedconn
topornographywasvirtuallyunlimited. ectionstowhathasbeentermed"theinformati
On super high way" and eventually led to PARENTAL MEDIATION OF

what is today known as the DIGITAL USAGE
WorldWideWeb.
The increasing accessibility of consumer
Technology serves to facilitate commercial digital devices has seen a rise in digital
activity and pornograph ers have never media use among children. The prevalence
lagged behind from it. Huge amount of of digital technology has not only changed
pornographic ma the way children learn and absorb
knowledge, but also transformed the way
Terial can be reproduced more quickly and they communicate and interact with each
cheaply on the new media like other. While it is debatable whether these
harddisks,floppydisks andCD- new technologies have an overall positive
or negative impact on children, scholars
ROMs.Thenewtechnologyisnotmerelyanex
suggest that the impact of media on
tensionoftheexistingformsliketext,photogra children largely depends on the proper
management and mediation of its use
phsandimages.Apartfromstillpicturesandim
(Clark, 2011).
ages;fullmotionvideodipswithsoundarealso
However, the changing media environment
available.Infact,thelatesttrendseemstobeto
poses challenges for parents. Today’s
wardsinteractive'livesex'wherepeopleperfo
children, known as “digital natives,” are
rm
tech-savvy and confident about their
onandaccordingtorequestsbysubscriberstot
digital skills, and their knowledge and
heservices.Theendusercanviewallofthisonh
understanding of digital technology often
is/hermonitor,saveandcantransmitit.Inpast,
exceeds that of their parents. In addition,
whentechnologywasnotsoadvancedgovern
many digital devices are portable and
mentwasabletokeepsomecheck.But,thenthe
mobile, making it harder for parents to
reisthenatureofthemediumalsothatplaysthe
closely monitor children’s use of them.
vitalrole.Anysearchenginecanbeusedtogen
eratealistofavastnumberofsiteswithpornogr
aphiccontent.Manyofthesearefreeorhavefre THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN
CHILDREN’S MEDIA USE
etrialoffersandthisdefeatstheveryrationaleo
fhavinganagelimitunderwhichpornography Parents influence children’s behavior from
maynotbesoldtominors.Thisshowstheserio the moment they are born. Parent and child
usneedforregulationofpornographicmateria are “part of a biologically intertwined
ls,orat system that strongly supports the [child’s]
leastregulationofwherepornographicmateri socialization process”and parents are often
alscanbe viewed. motivated by this strong relationship to
handle and mediate the child’s behavior in
the face of social demands and new use have not been compellingly verified as
prior studies have demonstrated that co-
situations. Parents, being “the most
use can also be viewed by children as
influential people in the development and parental endorsement to the media content
rather than deliberate monitoring efforts,
socialization of children” also take primary
especially in television viewing contexts.
responsibility for guiding their children’s
While the above three strategies have been
media behavior. Proper mediation of
identified in research on television viewing
children’s media use by parents is known
(Clark, 2011), a number of studies
to result in positive outcomes such as
examining parental mediation of children’s
decreased exposure to privacy risks,
use of the internet and video games have
decreased exposure to child-inappropriate
applied the three forms of parental
media content, and heightened
mediation. However, the advent of the
understanding of media content.
digital age has resulted in a generation of
children that are experts at multitasking with
Three general approaches to the mediation
of children’s media use have been digital technology, and the complexity of
identified. Active mediation refers to new digital technology, characterized by its
parents explaining and discussing media
with their child. Restrictive mediation focus on multiple activities, multi-media,
happens when parents set rules regarding active content production, and social
the amount of time and the kind of content
with which their child is allowed to interactions, have posed new challenges to
engage. Lastly, co-use refers to shared parents guiding their children through all of
usage of media between parents and
children without parental instruction or these activities. Addressing the changes in
discussion. Research suggests that the media environment, some studies have
different forms of the parental mediation
result in different outcomes. One of the identified additional types of parental
consistent findings in regard to the mediation strategies. For instance,
outcomes of different forms of parental
mediation is that active mediation is more Livingstone and Helsper (2008) identified a
effective than the other two forms of strategy known as monitoring, which refers
mediation primarily because active
mediation based on parent-child to parents’ checking of children’s email
conversation and discussion is more likely messages or the sites that children have
to cultivate critical thinking skills in
children and to lead children to be more visited. This can be conducted overtly or
responsive to parents’ initiatives. Research covertly after the child’s internet use. A
also suggests that too much restriction can
cause unintended consequences such as a similar concept called supervision was
boomerang effect or a forbidden fruit identified by Nikken and Jansz (2014),
syndrome, especially when it is imposed
on older children who pursue more which refers to parents’ keeping an
autonomy from parents. The effects of co-
eye on the child and the device and

Overall, there seems to be a lack of
allowing children to surf the web only
consensus as to which mediation strategy is
when parents are present. While
most popular among parents with regard to
monitoring involves examining the sites
children’s use of digital technology. In
and messages that a child is involved with
addition, each of the prior studies focused on
and can happen with or without the child
a different age group. Thus, it is unclear
being around, supervision happens when
whether particular parental mediation
the parent is physically together with the
strategies are more or less prevalent among
child.
parents of a certain age group, such as
Livingstone and Helsper (2008) surveyed primary school aged children. Finally, most
teenagers aged 12–18 and their parents in
existing studies have focused on children’s
the UK and found that parents often adopt
strategies used in television mediation to internet use, mostly in Western
deal with the new challenges posed by the
societies with an individualistic
internet. Nikken and Jansz (2014)
surveyed parents of children aged 2–12 in orientation. It is unclear how parents in
the Netherlands and found that supervision
Singapore, a non-Western society with
was the most common parental mediation
strategy parents used to mediate children’s largely collectivistic values (Smith,
internet use. Sonck et al. (2013) found that
Dugan, & Trompenaars, 1996), manage
active safety mediation was the most
common strategy employed by Dutch children’s overall digital technology use
parents of children aged 9–16 using the
and screen time. Hence, the following
internet. Khurana, Bleakley, Jordan, and
Romer (2015) surveyed parents of research question is proposed:
American adolescents and found that
parental monitoring was practiced twice as
often as restrictive strategies.
Unit 10 is Complete
PSYCHOLOGY
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NET/JRF/SET Preparation: An Insight into the Exam

Academic Psychology in India 13-23

Psychological Thought 24- 41

Eastern Psychology 41-81

Signs and Spirituality 81-93

Unit 2 Research Methodology and Statistics 96- 201

Research Methodology 96- 109

Paradigms of Research 119-131

Experimental designs 173- 201

Unit 3 Psychological Testing 203- 285

Type of test 209-212

Test construction and Test Standardization 212- 248

Areas of Testing 248- 257

Attitude Scales 257-285

Unit 4 Biological Basis of Behavior 286- 375

Physiological Psychology 288

Sensory Systems 290-293

Neurons and Brain 295- 375

Unit 5 Attention, Perception, Learning, Memory and Forgetting 378- 422

Perception 381- 388

Illusion 388- 404

Memory 414 - 422

Unit 6 Thinking, Intelligence, and Creativity 424 - 478

Language and Thought 432

Problem Solving and Decision Making 437 - 445

Intelligence 453- 466

Creativity 467- 478

Unit 7 Personality, Motivation, Emotion, Stress and Coping 479 - 564

Theories of Personality 484 - 518

Motivation and Emotion 520 - 551

Conflicts 552 - 559

Coping and Stress 560 - 565

Unit 8 Social Psychology 569 - 634

Unit 9 Human Development and Interventions 636 - 757

Developmental Psychology, Psychopathology, Psychotherapies,

Unit 10 Emerging Areas 760-917

Issues of Gender, Disability and Migration, Peace Psychology,

NET JRF Preparation: An Insight into the Examination

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Syllabus General Aptitude (10 units) Psychology (10 units)

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PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT IN SOME MAJOR EASTERN SYSTEMS: Bhagavad

WESTERN: Greek heritage, medieval period and modern period. Structuralism,

ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF KNOWLEDGE PARADIGMS: Ontology, epistemology,

1. ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA

1990S (20TH CENTURY) laboratory, for demonstrative purpose,