Herath (2018) - Climate Change Management in The Context of Asia

CHAPTER 7
Climate Change
Management: What Have
We Learnt from the Asian
Experience
Gamini Herath and Huong Ha
Introduction
Climate change is a global phenomenon that can profoundly alter Asia’s
economic future and livelihoods by exacerbating poverty and resource
scarcity. One of the main causes of climate change is the increase in green-
house gases (GHGs) emissions, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) (IPCC
2012, 2013; US Environmental Protection Agency 2016). Globalization
since the 1980s and rapid industrialization in Asia, increased emission
of GHGs raising temperatures and sea levels. Forest clearing in South
East Asia destroyed considerable biodiversity and ecosystem services con-
tributing to climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Copyright © 2018. Business Expert Press. All rights reserved.
Change (IPCC) (2007, 2014a, b) estimated that the temperature increase

can range from 1.1°C to 6.4°C. Asia contributed 31 percent of global
emissions in 2006 which is expected to rise to 42.1 percent of global
emissions in 2030 (Shui and Robert 2006).
Asian developing countries have experienced climate change since the
1970s which has affected national economic growth. Economic liberal-
ization created better incentives for rapid economic growth and poverty
alleviation over the last three decades, but Asia’s future growth can be
affected by significant global warming and other climate change related
problems (IPCC 2014a, b; Hulac 2016). Achieving poverty alleviation
Ha, Huong. Climate Change Management : Special Topics in the Context of Asia, Business Expert Press, 2018. ProQuest
Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kcl/detail.action?docID=5288432.
Created from kcl on 2022-08-24 09:16:04.
158 CLIMATE CHANGE MANAGEMENT
and addressing environmental-related issues will be a greater challenge in

the context of climate change (Kellenberg and Mobarak 2011; Wedeman
and Petruney 2016). The issues of sustainable development, poverty
alleviation, and inequality in Asia have come under close scrutiny in
recent years due to climate change which can disproportionately affect
the poor and the vulnerable in developing countries in Asia. Thus, in this
concluding chapter, we summarize the salient issues in the climate change
debate in some Asian countries, mostly based on the seven chapters
included in the book.
Impacts of Climate Change

According to the Asian Development Bank (2009, 2011), future growth
of Asia would be led by seven countries: India, China, Indonesia, Japan,
Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand which had a total population of 3.1 billion
(78 percent of Asia) and a gross domestic product (GDP) of $14.2 trillion
in 2010. By 2050, these seven economies alone could account for
45 percent of the global GDP (Asian Development Bank 2011). But this
predicted growth trajectory can be vitiated by the unforeseen effects of
climate change.
Climate change has already increased the intensity and frequency
of precipitation, extreme rainfall, droughts, river and inland flooding,
damaging crops such as rice, wheat, and maize (Lewis 2009; Iizumi
and Ramankutty 2015). About 9 percent of the land in Malaysia is
flood prone and the average damage due to floods has been estimated at
RM100 million a year. The floods in the Malaysian state of Kelantan in

2014 displaced 200,000 people and the economic damage was estimated
at RM1 billion (Davies 2015). This will affect food security, access to
food, purchasing power, nutritional knowledge, and health affecting the
livelihoods of millions of poor farmers in the region.
Increased variability of precipitation and increasing temperature may
reduce water availability for crops including groundwater exacerbating
water scarcity and food insecurity in rural areas (Chapter 2). In India,
“the national per capita annual availability of water has reduced from
1,816 cubic meter in 2001 to 1,544 cubic meter in 2011. This is a reduc-
tion of 15 percent.” (Suhag 2016, p. 2). Changes in glaciers have affected
LESSONS LEARNT 159
the Himalayas, ecosystem in the north-eastern region and the Indo-Gan-

getic plain resulting in water balance changes in river basins (Shrestha
and Aryal 2011). According to Nandakumar et al. (2010), the amount of
food required by India will be estimated at 253.3 metric tons by 2020.
Yet, food may not be sufficient in the future. In India, climate change has
increased severity of flooding specially in the Godavari and Mahanadi
in the eastern coast. In Thailand, the 2011 flood affected 77 provinces,
and reduced the world’s industrial production by 2.5 percent (Haraguchi
and Lall 2014). In December 2015, the government of the Philippines
declared the state of “national calamity” after a series of floods and storms
(AFP 2015, p. A19). Increase in rainfall can also increase the incidence of
disease directly or indirectly, especially in northern Malaysia and coastal
Sabah and Sarawak (Wu et al. 2016). The serious floods in the Perak,
Pahang, Terenagan, and JKlanda in 2014–2015 in Malaysia are a case
in point. A large number of people have been affected and dislocated by
floods and cyclones in the Philippines (FloodList 2016).
Nepal is experiencing declining crop yields, pest and disease out-
breaks, and invasive species (Budha 2015). This has affected food produc-
tion which leads to food insecurity and increased losses of water, crop, and
livestock (Chapter 2). Nepalese farmers are vulnerable and cannot adapt
easily to climate change because of their poor socio-economic conditions.
Climate change can increase hazards due to cultivation at hill slopes and
other vulnerable areas where the poor are concentrated, pushing p eople
into poverty and further exacerbating their reduced capacity to tide
over disasters and adapt to climate change (Shepherd et al. 2013). The
Asian Development Bank (2009, 2011) estimated that the Philippines,

Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand would experience a reduction in the
yield of rice of about 50 percent by 2100 compared to the level of rice
yield in 1990. Wheat production can decline by 6 percent for each 1°C
rise in temperature (The Guardian 2014). A drastic change is also inevi-
table in the forest ecosystem, which is expected to experience the decline
of forest area and types (Stanturf et al. 2015). This change may result in
the potential loss of forest biodiversity, but invasive species may thrive.
Adding into this, an increase in the population and climate change-
related issues may lead to widespread starvation (Gahukar 2009). N atural
disasters can widen the gap between the rich and the poor because many
communities in rural Asia who depend on agriculture, forestry, and fish-

eries (Mutter 2010). Overall, climate change can affect fragile natural
resource system and exacerbate economic and social inequalities both
among the rural and urban poor.
Impacts on the Urban Areas

According to a report by the McKinsey Global Institute (Sankhe et al.
2010), the number of residents in Indian cities are expected to increase
to more than one million by 2025. The urban population may reach 590
million by 2030 due to migration from rural areas (Singha et al. 2013).
The city boundaries are generally planned for a specific amount of water,
habitat, energy use, waste, transport, and green cover. Continued migra-
tion will upset this resource-planned balance and increase overexploita-
tion of these resources leading to greater emissions severely affecting the
urban residents (Singha et al. 2013).
The urban areas already suffer from serious environmental prob-
lems such as poor water supply, high energy cost, and waste disposal
(Chapter 2). India and China have invested heavily on infrastructure,
energy, water, and telecommunications for growth. There is a need to reex-
amine these development trajectories for mitigation of GHG emissions
(Revi 2008; Ha and Dhakal 2013). The concept of compact cities that
are conducive for healthy living and uses less fuel and energy consump-
tion has emerged in urban planning in recent years. The focus should be
on fuel management and energy efficiency, transportation economics and
increased green space, and public transport and reduced pollution and
proper waste disposal (European Union 2010).
Mitigation and Adaptation

Responding to climate change requires both adaptation and mitigation.
Adaptation addresses near-term impacts and is an adjustment of commu-
nities to a changing climate. Mitigation is a longer-term process. Adap-
tation improves the capacity of the people to withstand against climate
change impacts for some time. Planned adaptations are necessary which are
multisectoral, and involves individual citizens and national governments.
LESSONS LEARNT 161
National initiatives are important for climate change adaptation (Kim and
Lim 2016). Multiple subregionally nuanced strategies may be required
to respond to climate related crisis, such as food crisis, and cope with
uncertainly (Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations
2016). The question of how to adapt still remains an important issue for
many countries, including Malaysia, India, B angladesh, and Nepal. Many
farmers in India have adapted to water scarcity by changing the crop-
ping patterns toward less water intensive crops (Khapre 2016). Chang-
ing cropping pattern is sustainable because they shift to less water using
crops saving water. These adaptations by farmers may encourage others
to adopt similar kinds of adaptations (Niles, Brown, and Dynes 2016).
Adaptation should provide economic gains from the natural resources in
exchange for the protection and conservation efforts extended by users.
The economic gains should be sustainable, and the propositions aimed at
economic gains should be socially accepted.
The Japanese government promoted mitigation technology in the
1990s and adaptation strategies after 2000 (Kuramochi 2014). The
emphasis on environmental friendly agricultural and organic farming
methods is notable in this regard (Chapter 6). New certification systems
for “eco farms” are another innovation for mitigations of impact of c limate
change. The introduction of high-temperature tolerant rice varieties as
an adaptive process might not be much favored by farmers (Chapter 6).
Japanese farmers looked for additional salutary features such as high
yields, good quality, and taste comparable or superior to Koshihikari rice
(Wamboga-Mugirya 2016). The introduction of adaptation technology
commenced much later than the implementation of mitigation technol-

ogy in Japan, resulting in consumers having more experience of mitiga-
tion technologies such as organic, low-input, and biodiversity-friendly
farming (Chapter 6).
Climate change mitigation is imperative to minimize emissions.
Mitigation measures reduce emissions and enhance the sink function of
the environment (carbon sequestration). Mitigation requires the identi-
fication of low carbon technologies with lower GHGs (Tanton 2013). It
also needs considerable investment.
In addition, adaptation to natural disasters and climate change
should also be taken into account in all development plans by better
understanding of the interlinks between environment issues and disaster

mitigation at various levels of action, and an appreciation of the need
for multidisciplinarily understanding in disaster management as a whole
(Hezri and Hasan 2006; IPCC 2007, 2012).
Legal Issues in Climate Change

Climate change will have significant impact on land, air, water, and oceans
raising complex legal issues, especially in Asia where some countries do
not have strong legal systems (Bradford 2005; The Guardian 2016).
Robust legal frameworks that enshrine guidelines to mitigate the adverse
impacts of climate change on the oceans, land, and air are imperative.
Chapter 7 refers to specific situation in Malaysia and the response of the
legal system to address climate change challenges. Malaysia’s Ministry for
the Environment is responsible for environmental laws. The Malaysian
government appointed a National Climate Change Committee to for-
mulate and implement effective strategies to mitigate impacts of climate
change (Nachmany et al. 2016). But Malaysia’s response to climate change
were patchy and haphazard (Hezri and Hasan 2006). Future success of
policies depends on how coherently these long-terms challenges are tack-
led (Raman 2009).
Some legal frameworks transcend national boundaries and are ratified
by many nations and international bodies including the United Nations.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in
1982 established rules of governance in sharing oceans and their resources.
It enshrines the notion that problems of ocean space are interrelated and
complex (Global Ocean Commission 2014). The Convention signed in
1982 involves more than 150 countries addressing new legal concepts and
regimes to provide a framework to develop specific areas of the law of the
sea (United Nations 2012). Chapter 4 in the book specifically addresses
this concern in South Asia. This is of great relevance because people liv-
ing in Asian developing countries located in low altitudes are especially
vulnerable to transboundary issues due to weak property rights and poor
legal environment.
Complex legal issues may arise due to damage to coral reefs and fragile
marine ecosystems. This will erode economic security of many countries
LESSONS LEARNT 163
in the Asia-Pacific region by removing vital fisheries habitats and under-

mining the tourist industry (Willis et al. 2008; UNEP 2016). Marine
spatial planning and designation of marine protected areas in coastal
zones is important for states, regional fisheries management organiza-
tions, and regional seas organizations requiring legal policy adjustments
to their conservation and management regimes (UNEP World Conserva-
tion Monitoring Centre 2008).
Sea-level rise can lead to the inundation of small islands (Maldives)
raising jurisdictional issues over access to valuable marine resources and
negotiation of maritime boundaries and resolution of disputes (Schofield
and Freestone 2013). Also, “the majority of potential maritime bound-
aries globally have yet to be settled and the Asia-Pacific region features
multiple notable territorial and maritime disputes of long standing”
(Prescott and Schofield 2005 cited in Warner and Schofield 2012, p. 10).
Some countries in Asia have the view that UNCLOS is not effective
because it does not address the issue of how to adapt and mitigate climate
change (Chapter 4).
Awareness Education and Training

According to the UNEP (2006), all countries must promote the public
awareness of climate change impact, and encourage both profit and
not-for-profit organizations to respond to climate change. A low level
of awareness of climate change impact is a hindrance to the success of
climate change mitigation and adaptation. The public might change their
attitudes and behavior if they were aware of the effect of climate change
and were educated about climate change-related policies (the American
Psychological Association Task Force on the Interface between Psychology
and Global Climate Change, 2008–2009). What is most important
is how awareness of sustainable development should be raised, how to
change household’s attitudes toward energy consumption, and builders’
choice of construction technology and materials.
This needs incentives, education, well-designed policies and imple-
mentation mechanisms, and other approaches. Managing human
resources is a blockage in disaster management in China and Indonesia.
Juban (2012) explained that strengthening human resources was an
important task in the Philippines when dealing with the consequences

of natural disasters, such as the spread of disease. The governments of
a number of countries also acknowledged that institutional capacity for
implementation of disaster management policy needed further improve-
ment (Petz 2014).
Role of Gender and Diversity in Climate Change

Women play an important role in many Asian countries especially in agri-
culture, household demand for energy and water, and so on. Climate
change can further burden women disproportionately compared to men
due to socio-economic and cultural contexts (United Nations 2015a).
The impacts depend not only on the biological differences but also the
social roles. This is significant in Asia where women play a less domi-
nant role in society (Hirschman 2016). In some countries there are many
female-headed households. Many climate change policies are gender
blind and this will not augur well for the future of women and sustain-
able development. Thus, governments must recognize that social stereo-
types do not discriminate in climate change policy and against women’s
interests (UNDP 2013). The centrality of gender in adaptation strategies
in agriculture and urban settings of farmers as a consequence of climate
change has not been rigorously examined.
The Province of Davao del Norte in the Philippines is a good example
of the need for inclusion of the residents’ ideas, points of views, and per-
ceptions toward socio-economic issues related to climate change since
any policies and decision without consideration of their interest will

place them in vulnerability to some extent (United Nations 2015b).
Participation and democratizing decision making should be promoted
by including those who are disadvantageous or marginalized based on
income, occupation, ethnicity, race, and gender status. Thus, the authors
suggested that social planning in any disaster risk management projects
in the province should be gender sensitive, transparent, cost effective, and
sustainable.
Overall, climate change impact has not been spared anybody or any
groups of stakeholders. Often, women have faced higher risks and carried
LESSONS LEARNT 165
heavier burdens from the adverse effect of climate change due to many
reasons, including lack of opportunities for employment and participation
in decision-making processes, less capacity to respond to natural hazards
(Alam, Bhatia, and Mawby 2015; Bossuet and Huyer 2016). There-
fore, women’s rights should be respected and women should be engaged
more in the governance process of climate change (Bäthge 2010). It is
important to improve “women’s livelihoods and strengthen adaptation
by ensuring women’s access, control and ownership of resources,” and
ensure that relevant “education, training, awareness raising and informa-
tion programs” are available to women (UNEP n.d., p. 6).
The Institutional Environment and Climate Change

Institutions are critical building blocks necessary for the development
of a climate-resilient society. Institutions are the formal and informal
organizations through which society structures share decision making
and take collective action (McGray and Sokona 2012). The rules and
norms through which people interact are also institutions. These institu-
tions may need to evolve as the climate problem worsens (North 1990;
Michonski and Levi 2010).
The challenge to climate resilience in developing Asia is that many
institutions are weak or have become defunct. A strong institutional envi-
ronment and good governance characterized by robust rules of the game
is a prerequisite for success in mitigating climate change (Aicher 2014).
Strong institutions lead to good governance principles and robust rules
to effectively address climate change challenges (Davidson et al. 2006).

Institutions dealing with use of natural resources play a major role in
developing Asia. Collective action institutions are important, especially
in Asia where weak property rights and corruption have hindered the
full participation of all stakeholders in sharing the dividends of cli-
mate change-related policies. Governance refers to the authority, power,
the dynamic interaction among the public sector, the private sector, the
third sector (civil society), and academia (Ha and Dhakal 2013; Ha 2016).
The degree to which these groups of stakeholders interact and intermin-
gle determines how well the well-being of the public are protected. It is
widely agreed that good governance is a vital principle to maintain social

order (Wingqvist et al. 2012).
Governments with credible institutions can implement polices rel-
evant to adaptation and mitigation. Countries with robust institutions
suffer less death from natural disasters (Zoleta-Nantes 2002; Raschky
2008). For example the governmental institutions in Nepal are weak, and
hence they cannot provide the recipients with adequate protection from
climate change (Chapter 2). Strong political will and greater attention
to these issues are imperative for successfully addressing issues of climate
change. Poor governance has thwarted the effective implementation of
climate change policies (United Nations 2008).
Climate change has not been confined within any country or any
region, but its effect has transcended national boundaries, and thus new
approach of global environmental governance is imperative (Ha 2013,
2014; Gillard et al. 2016). Some Asian countries do not have the capac-
ity to unilaterally mitigate climate change. Regional and global initia-
tives require robust governmental institutions. Institutional capacity at
the national and regional levels is necessary for relevant groups of stake-
holders to negotiate bilateral or multilateral environmental agreements
(Wingqvist et al. 2012). Mechanisms, instruments, formal and infor-
mation arrangements, and institutions that go beyond state-led treaties
have been explored. Given the complex and multidimensional nature
of climate change, governments should further explore hybrid modes
of governance, such as cogovernance, public-private partnerships, and
social-private partnerships (Lemos and Agrawal 2006; Herath 2012;
Ha and Dhakal 2013; Ha 2013, 2014, 2016). There were innumerable

efforts in the recent past to gain the support of the local communities
for the conservation of the Himalayan ecosystem, but they could not be
sustained.
Resilience in the face of change is embedded in indigenous knowl-
edge and know how (Chapter 3), diversified resources and livelihoods,
social institutions and networks, and cultural values and attitudes. P olicy
responses to climate change should therefore support and enhance resil-
ience (Adger et al. 2011). It is unfortunate, however, that many govern-
ment policies limit options and reduce choices, thereby constraining,
LESSONS LEARNT 167
restricting, and undermining peoples’ efforts to adapt. This is reflected

in counterproductive policies, including those leading to increased
sedentarization, restricted access to traditional territories, substitution
of traditional livelihoods, impoverished crop or herd diversity, reduced
harvesting opportunities, and erosion of the transmission of indigenous
knowledge, values, attitudes, and worldviews.
Lessons Learnt–The Way Forward

Clearly robust strategies and policies are required to face the climate
change challenge: adaptation and mitigation, population and social safety
nets, natural resources conservation, legal and institutional frameworks,
and national, regional and global environmental agreements (Hossain and
Selvanathan 2011). The strategies must include direction (toward sustain-
ability), distribution (inclusiveness), and diversity (multiple approaches,
methods, and solutions). Uneven distribution of impacts and responses
may reinforce existing inequality and vulnerability. Multidisciplinary dia-
logue and practices could ensure the emergence of effective synergetic
responses to climate change.
Bottom-up processes can create the enabling conditions for all stakehold-
ers to adapt to climate change, help build resilience among the rural and
urban poor community (the most vulnerable to climate variability), and facil-
itate implementation of effective interventions to mitigate climate change.
Innovative policy interventions should promote adaptive capacity
among vulnerable rural and urban communities (El-Ashry 2009).
Mitigation reduces emissions and adaptation increases resilience of

the natural environment. Mitigation and adaptation options are often
context specific (Sommer et al. 2009). Each country is unique and will
require a specific set of adaptation measures addressing the various scales
of intervention and vulnerable groups.
Energy conservation, reduction of carbon dioxide and urban plan-
ning, reduction of illegal forest clearing, burning and logging, can help
alleviate poverty among the vulnerable low-income populations. These
should be the core elements to mitigate climate change in Malaysia, India,
China, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and other Asian countries.
The emerging climate change crisis in Asia will cause serious resource
problems and increased natural disasters. The technical and economic
solutions to these problems are better known than the human and social
issues. Newer participatory institutional frameworks should be explored
to overcome the shortcomings of conventional approaches. The guid-
ing thought must be close collaboration with local people, women, and
indigenous populations to make adaptation and mitigation work. Thus, it
is suggested that public services regarding infrastructure should be further
improved, that is, taking into considerations Integrated River Basin
Management, such as what Malaysia has done, to improve the current
flood mitigation and adaptation systems.
Asia needs to identify new trajectories of research to address climate
change. The interlinkages between mitigation and adaptation have not
been well explored and further studies are warranted to better quantify
the short- and long-term effects on suitability of mitigation and adapta-
tion to climate change.
Research is needed into the processes and contents of national climate
change frameworks (Prowse, Grist, and Sourang 2009). Information on
adaptation methods implemented by the rural and urban poor, priori-
tization of sections of society, including women who are most vulnera-
ble, and develop equitable adaptation and mitigation strategies should
be an integral part of poverty alleviation. This will include innovations
and understanding of formal and informal institutions, resource manage-
ment, present levels of government support for adaptation and mitiga-
tion. Understanding and crafting appropriate adaptation and mitigation
mechanisms require contextualized understanding of climate change.

Judicious management of climate change requires understanding the
environmental as well as economic, social, geographical, and political
aspects. Attention to social aspects of climate change based upon empiri-
cally grounded understanding of the social reality is necessary.
Finally, international collaboration is essential to enter into global mit-
igation agreements but they need to be done through consensus. There is
considerable work that remains to be done including refinements, exten-
sions, new applications, innovative ideas, and more empirical assessments
if climate change policy is to succeed.
LESSONS LEARNT 169
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CHAPTER 7

Change (IPCC) (2007, 2014a, b) estimated that the temperature increase

and addressing environmental-related issues will be a greater challenge in

Impacts of Climate Change

RM100 million a year. The floods in the Malaysian state of Kelantan in

the Himalayas, ecosystem in the north-eastern region and the Indo-Gan-

Asian Development Bank (2009, 2011) estimated that the ­Philippines,

communities in rural Asia who depend on agriculture, forestry, and fish-

Impacts on the Urban Areas

Mitigation and Adaptation

commenced much later than the implementation of mitigation technol-

understanding of the interlinks between environment issues and disaster

Legal Issues in Climate Change

in the Asia-Pacific region by removing vital fisheries habitats and under-

Awareness Education and Training

important task in the Philippines when dealing with the consequences

Role of Gender and Diversity in Climate Change

any policies and decision without consideration of their interest will

The Institutional Environment and Climate Change

to effectively address climate change challenges (Davidson et al. 2006).

widely agreed that good governance is a vital principle to maintain social

Ha and Dhakal 2013; Ha 2013, 2014, 2016). There were innumerable

restricting, and undermining peoples’ efforts to adapt. This is reflected

Lessons Learnt–The Way Forward

Mitigation reduces emissions and adaptation increases resilience of

mechanisms require contextualized understanding of climate change.

Gillard, R., A. Gouldson, J. Paavola, and J.V. Alstine. 2016. “Transformational

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2012. Managing the

Sankhe, S., I. Vittal, R. Dobbs, A. Mohan, A. Gulati, J. Ablett, S. Gupta, A. Kim,

Shepherd, A., T. Mitchell, K. Lewis, A. Lenhardt, L. Jones, L. Scott, and

The Role of Governance for Improved Environmental Outcomes. Bromma:

Energy 36, no. 6, 3650–58. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2011.01.046

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