High-Temperature Optoelectronic Device Characterization and Integ

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
ScholarWorks@UARK
Graduate Theses and Dissertations
12-2020
High-Temperature Optoelectronic Device Characterization and

Integration Towards Optical Isolation for High-Density Power
Modules
Syam Madhusoodhanan
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
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Towards Optical Isolation for High-Density Power Modules. Graduate Theses and Dissertations Retrieved
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High-Temperature Optoelectronic Device Characterization and Integration Towards Optical
Isolation for High-Density Power Modules
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering with a concentration in Electrical Engineering
by
Syam Madhusoodhanan
TKM College of Engineering, Kerala University
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering, 2011
December 2020
University of Arkansas
This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council.
Zhong Chen, Ph.D.

Dissertation Director
Shui-Qing (Fisher) Yu, Ph.D. Yue Zhao, Ph.D.

Committee Member Committee Member
Jia Di, Ph.D.

Committee Member
Abstract
Power modules based on wide bandgap (WBG) materials enhance reliability and
considerably reduce cooling requirements that lead to a significant reduction in total system cost
and weight. Although these innovative properties lead power modules to higher power density,
some concerns still need to be addressed to take full advantage of WBG-based modules. For
example, the use of bulky transformers as a galvanic isolation system to float the high voltage gate
driver limits further size reduction of the high-temperature power modules2. Bulky transformers
can be replaced by integrating high-temperature optocouplers to scale down power modules further
and achieve disrupting performance in terms of thermal management, power efficiency, power
density, operating environments, and reliability. However, regular semiconductor optoelectronic
materials and devices have significant difficulty functioning in high-temperature environments.
Modular integration of optoelectronic devices into high-temperature power modules is restricted
due to the significant optical efficiency drop at elevated temperatures. The quantum efficiency and
long-term reliability of optoelectronic devices decrease at elevated temperatures.
The motivation for this study is to develop optoelectronic devices, specifically
optocouplers, that can be integrated into high-density power modules. A detailed study on
optoelectronic devices at high temperature enables us to explore the possibility of scaling high-
density power modules by integrating high-temperature optoelectronic devices into the power
module. The primary goal of this study is to characterize and verify the high-temperature operation
of optoelectronic devices, including light-emitting diodes and photodiodes based on WBG
materials. The secondary goal is to identify and integrate optoelectronic devices to achieve
galvanic isolation in high-density power modules working at elevated temperatures. As part of the
study, a high-temperature packaging, based on low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC), suitable
to accommodate optoelectronic devices, will also be designed and developed.

Acknowledgment
I would like to thank the following people, without whom I would not have been able to
complete this research, and without whom I would not have made it through my doctoral degree.
Dr. Zhong Chen, for his guidance, support, and overall insights, has made this an inspiring
experience for me. He always inspired and guided me in the journey to becoming a professional
researcher.
Dr. Shui-Qing (Fisher) Yu, for his expertise and guidance. Dr. Yu always amazed and
encouraged me with his enthusiasm and dedication to the research.
Dr. Simon Ang, Dr. Jia Di, and Dr. Yue Zhao, for their guidance in every aspect of the
research progress.
Sharon Brasko, Connie Jo Howard, Tracey E. Long, and Daniel M. Klein, for their help in
administrative matters.
Abbas Sabbar, for your tremendous help and support throughout the research. It is a great
pleasure working alongside you.
Dr. Sattar Al-Kabi, for helping with knowledge transfer in the initial stages of the research.
Huong Tran, for her guidance and support in developing methods for photodiode
characterization.
Andrea Wallace and David Gonzalez Castillo, Pengyu Lai, for their help in LTCC
packaging and characterization solutions.
Clint Hardee, for his help in assembly lab.

Hui Wang and Dan Jarard, for their numerous help in the last five years.
Alia Parveen, she always inspired me to be a better person than yesterday.
My fiancé, Sohita Ojha, for her encouragement and support.
Parents and family for their support.
The work in this dissertation was partially supported by Sandia National Laboratories,
which is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and
Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Honeywell International,
Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract
DE-NA0003525. SAND2019-11025 C.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Power Electronics and Wide Bandgap Technology ......................................................... 1
1.2. Introduction to Optoelectronics ........................................................................................ 4
1.3. Optical Integration Techniques in Power Electronics ...................................................... 8
1.4. Miniaturization Trend in Power Electronics .................................................................. 10
1.5. Motivation ...................................................................................................................... 12
1.6. Overview of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 14
References ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2. Electro-optical Characterization Bench ................................................................................. 20
2.1. Quantum Efficiency Extraction of LEDs ....................................................................... 20
2.2. Spectral Response Measurements .................................................................................. 22
3. High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based Blue LEDs for Future Power Electronic
Applications .................................................................................................................................. 29
3.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 29
3.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 29
3.3. Experiment ..................................................................................................................... 32
3.4. Results and Discussions ................................................................................................. 34
3.5. Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 39
References ..................................................................................................................................... 40
4. High-Temperature Optical Characterization of GaN-Based LEDs for Future Power
Electronic Modules ....................................................................................................................... 42
4.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 42
4.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 42
4.3. Experimental section ...................................................................................................... 44
4.4. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................... 48
4.5. Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 54
References ..................................................................................................................................... 55
5. High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based MQW Photodetector for Optical Galvanic
Isolations in High-Density Integrated Power Modules ................................................................. 57
5.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 57
5.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 57
5.3. Experiment ..................................................................................................................... 60
5.5. Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 68
References ..................................................................................................................................... 68
6. High-Temperature Analysis of Optical Coupling Using AlGaAs LEDs for High-Density
Integrated Power Modules ............................................................................................................ 71

6.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 71
6.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 71
6.3. Experiment ..................................................................................................................... 73
6.4. LTCC Packaging ............................................................................................................ 74
6.6. Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 84
References ..................................................................................................................................... 85
7. Conclusions and Future Work ............................................................................................... 87
7.1. High-Temperature Optical Device Characterization...................................................... 87
7.1.1. Commercial Gallium-Nitride-Based Blue LEDs .................................................... 87
7.1.2. InGaN/GaN MQW LEDs ....................................................................................... 88
7.1.3. MQW Structure as Detectors .................................................................................. 88
7.2. High-Temperature Optical Packaging ............................................................................ 89
7.3. High-Temperature Optocoupling ................................................................................... 89
7.4. Future Work ................................................................................................................... 90
7.4.1. On-chip Optocoupling ............................................................................................ 90
Appendix: All Publications ........................................................................................................... 92
Conferences .............................................................................................................................. 92
Journals ..................................................................................................................................... 92
Patent ......................................................................................................................................... 93
List of Published Papers
Chapter 3 is reproduced from the published work
S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and Z. Chen,

"High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based Blue LEDs for Future Power Electronic
Applications," IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, pp. 1–1,
2019, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2019.2945166
S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and Z. Chen,

"High-Temperature Optical Characterization of GaN-Based LEDs for Future Power Electronic
Modules," physica status solidi (a), 2019, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201900792
S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, H. Tran, B. Dong, J. Wang, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and Z.

Chen, "High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based MQW Photodetector for Optical Galvanic
Isolations in High-Density Integrated Power Modules," IEEE Journal of Emerging and
Selected Topics in Power Electronics, pp. 1–1, 2020, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2020.2974788
1
1. Introduction
1.1. Power Electronics and Wide Bandgap Technology
Power electronic system plays a significant role in renewable energy, energy storage, and
electric or hybrid electric vehicles. As an integral part of the power electronics system, power
modules provide a highly efficient form of power conversion. In the last two decades, the field of
power conversion is going through a transformation where the application often demands extreme
operating environments. Advancement in the field of hybrid electric vehicles, aerospace, and deep
oil-gas exploration necessitates the development of power modules based on wide bandgap (WBG)
devices to operate in extreme environments where the ambient temperature exceeds 200oC.
Third-generation semiconductor materials such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium
nitride (GaN) improved the operation in terms of power capability, temperature tolerance, and
switching frequencies in the field of power electronics. Compared to silicon (Si) devices, WBG
materials like SiC and GaN can withstand higher current densities, exhibit lower switching losses,
and possess higher breakdown voltages [1],[2]. The physical properties such as lower intrinsic
carrier generation at high temperature, higher breakdown voltage, and high thermal conductivity
of the WBG materials enable to address the issues regarding thermal management and power
density. The most used WBG materials in the field of power electronics are SiC and GaN. Table
1.1 shows a comparison of the selected material properties of WBG materials with that of Si. While
GaN devices are mainly preferred for applications below 500 V, SiC is the ideal material of choice
for power modules with higher voltage and current ratings. Commercially available SiC devices,
rated 900 V and above, with a chip size spanning tens of millimeters, enables the development of
high-density power modules with a low form factor. A small form factor power electronic system
design is vital in size and weight-sensitive applications such as aeronautics, transportation, hybrid
2
motor drives, and space exploration. One of the driving forces behind the goal of power module
miniaturization
Table 1.1. Power semiconductor material parameters at room temperature.
Material Properties Si 4H-SiC GaN

Bandgap (eV) 1.1 3.3 3.4
Mobility (cm2/Vs) 1,400 8,000 1,200
Relative dielectric constant 11.8 9.7 9.0
Dielectric breakdown field (106 V/cm) 0.3 2.5 3.3
Saturation electron velocity (107 cm/s) 1.0 2.0 2.5
Intrinsic carrier concentration (cm−3) 1010 10-7 10-9
Thermal conductivity (W/(cm K)) 1.5 4.9 2.1
Defect threshold energy (eV) 9 4.9 2.1
Baliga’s Figure Low frequency 1 340 870
of Merit (FOM) High frequency 1 50 104
is the continuous development in the system architecture and the demand from the size and weight
restricted applications. Miniaturization is inevitable in the field of power electronics as much as it
was in the field of integrated circuit design. The controllability of power supply, management,
conversion, and conditioning is of greater importance with less expense of human intervention.
WBG materials with their superior physical and chemical quality enable the researchers to explore
the architectural designs to ever-smaller system footprints.
Semiconductor devices based on SiC and GaN technologies surpass the traditional Si-based
devices in performance under harsh environments. The availability of SiC substrates after rigorous
research facilitates the fabrication of vertical devices, which can have higher power ratings. As the
cost of the device fabrication depends on the yield of the devices from each fabrication step,
moving to a 150mm wafer technology from a more commonly available 100mm wafer reduced
the fabrication cost exponentially. In the case of GaN devices, the non-availability of the native
GaN substrate limit the vertical device design of GaN devices. However, for high-speed lateral
3
devices, GaN is still preferred over SiC devices due to the success in making GaN heterojunction
devices with higher mobility and carrier velocity.
The device fabrication on SiC substrates initially predominated on 3C-SiC substrates. SiC
can exist in different polytypes, such as 3C, 4H, and 6H. As the fabrication techniques improved,
the device fabrication was mainly focused on 6H polytype substrates. In the past two decades, the
majority of the SiC device fabrication is based on 4H polytype. Although SiC devices can operate
in high voltage ratings, the availably of devices operating above 2 kV is still limited in the market.
SiC Schottky diodes were the first group of SiC devices widely used in power electronic field due
to the simplicity in the fabrication process. Researchers replaced Si Schottky diodes with SiC-
based counterparts, where a higher breakdown voltage and switching speeds with minimal
switching losses are necessary. These initial hybrid power module designs consist of both Si-based
switching transistors and SiC-based Schottky diodes. More advanced SiC-based vertical metal–
oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices are later introduced in the market.
Although the device uses a vertical structure, the reported high voltage ratings are limited to 1.7
kV. However, these devices are far better as compared to the traditional Si devices in the critical
electrical field and higher blocking voltages. Although SiC-based devices can exhibit continuous
operation at high temperatures, the presence of gate oxide in the MOSFET devices limits the upper
operating temperature range. To fully utilize the temperature capability of discrete SiC devices
and to avoid bulky cooling systems, researched developed SiC-based bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) and junction gate field-effect transistors (JFETs), which can operate continuously at
temperatures as high as 500oC. Although several researchers have reported continuous operation
of SiC devices with high-temperature rating in the last two decades, a fully SiC-based commercial
power electronics module is still under development. The goal of full SiC-based power modules
4
can be achieved by the still in development SiC insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which
possess the best features of SiC MOSFET and Si IGBT.
When it comes to GaN power devices, superior material quality is not fully utilized due to
the non-availability of bulk GaN substrates. Although some researchers have demonstrated device
grown on bulk GaN substrate, full commercialization is still not achieved. Due to the lack of GaN
substrates, a vertical GaN-based device is not possible to be fabricated. Most of the GaN-based
devices available are either high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs) or its derivatives. GaN-
based devices are generally used in applications requiring high-speed switching and voltage ratings
of 600 V and below. Although GaN is superior to SiC in terms of the critical electrical field,
mobility, and saturation velocity, the lack of native GaN substrate limits its extensive use in power
electronic modules.
1.2. Introduction to Optoelectronics
The information age, starting in the late 20th century, is characterized by an economy
primarily based on the information technology mainly rooted by the advancement of transistors.
Processing, storage, and transformation of information are prime importance in this modern era of
advanced electronics. Rapid development in the field of electronics towards more complex systems
to improve the performance of information handling leads scientists to find solutions based on
optical means. Optoelectronics is a branch in electronics, that contributes advanced solution for
information handling through optical and electronic means. Incorporating optical devices in
traditional electronics tend to increase the performance of the system by achieving higher operation
speeds and enhanced reliability.

5
The incorporation of optical devices in the information field is started when optical
semiconductor devices replace old technologies such as vacuum tubes. Optical devices have
tremendous merit over the vacuum tubes. In vacuum tubes and other electronic devices, the
information transfer is carried out through electrons. However, optoelectronic devices depend on
photons, an electrically neutral elementary particle. An electrically neutral photon in a
communication line is exempt from electrical or magnetic fields associated with an electric current.
Full electric isolation between the emitter and receiver is also accomplished by using optical
devices. The introduction of the optical communication system eliminates the loss of information
in transmission due to dissipation or accumulation of electrical charges. A broad group of optical
devices such as photoresistors, photomultipliers, phototransistors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
photodiodes (PDs), and lasers is used for information processing and transformation.
Light sources are one of the main components in the optoelectronics field. Although the
initial research on optoelectronics started in 1955, swift development in the field occurred in the
late 1960s after the invention of higher efficient means of interconversion of electrical and optical
signals. The growth in the field of optoelectronics is assisted by the extensive use of light sources
and optical fibers. Schubert indicated that the history of LEDs started when Round discovered
electroluminescence in 1907 [3]. Though it was forgotten initially, scientists had started observing
this phenomenon in later years. The LED, as we know now, has emerged only in the second half
of the twentieth century. Advancement in the WBG semiconductor materials at the end of the 20th
century leads to the development of optical devices operating in the ultraviolet-visible spectral
region. Nitrides of group III elements attracted much attention from researchers working in the
field of optical devices. One of the main properties of these elements, which makes them suitable
for the optoelectronics field, is their direct bandgap. Materials such as GaN, aluminum nitride
6
(AlN), and indium nitride (InN) exhibit bandgap energy from 6.2 to 0.7 eV. Also, the possibility
of bandgap engineering using group III alloys makes it ideal for applications in the ultraviolet-
visible spectral region. By incorporating alloys, researchers were able to fabricate green, blue, and
ultraviolet light sources and photodetectors.
The superior chemical properties of the group III – nitride elements are attributed to the
strong chemical bonds due to the large difference in electronegativity between the group III and
group V elements. Nitrides of group III elements possess a wurtzite structure and exhibits
pyroelectricity, piezoelectricity, and second harmonic generation. The strong chemical bond
between the elements gives the group III-nitrides a high melting point as well as chemical stability.
The compounds exhibit a high thermal conductivity, which is suitable for effective heat dissipation
in high-temperature applications. Also, the lower intrinsic carrier concentration of WBG material
makes it an ideal candidate for high-temperature applications with low leakage current. A low
reflectivity due to comparatively lower refractive indices makes group III-nitrides an excellent
choice for the photodetector applications.
The GaN-based photoconductors are developed initially to avoid the complications caused
by p-type doping of group III-nitride materials. The GaN-based photoconductors generally
fabricated without the etching steps to define the device, which greatly simplified the fabrication
process. It is reported that the photoconductors fabricated from group III-nitrides exhibit a gain
over 3000 A/W. GaN-based Schottky diodes were also developed in the early decades of group III
- nitride research due to the simplified fabrication process. Researchers were able to demonstrate
Schottky diodes with low dark current and noise equivalent powers (NEP). Recent advances in the
development of p-n and p-i-n junction diodes lead to high tailoring capability of cut-off wavelength
by controlling the alloy incorporation. Also, the improvement in the material quality leads to the
7
development of more advanced group III-nitride photodiodes with lower noise interference, higher
gains, and faster response, while keeping high flexibility on bandgap engineering.
In the early stages of the development of visible light emitters, researchers made use of
indium gallium nitride-aluminum gallium nitride (InGaN/AlGaN) double-heterostructure to
fabricate blue and green LEDs. Using double heterostructures, fabrication of high optical output
LEDs were successful. However, one of the drawbacks of using double heterostructure is the broad
spectrum linewidths. Green LEDs fabricated using double-heterostructure exhibits a spectrum
range from violet to orange. To overcome this drawback, a single quantum well (SQW) structure
is proposed. By using the SQW structure, researchers were able to fabricate LEDs with shorter
spectrum line widths. When the double heterostructure exhibits a spectrum line width of 70 nm
and optical output of 1 cd, the early SQW structure showed higher performance with a spectrum
line width of 20nm and optical output of 12 cd. In the later years, the higher performance was
achieved using strained quantum well, and multiple quantum well (MQW) designs.
Although the LEDs fabricated from group III-nitrides show significant advantages, some
of the issues remain. The high-temperature operation of the LEDs is mainly restricted due to early
failures. The early failures are supposed to be due to the high defect density. The instability of the
InGaN active layer can also contribute to the early failure of group III-nitride LEDs. Due to the
absence of a precise doping technology on group III-nitrides, LEDs fabricated based on group III-
nitrides show a comparatively low breakdown voltage despite being considered as a WBG
material. The current capability of the LEDs is also low compared to other WBG materials.
Another critical issue that needs attention is the higher price for large volume applications. The
fabrication cost of group III-nitride LEDs remains high as compared to other materials.
Phosphorous coating on the blue LEDs to generate white light is not recommended in applications
8
where human interaction rate is high. It is observed that white LEDs from the combination of
phosphorous and blue LEDs are not suitable for human eyes. Also, the efficiency of the
phosphorous white LEDs is still lower compared to the fluorescent bulbs.
The development of lasers using group III-Nitride elements is a massive achievement in
the research community. Much work has been done to achieve highly efficient laser diodes based
on InGaN alloys. Blue and violet lasers fabricated from InGaN MQWs are demonstrated in the
past. The lifetime and the power output of the laser diodes were significantly improved by adapting
the lateral epitaxial growth mechanism to reduce the dislocation density. It is also reported that
subsequent removal of substrate material leading to a free-standing GaN layer can also reduce the
dislocation density. High series resistance is one of the major issues reported in the failure of GaN-
based lasers. One of the solutions to achieve low series resistance is to have high p-type doping.
However, the doping mechanism in the group III-nitride materials is still not understood very well.
Also, more studies need to be conducted to identify the failure mechanism of GaN-based lasers.
1.3. Optical Integration Techniques in Power Electronics
Development of high voltage SiC power devices [4-16] and it’s applications in emerging
fields such as EM aircraft launch system (EMALS) [17], fly-by-light (FBL) systems [18,19],
flexible ac transmission systems (FACTSs) [20] and solid-state power substation (SSPS) [21],
calls for innovative techniques in the design of power modules and gate drive circuit. The gate
driver design of a HV SiC power module should address various design challenges associated with
the switching loss, electromagnetic (EM) emission and interference and dv/dt - di/dt stresses of
power semiconductor devices (PSDs). Two primary functions of a medium voltage gate driver
circuit include galvanically isolated signal transmission and power transmission [49]. Using
optical isolation in signal and power transmission enable to overcome several design challenges
9
including external EM interference (EMI). Optical links also provide a reliable and inexpensive
solution to conventional shielding and reduce the overall weight and volume of the application
[22]. Optical isolation of the gate signal is realized by optocouplers [23] or optical fibers [24].
Optical fibers as a signal transmission path use an emitter and detector topology. This
optoisolator-photodetector stage introduces an additional delay to the circuit. Also, these emitter-
detector designs with optical fibers cannot modulate the switching dynamics of the PSD.
Generally, modulation is done by a separate active gate control unit. By controlling the switching
dynamics of the PSDs, one can control EM-noise generation, reduce the PSD dv/dt and di/dt
stresses and switching losses [25, 26]. A possible solution to achieve switching dynamics
modulation through optic links is by incorporating optically-activated power devices and replacing
photodetectors. Earlier studies show the potential use of SiC devices as a photoconductive switch
[27-29]. Several studies in the past decade introduced different optically activated discrete power
devices [30-38][39-41].
A direct application (e.g., FBL) based optically triggered power device is first presented in
[42]. It is important to note that it is not an ‘all SiC’ technology. The authors utilized the high light
absorption efficiency of gallium arsenide achieve optically-triggered power transistor (OTPT). The
same research team presented a series of hybrid designs, a combination of OTPTs and SiC power
devices, after the success of initial studies [43]. Silicon carbide based optically-triggered thyristors
is introduced in [44-46]. Although several optically triggered power devices are introduced in
recent years, it is important to note that an ‘all SiC’ based gate drive system is still not presented
yet.
Though optical links are widely used in gate signal isolation, the isolated gate-drive power
supply is implemented with transformers [8, 14] until recently. In [47-49], an alternate solution for
10
isolated gate-drive power supply is presented using separated coils. Both transformers and
separated coils are sensitive to EMI and require considerable space for isolation and shielding.
Using fiber optic cables for carrying optical power, which is used as an energy source rather than
carrying data, is first presented in [50,51]. Remotely powering of HV SiC devices and achieving
electrical isolation at the same time is possible by this method. Optically isolated power
transmission through optical fiber is presented in [25]. The proposed power over fiber (PoF)-based
delivers sufficient gate drive power by laser light via optical fiber over a long distance (>1 m), and
over 20-kV isolation voltage is achieved. However, the PoF method is not suitable for driving
MOSFETs with paralleled dies as the maximum power output is limited to 0.5 W due to low
efficiency (24%). An argument is also presented in [52], stating that the PoF is not reliable for the
continuous operation of the converters. Other than isolation as a primary concern, optical fibers
are also used as online IGBT junction temperature sensors (fiber Bragg grating) in energy
conversion systems [53, 54].
1.4. Miniaturization Trend in Power Electronics
The application-driven miniaturization process of the power module highly depends on
WBG materials such as SiC and GaN. The introduction of WBG materials in the fabrication of
power modules helps achieve significant volumetric efficiency as compared with Si technology.
The volumetric reduction of power modules is not only achieved by the smaller size of power
semiconductor dies with high power density but also assisted by the required passive components,
packaging, and cooling requirements. Figure 1.1 shows different stages involved in power system
design. The power semiconductor research field is continuously evolving with the fabrication of
devices with ever high voltage and current ratings. The power density of the devices is improved
significantly by the development of higher quality substrate and epitaxial growth. However, the
11
volumetric reduction of the power module system now largely depends on other parts of the
system, which consists of passives components and packaging technology itself. Rigorous research
is underway in the high-temperature capability of passives and packaging technology to
Figure 1.1. The different stages involved in a power system design.
successfully cop up with the temperature capability of power devices to achieve an ever-smaller
design of power modules.
By developing high-quality SiC substrates, epitaxial layers, and selective doping,
researchers were able to fabricate power semiconductor devices with minimum size for a given
blocking voltage. Although this will effectively reduce the form factor of the power modules,
designing suitable passive components is more important to fully utilize the benefits predicted by
the use of WBG technology. The high switching speed of WBG power devices leads to the use of
lower-valued inductors and capacitors with smaller form factors. However, tightly coupled passive
components are necessary to avoid the effect of radiations emitted by the power devices. As
compared to Si, the radiation effect on the passive components will be strong in WBG power
devices. A much tightly coupled passive component design will ultimately lead to gate drivers
placed close to switching devices. Integrating the gate driver and protection circuity to the power
12
module further reduces the form factor of the system. In this integrated power module, the low-
voltage passive components of the gate driver and the protection circuitry are placed close to the
power devices, making them exposed to similar environmental conditions as the power devices.
The volumetric reduction of the integrated power modules is now limited by the passive
components in the gate driver circuitry.
1.5. Motivation
Power modules based on WBG materials enhance reliability and considerably reduce
cooling requirements that lead to a significant reduction in total system cost and weight. Although
these innovative properties lead power modules to higher power density, some concerns still need
to be addressed to take full advantage of WBG-based modules. To achieve a reduced parasitic
effect, higher volumetric efficiency, and faster switching speeds in SiC-based high-temperature
power modules, gate driver circuits needs to be placed as close to the power modules.
Figure 1.2. Schematic of a typical gate driver with isolation in both power and signal [50].
One of the main challenges in achieving high temperature integrated power module
technology is the development of high-temperature passive components to go with the gate driver
design. Figure 1.2 shows a schematic of a typical gate driver design. Most of the passive
components, such as resistors, capacitors, and magnetics, are rated up to a maximum temperature
13
of 200oC. Spyker et al. reported magnetic material capable of 300oC operation. However, the
magnetics, such as isolation transformers, are comparatively bulky and heavy in design. Typically,
multiple transformers with large form-factor are used as the galvanic isolation system in power
modules to float the high voltage gate driver. The modulation and demodulation circuits associated
with the isolation transformers add to the complexity of gate driver design. Therefore, using
isolation transformers of high form-factor limits scaling-down of power electronic modules. Table.
2 shows a comparison of optical isolation with the magnetic and capacitive coupling technique. A
further scale down of power modules is possible by replacing bulky transformers with
optocouplers of low form-factors. With the development of a suitable optical isolation system, i.e.,
optocouplers, volumetric issues associated with the magnetic isolation system can be avoided
while simplifying the gate circuitry as well. However, the low performance of optoelectronic
devices due to the degradation of quantum well efficiency, metallization, and packaging at high
temperatures and
Table 1.2. Comparison of different galvanic isolation techniques.
Type of Coupling Size & Signal Response EMI

Isolations Method weight Modulating
Time /ESD
Gate transformer Magnetic Bulky, heavy Needed Fast Average

Digital isolation Capacitive Small, light Needed Medium Average
Opto-coupler Optical Small, light Not Needed Medium Good
operating conditions prevents the use of optocouplers in high-density power modules. A systematic
study of the high-temperature operation of optoelectronic devices, i.e., emitters and photodiodes,
is necessary to overcome the limiting factors in developing the high-temperature optocouplers.
Thus far, a minimal reported study is available in the literature on the high-temperature application
of optoelectronic devices.
14
The motivation for this study is the tremendous advantages in the energy-saving sector by
the miniaturization of power systems. A detailed study on optoelectronic devices at high
temperature enables us to explore the possibility of scaling high-density power modules by
integrating high-temperature optoelectronic devices into the power module. The primary goal of
this study is to characterize and verify the high-temperature operation of optoelectronic devices,
including light-emitting diodes and photodiodes based on WBG materials. The secondary goal is
to identify and integrate optoelectronic devices to achieve galvanic isolation in high-density power
modules working at elevated temperatures. As part of the study, a high-temperature packaging,
based on low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC), suitable to accommodate optoelectronic
devices, will also be designed and developed.
1.6. Overview of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into 7 chapters. Chapter 1 reviews the current technology
impact of the WBG materials on power electronic modules and optoelectronics. This chapter will
also give insight to the readers about the current development in the field of optical integration to
power electronics. By concluding the chapter by current development and future trends of power
module miniaturization, the author identifies the problem statement and motivation for this work.
The chapters numbered three to six are based on peer-reviewed publications. The chapters
are not necessarily in the chronological order in which they were published. The arrangement of
the chapters aims to give the readers a thorough understanding of the product development process
from material characterization, device optimization, high-temperature packaging, and final testing.
15
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20
2. Electro-optical Characterization Bench
2.1. Quantum Efficiency Extraction of LEDs
The optoelectronic device characteristics at high temperatures highly depend on materials
of active layers and substrate, device structures, processes, packaging, and operating conditions.
Optoelectronic devices made from wide bandgap compound semiconductors are an immediate
choice for high-temperature applications due to the unique characteristics of wide bandgap
materials, such as less degradation at high temperature, inherent radiation hardness, excellent
thermal conductivity, and high breakdown field. Advanced electroluminescence (EL)
measurement system is built to characterize LED devices at high temperatures (up to 800K). The
schematic of the EL measurement system is shown in Figure 1. The EL set up consists of a
Horiba iHR 550 (Kyoto, JA www.horiba.com) spectrometer with attached liquid nitrogen (LN)
Figure 2.1. Schematic drawing of the high temperature EL system
cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. The temperature of the CCD camera was kept under
150 K during the measurements. A Janis ST-100H cryostat is integrated into the set up to have
21
temperature-dependent measurements. The high-temperature cryostat system consists of a cold
finger, radiation shield, sample holder, lightweight aluminum vacuum shroud, electrical feed-
through ports, and a high efficiency flexible six-foot cryogen transfer line. The temperature of the
sample is varied by means of a heater attached to the cold finger. The sample mount and all
standard sample holders have provisions for thermometry, which in conjunction with a temperature
controller. The temperature controller allows precise control over the sample temperature up to
0.1K. High power heaters provide sample temperatures up to 800K.
The internal quantum efficiency (IQE) of the LEDs is calculated based on the power-law
relationship between the injection current and the light output power from the temperature- and
intensity-dependent electroluminescence (T-IDEL) measurements. Based on the power-law
relationship in EL measurements, the electron-hole pair photoexcitation density is proportional to
the current injection density, JEL. In addition to that, the spontaneous emission rate per unit area
per unit length from the active region is proportional to the EL signal integrated over energy, LEL.
The relationships are described by:

𝑐𝑎 (1)
𝐽𝐸𝐿 = [𝐴𝑛 + (1 − 𝛾𝑟 )𝐵𝑛2 + 𝐶𝑛3 ] ; 𝐿𝐸𝐿 = 𝑐𝑏 𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝐵𝑛2 ∝ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑗
where ca and cb are constants of proportionality determined by sample and measurement
geometry. Pout is the light output power from the LED. The current injection efficiency and the
light extraction efficiency of the LED are denoted by ηinj and ηext, respectively. For this study, the
photon recycling factor, γr, is assumed to be independent of the current injection density. The
recombination coefficients for the Shockley-Reed-Hall (SRH), radiative, and Auger mechanisms
are denoted by A, B, and C, respectively. The recombination rates are presented as powers of the
electron-hole concentration n.
The injection current density JEL can be expressed as a function of 𝐿𝐸𝐿 from Eq. (1) as
22
follows:
𝐽𝐸𝐿 = 𝐴𝐸𝐿 𝐿𝐸𝐿 1/2 + 𝐵𝐸𝐿 𝐿𝐸𝐿 + 𝐶𝐸𝐿 𝐿𝐸𝐿 3/2 (2)
where 𝐴𝐸𝐿 , 𝐵𝐸𝐿 , and 𝐶𝐸𝐿 are the best-fit parameters calculated by fitting Eq. (2) to the experimental
data.
The internal quantum efficiency of the LED is defined as:
𝐵𝑛2 (3)
𝜂𝐼𝑄𝐸 =
𝐴𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛2 + 𝐶𝑛3
Using Eq. (1) & (2), internal quantum efficiency can be expressed as:
−1 (4)
𝐴𝐸𝐿 1 − 𝛾𝑟 𝐶𝐸𝐿
𝜂𝐼𝑄𝐸 = (1 + ( )+ (1 − 𝛾𝑟 )√𝐿𝐸𝐿 )
𝐵𝐸𝐿 √𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝐵𝐸𝐿
The external quantum efficiency (EQE), 𝜂𝐸𝑄𝐸 , of the LED is defined using the
relationship:
𝜂𝐸𝑄𝐸 = 𝑞𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝐼ℏ𝜔 (5)
where q is the electron charge, and ℏ𝜔 is the photon energy. The EQE is expressed as a function
of integrated EL intensity using Eq. (1):
𝜂𝐸𝑄𝐸 ∝ 𝑞𝐿𝐸𝐿 /𝐼ℏ𝜔 (6)
Equation (6) enables us to calculate normalized EQE from T-IDEL measurements.
2.2. Spectral Response Measurements
Figure 2.2 shows the schematic of the high-temperature spectral response set up for
detectors. The actual picture of the measurement setup is shown in Fig. 2.3. Temperature-
dependent measurements were performed using a Janis ST-100H cryostat with an LN cooling and
temperature controller. The devices were placed inside the cryostat using a chip carrier, and
electrical connections were made using a BNC feed-through system. The spectral responses of the
23
structure were obtained using a tunable monochromator. The monochromator houses a 250W, 24V
tungsten halogen lamp for wavelengths from 450 nm – 900 nm and a deuterium lamp for
Figure 2.2. Schematic drawing of the high temperature spectral response system.
Figure 2.3 High temperature spectral response measurement setup

24
wavelengths from 190 nm – 450 nm. A calibrated Si detector is used to measure the incident power
on the sample structure from the monochromator. The dimension of the calibrated Si detector is
3.6 mm × 3.6mm.
Both DC and AC measurements were conducted on the sample. During the DC
measurements the device under test (DUT) was illuminated at different wavelengths and the
current was read directly from Keithley SMU. In DC measurements the photocurrents were
obtained by subtracting the dark current from the measured currents. However, at high
temperatures, the dark current predominates the photocurrents and the detection was not possible.
To overcome this difficulty, AC measurements were introduced. In AC measurements, the DUT
was illuminated using chopped light at different wavelength and the photocurrent was read from
lock-in amplifier. AC measurements were performed by incorporating chopper and lock-in
amplifier.
25
Figure 2.4. 3D graphing of the beam profile of the Tungsten halogen lamp at 535 nm.
The dimension of the beam spot at the plane of focus (PoF) is roughly 1mm × 5mm. Since
the sample devices were smaller than the PoF, beam profiling was necessary. The beam profiling
was carried out at different wavelengths. A calibrated Si detector is used to calculate the beam
power. We also used a calibrated IXL lightwave power meter to verify the beam profiling at 450,
535, and 630nm. Table. 2.1 shows the beam power at different wavelengths measured using
calibrated Si photodetector and IXL lightwave power meter. By using a detector with a smaller
dimension than the PoF along with a 3D stage, we accurately profile the beam spot. Figure 2.4
shows the 3D surface image of the beam spot at 535nm. The 2D image of the beam profile is
26
shown in Fig 2.5. The beam profiling was repeated for different wavelengths to calculate the beam
power.
Figure 2.5. 2D surface graphing of the beam profile of the Tungsten halogen lamp at 535 nm.
Table 2.1. The measured beam powers for different wavelengths
Wavelength (nm) Measured power (µW)

Calibrated Si IXL power meter
450 46.44 µW 48.1 µW
535 28.14 µW 29.79 µW
630 9.51 µW 9.6 µW
The photocurrents were measured using a lock-in amplifier based on which the
responsivity, ℜ, is extracted. A Keithley 236 source measurement unit (SMU) was used to measure
the dark current-voltage (I-V) characteristics in the temperature range 77 -800 K.

27
The photodetector sensitivity of the structure is quantified using the material figure of merit
parameter D*, calculated in units of Jones (cm Hz1/2W-1), as below:
√𝐴∆𝑓 (1)
𝐷∗ = ℜ
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
where 𝐴 is the active detecting area of the structure in square centimeter, ∆𝑓 is referred to the
equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW) in hertz, ℜ is the spectral responsivity in ampere per watt,
and 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the root mean square of noise currents in the detector system. In this study, ∆𝑓 is taken
as 1 Hz. The 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 , which includes Johnson or thermal noise, shot noise, generation-recombination
noise, and 1/f noise, is calculated as follow:
2 2 2 2 (2)
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 + 𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡 + 𝑖𝐺−𝑅 + 𝑖1/𝑓
The generation-recombination noise occurred due to the random generation, and the
recombination of free carriers caused by crystal vibrations is considered as zero in this study as
this occurs mainly in photoconductors and is limited by diffusion in an ideal photodiode. Also, 1/f
noise or flicker noise is eliminated in this study as the noise level is negligible for detector works
under high frequency. The thermal and shot noise is calculated using the following equations:
𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = √4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓/𝑅0 ; 𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡 = √2𝑞𝐼∆𝑓 (3)
where 𝑘 is the Boltzmann constant, 𝑇 is the absolute temperature, 𝑅0 is the resistance of the device,
𝑞 is the charge of an electron, and 𝐼 is the average current flow in the device under illumination,
which includes both photocurrent and dark current. In this study, noise bandwidth was set by
configuring the time constant and slope/oct of the lock-in amplifier to 100 ms and 18 dB/oct,
respectively.
The device figure of merit, noise equivalent power (NEP), i.e., the minimum impinging
optical power that a detector can distinguish from noise, is calculated as follows:
28
𝑁𝐸𝑃 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 / ℜ (4)
Also, the 𝐷∗ is related to 𝑁𝐸𝑃 as follows:
√𝐴∆𝑓 (5)
𝐷∗ =
𝑁𝐸𝑃
29
3. High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based Blue LEDs for Future Power Electronic
Applications
3.1. Abstract
Commercial gallium-nitride-based blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs), primarily fabricated
for lighting applications, are evaluated at high temperatures (up to 700 K) for possible integration
as an optocoupler emitter in high-density power electronic modules. The temperature- and
injection-current-dependent internal quantum efficiency and current-voltage characteristics of the
blue LEDs are studied. The internal quantum efficiency (IQE) is extracted from the measured
integrated electroluminescence (EL) intensity at different temperatures using the ABC model. The
presented method helps evaluate the optimized injection current density to achieve minimum
deviation in LED IQE at a broader range of operating temperatures. As per the ABC model, the
LED can operate at 700 K with an IQE of 58.50% when it operates at a current density of 2A/cm2.
The results show that for a temperature range of 77 – 700 K, the minimum deviation of IQE occurs
when the injected current density is between 1 to 10 A/cm2. Normalized external quantum
efficiency (EQE) of the device at different temperatures were also extracted using the ABC model.
3.2. Introduction
Silicon carbide (SiC), a wide bandgap semiconductor with thermal conductivity over three
times of that of silicon, drives the development of next-generation power electronic system suitable
for high voltage and extreme temperature operation. Advancement in SiC device technology helps
contribute to the development of a high-density power module, a fundamental component in power
electronic system, for size- and weight-sensitive applications such as electric vehicles, motor
30
drives, and space exploration. Although power electronic modules achieved high scalability in the
past two decades with the introduction of SiC technology, there are some power module
components in the gate driving circuits such as isolation transformers that limit further size
reduction. Isolation transformers are used where the devices are in series strings or devices that
are on the high side require floating power supplies for the gate drive, and the signals required to
trigger the devices must be isolated.
Typically, multiple transformers (i.e., each floating device requires a separate isolation
transformer) with a large form-factor are used as a galvanic isolation system in power modules to
float the high voltage gate driver. Bulky and heavy isolation transformers are often replaced with
discrete optocouplers in conventional silicon power electronic modules with a targeted operating
temperature up to 125 oC. However, SiC power modules designed to work at extreme conditions
require high-temperature optocouplers to replace isolation transformers successfully. Therefore,
the development of high-temperature optocouplers, which can be operated at an elevated
temperature (e.g., 250 oC) with an extended lifetime, requires a systematic study of optoelectronic
materials and devices at high temperatures.
We previously reported a systematic study of direct bandgap InGaN/GaN multiple
quantum well (MQW) green optoelectronic material with a peak wavelength of 516 at room
temperature as a part of the development of a high-temperature optocoupler [1]. The study shows
that the spontaneous emission quantum efficiency (QE) of green LED epitaxy material at 527oC
is around 44 %. A 44 % IQE is not suitable for lighting applications. However, it can be
accommodated in the design of the optocoupler emitter application as long as the photodetector is
not degraded in the optocoupler. The photoluminescence study on the materials shows that QE
degradation with respect to temperature is also related to the injected laser power [1]. These
31
promising results lead to the characterization of commercial InGaN based LED devices to evaluate
the possibility of operating at high temperatures and to determine the optimal current density to
achieve peak IQE at different temperatures.
Since the commercially available LED devices are primarily designed for lighting and
display applications where the application temperature usually does not exceed 150 oC, a drop in
QE is expected at elevated temperatures due to non-optimized current injection at high
temperatures. Even though our previous study has demonstrated the high-temperature capability
of commercial LED materials, the LED devices’ performance (i.e., IQE & EQE) also need to be
understood. While the EQE of LED devices at high temperatures mainly depends on the device
geometry, metallization, and packaging, IQE is strongly related to the injected current level and
quantum well structure [2-4]. High injected current levels can also shorten the lifetime of LED
devices. To develop the high-temperature optocouplers, which can be operated at 250 oC with at
least ten-year lifetime, the trade-off between the IQE and device lifetime at different temperatures
need to be understood. Therefore, a thorough study of LED devices at elevated temperatures is
necessary to check the feasibility of LEDs implemented as the emitters in high-temperature
optocouplers.
In this paper, we evaluate commercial InGaN/GaN MQW blue LEDs as potential
candidates in high-temperature optocouplers due to their unique properties such as wide bandgap,
low heat dissipation, and higher operating lifetime compared to gallium arsenide (GaAs) or
gallium phosphide (GaP) based LEDs [5],[6]. To avoid the degradation of the devices due to the
packaging, commercial bare-die LED devices are characterized to analyze the temperature-
dependent and injected-current-dependent IQE. The reported high-temperature-dependent
characterization of GaN-based LEDs focuses mainly on lighting applications [7-9]. In contrast,

32
this paper analyzes the temperature dependence of the LED performance focusing on the
possibility to be integrated into high-density power modules. High-temperature analysis of the
LEDs was conducted using temperature and injected current dependent EL. The IQE of the LEDs
were extracted using the ABC model. The IQE as a function of injected current density is studied
in detail for the optimization of LED injected current to achieve minimum deviation in IQE at
higher temperatures. Normalized EQE of the LED is also calculated and presented. This
investigation helps evaluate the feasibility of commercial LEDs as the emitter in the optocoupler
to be operated at high temperatures.
3.3. Experiment
High-temperature optical and electrical studies were conducted on vertically-structured
bare die blue LEDs manufactured by Cree Inc. Bare-die devices are selected to avoid unwanted
failures at elevated temperatures due to the degradation of packaging media or forming lenses on
the chip surface. The GaN-based blue LED structures were grown on SiC substrate. Both contact
layers were formed by highly-reflective electrodes. A Horiba 550 spectrometer integrated with a
photomultiplier tube (PMT) and a Janis ST-100H cryostat is used for temperature- and intensity-
dependent electroluminescence (T-IDEL) measurements [10]. The cryostat was tuned and
calibrated at each temperature to avoid any possible measurement error due to the thermal shift of
the sample holder in the cryostat. Comparatively lower injection current levels were used to avoid
LED failure due to self-heating. The LEDs were characterized up to 700 K due to the limitation of
experiment setup to accurately capture enough EL data points at higher temperatures for IQE
extraction. Keithley 2450 source measurement unit (SMU) is used to measure the current-voltage
(I-V) characteristics of the LEDs.
The IQE is calculated based on the power-law relationship between the injection current
33
and the light output power from the T-IDEL measurements. Based on the power-law relationship
in EL measurements, the electron-hole pair photoexcitation density is proportional to the current
injection density, JEL. In addition to that, the spontaneous emission rate per unit area per unit
length from the active region is proportional to the EL signal integrated over energy, LEL. The
relationships are described by:

𝑐𝑎 (1)
𝐽𝐸𝐿 = [𝐴𝑛 + (1 − 𝛾𝑟 )𝐵𝑛2 + 𝐶𝑛3 ] ; 𝐿𝐸𝐿 = 𝑐𝑏 𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝐵𝑛2 ∝ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑗
where ca and cb are constants of proportionality determined by sample and measurement geometry.
Pout is the light output power from the LED. The current injection efficiency and the light extraction
efficiency of the LED are denoted by ηinj and ηext, respectively. For this study, the photon recycling
factor, γr, is assumed to be independent of the current injection density [11]. The recombination
coefficients for the Shockley-Reed-Hall (SRH), radiative, and Auger mechanisms are denoted by
A, B, and C, respectively. The recombination rates are presented as powers of the electron-hole
concentration n.
The injection current density JEL can be expressed as a function of 𝐿𝐸𝐿 from Eq. (1) as follows:
where 𝐴𝐸𝐿 , 𝐵𝐸𝐿 , and 𝐶𝐸𝐿 are the best-fit parameters calculated by fitting Eq. (2) to the experimental
data.
𝐵𝑛2 (3)
𝜂𝐼𝑄𝐸 =
Using Eq. (1) & (2), internal quantum efficiency can be expressed as:
−1 (4)
𝐴𝐸𝐿 1 − 𝛾𝑟 𝐶𝐸𝐿
𝜂𝐼𝑄𝐸 = (1 + ( )+ (1 − 𝛾𝑟 )√𝐿𝐸𝐿 )
𝐵𝐸𝐿 √𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝐵𝐸𝐿
34
The external quantum efficiency (EQE), 𝜂𝐸𝑄𝐸 , of the LED is defined using the relationship:
𝜂𝐸𝑄𝐸 = 𝑞𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝐼ℏ𝜔 (5)
where q is the electron charge, and ℏ𝜔 is the photon energy. The EQE is expressed as a function
of integrated EL intensity using Eq. (1):
𝜂𝐸𝑄𝐸 ∝ 𝑞𝐿𝐸𝐿 /𝐼ℏ𝜔 (6)
Equation (6) enables us to calculate normalized EQE from T-IDEL measurements.
Figure 3.1. I-V characteristics of GaN based LED measured at different temperatures ranging
from 77 - 700 K.
3.4. Results and Discussions
The current-voltage (IV) characteristics of the LED at a forward biased condition in the
temperature range of 77 – 700 K are shown in Fig. 3.1. The I-V characteristics reveal a low current
and high current region with a visible change in slope. The LED series resistance and current-
35
dependent p-n junction resistance determines the slope at the high-current region. The low current
region, typically before the turn-on of the device, is present due to the trap-assisted tunneling of
electrons and holes through midgap electronic states or carrier leakage via extended defects. The
low current sections do not contribute to the radiative recombination of electrons and holes in the
active region, thus creating carrier loss, which is not accounted for with the ABC model. The ABC
model can be modified to account for this non-radiative recombination [12]. However, this is
unnecessary as the injected current selected in our research is well above the low-current region.
The temperature-dependent EL spectra of the LED at an injection current of 10 mA
is shown in Fig. 3.2. The inset of the figure shows the evolution of peak energy with respect to the
temperature. The EL peak energy exhibits a weak S-shaped behavior over the temperature range
Figure 3.2. EL spectra of GaN-based LED measured at different temperatures. Arrows show the
spectral positions of phonon replicas. Inset shows the evolution of EL peak position with
temperature.
36
Figure 3.3. Integrated EL intensity as a function of temperature is calculated for different

injected current densities.
77 – 700 K. First, the peak energy shows a blue shift from 2.72 eV at 77 K to 2.74 eV at 200 K,
and then it started red-shifting at temperatures above 200 K. This behavior is typically attributed
to carrier localization [13],[14]. The pronounced phonon replicas of the EL spectra at low
temperatures are indicative of the high quality of the LED MQW structures. The phonon replicas
are merged to the main band-to-band transitions at higher temperatures. The EL intensity of the
LED dropped when the temperature increases from 77 – 700 K. Figure 3.3 shows the evolution of
integrated EL intensity with respect to temperature for different injected current density. It is
observed that as the injected current density increases, the percentage change in the EL intensity
at different temperatures decreases. It suggests that selecting a higher injected current can reduce
the percentage drop of the integrated EL intensity of the LED working at different temperatures.
However, selecting a higher value of injected current can cause the LED to fail due to self-heating.
37
An optimized value of LED injected current for working at different temperatures can be calculated
from the quantum efficiency measurements.
Figure. 3.4. Integrated EL intensity as a function of current density for different temperatures.
The dots are the experimental results and the solid lines are fits to Eq. (2).
The fitting parameters 𝐴𝐸𝐿 , 𝐵𝐸𝐿 , and 𝐶𝐸𝐿 for the calculation of IQE are calculated by fitting
Eq. (2) to the experimental data. Integrated EL intensity as a function of current density is plotted
in Fig. 3.4 to obtain the different fitting parameters. The dots are the experimental results, while
the solid lines are the fits to Eq. (2). The fit parameters extracted from Fig. 4 are used to calculate
the IQE at different temperatures, which is plotted as a function of current density in Fig. 3.5. The
IQE shows a dome-like shape, with the width gradually decreasing at higher temperatures. The
sample shows a maximum IQE of 97.40% at 77 K. The IQE of the sample dropped to 58.50% at
700 K as per the ABC model. Figure 5 shows the evolution of IQE with respect to the injected
current. The results show that a minimum deviation of IQE occurs when the injected current
38
density is between 1 to 10 A/cm2.
Figure 3.5. Internal quantum efficiency plotted as a function of current density at different
temperatures.
The evolution of the thermal droop over different injection current can be explained
using the carrier rate equation model [15]. The sample shows significant thermal droop at injection
current densities below 1.0 mA/cm2. The SRH recombination causes the thermal droop at low
injection current densities. The SRH recombination contributes 47 % of the total recombination at
an elevated temperature as compared to 10 % at 300 K [16]. However, at high injection levels (i.e.,
above 2 A/cm2), the SRH recombination accounts for less than 3 % of the total recombination.
Therefore, the thermal droop at high current injection is due to the Auger recombination and drift-
induced carrier leakage. At moderate injection levels, radiative recombination becomes significant
and leads to a reduction in the thermal droop.
Figure 3.6 shows the normalized EQE as a function of current density for different
39
Figure 3.6. Normalized EQE as a function of current density for different temperatures. The dots
are the experimental results, solid lines are the fittings of Eq. (6) to the data.
temperatures. The dots are the experimental results, while the solid lines are the fits to Eq. (6). The
EQE shows a dome-like shape, similar to the IQE in Fig. 5. The current density at which the peak
EQE is observed increases as the temperature rises, which is in agreement with the IQE
calculation. Also, the higher injected current levels, the lower the EQE variation with temperature.
The EQE evolution slightly differs from IQE, which can be attributed to the change in light
extraction efficiency due to the broader temperature range selected.
3.5. Conclusion
The temperature and injected current dependent IQE of the commercial InGaN/GaN MQW
blue LED are studied for temperatures up to 700 K. The EL peak energy exhibits a weak S-shaped
behavior over the temperature range 77 – 700 K due to carrier localization. The pronounced
40
phonon replicas at lower temperatures were merged to the main band-to-band transitions at higher
temperatures. The sample exhibits a peak IQE of 58.50% at 700 K when it operates at a current
density of 2 A/cm2. It is also noted that the variation in IQE and EQE with temperature is reduced
at higher injection current densities. While a higher injection current can cause the LED to fail due
to self-heating, an optimized injection level for the LEDs to achieve minimum variation in IQE
with temperature can be calculated using the presented method.
References
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Ding, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and Z. Chen, “Systematic Investigation of Spontaneous
Emission Quantum Efficiency Drop up to 800K for Future Power Electronics
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[2] A. Salhi, M. Alanzi, and B. Alonazi, “Effect of the Quantum-Well Shape on the
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[5] Nakamura, S., Akaski, I., Amano, H., In: Pankove J. I., Moustakas T. D., editors. Gallium
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[6] Fong, W., Zhu, C., Leung, B., Surya, C., Sundaravel, B., Luo, E., Wilson, I. (2002).
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[7] Li, Z., Waldron, J., Chowdhury, S., Zhao, L., Detchprohm, T., Wetzel, C., Chow, T. P.
(2015). High Temperature Characteristics of Monolithically Integrated LED and MOS-
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and E. Zanoni, “High-Temperature Degradation of GaN LEDs Related to Passivation,”
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(2009). New Developments in Green LEDs. Physica Status Solidi (a), 206(6), 1125-1129.
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[11] Wang, J., Johnson, S. R., Ding, D., Yu, S., & Zhang, Y. (2006). Influence of Photon
Recycling on Semiconductor Luminescence Refrigeration. Journal of Applied Physics,
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“Simulation of trap-assisted tunneling effect on characteristics of gallium nitride diodes,”
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42
4. High-Temperature Optical Characterization of GaN-Based LEDs for Future Power
Electronic Modules
4.1. Abstract
High-temperature optical analysis of three different InGaN/GaN MQW LED structures
(peak wavelength λp = 448nm, 467 nm & 515nm) is conducted for possible integration as an
optocoupler emitter in high-density power electronic modules. The commercially available LEDs,
primarily used in the display (λp = 467 nm & 515nm) and lighting (λp = 448nm) applications, are
studied and compared to evaluate if they can satisfy the light output requirements in the
optocouplers at high temperatures. The temperature- and intensity-dependent electroluminescence
(T-IDEL) measurement technique is used to study the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) of the
LEDs. All three LEDs exhibits above 70 % IQE at 500 K, and stable operation at 800 K without
flickering or failure. At 800 K, a promising IQE of above 40 % is observed for blue for display
(λp = 467 nm) and green for display (λp = 515nm) samples. Blue for light (λp = 448nm) sample
shows 24 % IQE at 800 K.
4.2. Introduction
The rigorous research in silicon carbide (SiC) technology drives the fast-paced
development of power electronics in recent years. Silicon carbide technology enables high-
temperature operation of power modules with higher power density and faster-switching speeds
compared with the conventional silicon power modules [1]. Reliable high-temperature operation
of SiC-based power devices helps develop power modules suitable for size- and weight-sensitive
applications such as electric vehicles, motor drives, and space exploration by eliminating the
extensive cooling system associated with the power module. The overall size of the power
43
electronics module is now decided by passive components such as bulky transformers. Typically,
multiple transformers with large form-factor are used as the galvanic isolation system in power
modules to float the high voltage gate driver. The modulation and demodulation circuits associated
with the isolation transformers add to the complexity of gate driver design. Therefore, using
isolation transformers of high form-factor limits scaling-down of power electronic modules [2]. A
further scale down of power modules is possible by replacing bulky transformers with
optocouplers of low form-factors. However, the low performance of optoelectronic devices due to
the degradation of quantum well efficiency, metallization, and packaging at high temperatures and
operating conditions prevents the use of optocouplers in high-density power modules [3]. A
systematic study of the high-temperature operation of optoelectronic devices, i.e., emitters and
photodiodes, is necessary to overcome the limiting factors in developing the high-temperature
optocouplers. Thus far, a minimal reported study is available in the literature on the high-
temperature application of optoelectronic devices [4].
The high-efficiency and high-brightness GaN-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are
promising candidates for high-temperature operation due to their unique properties, such as wide
bandgap, low heat dissipation, and higher operating lifetime compared to gallium arsenide (GaAs)
or gallium phosphide (GaP) based LEDs [5]. Therefore, a systematic investigation of the
performance of GaN-based LEDs at high temperatures helps examine the possibility of optical
integration on SiC-based high-density power modules. A previous study conducted on InGaN/GaN
multiple quantum well (MQW) green optoelectronic material with a peak wavelength of 516 at
room temperature reports that the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) of above 44 % is achievable
at 527 oC [4]. The reported IQE of 44 % is acceptable for high-temperature optocoupler emitter
application as long as the photodetector is not degraded in the optocoupler.

44
The IQE of LEDs at a given temperature is a function of injected current density. A non-
optimal selection of injection current density can cause a higher drop in IQE at elevated
temperatures. Though the previous study on the LED epitaxy material confirms the reliable high-
temperature operation, a systematic study of the LED devices is needed in designing optimal
biasing conditions. Besides the biasing conditions, the high-temperature operation of the LED
devices is also affected by the device geometry, contact metallization, and packaging [6]. The
selection of contact metallization and packaging for high-temperature applications is studied in
detail in the past [7]. The effect of quantum well (QW) structure on designing emitters for high-
temperature applications needs to be understood.
In this paper, a comparative study is conducted on the IQE of commercial InGaN/GaN
MQW LEDs with different QW structures. Bare die LEDs are selected in order to avoid high-
temperature optical degradation due to packaging materials. Traditional ABC model is used to
extract the IQE as a function of injected current density. The focus of the study is to evaluate the
possibility of operating InGaN/GaN MQW LEDs at high temperatures and to determine the
optimal current density to achieve peak IQE at different temperatures.
4.3. Experimental section
High-temperature measurements on the LED devices were carried out in a Janis ST-100
cryostat, and the electroluminescence (EL) spectra were collected using a Horiba 550 spectrometer
integrated with a photomultiplier tube (PMT). During all measurements, the self-heating of the
LED devices with a turn-on voltage of under 2.0 V was avoided by limiting the current density to
0.25 A/cm2 and 1.0 A/cm2 for light and display samples, respectively. The device structure and
IQE extraction methods using ABC modeling are explained in detail in the following sections.
45
Figure 4.3 Schematic of the epitaxial structure of (a) blue for light (b) blue for display and (c)
green for display LEDs.
The InGaN/GaN MQW LEDs, grown on patterned sapphire substrates, were supplied by
HC SemiTek. Figure 4.1 shows the detailed schematic structure of the three LEDs with a peak
emission wavelength of 454 nm, 472 nm & 523 nm at room temperature, which are named blue
for light (BL), blue for display (BD) and green for display (GD), respectively. Blue LED samples,
i.e., BL and BD, consists of a 20 nm aluminum nitride (AlN) buffer layer, whereas the GD sample
46
has a 20 nm GaN as a buffer layer. The active regions studied consists of ten 3.5 nm InGaN QWs
with 12.5 nm GaN barrier layers for the BL and GD samples, whereas the BD sample consists of
nine 3.0 nm InGaN QWs with 12.5 nm GaN barrier layers. A pre-MQW layer consisting of six 1.5
nm undoped InGaN QWs with 7 nm Si-doped GaN barriers is also included in the BL LED
structure. The display LEDs, BD and GD, consists of seven and twelve periods of AlGaN/GaN
superlattice electron blocking layers (EBL) before the magnesium-dopped p-GaN layer and the
p++-GaN contact layer. The BL LED structure includes a 20 nm bulk AlGaN EBL before the
magnesium-dopped p-GaN layer and the p++-GaN contact layer.
IQE Modelling:
To extract the IQE of LEDs using ABC modeling, temperature- and injected current-
dependent electroluminescence (T-IDEL) measurements were conducted. The ABC model
provides excellent fitting of quantum efficiency measured in a wide range of operating currents.
In order to identify the peak IQE and optimum injected current density, a modeling technique is
more suitable rather than the traditional room temperature-low temperature PL/EL comparison.
The measured EL intensities for different temperatures and injected current densities were fitted
using the power-law relationship. Power law states that the electron-hole pair photoexcitation
density is proportional to the current injection density, JEL. Also, the spontaneous emission rate
per unit area per unit length from the active region is proportional to the EL signal integrated over
energy, LEL. The relationships are described by:

𝑐𝑎 (1)
𝐽𝐸𝐿 = [𝐴𝑛 + (1 − 𝛾𝑟 )𝐵𝑛2 + 𝐶𝑛3 ] ; 𝐿𝐸𝐿 = 𝑐𝑏 𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝐵𝑛2
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑗
where ca and cb are constants of proportionality determined by sample and measurement
geometry. The current injection efficiency and the light extraction efficiency of the LED are
denoted by ηinj and ηext, respectively. For this study, the photon recycling factor, γr, is assumed
47
to be zero [8]. The recombination coefficients for the Shockley-Reed-Hall (SRH), radiative, and
Auger mechanisms are denoted by A, B, and C, respectively. Recombination rates are presented
as the powers of electron-hole concentration n.
The injection current density JEL can be expressed as a function of LEL from Equation 1 as follows:
where 𝐴𝐸𝐿 , 𝐵𝐸𝐿 , and 𝐶𝐸𝐿 are the best-fit parameters calculated by fitting Equation 2 to the
experimental data, as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2. Integrated EL intensity as a function of current density is plotted for different
temperatures. The dots are the experimental results, solid lines are ABC fittings to the data for blue
for display sample.
𝐵𝑛2 (3)
𝜂𝐼𝑄𝐸 =
Using Equation 1 and 2, internal quantum efficiency can be expressed as:

48
−1 (4)
𝐴𝐸𝐿 1 𝐶𝐸𝐿
𝜂𝐼𝑄𝐸 = (1 + ( )+ √𝐿 )
𝐵𝐸𝐿 √𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝐵𝐸𝐿 𝐸𝐿
4.4. Results and Discussion
Temperature-dependent EL spectra of BL, BD, and GD samples at an injected current
density of 0.25A/cm2 are shown in Figure 4.3. The inset of the figures shows the evolution of peak
wavelength over the temperature. A drop in EL intensity and spectral broadening is observed in
all the samples at high temperatures. Blue for light sample shows pronounced phonon replicas at
low temperatures, which merged to band-to-band transitions at higher temperatures.[9] The
phonon-replicas in the display samples are not prominent due to the comparatively low nominal
indium content. A higher nominal indium content enhances the momentum transfer from the
defects, which indeed created by the prominent indium aggregation and phase separation, in
meeting the requirement of momentum conservation in the phonon–replica transition. All the three
samples exhibit an S-shaped EL peak energy evolution over the temperature range, which is
typically attributed to carrier localization [10]. To quantitatively study the thermal droop, EL
spectra are integrated over the energy and plotted for different temperatures. Figure 4.4 shows the
normalized integrated EL intensity of BL, BD, and GD samples at an injected current density of
0.25A/cm2 for different temperatures. A targeted operating temperature range is defined from 300
– 500 K in accordance with the development of high-temperature optocoupler. A three order of
magnitude reduction in EL intensity is observed from the BL sample whereas the display samples
show one order magnitude reduction in EL intensity. Three order magnitude reduction in EL
intensity points to a significant drop in IQE at higher temperatures. However, the thermal droop,
i.e., drop in LED efficiency at higher temperatures, is dependent on the injected current density. A
49
Figure 4.4. EL spectra of (a) blue for light (b) blue for display and (c) green for display
LEDs measured at a injected current density of 0.25A/cm2 for different temperatures.
Inset shows the evolution of EL peak position with temperature.
different injected current can alter the behavior of the LED light intensity drop at elevated
50
temperatures. Therefore, the reduction in LED light intensity at elevated temperatures can be
minimized by the optimal selection of injected current density.
Figure 4.4. Normalized integrated EL intensity of BL, BD, and GD LEDs is calculated from the
respective EL spectra at an injected current density of 0.25 A/cm2 and plotted as a function of
temperature.
The IQE of LEDs as a function of injected current density is extracted for different
temperatures using the ABC model. Figure 4.5 shows the evolution of IQE at elevated
temperatures for light and display samples. The dots are the experimental points and the solid lines
are fits of Equation 4. Equation 2 is used to accommodate injected current densities as a function
of IQE. The IQE of LED structures shows a dome-like structure with peak IQE at different
temperatures occurring at different injected current densities. It is also observed that the width of
the dome-like structure decreases at elevated temperatures resulting in a lower peak IQE value.
The IQE of all three LEDs tends to merge at high injected current densities. The IQE increases
51
Figure 4.5. Internal quantum efficiency is plotted as a function of current density at different
temperatures for (a) blue for light (b) blue for display and (c) green for display LEDs.
52
with the increase in injected current density until it reaches the peak value and starts to degrade.
The drop in IQE at higher injected current densities, i.e., current droop, is commonly attributed to
the enhanced Auger recombination at increased current density [11]. Although the drop in current
injection efficiency also contributes to the current droop, the enhanced Auger recombination
dominates at higher injected current densities.
Figure 4.6. The peak IQE of BL, BD and GD LEDs at different temperatures are extracted and
plotted as a function of temperature.
The evolution of Peak IQE as a function of temperature for light and display LEDs is shown
in Figure 4.6. All three LEDs show three different slopes in the peak IQE curve over the
temperature range from 77 - 800 K. At low-temperature range (77 -300 K), the peak IQE tends to
decrease when the temperature increases. In the targeted operating temperature range, LEDs show
a stable IQE with less than 10 % reduction in the peak IQE. The extracted peak IQE for BL, BD,
53
and GD at 500 K are 70, 71 and 72 % respectively. Increasing the temperature above 500 K causes
a significant drop in peak IQE. At 800 K, the BL, BD and GD samples show peak IQE of 24, 40
and 48 % respectively. It is observed that the GD LED shows the highest peak IQE from 100 –
800 K, followed by BD and BL LEDs. A systematic analysis based on the LED structure is needed
to conclude the peak IQE behavior of the LEDs. However, it is difficult in this study as there is
more than one parameter change across LED structures as shown in Figure 4.1. A pre-MQW layer
in the LED structure improves the efficiency of InGaN based LEDs [12]. However, the peak IQE
Figure 4.7. The current injection density corresponding to the peak IQE, jpIQE, of BL, BD and GD
LEDs at different temperatures are extracted and plotted as a function of temperature.
of BL LED with a pre-MQW layer and a higher number of QWs in the active region shows lower
peak IQE than the LED structures without the pre-MQW layer. The higher peak IQE of the BD
and GD LEDs can be attributed to the presence of GaN buffer layer and superlattice EBL. Studies
show that using an LT GaN buffer layer instead of the AlN buffer layer improves the crystal quality
and leads to higher IQE [13]. Also, replacing the conventional bulk EBL with a superlattice
54
structure can enhance the efficiency and reduce the droop in LEDs.[14] Although the GD LED
shows a higher peak IQE at elevated temperatures, it is observed that the injected current density
to achieve peak IQE, jpIQE, is higher than other LEDs. The change in jpIQE over the temperature
range is shown in Figure 4.7. In the targeted operating temperature range, the jpIQE of GD LED is
one order of magnitude higher than that of BD. A higher jpIQE of GD sample can be attributed to
the superlattice structure of the EBL. However, high injected current levels can shorten the lifetime
of LED devices. To develop the high-temperature LEDs for continuous operation at 250oC, the
trade-off between the IQE and injected current density needs to be understood. A stable peak IQE
and a lower jpIQE is therefore suitable for the continuous operation of LEDs at elevated
temperatures.
4.5. Conclusion
The temperature and injected current dependent IQE of commercial InGaN/GaN MQW
LEDs with different QW structures are studied over the temperature range from 77 - 800 K. The
peak IQE of LED samples at different temperatures and the respective injected current density is
extracted using ABC model. The structural difference across the LED samples has a pronounced
effect on the IQE drop at higher temperatures. The GD sample exhibits the highest peak IQE in
the temperature range 100 -800 K followed by BD and BL. The presence of pre-MQW layer has
little effect on improving the peak IQE of LED devices as compared to the presence of LT GaN
buffer layer and the superlattice EBL structure. A superlattice EBL in the LED structure tends to
increase the jpIQE of the sample as compared to conventional bulk EBL. A stable peak IQE and a
lower jpIQE across the targeted temperature range are suitable options for the selection of LEDs to
integrate into high-temperature optocouplers.

55
References
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science and technology at the micro- and nanoscales,” Journal of Vacuum Science &
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Temperature SiC Power Modules,” ASME 2009 In-ternational Mechanical Engineering
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Denbaars, “‘S-shaped’ temperature-dependent emission shift and carrier dynamics in
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Bougrov, “Effect of InGaN underneath layer on MOVPE-grown InGaN/GaN blue LEDs,”
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Akasaki, and H. Amano, “The Role of the Multi Buffer Layer Technique on the Structural
Quality of GaN,” MRS Internet Journal of Nitride Semiconductor Research, vol. 5, no. S1,
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57
5. High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based MQW Photodetector for Optical
Galvanic Isolations in High-Density Integrated Power Modules
5.1. Abstract
The InGaN/GaN MQW structure is demonstrated as a possible solution for high-
temperature photodiode applications. High temperature spectral and noise analysis of InGaN/GaN
MQW structure are performed for the potential integration as a detector in future power electronics
applications. The spectral response was measured under photovoltaic and bias modes for the
temperature range of 77 - 800 K. A peak spectral responsivity of 27.0 mA/W at 440 nm at 500 K
is recorded. The peak external quantum efficiency of the device was calculated to be in the range
of 5 - 8 % in the temperature range 77 - 800 K. The photodetector sensitivity of the structure is
quantified using the material figure of merit parameter, D* for different temperature and biased
voltages. A peak detectivity of 4 x 108 cmHz1/2W-1 is observed at 800 K with zero bias at 440 nm.
5.2. Introduction
The necessity of high-temperature power electronics for applications such as aeronautics,
hybrid automotive, space exploration, and deep oil-gas exploration has reformed the research focus
from ubiquitous silicon (Si) to wide bandgap (WBG) materials such as silicon carbide (SiC) and
gallium nitride (GaN) [1-3]. When compared to the Si-based power devices, the higher
performance of SiC devices in terms of operation temperature, output power, controllability, and
higher switching speeds makes them more attractive in high power and extreme temperature
applications. Implementing SiC technology in high-temperature power modules helps lower the
system form factor by eliminating bulky cooling systems and incorporating smaller passive
elements. The high scalability of SiC power modules attracts various size and weight-sensitive
58
applications such as electric vehicles and space shuttles in the past decades. To thoroughly exploit
the high-temperature capability of SiC power devices and achieve high scalability, researchers
focused on the integration of the gate drive with SiC power module that requires a high-
temperature operation of gate drive circuitry [4]. However, further scaling of power modules is
now limited by passive components such as isolation transformers. A galvanic isolation circuitry
prevents noise propagation and guarantees the robustness of the power module. The gate drive
signals could use magnetic or capacitive isolation [5,6]. Bulky isolation transformers are often
replaced with comparatively low form factor optocouplers in gate drive control circuitry that
operates at a relatively low temperature compared to the power module. However, the integrated
power modules cannot use optocouplers due to the efficiency drop of optical devices and the high-
temperature packaging requirements. Therefore, a systematic study is required to develop high-
temperature optocouplers to use in high-density integrated power modules.
The development of high-temperature optocouplers involves a systematic approach to
develop emitters, detectors, packaging, and dielectric materials. We previously reported several
studies to evaluate the feasibility of commercial LEDs as the emitters in high-temperature
optocoupler [7-9]. The reported studies reveal that GaN-based multiple quantum well (MQW)
LEDs exhibit stable operation at the targeted operating temperature at 250 oC. These promising
results lead to the study of different detectors suitable for high-temperature operation. The initial
study comprises of the high-temperature spectral characterization of different commercially
available detectors. Figure 5.1 shows a comparison in the temperature-dependent spectral response
of bare-die Si, SiC, and InGaN based photodiodes. The spectral response of the detectors is
normalized at 300 K. Si-based photodetectors are widely used in the optoelectronics field due to
its wide detection range and higher responsivity. However, Si-based photodetectors are not
59
Figure 5.1. Temperature dependent spectral response of Si, SiC and InGaN based photodiodes.
suitable candidates for high-temperature operation. The responsivity of Si-based photodiodes
degrades rapidly at elevated temperatures starting from 150 oC. Photodiodes based on SiC are
widely proposed in the literature in the last decade for application requiring high-temperature
operation, chemical inertness, and radiation hardness [10-12]. Stable high-temperature operation
of SiC photodiodes based both on Schottky and p-i-n junction are reported in the literature [13-
15]. The typical wavelength range of SiC photodiodes varies from 200 nm to 400 nm [10-16].
However, a suitable emitter in the UV range with the stable high-temperature operation, higher
intensity, and compatible with optocoupler design is not reported anywhere.
In recent years, researchers focused on developing GaN-based photodetectors for visible
and near-ultraviolet ranges. High-temperature operation and tolerance to radiation damages of
GaN-based detectors make them more attractive to space exploration and combustion applications.
However, various studies indicate that using bulk indium gallium nitride (InGaN) layers leads to
60
issues such as non-abrupt absorption edges and poor detection contrasts [17-19]. As the indium
(In) concentration in the layer increases, the issues get worsened due to the increase in alloy
segregation and clustering. These technical issues can be suppressed by using GaN-based MQW
structures. It is also reported that the device performance improves in the MQW structure due to
low photodetector dark current and the presence of internal gain mechanism [20].
In this paper, we report a systematic study on the photodetector performance of the
InGaN/GaN MQW LED bare-die devices with a wide range of temperatures from 77 – 800 K. The
rationale for selecting the GaN-based MQW structure can be explained by i) stable high-
temperature operation and to suppress the previously reported alloy segregation and clustering
issue of bulk InGaN layers ii) to achieve better coupling efficiency with the previously reported
LEDs [7-9]. The experiments were performed on bare-die devices to eliminate any unwanted
degradation due to packaging materials. Temperature-dependent spectral response analysis was
performed under photovoltaic and biased modes. The specific detectivity of the device was
extracted at temperatures up to 800 K. This study demonstrates the feasibility of the InGaN/GaN
MQW structure as a possible solution for the high-temperature photodiodes in future power
electronic applications.
5.3. Experiment
Figure 5.2 shows the detailed schematic structure of the InGaN/GaN MQW LED
structure grown on patterned sapphire substrates (PSS) with a 20 nm GaN as a buffer layer. The
active region studied consists of ten 3.5 nm InGaN QWs with 12.5 nm GaN barrier layers. The
sample consists of twelve periods of AlGaN/GaN superlattice electron blocking layers (EBL)
before the magnesium-doped p-GaN layer and the p++-GaN contact layer. The MQW structure
61
exhibits an electroluminescence peak at 535 nm at 300 K. A detailed description of the growth
parameters of the InGaN/GaN MQW LED structure used for this study is reported elsewhere [9].
Figure 5.2. Schematic diagram of the InGaN/GaN MQW LED epitaxial structure.
High-temperature characterization of the MQW structure was carried out in a Janis ST-
100 cryostat. The spectral responses of the structure were obtained using a tunable
monochromator with a 250W, 24V tungsten halogen lamp. A calibrated Si detector is used to
measure the incident power on the MQW structure from the monochromator. The photocurrents
were measured using a lock-in amplifier based on which the responsivity, ℜ, is extracted. A
Keithley 236 source measurement unit (SMU) was used to measure the dark current-voltage (I-
V) characteristics in the temperature range 77 -800 K.
The photodetector sensitivity of the structure is quantified using the material figure of
merit parameter D*, calculated in units of Jones (cm Hz1/2W-1), as below:

62
√𝐴∆𝑓 (1)
𝐷∗ = ℜ
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
where 𝐴 is the active detecting area of the structure in square centimeter, ∆𝑓 is referred to the
equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW) in hertz, ℜ is the spectral responsivity in ampere per watt,
and 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the root mean square of noise currents in the detector system. In this study, ∆𝑓 is
taken as 1 Hz. The 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 , which includes Johnson or thermal noise, shot noise, generation-
recombination noise, and 1/f noise, is calculated as follow:
2 2 2 2 (2)
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 + 𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡 + 𝑖𝐺−𝑅 + 𝑖1/𝑓
The generation-recombination noise occurred due to the random generation, and the
recombination of free carriers caused by crystal vibrations is considered as zero in this study as
this occurs mainly in photoconductors and is limited by diffusion in an ideal photodiode. Also,
1/f noise or flicker noise is eliminated in this study as the noise level is negligible for detector
works under high frequency. The thermal and shot noise is calculated using the following
equations:
𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = √4𝑘𝑇∆𝑓/𝑅0 ; 𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡 = √2𝑞𝐼∆𝑓 (3)
where 𝑘 is the Boltzmann constant, 𝑇 is the absolute temperature, 𝑅0 is the resistance of the
device, 𝑞 is the charge of an electron, and 𝐼 is the average current flow in the device under
illumination, which includes both photocurrent and dark current. In this study, noise bandwidth
was set by configuring the time constant and slope/oct of the lock-in amplifier to 100 ms and 18
dB/oct, respectively.
The device figure of merit, noise equivalent power (NEP), i.e., the minimum impinging
optical power that a detector can distinguish from noise, is calculated as follows:
63
𝑁𝐸𝑃 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 / ℜ (4)
Also, the 𝐷∗ is related to 𝑁𝐸𝑃 as follows:
√𝐴∆𝑓 (5)
𝐷∗ =
𝑁𝐸𝑃
Figure 5.3. I-V characteristics of the InGaN/GaN MQW structure for temperatures from 77 - 800
K.
The dark I-V characteristics of the InGaN/GaN structure for temperatures from 77 -800 K
is shown in Fig. 5.3. The dynamic resistances were extracted from the dark I-V characteristics for
the accurate calculation of noise levels. Although the measurements were performed under a non-
illuminated condition, there is an effect of background low-illumination causing relatively small
but finite zero-bias minority carrier current. Therefore, the dynamic resistance extraction was
64
performed based on the curve fitting process. The leakage current density of the structure increased
by five orders of magnitude as the temperature increases from 77 – 800 K. The leakage current is
a function of both temperature and applied bias, suggesting a combination of tunneling and
thermally generated currents. It is also observed that a rapid increase in the leakage current when
Figure 5.4. Spectral response of the InGaN/GaN MQW structure for different temperatures at zero
bias. Dashed lines represent the respective EQE.
the temperature is increased from 100 K to 200 K. This rapid increase in the leakage current can
be attributed to thermal ionization of carriers from deep traps and trap assisted tunneling process.
The spectral response of the MQW structure was measured from 77 – 800 K at different
biased conditions. Figure 5.4 shows the calculated spectral responsivity of the sample at zero bias
voltage. The spectral responsivity peaks at 440 nm, corresponding to the barrier heights, due to the
lower absorption depth in the QWs. The number of QWs in the space charge region (SCR) also
affects the spectral responsivity from the wells. However, not all the QWs fall into the SCR. A
65
redshift in the spectral response peak and the detection edge is observed when the temperature
increases from 77 K to 500 K. An increase in the peak spectral responsivity is also observed in this
temperature range. The sample shows a peak spectral responsivity of 27.0 mA/W at 440 nm at 500
K. Increasing the temperature above 500 K leads to a decrease in the peak spectral responsivity
along with the redshift of the spectrum. The redshift of the spectral peak at elevated temperatures
is attributed to the bandgap shrinkage. The peak EQE of the device was calculated to be in the
Figure 5.5. Peak spectral response of the InGaN/GaN MQW structure is plotted as a function of
temperature for different biased conditions. Inset shows the evolution of wavelength
corresponding to the peak spectral response.
range of 5 - 8 % in the temperature range 77 - 800 K.
Figure 5.5 shows the peak spectral responsivity of the sample at different temperatures and
biased conditions; inset of the figure shows the respective wavelength. The wavelength
corresponding to the peak spectral response shows an S-shaped behavior, confirming the carrier
localization effect. The peak spectral responsivity tends to increase when the temperature increases
66
from 77 K to 400 K at zero bias. The increase in the spectral responsivity with the temperature is
ascribed to (i) the enhanced absorption length at longer wavelengths, (ii) reduction in the effective
barrier height imposed by the AlGaN/GaN EBL, and (iii) increased thermionic carrier escape rates
from the QWs. Increasing the temperature above 400 K causes a reduction in the spectral response
at all biased conditions. Increasing bias tends to increase the spectral responsivity of the MQW
structure. An increase in the bias voltage causes more QWs to fall in the SCR leading to a higher
spectral response [21]. The peak spectral responsivity of the sample showed a slight decrease from
100 to 300 K at -2 V bias. This trend was observed again at -4 V and -6 V bias from 100 to 200 K.
It is also observed that the photocurrent tends to saturate at higher biased conditions, i.e., the
change in spectral responsivity from zero bias to -2 V bias is more prominent as compared to the
change from -4 V to -6 V bias.
Figure 5.6. The specific detectivity, D*, of the InGaN/GaN MQW structure plotted as a function
of wavelength for different temperatures at zero bias.
67
The specific detectivity of the MQW structure is extracted using the 1Hz equivalent noise
bandwidth of the measurement setup at zero bias and shown in Fig. 5.6 for different temperatures.
The detectivity of the device is prominent at a wavelength range corresponding to the barrier
heights. A drop in the detectivity is observed when the temperature increases from 77 to 800 K. A
high noise current due to thermally generated carriers at high temperature causes the reduction in
Figure 5.7. The peak specific detectivity of the InGaN/GaN MQW structure as a function of
temperature at different biased conditions. Inset shows the evolution of wavelength corresponding
to the peak specific detectivity.
the detectivity at elevated temperatures. It is found that a peak detectivity of 4 x 108 cmHz1/2W-1
is achievable at 800 K with zero bias at 440 nm. Figure 5.7 shows the evolution of peak detectivity
of the MWQ structure with temperature for different biased conditions; inset shows the evolution
of wavelength corresponding to the peak specific detectivity. The sample shows the highest
detectivity at zero biased conditions at temperatures above 100 K. The noise performance of the
MQW structure is superior at zero bias conditions. The degradation of the noise performance is
68
only two-order of magnitude over the temperature range of 77 – 800 K at zero bias compared to a
three-order magnitude degradation at all other biases. A high detectivity at zero biased condition
indicates a high rate of change of noise than that of responsivity when the applied bias increases.
This behavior suggests that the detectivity of the MQW structure is limited to the bias-induced
internal noise.
5.5. Conclusion
The high-temperature behavior of the InGaN/GaN MQW photodiode structure is studied
up to 800 K. The noise analysis on the device is conducted using a 1 Hz equivalent noise bandwidth
of the measurement setup at photovoltaic and biased modes for a wide range of temperatures. The
spectral response shows an increase in the response up to 400 K and degrades at higher
temperatures. The spectral responsivity of the sample increases with the increase in the bias.
However, the specific detectivity degrades with applied bias voltages due to the higher bias-
induced internal noise. The sample shows a two-order of magnitude reduction in the specific
detectivity at photovoltaic mode compared to a three-order of magnitude reduction at biased
modes. The MQW structure shows a peak detectivity of 4 x 108 cmHz1/2W-1 at 800 K with zero
bias at 440 nm.
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71
6. High-Temperature Analysis of Optical Coupling Using AlGaAs LEDs for High-
Density Integrated Power Modules
6.1. Abstract
A low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC)-based optocoupler design is demonstrated as
a possible solution for optical isolation in high-density integrated power modules. The design and
fabrication of LTCC based package are discussed. AlGaAs double heterostructure is used both as
emitter and photodetector in the proposed optocoupler. A detailed study on the
electroluminescence and internal quantum efficiency of the AlGaAs structure is conducted. The
photosensitivity of the discrete devices is studied using spectral and noise analysis at elevated
temperatures. The material figure of merit parameter, D*, is calculated in the temperature range
77 - 800 K. The proposed optocoupler is tested at elevated temperatures, and the results are
presented.
6.2. Introduction
Third-generation semiconductor materials such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride
(GaN) improved the operation in terms of power capability, temperature tolerance, and switching
frequencies in the field of power electronics [1-3]. While GaN devices are mainly preferred for
applications below 500 V, SiC is the ideal material of choice for power modules with higher
voltage and current ratings. Commercially available SiC devices, rated 900 V and above, with a
chip size spanning tens of millimeters, enables the development of high-density power modules
with a low form factor [4]. A low form factor power electronic system design is vital in size and/or
weight-sensitive applications such as aeronautics, hybrid motor drives, and space exploration [5-
7]. The miniaturization of the wide bandgap-based power electronic system is mainly made
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possible by utilizing the higher junction temperature operations of SiC devices, thus eliminating a
bulky cooling system [8,9]. Integrating the gate driver and protection circuity to the power module
further reduces the form factor of the system [10-13]. In this integrated power module, the low-
voltage passive components of the gate driver and the protection circuitry are placed close to the
power devices, making them exposed to similar environmental conditions as the power devices.
The volumetric reduction of the integrated power modules is now limited by the passive
components in the gate driver circuitry.
To fully utilize the volumetric improvements ensured by the use of SiC technology in the
power electronics system, the focus should be on improving the thermal capability of the
packaging and the passive components in the design. Most of the passive components, such as
resistors, capacitors, and magnetics are rated up to a maximum temperature of 200oC [14]. Spyker
et al. reported magnetic material capable of 300oC operation [15]. However, the magnetics, such
as isolation transformers, are comparatively bulky in design. The design of a low form factor
integrated power modules with bulky isolation transformers is complicated. With the development
of a suitable optical isolation system, i.e., optocouplers, volumetric issues associated with the
magnetic isolation system can be avoided while simplifying the gate circuitry as well.
In this chapter, we report the high-temperature operation of double heterojunction (DH)
aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as emitter as well as a
photodetector. We also report the optical coupling efficiency of these devices when integrated into
an LTCC package. The rationale for selecting the AlGaAs structure can be explained by i)
overlapping emission and absorption spectra of AlGaAs LEDs at room temperature ii) superior
temperature stability and spectral response of GaAs devices over traditional Si devices [16]. The
LTCC package was selected due to its higher temperature stability and the ease of integrating into
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power module designs [17,18]. Temperature-dependent electroluminescence and spectral response
measurements were carried out on bare die devices. The internal quantum efficiency (IQE) of the
device is extracted as a function of injected current density for different temperatures. The specific
detectivity of the device was calculated from the spectral response measurements. The output
current as a function of the input current of the LTCC-based optocoupler is measured and analyzed
at elevated temperatures. This study demonstrates the development of high-temperature
optocouplers and suggests the possibility of further miniaturization of high-density power modules
by eliminating the volumetric issues in design architecture.
6.3. Experiment
AlGaAs DH infrared LEDs with overlapping emission and absorption spectrum at room
temperature is selected for high-temperature optical and electrical studies. Bare-die devices are
selected to avoid unwanted failures at elevated temperatures due to the degradation of packaging
media or forming lenses on the chip surface. High-temperature characterization of the LEDs was
carried out in a Janis ST-100 cryostat. A Horiba 550 spectrometer integrated with a photomultiplier
tube (PMT) is used for temperature- and intensity-dependent electroluminescence (T-IDEL)
measurements [19]. The spectral responses of the structure were obtained using a tunable
monochromator with a 250W, 24V tungsten halogen lamp. The incident power on the LEDs is
measured using a calibrated silicon detector. A lock-in amplifier is used to measure the
photocurrents. The dark current-voltage (I-V) characteristics in the temperature range 77 - 800 K
is measured using a Keithley 236 source measurement unit (SMU). The bare die devices were
integrated into an LTCC-based optocoupler package for high-temperature measurements. The
high-temperature measurements were performed in a Janis ST-100 cryostat.

74
6.4. LTCC Packaging
The LTCC package is fabricated at the University of Arkansas (UA) High-Density
Electronic Center (HiDEC) facility. The detailed fabrication process is shown in Fig. 6.1. LTCC
fabrication mainly has six steps.
Figure 6.1 The fabrication process flow of high temperature optocoupler packaging.
(a) Blanking & Pre-conditioning: The LTCC tape is blanked at the process coupon size
and pre-conditioned in a convection oven.
(b) Via hole / Cavity forming: Registration and via holes are mechanically punched.
(c) Via filling: Via holes are filled using a porous film print nest by pressing via fill
paste through the holes using a squeegee.
(d) Conductor/passives printing: Conductors and passives are deposited using screen
printing techniques.
75
The previous steps are carried out for every layer of the circuit. Sheets are inspected after
each step. The following steps are carried out for each fabricated coupon:
(e) Stacking & lamination: Layers are stacked and tacked using the registration holes
created at the beginning of the process. The stack-up is laminated using an isostatic press in order
to guarantee maximum process repeatability and avoid de-lamination.
(f) Co-Firing: The laminated coupon is finally fired in a sintering oven.
Figure 6.2. a) 3D CAD design of the LTCC based optocoupler, b) cross sectional view. Inset
shows the fabricated device.
Figure 6.2 shows the 3D design of the LTCC package; inset shows the fabricated device.
The package is made of eight layers of DuPont GreenTape 951 with a thickness of 254 um. The
separation between LED and detector is around 1 mm. After firing, the total volume of the package
is around 10*8*1.7 mm3.

76
Figure 6.3. The EL spectra of the AlGaAs DH is measured at a current density of 0.325A/cm2 for
different temperatures.
The evolution of the EL spectra of the AlGaAs DH structure over the temperature is shown
in Fig.6.3 with an injected current density of 0.325 A/cm2. A decrease in the EL intensity, as well
as a spectrum broadening, is observed at higher temperatures. The spectral peak of the DH
structure exhibits redshift at elevated temperatures from 670 nm at 77 K to 784 nm at 800 K. The
shift of the spectral peak is attributed to the bandgap narrowing effect at elevated temperatures
[20]. Significant reduction in the EL intensity is observed when the temperature is increased from
77 K to 800 K. A four orders of magnitude reduction in the EL intensity at elevated temperatures
indicates a severe drop in IQE. However, the temperature droop, i.e., the reduction in IQE due to
high temperatures, is also dependent on the injected current density. A detailed understanding of
77
the IQE behavior w.r.t the injected current density enables the optimal selection of biasing
conditions for LEDs to achieve a minimal drop in IQE at elevated temperatures.
To further study the behavior of AlGaAs LEDs at higher temperatures, IQE of the LEDs
were extracted using the ABC model. Figure 6.4 shows IQE as a function of injected current
density for different temperatures. The dots are the experimental points, and the solid lines are
extracted using the ABC model. The efficiency drop at higher injected current densities, often
called current droop, leads to the dome-like structure of the IQE curves. The current droop
behavior is due to the enhanced Auger recombination mechanism, a non-radiative recombination
Figure 6.4. Internal quantum efficiency is plotted as a function of current density at different
temperatures.
78
mechanism, which suppresses the radiative recombination at higher injected current densities [21].
It is observed that at higher temperatures, auger recombination starts to dominates over radiational
recombination at relatively lower injected current densities leading to the peak IQE occurs at lower
injected current densities. The LED shows a peak quantum efficiency of 97.58 % at 77 K. The
Figure 6.5. The peak IQE and the corresponding injected current density are extracted and plotted
as a function of temperatures.
peak IQE of the device decreases with an increase in temperature. At 800 K, the device exhibits a
peak IQE of 23.08 %. The extracted values of the PIQE and corresponding injected current
densities (jPIQE) are plotted as a function of temperature, as shown in Fig.6.5. The device exhibits
a linear drop in IQE from 77 K to 400 K, with approximately a reduction of 7 % IQE in every 100
K. Increasing the temperature beyond 400 K shows a severe reduction in IQE from 73.57 % at 400
79
Figure 6.6. I-V characteristics of the ALGaAs DH for temperatures from 77 - 800 K. Inset shows
the evolution of thermal noise.
K to 53.83 % at 500 K. The peak current respective to the peak IQE follows a similar trend that of
PIQE with an increase in temperature. The jPIQE reduced from 12.85 A/cm2 at 77 K to 21.77
mA/cm2 at 800 K. Low jPIQE enables the device to work at peak IQE with minimal self-heating.
Stable operation at 800 K and an overlapping emission and absorption spectra lead to a
detailed study on the photodetection characteristics of the AlGaAs DH structure. Figure 6.6 shows
the dark IV characteristics of the structure from 77 - 800 K, the inset shows the evolution of thermal
noise with temperature. An exponential rise in thermal noise is observed from the structure at
elevated temperatures. Three orders of magnitude change in the leakage current is observed when
the temperature is increased from 77 K to 800 K. A sudden increase in the leakage current as well
as the thermal noise at 300 K is attributed to the thermal ionization of carriers from deep traps and
trap assisted tunneling process [22]. The spectral response of the device at zero biased condition
80
Figure 6.7. Spectral response of the structure for different temperatures at zero bias. Dashed lines
represent the spectral response to achieve marked EQE.
is shown in Fig. 6.7 for different temperatures; the dashed line represents spectral responsivity
with a specified external quantum efficiency (EQE) across the measured wavelength. An enhanced
spectral response is observed at elevated temperatures. The spectral response curves exhibit a large
redshift in the spectral response peak and the detection edge at elevated temperatures. An increase
in temperature shifts the absorption spectrum of the structure to longer wavelengths by reducing
the effective bandgap.
The evolution of the peak spectral responsivity of the structure with temperature for
different biased conditions is shown in Fig.6.8; inset shows the respective wavelength at which the
spectral peak is observed. The structure shows a relatively small increment in the spectral peak at
lower temperatures. Increasing the temperature above 300 K results in an exponential change in
the responsivity. The rapid increase in the spectral responsivity above 300 K is attributed to i) shift
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Figure 6.8. Peak spectral response of the AlGaAs DH is plotted as a function of temperature for
different biased conditions. Inset shows the evolution of wavelength corresponding to the peak
spectral response.
Figure 6.9. The peak specific detectivity as a function of temperature at different biased conditions.
Inset shows the evolution of wavelength corresponding to the peak specific detectivity.
in the absorption spectrum towards higher wavelengths due to bandgap shrinkage, as shown in the
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inset of Fig. 6.8 ii) reduced absorption rate at higher wavelength leads to more photons reaching
the active area resulting in a higher responsivity. Biasing the structure with higher voltages leads
to a wider space charge region resulting in enhanced spectral responsivity, as shown in Fig. 7. At
elevated temperatures, the spectral peak responsivity tends to saturate at 800 K for lower bias
curves. However, no sign of saturation in the spectral peak response is visible for higher biased
curves, even at 800 K.
The specific detectivity, D*, of the structure is extracted for different temperatures and
biased conditions to quantify the performance of the photosensitivity of the structure. Figure 6.9
shows the peak specific detectivity as a function of temperature for different biased conditions;
inset shows the wavelength at which peak detectivity is observed. The structure exhibits slight
variation in the D* at lower temperatures. At zero bias, the D* of the structure increased from 12G
Jones (cmHz1/2W-1) at 300 K to 17G Jones at 400 K. A rapid increase in the D* at 400 K is
attributed to the increase in the spectral responsivity due to a significant redshift with minimal
increase in the leakage current and thermal noise. The structure showed a peak D* of 22G Jones
at zero bias when the temperature increased to 600 K. At zero bias condition, the D* starts to
decline at temperatures above 600 K. However, at biased conditions, the D* starts to decline at
temperatures above 400 K. It is also observed that applying a bias voltage leads to a decline in D*
of the structure at temperatures above 400 K. Although the structure shows a linear increase in
spectral responsivity with bias voltage at elevated temperatures, higher noise current at biased
conditions leads to a reduced D*. At elevated temperatures, the photosensitive performance of the
structure is limited by bias-induced internal noise. A superior noise performance at zero bias at
83
elevated temperatures indicates that a high rate of change of noise than that of responsivity when
the applied bias increases.
High-temperature analysis of the emitter and photodetector operation of the discrete
Figure 6.10. The output current of the fabricated LTCC based optocoupler is plotted as a function
of the input current for different temperatures.
devices is followed by the design and fabrication of the LTCC package. The individually tested
devices are integrated into the LTCC package, thus creating an optocoupler, and tested the optical
coupling efficiency at elevated temperatures. The output current of the integrated LTCC based
optocoupler is shown in Fig. 6.10 without any external amplification. The input current to the LED
is varied from 0 to 100 mA, and the detector is biased at zero voltage. The device shows
comparatively low current transfer ratio (CTR) values below 300 K. A lower CTR values at
temperatures below 300 K is attributed to the reduced spectral response of the AlGaAs DH
structure. Although the LED performance degrades with an increase in temperature, the spectral
84
response of the structures improves at elevated temperature leading to higher CTR values at
temperatures above 200 K. The CTR value of the structure starts to degrade at temperatures above
500 K. A reduced CTR value is recorded at 550 K. Temperatures above 550 K, the structure failed
to output any photocurrent. The samples were unmounted and confirmed the absence of any
failures due to packaging. It is concluded that a higher degradation of the EL intensity at
temperatures above 500 K causes the CTR to drop. It is observed that the rate of degradation of
the EL intensity is dominating over the enhanced spectral responsivity at higher temperatures.
Stable CTR values in the temperature range of 300 to 550 K is promising in the development of
high-temperature optocouplers for future high-density integrated power modules.
6.6. Conclusion
A high-temperature optocoupler based on LTCC packaging is demonstrated as a possible
solution for optical isolation in future high-density power modules. An LTCC based optocoupler
package is fabricated using eight layers of DuPont GreenTape 951 with a thickness of 254 um.
After firing, the total volume of the package is around 10*8*1.7 mm3. AlGaAs DH devices are
integrated into the LTCC package, both as emitter and photodetector, with a separation of 1mm.
Detailed analysis of the high-temperature behavior of AlGaAs DH structure as both emitter and
photodetector is conducted over the temperature range from 77 - 800 K. While the EL spectra of
the discrete AlGaAs structure reduces with temperature, and enhanced spectral response is
observed at elevated temperatures. The LED structure shows a significant red shift in the EL
spectra, as well as the detection range from 670 nm at 77 K to 784 nm at 800 K. The LED structure
exhibits an IQE of 22 % at 800 K. The photosensitivity of the structure is quantified using the
material figure of merit parameter, D*. A peak detectivity of 22G Jones at zero bias is observed at
85
600 K. The fabricated optocoupler shows a stable operation in the temperature range of 300 – 550
K.
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87
7. Conclusions and Future Work
A high-temperature optocoupler is designed and fabricated to replace isolation transforms
as the galvanic isolation solution for the 3D integration of high-density power modules. The
proposed optocoupler delivers a continuous operation at 250oC with a lifetime of 10 years. Optical
and electrical studies were conducted on gallium nitride (GaN), and silicon carbide (SiC) based
optoelectronics materials and devices at elevated temperatures (~550oC). Low temperature co-
fired ceramic (LTCC) based optocoupler packaging is designed and fabricated to accommodate
LEDs and photodetectors. The discrete optocouplers fabricated from LTCC may integrated to the
gate driver circuitry of the high-density power module and tested at elevated temperatures.
7.1. High-Temperature Optical Device Characterization
7.1.1. Commercial Gallium-Nitride-Based Blue LEDs
LEDs primarily fabricated for lighting applications are evaluated at high temperatures (up
to 700 K – All temperature units will be in Kelvin from here onwards) for possible integration as
an optocoupler emitter in high-density power electronic modules. The temperature- and injection-
current-dependent internal quantum efficiency and current-voltage characteristics of the blue
LEDs are studied. The IQE has extracted from the measured EL intensity at different temperatures
using the ABC model. As per the ABC model, the LED can operate at 700 K with an IQE of
58.50% when it operates at a current density of 2A/cm2. The results show that for a temperature
range of 77 – 700 K, the minimum deviation of IQE occurs when the injected current density is
between 1 to 10 A/cm2. Normalized external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the device at different
temperatures were also extracted using the ABC model.

88
7.1.2. InGaN/GaN MQW LEDs
High-temperature optical analysis of three different InGaN/GaN MQW LED structures
(peak wavelength λp = 448nm, 467 nm & 515nm) is conducted for possible integration as an
optocoupler emitter in high-density power electronic modules. The commercially available LEDs,
primarily used in the display (λp = 467 nm & 515nm) and lighting (λp = 448nm) applications, are
studied and compared to evaluate if they can satisfy the light output requirements in the
optocouplers at high temperatures. The temperature- and intensity-dependent electroluminescence
measurement technique is used to study the IQE of the LEDs. All three LEDs exhibits above 70
% IQE at 500 K, and stable operation at 800 K without flickering or failure. At 800K, a promising
IQE of above 40 % is observed for blue for display (λp = 467 nm) and green for display (λp =
515nm) samples. Blue for light (λp = 448nm) sample shows 24 % IQE at 800 K.
7.1.3. MQW Structure as Detectors
The InGaN/GaN MQW structure is demonstrated as a possible solution for high-
temperature photodiode applications. High temperature spectral and noise analysis of InGaN/GaN
MQW structure are performed for the potential integration as a detector in future power electronics
applications. The spectral response was measured under photovoltaic and bias modes for the
temperature range of 77 - 800 K. Figure 8 shows the calculated spectral responsivity of the sample
at zero bias voltage. A peak spectral responsivity of 27.0 mA/W at 440 nm at 500 K is recorded.
The peak external quantum efficiency of the device was calculated to be in the range of 5 - 8 % in
the temperature range 77 - 800 K. The photodetector sensitivity of the structure is quantified using
the material figure of merit parameter, D* for different temperature and biased voltages. The
specific detectivity of the MQW structure is extracted using the 1Hz equivalent noise bandwidth
89
of the measurement setup at zero bias and shown in Fig. 9 for different temperatures. A peak
detectivity of 4 x 108 cmHz1/2W-1 is observed at 800 K with zero bias at 440 nm.
7.2. High-Temperature Optical Packaging
A study conducted on the packaging options for the high-temperature optocouplers by
investigating commercially available packaging architectures. A thorough investigation of the
commercially available optocoupler packaging structure was conducted. The main factors to focus
on were the packaging material, spacing between the discrete devices, dielectric material used in
the packaging, and the orientation of discrete devices. The possible packaging design suitable for
high-temperature optocouplers were also investigated. Based on the study, the initial packaging
prototype based on LTCC is created. The fabrication of the novel high-temperature packaging
prototype on LTCC and initial testing were completed.
7.3. High-Temperature Optocoupling
A high-temperature optocoupler based on LTCC packaging is demonstrated as a possible
solution for optical isolation in future high-density power modules. An LTCC based optocoupler
package is fabricated using eight layers of DuPont GreenTape 951 with a thickness of 254 um.
After firing, the total volume of the package is around 10*8*1.7 mm3. AlGaAs double
heterostructure devices are integrated into the LTCC package, both as emitter and photodetector,
with a separation of 1mm. Detailed analysis of the high-temperature behavior of AlGaAs DH
structure as both emitter and photodetector is conducted over the temperature range from 77 - 800
K. While the EL spectra of the discrete AlGaAs structure reduces with temperature, and enhanced
spectral response is observed at elevated temperatures. The LED structure shows a significant red
shift in the EL spectra, as well as the detection range from 670 nm at 77 K to 784 nm at 800 K.
90
The LED structure exhibits an IQE of 22 % at 800 K. The photosensitivity of the structure is
quantified using the material figure of merit parameter, D*. A peak detectivity of 22G Jones at
zero bias is observed at 600 K. The fabricated optocoupler shows a stable operation in the
temperature range of 300 – 550 K.
7.4. Future Work
7.4.1. On-chip Optocoupling
A highly scaled Optocoupling can be achieved by on-chip galvanic isolation, a
monolithically integrated optocoupler. In silicon CMOS technology, the photon emitter and
detector have to be realized with silicon, an indirect bandgap material, which generally considered
as unsuitable for photon emission. One of the main challenges in integrating silicon LEDs and
detector in standard CMOS to achieve optocoupling is to overcome the poor overlap between the
emission and responsivity spectrum of silicon diodes. However, early studies have suggested that
better overlap can be achieved by operating silicon LED in avalanche mode, but with very low
efficiency. When in avalanche mode, highly energetic electrons, hot electrons, can have energies
from the low end of the conduction band at 1.1 eV to the high end of the conduction band at 3.5
eV. When these electrons recombine with a hole in the valence band, with the right momentum
supplied by the crystal phonons, a photon can be generated with energies from 1.1 to 3.5 eV.
Although a highly scaled Optocoupling is possible with on-chip Si technology, a
temperature operation is not viable. High-temperature operation can be achieved by creating an
wide bandgap based on-chip optocoupler. The GaN technology would be an ideal candidate for
on-chip high temperature Optocoupling. However, for applications in the field of high voltage
power electronics, creating a SiC-based on-chip optocoupling is strongly recommended. Silicon
carbide photodetectors are widely accepted as a high temperature alternative for Si technology.
91
Although SiC is a indirect bandgap materials, light emission is from SiC LEDs are demonstrated
earlier with lower efficiencies. Therefore, working towards to achieve a SiC-based on-chip
optocoupler is highly necessary.

92
Appendix: All Publications
Conferences
1. S. Madhusoodhanan, S. Koukourinkova, T. White, Z. Chen, Y. Zhao and M. E.

Ware, "Highly linear temperature sensor using GaN-on-SiC heterojunction diode for
Harsh environment applications," 2016 IEEE 4th Workshop on Wide Bandgap Power
Devices and Applications (WiPDA), Fayetteville, AR, 2016, pp. 171-175. doi:
10.1109/WiPDA.2016.7799932
2. A.Sabbar*, S. Madhusoodhanan*, S. Al-Kabi, B. Dong, J. Wang, S. Atcitty, R.

Kaplar, A. Mantooth, S. Yu, and Z. Chen, "High Temperature Photoluminescence of
InGaN-Based MQWs on Patterned Sapphire Substrates," IEEE Photonics Conference
(IPC), Reston, VA, 2018
3. S. Madhusoodhanan*, A. Sabbar,* S. Al-Kabi, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar, A. Mantooth,

S-Q. Yu, and Z. Chen, "Temperature dependent optical characterization of GaN based
LEDs for high temperature power electronic modules." 13th International Conference
on Nitride Semiconductors 2019 (ICNS-13).
4. A. Sabbar, S. Madhusoodhanan, S. Al-Kabi, B. Dong, J. Wang, S. Yu, and Z. Chen,

"Investigation of High Temperature Photoluminescence Efficiency from InGaN/GaN
MQWs," in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, OSA Technical Digest (online)
(Optical Society of America, 2018), paper JTh2A.79.
5. A. Sabbar*, S. Madhusoodhanan*, S. Al-Kabi, B. Dong, J. Wang, S. Atcitty, R.

Kaplar, A. Mantooth, S. Yu, and Z. Chen, "High Temperature Spontaneous Emission
Quantum Efficiency Analysis from Blue and Green LED Materials," IEEE Photonics
Conference (IPC), San Antonio, TX, 2019
6. A. Sabbar, S. Madhusoodhanan, H. Tran, B. Dong, J. Wang, A. Mantooth, S. Yu,

and Z. Chen, " Investigation of High Temperature LED and Photodetector from
InGaN/GaN MQWs," in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, OSA Technical
Digest (online) (Optical Society of America, 2020), paper JTh2A.16.
Journals
1. S. Madhusoodhanan, S. Sandoval, Y. Zhao, M. E. Ware and Z. Chen, "A Highly

Linear Temperature Sensor Using GaN-on-SiC Heterojunction Diode for High Power
Applications," in IEEE Electron Device Letters, vol. 38, no. 8, pp. 1105-1108, Aug.
2017, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/LED.2017.2714865
2. S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, S. Al-Kabi, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar, B. Dong, J. Wang,
S. Yu, Z. Chen "High-Temperature Optical Characterization of Wide Band Gap Light
Emitting Diodes and Photodiodes for Future Power Module Application", Advances
93
in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 17-22
(2019), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.25046/aj040203
3. A. Sabbar*, S. Madhusoodhanan*, S. Al-Kabi, B. Dong, J. Wang, S. Atcitty, R.

Kaplar, D. Ding, A. Mantooth, S. Yu, and Z. Chen, "Systematic Investigation of
Spontaneous Emission Quantum Efficiency Drop up to 800K for Future Power
Electronics Applications". In production at IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected
Topics in Power Electronics, Nov. 2018, DOI:
4. S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and

Z. Chen, "High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based Blue LEDs for Future Power
Electronic Applications," IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power
Electronics, pp. 1–1, 2019, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2019.2945166
5. S. Madhusoodhanan, R. Sankaralingam, G. Boselli, and Z. Chen, "Analysis of gate-

coupled silicon controlled rectifier on HBM protection under voltage overshoot,"
Journal of Electrostatics, vol. 102, p. 103394, 2019, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elstat.2019.103394
6. A. Sabbar, S. Madhusoodhanan, S. Al-Kabi, B. Dong, J. Wang, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar,

D. Ding, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and Z. Chen, "High Temperature and Power
Dependent Photoluminescence Analysis on Commercial Lighting and Display LED
Materials for Future Power Electronic Modules," Scientific Reports, vol. 9, no. 1,
2019, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52126-4
7. S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, S. Atcitty, R. Kaplar, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and

Z. Chen, "High-Temperature Optical Characterization of GaN-Based LEDs for Future
Power Electronic Modules," physica status solidi (a), 2019, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201900792
8. S. Madhusoodhanan, A. Sabbar, H. Tran, B. Dong, J. Wang, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu,

and Z. Chen, "High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based MQW Photodetector for
Optical Galvanic Isolations in High-Density Integrated Power Modules," IEEE Journal
of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, pp. 1–1, 2020, DOI:
9. A. Sabbar, S. Madhusoodhanan, B. Dong, J. Wang, A. Mantooth, S.-Q. Yu, and Z.

Chen, "High-Temperature Spontaneous Emission Quantum Efficiency Analysis of
Different InGaN MQWs for Future Power Electronics Applications," IEEE Journal of
Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, Accepted.
Patent
1. One provisional patent filed: Zhong Chen, Shui-Qing Yu, Alan Mantooth, Andrea
Wallace, Syam Madhusoodhanan, "High Temperature Optoelectronic Devices for
Power Electronics"

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University of Arkansas, Fayetteville

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

High-Temperature Optoelectronic Device Characterization and

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council.

Zhong Chen, Ph.D.

Shui-Qing (Fisher) Yu, Ph.D. Yue Zhao, Ph.D.

Jia Di, Ph.D.

density, operating environments, and reliability. However, regular semiconductor optoelectronic

materials and devices have significant difficulty functioning in high-temperature environments.

Modular integration of optoelectronic devices into high-temperature power modules is restricted

long-term reliability of optoelectronic devices decrease at elevated temperatures.

The motivation for this study is to develop optoelectronic devices, specifically

of optoelectronic devices, including light-emitting diodes and photodiodes based on WBG

to accommodate optoelectronic devices, will also be designed and developed.

encouraged me with his enthusiasm and dedication to the research.

pleasure working alongside you.

packaging and characterization solutions.

Clint Hardee, for his help in assembly lab.

Alia Parveen, she always inspired me to be a better person than yesterday.

My fiancé, Sohita Ojha, for her encouragement and support.

Parents and family for their support.

which is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and

Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Honeywell International,

1.1. Power Electronics and Wide Bandgap Technology ......................................................... 1

1.2. Introduction to Optoelectronics ........................................................................................ 4

1.3. Optical Integration Techniques in Power Electronics ...................................................... 8

1.4. Miniaturization Trend in Power Electronics .................................................................. 10

1.5. Motivation ...................................................................................................................... 12

1.6. Overview of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 14

2. Electro-optical Characterization Bench ................................................................................. 20

2.1. Quantum Efficiency Extraction of LEDs ....................................................................... 20

2.2. Spectral Response Measurements .................................................................................. 22

3. High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based Blue LEDs for Future Power Electronic

3.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 29

3.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 29

3.3. Experiment ..................................................................................................................... 32

3.4. Results and Discussions ................................................................................................. 34

4. High-Temperature Optical Characterization of GaN-Based LEDs for Future Power

Electronic Modules ....................................................................................................................... 42

4.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 42

4.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 42

4.3. Experimental section ...................................................................................................... 44

4.4. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................... 48

5. High-Temperature Analysis of GaN-based MQW Photodetector for Optical Galvanic

Isolations in High-Density Integrated Power Modules ................................................................. 57

5.1. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 57

5.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 57

5.3. Experiment ..................................................................................................................... 60

5.4. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................... 63

6. High-Temperature Analysis of Optical Coupling Using AlGaAs LEDs for High-Density

Integrated Power Modules ............................................................................................................ 71

6.2. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 71

6.3. Experiment ..................................................................................................................... 73

6.4. LTCC Packaging ............................................................................................................ 74

6.5. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................... 76

7. Conclusions and Future Work ............................................................................................... 87

7.1. High-Temperature Optical Device Characterization...................................................... 87