Resource Book

Theory of Reinforced Concrete

Structures
B.E. (Civil), Semester - VII

Thakur College of Engineering and Technology

Dr. Sanjeev Chaudhari

July 2020
Contents

1 Introduction 7
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Learning Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Contents: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 References to be used: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 TCET Holistic Model: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Engineering and Technology application: . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Evaluation and assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 RBT level and competency Matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Use of content for competitive examination: . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Module-1: Working Stress Method 12

2.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 TYPES OF R.C.C. BEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
OF R.C.C. BEAMS (WORKING STRESS METHOD) . . . . 14
2.4 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 CONCEPT OF TRANSFORMED OR EQUIVALENT SEC-
TION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Analysis of singly reinforced beam Working stress method . . 20
2.6.1 Equivalent or Transformed Section . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6.2 Strain Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.3 Stress Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.4 Neutral Axis (n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.5 Percentage of Steel Pt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6.6 Lever Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6.7 Moment of Resistance (Mr ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
2.7 Balanced sections,under reinforced section and over reinforced
section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.1 Balanced Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.2 Under Reinforced Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7.3 Definition of beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7.4 Singly reinforced beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7.5 Doubly reinforced beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7.6 Under-reinforced beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7.7 Over-reinforced beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7.8 balanced-reinforced beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7.9 Design strength or nominal strength . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7.10 Numerical: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.8 Doubly Reinforced Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.8.1 Analysis of a Doubly-Reinforced Section
Conventional Elastic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.8.2 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.9 Types of problem in doubly reinforced beams working stress
method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.9.1 Determination of moment of resistance of the given
section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.9.2 Determination of Stress in Steel and Concrete . . . . . 39
2.9.3 Design of the Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.10 Solved examples on Doubly Reinforced Section . . . . . . . . . 42
2.11 Shear in Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.11.1 Shear Distribution in a Beam of Rectangular Section . 50
2.11.2 Shear Stresses in an R.C. Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.11.3 Effect of Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.11.4 Lattice Girder Effect (Truss Theory) . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.12 Revised Theory Recommended by the I.S. Code . . . . . . . . 58
2.13 Analysis and Design of Cracked and Un-Cracked RCC Column
Sections by WSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.13.1 Types of Columns: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.14 I.S. Recommendations Regarding Longitudinal Reinforcements 68
2.15 Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.16 LONG COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.17 SPIRALLY REINFORCED CIRCULAR COLUMNS . . . . . 79
2.18 Columns subjected to Combined Bending arid Direct Stresses 85
3 Module-2: Limit State Method (LSM) 94
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2 Types and Classification of Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2.1 Limit State of Collapse (Ultimate Limit State) . . . . . 95
3.2.2 Limit State of Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.3 Limit State of Deflection : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.4 Limit State of Cracking: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.2.5 Other Limit States : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3 Characteristic Strength And
Characteristic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.1 Characteristic Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.2 Characteristic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.4 Partial Safety Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4.1 Partial Safety Factors:
(Γf )For Loads and Design Load (Fd ) . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4.2 Partial Safety Factors For
Material Strength (Γm ) and
Design Strength (Fd ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.5 Difference between WSM(Working Stress Method) and LSM(Limit
State Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4 Module-3: Limit State of Collapse – Flexure, Shear, Bond

and Torsion 106
4.1 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE -
FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1.1 THEORY OF BENDING OF R. C. MEMBERS AT
LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE: . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1.2 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.1.3 REINFORCING STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.1.4 PROPERTIES OF A SINGLY REINFORCED RECT-
ANGULAR SECTION
ACCORDING TO I.S. CODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.1.5 Under-Reinforced Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1.6 Types of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.2 Doubly Reinforced Beams (LSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2.1 PROPERTIES OF A DOUBLY REINFORCED RECT-
ANGULAR SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.2 Ultimate Moment of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
 4.2.3 Area of tension and Compression Steel . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3 TYPES OF PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.1 Analysis of Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.2 Design Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.4 FLANGED SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.4.2 Effective Width of Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.5 PROPERTIES OF FLANGED SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.5.1 Under-Reinforced Section (xu < xu.max ) . . . . . . . . . 148
4.5.2 Properties of a balanced Section : For a balanced sec-
tion, xu = xu max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.6 Solved Problems on Flanged Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.6.1 Analysis problems procedure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.7 SHEAR FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.7.1 Modes of Shear Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.7.2 ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAM WITH-
OUT SHEAR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.7.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SHEAR RESISTANCE OF
A R.C. MEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.7.4 SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAM WITH SHEAR RE-
INFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.7.5 Minimum Shear Reinforcement: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.7.6 Maximum Shear Reinforcement: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.7.7 Critical Section for Calculation of Design Shear: . . . . 180
4.8 Design of Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.9 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.9.2 Equilibrium and Compatibility Torsion . . . . . . . . . 198
4.9.3 Design Considerations for Torsion as per IS 456 : 2000 200
4.10 Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.10.2 Mechanisms of Bond Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.10.3 Bond Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.10.4 Two Types of Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.10.5 Anchorage (Development) Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.10.6 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.10.7 Bends, Hooks and Mechanical Anchorages . . . . . . . 214
4.10.8 Solved examples on Bond/Development length . . . . . 216
5 Module-4: Design of Slabs using LSM 221
5.1 Design of Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.1.1 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.1.2 CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN OF SLABS . . . . 222
5.1.3 EFFECTIVE SPAN FOR SLAB. OR BEAM . . . . . 225
5.1.4 ONE-WAY SLAB: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.1.5 Detailing of Reinforcement: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.2 Two way slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
5.2.1 Types of Two - way Slabs: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.2.2 Analysis of Two - Way Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.2.3 I.S. Code Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.2.4 Support Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.3 Design of Two - way Slab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.3.1 Simply Supported Two-way Slabs: . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.3.2 Detailing for Restrained Two-way Slabs . . . . . . . . . 259
5.4 Solved Examples on Two-way Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

6 Module-5: Limit State of Collapse-Compression 280

6.1 COLUMN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.1.2 RELATED DEFINITIONS FOR COLUMN . . . . . . 282
6.1.3 ANALYSIS OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COL-
UMN: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.1.4 Design of Short Columns with Moments . . . . . . . . 313
6.1.5 METHODS OF DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.1.6 UNIAXIAL BENDING (DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS) . . 314
6.1.7 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR STEEL . . . . . . . . 316
6.1.8 COLUMN INTERACTION DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . 317
6.1.9 USE OF EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS TO CONSTRUCT
THE INTERACTION DIAGRAM FOR RECTANGU-
LAR SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
6.1.10 APPLICATION TO CIRCULAR SECTIONS . . . . . 323
6.1.11 INTERACTION CURVES IN SP 16 . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.1.12 INTERACTION DIAGRAM FOR P = 0 . . . . . . . . 325
6.1.13 MEMBER SUBJECTED TO BIAXIAL BENDING . . 333
6.1.14 SHEAR IN COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO MOMENTS 336
6.1.15 REPRESENTATION OF COLUMN DESIGN CHARTS337
 6.2 Solved Examples on columns subjected to Combined axial
compression and Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

7 Module-6: Design of Foundations 348

7.1 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.1.2 TYPES OF FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.1.3 SOIL PRESSURE UNDER FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . 352
7.1.4 Depth of Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.1.5 Gross and Net Soil Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.1.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.1.7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF INDIVIDUAL FOOT-
INGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.1.8 Shear Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.1.9 Design of Square Column Footings . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.1.10 Design of Rectangular Footing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
7.1.11 Design of Sloped Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
7.2 Solved Examples on Isolated Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
7.3 Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Working Stress Method (WSM), which makes use of the concept of modular
ratio based on the higher factor of safety in evaluating the stresses in two
different materials of the RCC i.e. steel and the concrete. The limit state
method (LSM) is based on the statistical probability which provides the
rational solution to the design problem. The philosophy lies behind LSM
uses multiple safety factors format which attempts to provide adequate safety
at the ultimate load as well as adequate serviceability at service load by
considering all possible limit states. The subject involves the application of
working stress and limit state method in the analysis and design of various
elements of the civil engineering structures.

1.2 Learning Objectives:

ˆ To develop the clear understanding of design philosophy amongst the
students for the design of reinforced concrete structure using (WSM)
working stress method and (LSM) limit state method.

ˆ To study the various clauses of IS: 456-2000 and its significance in the
RCC design.

ˆ To apply the concepts of LSM in the analysis and design of beams,

slabs and columns.

7
 ˆ To study the concept of Serviceability and durability for deflection and
crack width calculation in RCC structures.

ˆ To study the concept of reinforced concrete footing design subjected to

axial load and moment.

ˆ To develop the concept of design using ready charts and curves for
column subjected to axial load and moments.

1.3 Contents:

Sr. No. Topics No. of

Lectures

1. Working Stress Method 12

2. Limit State Method 3
3. Limit State of Collapse – Flexure, 15
Shear, Bond and Torsion
4. Design of Slabs using LSM 6
5. Limit State of Collapse – Com- 8
pression
6. Design of Foundations 8

For the detailed syllabus please refer the Appendix-A

1.4 References to be used:

1. Limit State Theory & Design of Reinforced Concrete (I.S. 456 - 2000):V.L.
Shah S.R. Karve, Structures Publications, Pune

2. Reinforced Concrete Design by S. Pillai and Devdas Menon, 2nd Edi-

tion, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

3. IS:456-2000: Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice

 4. Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures :N Subramanian, Oxford Uni-
versity Press.

5. Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete: P.C. Varghese, Prentice

Hall of India, New Delhi.

6. Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures: Dayaratnam, P; Oxford and

IBH.

7. RCC Design (WSM and LSM): Punmia, B. C., Jain, A. K., and Jain,Arun,
K., Laxmi Publications.

8. SP-16: Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS. 456

9. SP-34: Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing

1.5 TCET Holistic Model:

Besides the mandatory term work the TCET Holistic model (ABL, PBL,
and RBL) will be followed throughout the semester. Since the course is at
VII semester the RBL will be conducted.

Sr. No. Activity Remark

1. Case study: Comparison between A report to be

the two methods of analysis and prepared
design i.e WSM and LSM for
Beams and Columns
2. Prepare a review paper on design A review paper
of structural elements (RCC).

1.6 Engineering and Technology application:

1. The thorough knowledge of this subject will help the student to become
the structural designer.
 2. The learner can check the existing structural elements and may suggest
the remedial measures if needed.

3. This subject knowledge can provide the learner self-employment.

1.7 Evaluation and assessment

(Nature of Problems MCQ, Short, Descriptive etc.)

1. MCQs on each module

2. Short answer questions on each module.

3. Long answer questions such as design problems

1.8 RBT level and competency Matrix:

Sr. No. Module RBT Level

1. Working Stress Method Remembering,

Understanding,
Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating, Creating
2. Limit State Method Remembering,
Understanding
3. Limit State of Collapse – Flexure, Applying, Analyzing,
Shear, Bond and Torsion Evaluating, Creating
4. Design of Slabs using LSM Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating, Creating
5. Limit State of Collapse – Com- Applying, Analyzing,
pression Evaluating, Creating
6. Design of Foundations Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating, Creating
1.9 Use of content for competitive examina-
tion:
1. Being an important subject, the competitive exams always have a good
weightage.

2. The quality of MCQs, Short and Long answer questions will help
the learner to qualify the competitive exams at both preliminary and
Mains.
Chapter 2

Module-1: Working Stress

Method

2.1 Introduction:
This method of design is the oldest one. It is based on the elastic theory
and assumes that both steel and concrete are elastic and obey Hook’s law.
It means that the stress is directly proportional to strain up to the point
of collapse. Based on the elastic theory, and assuming that the bond be-
tween steel and concrete is perfect, permissible stresses of the materials are
obtained. The basis of this method is that the permissible stresses are not ex-
ceeded any where in the structure when it is subjected to worst combination
of working loads.
In this method, the ultimate strength of concrete and yield strength or
0.2% proof stress of steel are divided by factors of safety to obtain permis-
sible stresses. These factors of safety take into account the uncertainties in
manufacturing of these materials. As per IS:456, a factor of safety of 3 is to
be used for bending compressive stresses in concrete and 1.78 for yield/proof
strength of steel.
The main drawbacks of the working stress method of design are as follows :

(i) It assumes that concrete is elastic which is not true as the concrete
behaves in-elastically even on low level of stresses.

(ii) It uses factors of safety for stresses only and not for loads. Hence,
this method does not give true margin of safety with respect to loads

12
 because we do not know the failure load.

(iii) It does not use any factor of safety with respect to loads. It means,
there is no provision for the uncertainties associated with the estimation
of loads.

(iv) It does not account for shrinkage and creep which are time dependent
and plastic in nature.

(v) This method gives uneconomical sections.

(vi) It pays no attention to the conditions that arise at the time of collapse.

The working stress method is very simple and reliable but as per IS 456:2000
the working stress method is to be used only if it is not possible to use limit
state method of design. Working stress method is the basic method and its
knowledge is essential for understanding the concepts of design.
Plain Cement Concrete has low tensile strength. A beam made up of
plain cement concrete will have low load carrying capacity and will fail by
cracking in the tension zone. It is therefore reinforced by placing steel bars
in the tensile zone. These bars will take up the tensile stresses and thus
increase the load carrying capacity or strength of the beam. The steel placed
in the tensile zone, is called as longitudinal steel or main steel.

2.2 TYPES OF R.C.C. BEAM

Types of R.C.C. beam are of following :
(i) Singly Reinforced Beams : This is the one of Types of R.C.C. beam
in which steel reinforcement is placed in the tensile zone only are called
as singly reinforced beams.

(ii) Doubly Reinforced Beams : The beams in which reinforcement is

placed in the tensile as well as compression zone are called as doubly
reinforced beams.

(iii) Flanged Beams (T beams and L beams) : In most reinforced

concrete structures, the slab and beams are case monolithic. Thus, the
beam forms a part of the floor system. When the beam bends, a part of
the slab also bends along with the beam. So, the intermediate beams
Figure 2.1: Types of beams:Singly Reinforced,Doubly Reinforced and T-
Beam

in a floor system act as T beams and the end beams as L beams. The
beams in which a portion of the slab acts together with the beam for
resisting compressive stresses are called as flanged beams. Figure 2.1
shows singly reinforced, doubly reinforced and T-beam sections. Singly
Reinforced,Doubly Reinforced and T-Beam

2.3 ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF

SIMPLE BENDING OF R.C.C. BEAMS
(WORKING STRESS METHOD)
The elastic theory of bending or simply straight line theory forms the basis of
working stress method of design. In this method, the ultimate compressive
strength of concrete and the yield stress of steel are divided by the appro-
priate factors of safety to get the allowable or permissible stresses in the
materials under working loads. This theory is applicable only in the narrow
range of stress-strain curve where Hook’s law is applicable. Fundamental
assumptions of elastic theory of bending
The fundamental assumptions of elastic theory of bending are explained
below:
A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bend-
ing.
This assumption implies that the strain above and below the neutral axis are
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis i.e. the strain distribution
is triangular, linearly varying from zero at the neutral axis to maximum value
at the extreme fibre.
The concrete and steel reinforcement are perfectly bonded.
It means that the tensile strain in steel reinforcement is equal to the tensile
strain in concrete surrounding the steel.
All tensile stresses are taken up by steel and none by concrete.
This assumptions implies that the contribution of concrete to take tension
is completely neglected and the concrete is assumed to be cracked in the
tension zone.
The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under work-
ing loads is a straight line.
It implies that stress distribution is also linear like strain distribution, with
a zero at the neutral axis to maximum value at the extreme fibres.

The modulli of elasticity of steel Es and concrete Ec are con-

stant.
The modular ratio (m) has the value
280
3σcbc
where,
σcbc is the permissible compressive strength of concrete in bending in N/mm2 .
There are no initial stresses in steel and concrete.

2.4 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

(CLAUSE B-2, IS456:2000)
The working stress method is based upon the concept of permissible stresses.
Permissible stresses are obtained by dividing the ultimate strength of concrete
or yield strength of steel (0.2% proof stress) by appropriate factors of safety.
The factors of safety used in working stress method are:

1. For concrete

(a) in bending compression - 3.0

(b) in direct compression - 4.0

2. For steel- 1.78

There are greater chances of variation of strength of concrete due to

improper compaction, inadequate curing and variation in the properties of
concrete. The chances of variation in the properties of steel are less as it is
fabricated in factories where good workmanship and better quality control is
possible. So, lesser value of factor of safety is used for steel as compared to
concrete.
The values of permissible stresses for various grades of concrete are given in
Table 2.1 and for steel are given in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1: Permissible Stresses in Concrete (Refer to Table 21, IS 456)

Grade of Permissible Stress in Compression Permissible Stress in Bond (Average)
For Plain Bars
Bending Direct For HYSD Bars
Concrete in Tension
σcbc (N/mm2 ) σcc (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 )
τbd (N/mm2 )
- - - - -
M15 5.0 4.0 0.6 0.96
M20 7.0 5.0 0.8 1.28
M25 8.5 6.0 0.9 1.44
M30 10.0 8.0 1.0 1.6
M35 11.5 9.0 1.1 1.76
M40 13.0 10.0 1.2 1.92
M45 14.5 11.0 1.3 2.08
M50 16.0 12.0 1.4 2.24
Notes:

1. The bond stress given above for tension is increased by 25% for bars in
compression.

2. The bond stress for plain bars is increased by 60% for deformed bars.
Table 2.2: Permissible Stress in Steel Reinforcement (Refer Table 22, IS 456)
Permissible Stresses in N/mm2
High yield
strength
Mild steel
Type of Stress Medium tensile deformed bar
bars conforming
Sr. No. in Steel steel conforming (HYSD)
to Grade I of
Reinforcement to IS 432 (Part I) conforming to
IS 432 (Part I)
IS 1786
(Grade Fe 415)
1 Tension (σst or σsv )

(i) Upto and including 140 Half the 230

20mm guaranteed
yield stress
(ii) Over subject to
130 230
20mm maximum of
190
Compression
2 in column bars 130 130 130
(σsc )
Compression in
bars in beam or The calculated compressive stresses
slab when in the surrounding concrete
3 compressive multiplied by 1.5 times the modular
resistance of ratio or ssc whichever is lower
concrete is taken =1.5mc or ssc
into account
Compression in bars
in a beam or slab
where the
compressive
4 resistance of the
concrete is not
taken into account:

(i) Upto and including

140 Half the 190
20mm
guaranteed
yield stress
subject to
(ii) Over
130 maximum of 190
20mm
190
2.5 CONCEPT OF TRANSFORMED OR EQUIV-
ALENT SECTION
Consider an R.C.C. section shown in Fig. 2.2(a) subjected to a compressive
load P.

Figure 2.2: Transformed section

Let A = Area of cross-section

Ac = Area of concrete
Ast = Area of steel
m = Modular ratio
ss = Stress in steel
sc = Stress in concrete
es = Strain in steel
ec = Strain in concrete
Ps = Load carried by steel
Pc = Load carried by concrete
Aeqc = Equivalent area of section in terms of concrete
Es = Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel
Ec = Young’s modulus of elasticity of concrete
P = Ps + Pc
 P = σs Ast + σc Ac
The bond between steel and concrete is assumed to be perfect so the
strains in steel and the surrounding concrete will be equal

εs = εc

σs σc
=
Es Ec
Es
σs = .σc
Ec

σs = m.σc
or
σs
σc =
m
It means that stress in steel is m times the stress in concrete or load
carried by steel is m times the load carried by concrete of equal area. Using
Eqns. (i) and (ii)

∴ P = m.σc .Ast + σc .Ac = σc (m.Ast + Ac )

P P
σc = =
(Ac + m.Ast ) Aeqc
The expression in the denominator

(Ac + m.Ast )

is called the equivalent area of the section in terms of concrete. It means

that the area of steel Ast, can be replaced by an equivalent area of concrete
equal to m.Ast as shown in Fig. 2.2(b)

Aeqc = Ac + m.Ast

= A − Ast + m.Ast
because
Ac = A − Ast

= A + (m − 1) Ast
Therefore, the concept of modular ratio makes it possible to transform
the composite section into an equivalent homogeneous section, made up of
one material.

2.6 Analysis of singly reinforced beam Work-

ing stress method
Learn : Analysis of singly reinforced beam Working stress method,Equivalent
or Transformed Section,Strain Diagram,Stress Diagram,Neutral Axis,Stresses
in Concrete and Steel , Dimensions of the Beam and Area of Steel,Percentage
of Steel,Lever arm, moment of resistance.
Analysis of singly reinforced beam Working stress method : A singly rein-
forced beam section is shown in Fig. 2.3(a). To analyse this section, it is
necessary to convert it into a transformed or equivalent section of concrete.

Figure 2.3: singly reinforced beam

2.6.1 Equivalent or Transformed Section

As per the assumption (3), all the tensile stresses are taken by steel and none
by concrete i.e., concrete in the tensile zone is cracked. So, the concrete area
below the neutral axis is neglected and the effective area or the equivalent
area of the section in terms of concrete is shown in Fig. 2.3(b). The equivalent
area is equal to the area of concrete in the compression zone and an additional
concrete area mAst of conrete corresponding to steel area, Ast

2.6.2 Strain Diagram

As per the assumption (1) of elastic theory, the strain distribution is linear,
with value zero at the neutral axis to maximum at the top and bottom fibre.
The strain diagram for the given R.C.C. section is shown in Fig. 2.3(c).

2.6.3 Stress Diagram

As per the assumption (4) of the elastic theory the stress-strain relationship
is linear for concrete. So, the stress diagram is also a straight line with value
zero at neutral axis and varying linearly with the distance as shown in Fig.
2.3(d).
Maximum permissible stress at the top most fiber in concrete = σcbc
Maximum permissible stress in steel = σst

Maximum stress in equivalent concrete area at the level of steel

σst
=
m
Note:

1. The suffix cbc in σcbc stands for permissible stress in concrete in bending
compression.

2. The suffix st in σst stands for permissible stress in steel in tension.

2.6.4 Neutral Axis (n)

Neutral axis lies at the centre of gravity of the section. It is defined as that
axis at which the stresses are zero. It divides the section into tension and
compression zone. The position of the neutral axis depends upon the shape
(dimensions) of the section and the amount of steel provided. The position
of neutral axis of any rectangular section can be found by the following two
methods :
1. Stresses in Concrete and Steel are Known
Let us consider the R.C.C. section shown in Fig.2.4(a) the stress σc in
concrete’s top most fibre and σs in steel reinforcement are known.

Figure 2.4: Stresses in Concrete and Steel

From stress diagram:

σc σs /m
=
n d−n
[Similar triangles]

m.σc n
=
σs d−n
If the stresses in concrete and steel are permissible then equation for n
is written as

m.σcbc n
=
σst d−n
This neutral axis, corresponding to permissible values of stresses of
concrete and steel is called as critical neutral axis nc .

nc = kd
 where k is the neutral axis depth factor.

m.σcbc kd
=
σst d − kd
On rearranging, we get

m.σcbc
k=
m.σcbc + σst
Putting
280
m=
3σcbc
in the above equation for k, we can see that k does not depend upon
grade of concrete. It depends upon grade of steel only.

280/3
k=
280/3 + σst
2. Dimensions of the Beam and Area of Steel are Known

The moment of the tensile and compressive area should be equal at

the neutral axis. The neutral axis obtained by this method is called as
actual neutral axis.
Moment of compressive area = Area in compression Distance between
c.g. of compressive area and neutral axis

n bn2
= b.n. =
2 2
Moment of tensile area = Equivalent tensile area Distance of centroid
of steel reinforcement from neutral axis

= m.Ast (d − n)

Moment of compressive area = Moment of tensile area

bn2
= m.Ast (d − n)
2
 It is a quadratic equation which will give two values of n. Out of these
two values only one value (+ve) of n is possible.

2.6.5 Percentage of Steel Pt

The percentage of steel in R.C.C. sections means the area of steel (Ast )
expressed as percentage of total area of concrete.
Ast
∴ Pt = × 100
bd
b.n2
Byequation(iii), = m.Ast (d − n)
2
On rearranging, we get

b.n2
Ast =
2m(d − n)

50n2
P1 =
md(d − n)
Putting n = kd
50k 2
P1 =
m(1 − k)

2.6.6 Lever Arm

Lever arm is the distance between the resultant compressive force and the
resultant tensile force. It is denoted as a in the stress diagram. As the
compressive area is triangular, the resultant compressive force (C) will act
at
n
3
from the top compressive fibre. The resultant tensile force (T) will act the
centroid of the steel reinforcement.
Lever arm =
n
a=d−
3
it is also expressed as a = jd where j is the lever arem depth factor.
 kd
jd = d −
3
k
j =1−
3

2.6.7 Moment of Resistance (Mr )

Figure 2.5: Moment of Resistance

Moment of resistance is the resistance offered by the beam against exter-

nal loads. As there is no resultant force acting on the beam and the section is
in equilibrium, the total compressive force is equal to the total tensile force.
These two forces (equal and opposite separated by a distance) will form a
couple (Fig.2.5) and the moment of this couple is equal to the resisting mo-
ment or moment of resistance of the section.
Total compression = C=
 
1 1 n
σcbc × n b = σcbc bn acting at from top
2 2 3

Total tension = T = σst .Ast

acting at centroid of steel reinforcement.
 Moment of resistance = C.a or T.a
1  n
Mr = σcbc b.n d − (iv)
2 3
h ni
where a is the lever arm ∴ a = d −
3
 n
Mr = σst .Ast d − (v)
3
Putting n = kd in the equation (iv),
 
1 kd
Mr = σcbc b.kd d −
2 3
 
1 k
= σcbc k. 1 − b.d2
2 3
1
Mr = σcbc k.j.b.d2
2
 
k
∵j =1−
3

Mr = Rbd2
where R is called as resisting moment factor.
1
R = σcbc kj
2
The factor k, j and R are constant for a given type of steel and concrete
and do not depend upon the beam dimension. These are called as design
constants. The value of k, j, R and Pt are given in Table 2.3.
 Table 2.3: Values of Design Constants
Grade
Modular Mild Steel Fe 415
of σcbc
ratio m σst = 140N/mm2 σst = 230N/mm2
Concrete
k j R Pt k j R Pt
M15 5 18.67 0.4 0.867 0.867 0.72 0.29 0.904 0.65 0.314
M20 7.0 13.33 0.4 0.867 1.214 1.0 0.29 0.904 0.914 0.44
M25 8.5 10.98 0.4 0.867 1.48 1.21 0.29 0.904 1.11 0.534
M30 10.0 9.33 0.4 0.867 1.73 1.43 0.29 0.904 1.306 0.628

Grade
Fe 500
of Modular
σcbc σst = 275N/mm2
Concrete ratio m
k j R Pt
M15 5 18.67 0.25 0.916 0.58 0.23
M20 7.0 13.33 0.25 0.916 0.81 0.32
M25 8.5 10.98 0.25 0.916 0.985 0.39
M30 10.0 9.33 0.25 0.916 1.16 0.46

2.7 Balanced sections,under reinforced sec-

tion and over reinforced section
2.7.1 Balanced Sections
A balanced sections is that in which stress in concrete and steel reach their
permissible value at the same time. This means that stress diagram is as
shown in Fig. 2.6(b). The percentage of steel corresponding to this section
is called as balanced steel and the neutral axis is called as critical neutral
axis nc
m.σcbc nc
=
σst d − nc
For a balanced sections, the moment of resistance is calculated as under :
σcbc  nc 
MB = b.nc d − = Rbd2
2 3
 Figure 2.6: Different types of RCC beam sections

2.7.2 Under Reinforced Section

In an under reinforced section, the percentage of steel provided is less than
that provided in balanced section. So the actual neutral axis will shift up-
wards i.e., nc ¿ n as shown in Fig. 2.6(c). In under reinforced section, the
stress in steel first reaches it permissible value, while the concrete is under
stressed. The moment of resistance of this section is calculated as
 n
Mr = σst .Ast d −
3
The various features of under reinforced section are as follows :

1. Steel is fully stressed while concrete not (i.e., stress in steel is σst (per-
missible) but stress in concrete is less than σcbc

2. The actual neutral axis lies above the critical neutral axis (n ¡ nc).

3. The percentage of steel is less than the balanced section hence the
section is economical.

4. Ductile failure.

5. The moment of resistance is less than balanced section.

In under reinforced section, the failure is ductile because steel fails first and
sufficient warning is given before collapse. Due to ductile failure and economy,
the under-reinforced sections are preferred by designers. Over Reinforced
Section
In an over reinforced section the percentage of steel provided is greater
than the balanced section. So the actual neutral axis shift downward i.e.,
n¿nc [Fig. 2.6(d)]. In this section, stress in concrete reaches its permissible
value while steel is not fully stressed. Concrete is brittle and it fails by
crushing suddenly. As steel is not fully utilised, the over reinforced section
is uneconomical (steel is much costlier than concrete). The various features
of over reinforced s section are :

1. Concrete is fully stressed while steel is not (i.e., the stress in concrete
is at its permissible value σcbc but stress in steel is less than σst ).

2. The actual neutral axis is below the critical neutral axis i.e., n ¿ nc.

3. The percentage of steel is more than the balanced section, so the section
is uneconomical.

4. Sudden failure.

5. The moment of resistance of over-reinforced section is calculated as

1  n
Mr = σcbc b.n d −
2 3
A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At
the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile
stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive
stress.

2.7.3 Definition of beam

2.7.4 Singly reinforced beam
A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only re-
inforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is
designed to resist the tension.
2.7.5 Doubly reinforced beam
A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement
the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the
concrete resist compression. The latter reinforcement is called compression
steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the
compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be pro-
vided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section.

2.7.6 Under-reinforced beam

An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the ten-
sile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the
concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When
the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment,
the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure
condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an ’under-reinforced’
concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and
warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel
governs the design.

2.7.7 Over-reinforced beam

An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension
steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and
the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the ’over-reinforced
concrete’ beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before
the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before
failure as the failure is instantaneous.

2.7.8 balanced-reinforced beam

A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile
zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete
will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design
criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is
sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields,
which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure.
 Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be
designed to be under-reinforced so that users of the structure will receive
warning of impending collapse.

Characteristic strength
The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5%
of the specimen shows lower strength.

2.7.9 Design strength or nominal strength

The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, includ-
ing a material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges
from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress design.

2.7.10 Numerical:
Example-1:A singly reinforced beam 250 mm wide and 380 mm deep to
the centre of reinforcement is reinforced with 3 bars of 18 mm diameter.
Determine the depth of neutral axis and the maximum stress in concrete
when the stress in steel is 150 N/mm2 Take m = 13.33. Solution-1:
b = 250 mm, d = 380 mm, Ast = 3 × (18)2 = 764.4 mm2
Position of neutral axis
Taking moments about the neutral axis.(Figure 7.19)

Figure 2.7: Example-1

 n2
250 = 13.33 × 763.4(380 − n)
2
n2 + 81.409 n − 30935.41 = 0
∴ n = 139.83 mm
mc n
=
t d−n
t n
c= ·
m d−n
When the stress in steel is 150 N/mm2 the corresponding maximum com-
pressive stress in concrete
150 139.83
=c= ·
13.33 380 − 139.83
c = 6.55 N/mm2
Example-2:The cross-section of a singly - reinforced concrete beam is 300
mm wide and 400 mm deep to the centre of the reinforcement which consists
of three bars of 12 mm diameters. If the stresses in concrete and steel are not
to exceed 7 N/mm2 and 230 N/mm2 , determine the moment of resistance
of the section. Take m = 13.33.
Solution-2: Area of steel Ast = 3 × 113 = 339 mm2

Figure 2.8: Example-2

Position of actual neutral axis

Taking moments about the neutral axis
n2
300 = 13.33 × 339(400 − n)
2
 ∴ n2 + 30.1258 n − 12050.32 = 0
n = 95.74 mm
Depth of critical neutral axis

n = 0.29d = 0.29 × 400 = 116mm

n < nc
Hence the section is under-reinforced and steel will reach its permissible
stress earlier to concrete.
 
 n 95.74
∴ M.R. = Ast σst d − = 339 × 230 400 −
3 3

= 28.70 × 106 N mm = 28.70 kN m

Example-3: A singly-reinforced concrete beam is 300 mm wide and 450 mm
deep to the centre of the tensile reinforcement, which consists of 4 bars of
16 mm diameter. If the safe stresses in concrete and steel are 7 N/mm2 and
230 N/mm2 respectively, find the moment of resistance of the section. Take
m = 13.33.
Solution-3:
b = 300 mm, d = 450 mm
Ast = 4 × 201 = 804 mm2
Depth of critical Neutral axis
mσcbc nc
=
σst d − nc
13.33 × 7 nc
=
230 450 − nc
∴ nc = 129.9 mm
Depth of actual Neutral axis
Taking moments about the neutral axis,

n2
300 = 13.33 × 804(450 − n)
2
n2 + 71.45 n − 32151.96 = 0
n = 147.1 mm Butnc = 129.9 mm
Since n > nc the section is over reinforced .
∴ Concrete attains its safe stress earlier to steel
∴ Moment of resistance
 
σcbc  n 147.1
M.R. = bnc d− = 300 × l47.1 450 −
2 3 3

= 61.9313 × 106 N mm = 61.9313 kN m

For practice (Singly Reinforced Section)

1. The cross-section of a singly-reinforced concrete beam is 300 mm wide
and 400 mm deep to the centre of the reinforcement which consists of
four bars of 16 mm diameter. If the stresses in concrete and steel are
not to exceed 7 N/mm2 and 140 N/mm2 respectively, determine the
moment of resistance of the section. Take m = 13.33.

2. singly-reinforced rectangular beam 350 mm wide has a span of 6.25

m and ,carries an all inclusive load of 16.30 kN/m. If the stresses in
concrete and steel shall not exceed 7 N/mm2 and 230 N/mm2 find the
effective depth and the area of the tensile reinforcement. Take m =
13.33.

3. A singly reinforced beam has a span of 5 meters and carries a uniformly

distributed load of 25 kN/m. The width of the beam is chosen to be
300 mm. Find the depth and the steel area required for a balanced
section. Use M 20 concrete and Fe415 steel.

4. A singly-reinforced concrete beam 350 mm wide and 550 mm deep to

the centre of the tensile reinforcement is reinforced with 3 bars of 18
mm diameter. Find the moment of resistance of the section. What
would be the moment of resistance if the reinforcement is changed to
4 bars of 18 mm diameter. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.

2.8 Doubly Reinforced Beams

Beams reinforced with steel in compression and tension zones are called
doubly-reinforced beams. This type of beam will be found necessary when
due to head room consideration or architectural consideration the depth of
the beam is restricted.
The beam with its limited depth, if reinforced on the tension side only, may
not have enough moment of resistance, to resist the bending moment. By
increasing the quantity of steel in the tension zone, the moment of resistance
cannot be increased indefinitely. Usually, the moment of resistance can be
increased by not more than 25 percent over the balanced moment of resis-
tance, by making the beam over reinforced on the tension side. Hence, in
order to further increase the moment of resistance of a beam section of lim-
ited dimensions, a doubly-reinforced beam is provided.
Besides this a doubly-reinforced beam is also used in the following circum-
stances:

1. The external live loads may alternate i.e., may occur on either face of
the member
Example: A pile may be lifted in such a manner that the tension and
compression zones may alternate.

2. The loading may be eccentric and the eccentricity of the load may
change from one side of the axis to another side.

3. The member may be subjected to a shock or impact or accidental lateral

thrust.

2.8.1 Analysis of a Doubly-Reinforced Section

Conventional Elastic Theory
Figure shows a doubly-reinforced beam of width b and depth d to the centre
of the tensile reinforcement
Let dc = effective cover to compression reinforcement C
Let Asc and Ast be the areas of reinforcement in the compression and tension
zones.
Let n be the depth of neutral axis.
Equating moments of areas on either side of the neutral axis, about the
neutral axis.
bn2
+ mAsc (n − dc ) − Asc (n − dc ) = mAst (d − n)
2
bn2
+ (m − 1) Asc (n − dc ) = mAst (d − n)
2
 Figure 2.9: Doubly reinforced section

If the stresses c and t, i.e., the stresses in concrete and tension reinforcement
are known, we have
mc n
=
t d−n
It is very important to note that in the case of a singly-reinforcement beam
of chosen dimensions, in order that the actual neutral axis may coincide with
the critical neutral axis, there is a certain definite amount of steel required.
But, in a doubly-reinforced beam of chosen dimensions, the reinforcement
Asc and Ast may be adjusted in an infinite number of ways so that the actual
neutral axis and the critical neutral axis may coincide.
Since total compression = Total tension
C=T
c
bn + (m − 1) Asc c0 = Ast t
2
Stress in compression steel. If c0 is the stress in concrete at the level of
the compression steel, the stress in compression steel = mc0 .
But
n − dc
c0 = c
n
n − dc
∴ Stress in compression steel = m c
n

2.8.2 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

This is computed by taking moments of the compressive force about the
centre of gravity of the tension reinforcement.
c n
M.R. = bn d − + (m − 1) Asc c0 (d − dc )
2 3

2.9 Types of problem in doubly reinforced

beams working stress method
1. Determination of Moment of Resistance

2. Determination of actual stresses in concrete and steel.

3. Design of the section.

2.9.1 Determination of moment of resistance of the

given section.
Given :

1. Dimension of the beam section (b and d)

2. Area of tensile steel Ast and area of compressive steel Asc

3. Permissible stress in concrete σcbc and permissible stress in steel (σst )

Procedure :
1. Calculate
280
m=
3σcbc
Figure 2.10: Types of problem in doubly reinforced beams working stress
method

2. Calculate critical neutral axis (nc )

nc m.σcbc
=
d − nc σst

3. Calculate actual neutral axis depth (n)

b.n2
+ (1.5m − 1)Asc (n − dc ) = m.Ast (d − n)
2
4. Compare n and nc

a) If n < nc the section is under reinforced (fully stressed)

Maximum tensile stress developed in steel = σst Maximum compressive
stress developed in concrete

0
σcbc (where σcbc ) is less than σcbc

0
σcbc n
=
σst /m d−n
(from stress diagram)
 
0 σst n
∴ σcbc =
m d−n
 The stress in concrete at the level of compression steel (σc ) can be
obtained as

0 σcbc 0
σc = (n − d )
n
The moment of resistance of the (under reinforced) doubly reinforced
section is calculated as :

1  n 0 0
Mr = σcbc .bn d − + (1.5m − 1)σc .Asc (d − d )
2 3
b) If n > nc, then section is over reinforced and max compressive stress
in concrete is σcbc . The moment of resistance is calculated as

1  n 0 0
∴ Mr = σcbc .b.n d − + (1.5m − 1)σc .Asc (d − d )
2 3
where
0 σcbc 0
σc = (n − d )
n

2.9.2 Determination of Stress in Steel and Concrete

Given :
(i) Dimensions of beam (b and d)
(ii) Area of tensile and compressive reinforcement i.e., Ast and Asc
(iii) Material used grade of concrete and steel.
(iv) Maximum bending moment or loading on the section.

Procedure :
Determine actual neutral axis of the section
bn2
+ (1.5m − 1)Asc .(n − d0 ) = m.Ast (d − n)
2
Determine the value of nc in terms of σcbc
σcbc
σc0 = (n − d0 )
n
 Determine the maximum bending moment (M) on the section due to loads
and equate it to moment of resistance of the section (Mr)
1  n
M = Mr = σcbc b.n. d − + (1.5m − 1)σc0 .Asc (d − d0 )
2 3
Putting the value of σc0 in this equation
1  n σcbc
M = σcbc b.n d − + (1.5m − 1)Asc (n − d0 )(d − d0 )
2 3 n
In the above equation, only σcbc as unknown and it can be calculated
easily.
Knowing σcbc the stress in tensile steel (σst ) and stress in compressions
steel (σsc ) are calculated as under
mσcbc
σst = (d − n)
n
and
0 σcbc
σst = (n − d0 )
n

σsc = mc .σc0

2.9.3 Design of the Section

Given :
(i) Span of the beam (l) and its dimensions (b and d).
(ii) Loading on the beam.
(iii) Material used-grade of concretes and steel i.e., σcbc and σst .

Procedure :
1. Determine maximum bending moment (M) coming on the section due
to loads (including self weight of the beam).

2. Calculate the design constants k, j and R for the given materials.

3. Calculate M1 = Rbd2 .

4. Calculate the area of tensile reinforcement (Ast1 ) corresponding to M1 .

 M1
Ast =
σst jd
Calculate M2

M2 = M − M1
Calculate the additional area of the tensile reinforcement (Ast2 ) needed
to resist M2 .
M2 = σst .Ast2 (d − d0 )

M2
∴ Ast =
σst (d − d0 )
Determine total area of tensile steel (Ast)
Ast = Ast1 + Ast2
Selecting suitable diameter of the bar, provide Ast.
Determine the area of compressive steel (Asc) by equating the moment
area of compressive steel (Asc) to the moment of the area of additional tensile
steel (Ast2) about neutral axis. Moment of the area of compressive steel (Asc)
about neutral axis.

= (mc − 1)Asc (n − d0 ) = (1.5m − 1)Asc (n − d0 )

Moment of the additional area of tensile steel (Ast2 ) about neutral axis

= m.Ast2 (d − n)
Equating them and calculating ASC .

1.5(m − 1)Asc (n − d0 ) = m.Ast2 (d − n)

m.Ast2 (d − n)
Asc =
1.5(m − 1)(n − dc )
Calculate the number of bars required for providing Asc .
Draw a neat sketch and give summary of design. Note : Design consideration
for a doubly reinforcement beam as per IS 456:2000.
(i)Maximum Compression Reinforcement (Asc): The maximum compres-
sion reinforcement in a beam cannot be more than 0.04 bD. (4%) of the gross
cross-sectional area).
2.10 Solved examples on Doubly Reinforced
Section
Example-4: A beam of reinforced concrete is 300 mm wide and 450 mm
deep to the centre of tensile steel. It is reinforced with four bars of 16 mm
diameter as compressive steel and four bars of 25 mm diameter as tensile
steel. Determine the moment of resistance of the section. Cover to centre of
compression steel = 50 mm. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel. Solution
b = 300 mm, d= 450 mm
Area of compression steel Asc = 4 × 201 = 804 mm2
Area of tensile steel Ast = 4 × 491 = 1964 mm2
Depth of neutral axis.
Taking moments about the neutral axis

bn2
+ (1.5m − 1)Asc (n − dc ) = mAsl (d − n)
2
2
300n
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)804(n − 50) = 13.33 × 1964(450 − n)
2
n2 + 276.347n − 83631.1 = 0
n = 182.3 mm

Depth of critical neutral axis is given by

13.33 × 7 nc
= ∴ nc = 130 mm
230 450 − n
Since the depth of neutral axis is greater than the depth of critical neutral
axis concrete in compression attains its permissible stress earlier to steel.
Stress in concrete will be allowed to reach 7 N/mm2 .

c = σcbc = 7N/mm2
n − dc 182.3 − 50
c0 = c= × 7 = 5.08N/mm2
n 182.3
c n
M.R. = bn d − + (1.5m − 1)Asc c0 (d − dc )
2 3   (2.1)
7 182.3
= 300 × 182.3 × 450 −
2 3
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)804 × 5.08(450 − 50)
= 105.538 × 106 N mm = 105.538 kN m
Example-5: A beam of reinforced concrete is 250 mm wide and 400 mm
deep to the centre of tensile steel. It is reinforced with four bars of 16
mm diameter as compressive steel and four bars of 20 mm diameter as ten-
sile steel. If the stresses in concrete and steel are not to exceed 7 N/mm2
and140 N/mm2 respectively, determine the moment of resistance of the sec-
tion according to revised elastic theory. Take m = 13.33.
Solution-5:
b = 250 mm : d = 400 mm, dc = 50 mm
Area of compression steel = Asc = 4 × 201 = 804 mm2
Area of tensile steel = Ast = 4 × 314 = 1256 mm2
Depth of neutral axis
Taking moments about the neutral axis, we have,

bn2
+ (1.5m − 1)Asc (n − dc ) = mAst (d − n)
2
2
250n
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)804(n − 50) = 13 · 33 × 1256(400 − n)
2
n2 + 256.116n − 59684.72 = 0
∴ n = 147.77OR − 403.89 mm
∴ n = 147.77mm

Depth of critical neutral axis is given by

13.33 × 7 nc
=
140 400 − nc
nc = 160mm

Since the depth of neutral axis is less than the depth of critical neutral axis,
steel in tension attains its permissible stress earlier to concrete in compression
∴ Stress in steel will be allowed to reach 140 N/mm2
∴ t = σst = 140 N/mm2
Corresponding extreme compressive stress in concrete
t n 140 147.77
=c= · = · = 6.15 N/mm2
m d−n 13.33 400 − 147.77
n − d c 147.77 − 50
c0 = c= × 6.15 = 4.07 N/mm2
n 147.77
c n
M.R. = bn d− + (1.5m − 1)Asc c0 (d − dc ) (2.2)
2 3  
6.15 147.77
= 250 × 147 · 77 × 400 −
2 3
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)804 × 4.07(400 − 50)
= 61.60 × 106 Nmm = 61.60 kNm

Example-6:A doubly reinforced concrete beam is 250 mm wide and 500

npn deep to the centre of tension reinforcement. The centre of compression
steel is 50 mm from the compression edge. The areas of the compression and
tension steel are respectively 1016 mm2 and 1256 mm2 If m = 13.33 and the
bending moment at the section is 80 kNm, calculate the stresses is concrete
and steel by the revised elastic theory.
Solution.
b = 250 mm; d = 500 mm; dc= 50 mm;
Asc = 1016mm2
Ast = 1256mm2
Position of neutral axis
Taking moments about the neutral axis,

bn2
+ (1.5m − 1)Asc (n − dc ) = mAst (d − n)
2
2
250n
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)1016(n − 50) = 13.33 × 1256(500 − n)
2
n2 + 288.33n − 74689.49 = 0
n = 164.8mm
Let the maximum compressive stress in concrete be cN/mm2 ∴ Stress in
concrete at the level of the compression steel
 
0 n − dc 164.8 − 50
=c = c= c = 0.696c
n 164.8
c n
M.R. = bn d − + (1.5m − 1)Asc c0 (d − dc )
2 3  
c 164.8
= 250 × 164.8 × 500 −
2 3
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)1016 × 0.696c(500 − 50)
= (9168373.3 + 6044421.7)c = 15212795c

Equating the M.R. to the bending moment,

15212795c = 80 × 106
c = 5.26N/mm2
c0 = 0.696 × 5.26 = 3.66N/mm2
Stress in compression steel = 1.5mc0
= 1.5 × 13.33 × 3.66 = 73.18N/mm2
  
d−n
Stress in the tension steel = mc
n
500 − 164.8
= × 13.33 × 5.26
164.8
= 142.6N/mm2
Example-7: A rectangular beam reinforced on both sides is 300 mm wide
and 550 mm deep. The centres of steel are 50 mm from the respective edges.
If the limiting stresses in concrete and steel are7 N/mm2 and 230 N/mm2
respectively, determine the steel areas for a bending moment of 90 kNm,
based on the revised elastic theory. Take m= 13.33.
Solution.
The section will be designed as a balanced section
n = nc c = σcbc = 7 N/mm2
and t = σst = 230 N/mm2
The depth of critical neutral axis is given by,
13.33 × 7 nc
= ∴ nc = 144.3mm
230 500 − nc
Stress in concrete = c = σcbc = 7N/mm2

Stress in concrete at the level of the compression steel

 
0 n − dc 144.3 − 50
∴=c = c= × 7 = 4.57N/mm2
n 144.3
c n
M.R. = bn d− + (1.5m − 1)Asc c0 (d − dc )
2 3  
7 144.3
= 300 × 144.3 × 500 −
2 3
+ (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)Asc × 4.57(500 − 50)
= 90 × 106
∴ 68469629 + 39063.218Asc = 90 × 106
∴ Asc = 551.2mm2
Total compression = Total tension
c
bn + (1.5m − 1)Asc c0 = Ast t
2
7
300 × 144.3 × + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)551.2 × 4.57 = Ast × 230
2
151515 + 47848.101 = 230Ast
Ast = 866.8mm2

For practice (Doubly Reinforced Section)

1. A doubly-reinforced rectangular beam is 300 mm wide and 500 mm
deep to the centre of tension steel. It is reinforced with four bars of
18 mm diameter as compressive steel at an effective cover of 40 mm
and with four bars of 20 mm diameter as tensile steel. If the stresses
in concrete and steel are not to the exceed 7 N/mm2 and 230 N/mm2
respectively, find the moment of resistance of the section. Take m =
13.33. Adopt revised elastic theory.[Ans: 118.8 kNm]

2. A doubly, reinforced concrete beam is 250 mm wide and 450 mm deep

to the centre of tensile reinforcement. The areas of the compression
and tension steel are 1257 mm2 each. The centre of the compression
steel is 50 mm from the compression edge. If m=18 and the section is
subjected to a bending moment of 65 kNm. find the stresses in concrete
and steel as per revised elastic theory. [Ans: c = 3.88 mm2 ; t = 129.8
mm2 ; t = 71.5mm2 ]

3. A rectangular beam reinforced on both sides is 300 mm wide and

700 mm deep. The centres of steel are 40 mm from the respective
edges. If the limiting stresses in concrete and steel are 5 N/mm2
and 140 N/mm2 respectively, find the steel areas for a bending mo-
ment of 150 kNm according to revised elastic theory. Take m = 18.
[Asc = 570mm2 , Ast = 1831mm2 ]
2.11 Shear in Beams
Shear Stresses in Homogeneous Sections:
Fig. 2.11 shows a simply supported beam subjected to concentrated load W
at the centre. We find that the shear force
W
at the section ABCD = (2.3)
2
Hence, the cross-section ABCD has to offer an equal and opposite shear
resistance. If really the intensity of the resistance is uniform, the shear stress
W/2
at the section would shear have . But, actually, the intensity of
area ABCD
shear resistance is not uniform.
Now consider the beam shown in Fig. 2.12, subjected to a load system.

Figure 2.11: Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated load W at

the centre

Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2, dx apart. Let the bending moments at
sections 1-1 and 2-2 be M and (M + dM) respectively.
Now consider an elemental part of the beam, of width b and thickness dy

Figure 2.12: Beam subjected to a system of load

and length dx, situated at a height y from the neutral layer. This part is
separately shown in Fig.2.13.

Figure 2.13: An elemental part of the beam

Let I be the moment of inertia of the cross of the beam about the neutral
axis.
Bending stress on the elemental part at Section (1-1)
M
=f = y (2.4)
I
Bending stress on the elemental part at Section (2-2)
M + dM
= f + df = y (2.5)
1
∴ Net force on the elemental part
= df × area of cross-section of the elemental part.
dM (2.6)
= df bdy = y.bdy
I
∴ Total force on the part of the beam of length dx and of area as shown
shaded. (Figure-2.12)
R yc dM dM R yc
= y
b · ydy = bdy · y
I I y
dM
= × moment of shaded area about neutral axis (2.7)
I
dM
= · Ay
I
Where, A = area shaded
y = distance of C.G. of shaded area from the N.A.
But this net force should be balanced by horizontal shear.
Let q be the intensity of horizontal shear stress.
∴ Horizontal shear resistance = force on the part of the beam of length dx
and of area shown shaded.
dM
bdx.q = · Ay
dx
dM Ay
∴q= ·
dx Ib (2.8)
dM
But = S.F. at the section = S
dx
SAy
∴q=
Ib
This is the intensity of shear stress in a horizontal direction. But, this also
represents the intensity of shear stress in a vertical direction (by the principle
of complementary shear).

2.11.1 Shear Distribution in a Beam of Rectangular

Section
Consider a beam b mm by d mm. Let the shear force at the section be S. The
S
shear stress q at a point y mm above the neutral axis is given by q = ×
Ib
moment of area above the point considered about the N.A.
S d2
    
S d d 2
q= ·b −y +y ∴q = −y (2.9)
Ib 2 2 2I 4
Hence, the distribution of shear intensity follows a parabolic law. This is
shown in Figure 2.14
d
We find that the shear stress= 0 at y = and the shear stress is maximum
2
at y = 0.
S d2 Sd2
∴ q max = · =
2I 4 8I
3
bd
Since I= (2.10)
12
Sd2 12 3 S
qmax = 3
= ·
8bd 2 bd
 Figure 2.14: Distribution of shear intensity

But
S
= average shear stress.
bd (2.11)
3
qmax = qaverage
2
Note : Concrete is not homogeneous and is not truly elastic. Experiments
related to shear stresses in concrete have shown the shear stress in concrete
does not follow the law given by the formula obtained above. Shear stress
alone does not cause failure of concrete beams. The complex mechanism of
concrete and reinforcing steel provides complicated resistance to shear. No
precise theory is developed to explain shear as related to failure. It,is well
known that the failure is due to diagonal tensile stresses in concrete, rather
than shear stresses. Towards a rational method of design, the shear stress
distribution is taken to follow the pattern shown in the article below.

2.11.2 Shear Stresses in an R.C. Beam

In the case of a reinforce concrete beam in which it is assumed that tensile
stresses are not resisted by concrete, the distribution of shear stress will not
exactly follow the law of equations derived above.
However, for the compression zone of the section, the shear distribution fol-
lows this law of equations.
The shear stress in concrete, in the tension zone is constant, as shown in
 Figure 2.15: Shear stress in an R.C. Beam

Fig.2.15 , The shear stress in concrete in the tension zone therefore is the
maximum shear stress.
This can be determined as follows :
Consider the reinforced concrete beam subjected to a loading.
Consider two sections , 1-1 and 2-2 dx apart.

Figure 2.16: Reinforced concrete beam subjected to a loadling

Let the cross-section of the beam be b mm wide and d mm effective depth;

Let the bending moments at sections 1-1 and.2-2 be M and (M + dM) re-
spectively. Let the lever arm
 n
=a=d− (2.12)
3
Tension in the reinforcement at section 1-1
M
=T = (2.13)
a
Tension in the reinforcement at section 2-2
M + dM
= T + dT = (2.14)
a
If the reinforcement be firmly bonded with concrete so that the reinforcement
will not slip out of concrete, then the net force in the reinforcement will induce
a shear stress in concrete
dT
=
Horizontal area of bean between sections 1 − 1 and 2 − 2
dT dM 1 1 dM S dM
q= = · = · = since the S.F. = S = (2.15)
bdx a bdx ab dx ab dx
S
∴q=
ab
This is the horizontal shear stress in concrete which will also be equal to
vertical shear stress intensity.

2.11.3 Effect of Shear Stresses

Consider a rectangular block ABCD acted upon by shear stresses q as shown
in Figure 2.17. The effect of the shear stresses is to deform the block to
the shape shown in Figure 2.17.(c). We find that compressive stresses are
developed on the diagonal plane AC and tensile stresses are developed on the
diagonal plane BD.
It can be easily shown that the intensity of diagonal compression or diagonal
tension is also equal to the shear stress q applied on this block. If the material
of the block is weak in tension, the failure will occur along the diagonal BD
and the block will be split up into two along this plane. If the material is
weak in compression, then failure can occur by crushing along the plane AC.
Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. It is at least ten
times as strong in compression as in tension. Hence if a concrete block is
 Figure 2.17: The effect of the shear stresses

subjected to shear stresses failure may result by diagonal tension.

Figure 2.18 shows a concrete block which has developed a diagonal tensile
crack as a consequence of shear stresses. Hence to maintain the block in the
compact form the two parts into which the block is liable to be split should
be connected either by inclined reinforcement or by vertical reinforcement.
These reinforcements (which are provided at the time of casting the block)
which are provided to prevent the failure of concrete by excessive diagonal
tension are called shear reinforcement.

Figure 2.18: Concrete block - developed a diagonal tensile crack due shear
stresses

Figure 2.19: Shear reinforcements in a beam

It is also necessary to provide small diameter bars of 10 mm to 12 mm in

the compression zone of the beam in order to properly anchor the stirrups. In
Figure 2.19 (a) each stirrup consists of two legs as shown in the cross-section.
In such a case we say the stirrups are two-legged. In some cases in order to
resist greater shear it becomes necessary to provide several legged stirrups
(four-legged, six-legged, etc.). These are shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20: Stirrups

2.11.4 Lattice Girder Effect (Truss Theory)

(a) Single system:
It is not enough if bars are bent up just near the ends only to resist the shear.
In order that the beam is safe against shear failure, shear reinforcement is
provided throughout the length whether with diagonal steel or with vertical
steel.
When a number of bars are available to be bent up to resist shear, it is
usual to assume that the beam is equivalent to a truss consisting of concrete
compression members and steel tension members as shown in Figure 2.21.
The usual arrangement is to assume the inclined compression member AB
1◦
at 67 with the horizontal. The inclined steel tension members are at 45°
2
with the horizontal.
With such a system, the shear resistance at any section = Aw tw sin 45◦ =
0.707Aw tw
The inclined tension members of this imaginary truss are provided by the
bent up bars. Bending up bars are possible only when a good number of
bars are present at the bottom and a number of them are no longer required
to resist the bending moment. The arrangement shown in Fig.6.18 is called
a single system of bent up bars. The height of the imaginary truss is equal
to the lever arm distance a.
 Figure 2.21:

From the geometry of the triangle ABC of the truss, we have

√
AC = CB = a 2 = 1.414a

i.e., the bars bent up at Care bent from a point, at a distance of 1.414 a from
the support.
If the inclination of the bars be at any angle 0 with the horizontal, the
arrangement would be as shown in Figure 2.22.
If the bent up bar say CB is at q with the horizontal, the compression

Figure 2.22:

180 − θ
member CD should bisect the angle BCE so that B ĈD = DĈE = =
2
θ
90 − . If this arrangement is not done, i.e. if the compression members
2
θ
are not taken at 90 − with the horizontal, we find the design of shear
2
reinforcement becomes uneconomical.
Sometimes the imaginary compression members are also taken at 45° with
the horizontal while the bars are also bent up at 45° as shown in Figure 2.23.
In such cases while calculating the shear resistance at any section by the
 Figure 2.23:

expression 0.707Aw tw , care should be taken to assume a value of tw such that

excessive tensile stresses are not developed in the horizontal part of the bent
up bars.
A value of tw = 0.707× allowable tensile stress in steel should be used while
calculating the shear resistance in this case.

(b) Double system:

If in addition to the bars bent up as shown in Figure 2.21, additional bars
are also bent up as shown in Fig. 2.24, the arrangement is called a double
system arrangement.

Figure 2.24:
2.12 Revised Theory Recommended by the
I.S. Code
The revised I.S. code has proposed a revised theory for analysis and design
for shear in the case of beams and slabs. The basic changes proposed by the
code are the following :
1. Nominal shear stress. The code introduces the concept of nominal
shear stress. The nominal shear stresses τv in beams or slabs of uniform
depth shall be calculated by the following equation:
S
τv =
bd
Where, S = shear force due to design loads. b = breadth of the
member, which for flanked sections shall be taken as the breadth of the
web bw0 and d = effective depth. In the case of beams of varying depth,
the above equation shall be modified as:
M
S± tan β
τv = d
bd
Where τv , S, b and d are the same as before β = angle between the top
and the bottom edges of the beam. The negative sign in the formula
applies when the bending moment M increase numerically in the same
direction as the effective depth d increases and the positive sign when
the moment decreases numerically in this direction.

Table 2.4: Value of k as per Clause: B-5.2.1.1(IS:456-2000)

Over all depth of slab (mm.) k
300 or more 1
275 1.05
250 1.1
225 1.15
200 1.2
175 1.25
150 or less 1.3
Note - This does not apply to flat slabs.
2. Permissible nominal shear stress τc .

For solid slabs the permissible nominal shear stress in concrete shall be
kτ where k has the value given in Table 2.4

3. Maximum nominal shear stress with shear reinforcement. When

shear reinforcement is provided the nominalshear stress τc in beams
shall not exceed τcmax given in the table below. For slabs τv shall not
exceed half the value of τcmax given in the table 2.5

Table 2.5: Maximum Nominal Shear τcmax N/mm2

Concrete grade τcmax N/mm2
M15 1.6
M20 1.8
M25 1.9
M30 2.2
M35 2.3
M40 2.5

4. Minimum shear Reinforcement in Beams. When the nominal

shear stress τc less than the permissible nominal shear stress τv mini-
mum shear reinforcement shall be provided in the form of stirrups such
that
Aw 0.4
≥
bp 0.87fy
where,
Aw = total cross-sectional area of stirrup legs effective in shear, p =
spacing of stirrups along the length of the member,
b = breadth of the beam or the breadth of the web of flanged beam,
and
fy = characteristics strength of the stirrup reinforcement in N/mm2
which shall not be taken greater than 415N/mm3

0.87fy Aw
p≤
0.4 b
 Aw
If fy = 250N/mm2 , p ≤ 543.75
b
2 Aw
If fy = 415N/mm , p ≤ 902.63
b
However, in members of minor structural importance such as lintels or
where the maximum nominal shear stress calculated is less than half
the permissible value, this provision need not be complied with.

Table 2.6: Permissible Nominal Shear Stresses in Concrete in Beams I.S.

456-2000 (WSM)
Ast
100 M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40
bd
≤0.15 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.25 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23
0.5 0.29 0.3 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32
0.75 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
1 0.37 0.39 0.4 0.41 0.43 0.42
1.25 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.46
1.5 0.42 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.49
1.75 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.5 0.52 0.52
2 0.44 0.49 0.51 0.53 0.54 0.55
2.25 0.44 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.56 0.57
2.5 0.44 0.51 0.55 0.57 0.58 0.6
2.75 0.44 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62
≥3 0.44 0.51 0.57 0.6 0.62 0.63
Note: Ast is the area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which continues
at least one effective depth beyond the section being considered except at
supports where the full area of tension reinforcement may be used.

5. Design of shear reinforcement.

When the nominal shear stress τv exceeds the permissible shear stress
τc , shear reinforcement shall be provided in any of the following forms:
(a) Vertical stirrups,
(b) Bent-up bars along with stirrups, and
(c) Inclined stirrups.
Where bent-up bars are provided, their contribution towards shear re-
 sistance shall not be more than half that of the total shear reinforce-
ment.
Shear reinforcement shall be provided to carry a shear equal of (S −τbd ).
The strength of shear reinforcement Sw shall be calculated as below :

(a) For vertical stirrups

Aw tw d
Sw = (2.16)
p
(b) For inclined stirrups on a series of bars, bent up at different cross-
sections
Aw tw d
Sw = (sin α + cos α) (2.17)
p
(c) For single bar or single group of parallel, bars all bent-up at the
same cross-sections.
Sw = Aw tw sin a (2.18)
Where,
Aw = total cross-sectional area of stirrup legs or bent-up bars
within a distance p
p = spacing of stirrups or bent-up bars along the length of the
member
qc = design nominal shear strength of concrete.
b = breadth of the member, which for flanged beams, shall be
taken as the breadth of the web bw ·
tw = permissible tensile stress in shear reinforcement which shall
not be taken greater than 230 N/mm2
a = angle between the inclined stirrups or bent-up bar and the
axis of the member, not less than 45°, and
d = effective depth.

6. Maximum spacing of stirrups The spacing of stirrups shall not

exceed the following
(i) 300mm
(ii)0.75d
0.87fy Aw
(iii)
0.40b
Example-8: A reinforced rectangular beam of span 5 m is 300 mm wide
and 550 mm deep to the centre of the tensile reinforcement which consists of
four bars of 22 mm diameter. The beam carries a load of 20 kN Im inclusive
of its weight. Design the shear reinforcement. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415
steel.
Solution:
Maximum shear force at the support
wl 20 × 5
S= = = 50kN
2 2
Nominal shear stress
S 50 × 103
τv = = = 0.30N/mm2
bd 300 × 550
= 4 × 380 = 1520mm2
Area of tensile steel provided ∴ Percent of steel provided
Ast 1520
= × 100 = × 100 = 0.92%
bd 300 × 550
For M 20 concrete, for 0.92% steel permissible nominal shear stress
τc = 0.377N/mm2
τv < τc
Only nominal shear reinforcement is required. Let us provide 2 legged 8mm
diameter stirrups. Aw = 2 × 50 = 100mm2 .
The spacing of the stirrups shall not exceed the following
(i) 300 mm
(ii) 0.75d = 0.75 × 550 = 412.5 mm
0.87fy Aw 0.87 × 415 100
(iii) = × = 300.9 mm
0.40 b 0.40 300
Provide 2 legged 8 mm diameter stirrups @300 mmc/c
Example-9: An R.C. beam of span 5 mis 250 mm wide and 500 mm deep
to the centre of tensile reinforcement, which consists of 4 bars of 22 mm
diameter. The beam carries a load of 30 kN Im inclusive of its weight.
Design the shear reinforcement by stirrups. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415
steel.
Solution.
Maximum shear force at the support
wl 30 × 5
S= = = 75kN
2 2
 S 75 × 103
Nominal shear stress τv = = = 0.60 N/mm2 Area of tensile
bd 250 × 500
steel provided
= 4 × 380 = 1520mm2
Percentage of steel provided
Asl 1520
= × 100 = × 100 = 1.22%
bd 250 × 500
For M20 concrete, for 1.22% steel

τc = 0.416N/mm2
τv > τc τc max = 1.80N/mm2 τr < τc max

∴ Shear resistance of concrete

Sc = τc bd = 0.416 × 250 × 500 = 52000N

Net shear force for which shear reinforcement is necessary

= Vs = S − Sc = 75000 − 52000 = 23000N

Let us provide two legged 8mmφ stirrups Spacing of stirrups

Aw tw d
p=
Vs
(2 × 50)230 × 500
= = 500mm
23000
Spacing of stirrups shall not exceed the following,
(i) 300mm
(ii) 0.75d = 0.75 × 500 = 375mm
0.87fy Aw 0.87 × 415 (2 × 50)
(iii) , = × = 361mm
0.4 b 0.4 250
Provide 2 legged 8 mm diameter stirrups @300mm c/c
Example-10: An R. C. beam of span 6.50 m is 300 mm wide and 750 mm
deep to the centre of tensile reinforcement which consists of 6 bars of 20 mm
diameters. The beam carries a load of 45-kN Im including its weight. Design
the shear reinforcement if 50% of the tensile reinforcement is curtailed near
the support. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution.
Maximum shear force at the support Nominal shear stress
wl 45 × 6.50
S= = = 146.25kN
2 2
S 146.25 × 103
rv = = = 0.65N/mm2
bd 300 × 750
After 50% curtainment, area of tensile steel available near the support

= 3 × 314 = 942mm2

Percentage of tensile steel available near the support

Ast 942
= × 100 = × 100 = 0.42%
bd 300 × 750
For M20 concrete, for 0.42% steel,

τe = 0.27N/mm2

For M20 concrete

τc max = 1.80N/mm2
τv > τe and τv < τe max
∴ Shear reinforcement should be determined. Shear resistance of concrete,

Sc = τc bd = 0.27 × 300 × 750 = 60705N

Net shear force for which shear reinforcement is necessary.

= V· = S − Sc = 146250 − 60750 = 85500N

Spacing of two legged 8mm φ stirrups

Aw tw d (2 × 50)230 × 750
= = = 201mm
Vs 85500
Spacing of stirrups shall not exceed the following,
(i) 450mm
(ii) 0.75d = 0.75 × 750 = 562.5mm
0.87fy Aw 0.87 × 415 (2 × 50)
(iii) , = · = 361
0.4 b 0.4 250
Provide 2 legged 8 mm φ stirrups @ 300 mm c/c
Example-11: A simply supported beam 250 mm wide and 500 mm deep
to the centre of the tensile reinforcement is provided with six bars of 22 mm
diameter. The maximum shear force for the beam is 140 kN. One main bar
is bent up to resist part of the shear. Design the shear reinforcement. Use
M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution.
Nominal shear stress
S 140 × 103
τv = = = 1.12N/mm2
bd 250 × 500
less than 1.8N/mm2

Since one bar is bent up, available area of tensile steel near the support

= 5 × 380 = 1900mm2

Percentage of tensile steel available near the support

Ast 1900
= × 100 = × 100 = 1.52%
bd 250 × 500
For M 20 concrete, For 1.52% steel, permissible nominal shear stress

τe = 0.452N/mm2

Shear resistance of concrete

Sc = τc bd = 0.452 × 250 × 500 = 56500N

Net S.F. for which shear reinforcement is required

Vx = 140000 − 56500 = 83500N

Shear resistance of one bent up bar

= 0.707Aw tw = 0.707 × 380 × 230 = 61791.8N

But shear resisted by bent up bar is limited to

83500
= 41750N
2
∴ Shear to be resisted by stirrups

Vs = 83500 − 41750 = 41750N

Spacing of 2 legged 8 mm diameter stirrups

Aw tiv d (2 × 50)230 × 500

=p= = = 275mm
Vs 0 41750
The spacing of the stirrups shall not exceed the following (i) 450mm
(ii) 0.75d = 0.75 × 500 = 375mm
0.87fy Aw 0.87 × 415 (2 × 50)
(iii) · = · = 361mm
0.40 b 0.40 250
Provide 2 legged 8mm φ stirrups @275mmc/c

For practice (Design for shear)

1. A reinforced concrete beam of span 5 m and 300 mm wide is 500 mm
deep to be centre of the tensile reinforcement which consists of four bars
of 20 mm diameter. The beam carries a load of 18 kN Im inclusive of
its weight. Find the shear reinforcement required near the supports,
by IS code. Use M 20 concrete and Fe415 steel. (Ans: 2 legged 8 mm
φ stirrups@ 300 mm c/c)

2. An R.C. beam of span 5 mis 300 mm wide and 500 mm deep to the
centre of the tensile reinforcement which consists of 4 bars of 25 mm
diameter. The beam carries a load of 35 kN Im inclusive of its weight.
Design the shear reinforcement near the support in the form of stirrups
only. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel. (Ans: 2 legged 8 mm φ
stirrups @ 300 mm c/c)

3. An R-C. beam of span 5.75 m is 300 mm wide and 700 mm deep to

the centre of tensile reinforcement which consists of 6 bars of 20 mm
diameter. The beam carries an all inclusive distributed load due to
which the maximum shear force at the support is 155 hN. Assuming
50% curtailment of reinforcement near the support find the spacing of
2 legged 8 mm diameter stirrups required near the support to resist
shear. (Ans: 2 legged 8 mm φ stirrups @ 300 mm c/c)
2.13 Analysis and Design of Cracked and Un-
Cracked RCC Column Sections by WSM
Based on architectural requirements, columns may have cross sections such
as square, rectangular, circular, hexagonal, octagonal etc.
Longitudinal reinforcement (or main steel) is provided to resist compressive
loads along with concrete.
Reinforced concrete columns may be classified into:
1. Tied columns
A tied column is provided with longitudinal steel bars held in position
by a number of separate ties at a uniform spacing.
2. Spirally reinforced columns
A spirally reinforced column is generally a circular column provided
with longitudinal steel bars wrapped by a closely spaced spiral.
3. Composite columns
A composite column consists of a structural steel er cast iron column
thoroughly encased in concrete reinforced with both longitudinal and
lateral or spiral reinforcement.
4. Concrete filled pipe columns.
A concrete filled pipe column consists of a steel pipe filled with concrete
and may sometimes be provided with reinforcement.

2.13.1 Types of Columns:

lex ley
Types of columns based upon slenderness ratio and
D b
1. Short Columns (slenderness ratio < 12)
2. Long Columns (slenderness ratio ≥ 12)
Types of columns based upon loading:
1. Axially loaded columns
2. Members subjected to combined axial load and bending
(a) Design Based on Uncracked Section
(b) Design Based on Cracked Section
Figure 2.25: Unsupported length of columns (a) Flat plate (b) Flat slab (c)
Column capital (d) Slab with beams

2.14 I.S. Recommendations Regarding Lon-

gitudinal Reinforcements
1. Longitudinal reinforcement

(a) The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement, shall be not

less than 0.8 percent nor more than 6 percent of the gross cross
sectional area of the column.
NOTE - The use of 6 percent reinforcement may involve practical
difficulties in placing and compacting of concrete; hence lower
percentage is recommended. Where bars from the columns below
have to be lapped with those in the column under consideration,
the percentage of steel shall usually not exceed 4 percent.
(b) In any column that has a larger cross-sectional area than that re-
quired to support the load, the minimum percentage of steel shall
 be based upon the area of concrete required to resist the direct
stress and not upon the actual area.
(c) The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column
shall be four in rectangular columns and six in circular columns.
(d) The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
(e) A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement shall
have at least six bars of longitudinal reinforcement within the
helical reinforcement.
(f) In a helically reinforced column, the longitudinal bars shall be in
contact with the helical reinforcement and equidistant around its
inner circumference.
(g) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of the
column shall not exceed 300 mm.
(h) In case of pedestals in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not
taken in account in strength calculations, nominal longitudinal
reinforcement not less than 0.15 percent of the cross-sectional area
shall be provided. NOTE - Pedestal is a compression member,
the effective length of which does not exceed three times the least
lateral dimension.

2. Transverse Reinforcement The longitudinal reinforcement should

be laterally tied by transverse links to provide a restraint against out-
ward buckling of each of the longitudinal bars. I.S. 456 code stipulates
that the diameter of longitudinal bars shall not be less than 12 mm
and that the diameter of the transverse reinforcement shall be not less
than one-fourth of the diameter of the main rods and in no case less
than 5 mm in diameter. The ends of the transverse links should be
properly anchored. The effective lateral support is given by transverse
reinforcement either in the form of circular rings capable of taking up
circumferential tension or by polygonal links (lateral ties) with internal
angles not exceeding 135o . The ends of the transverse reinforcement
shall be properly anchored.

(a) Arrangement of transverse reinforcement

i. If the longitudinal bars are not spaced more than 75 mm on
either side, transverse reinforcement need only to go round
Figure 2.26: Arrangement of transverse reinforcement

comer and alternate bars for the purpose of providing effective

lateral supports (see Fig. 2.26).
ii. If the longitudinal bars spaced at a distance of not exceeding
48 times the diameter of the tie are effectively tied in two
directions, additional longitudinal bars in between these bars
need to be tied in one direction by open ties (see Fig. 2.26).
iii. Where the longitudinal reinforcing bars in a compression mem-
ber are placed in more than one row, effective lateral support
to the longitudinal bars in the inner rows may be assumed to
have been provided if:
i) transverse reinforcement is provided for the outer-most row.
ii) no bar of the inner row is closer to the nearest compression
face than three times the diameter of the largest bar in the
inner row (see Fig. 2.26).
iv. Where the longitudinal bars in a compression member are
grouped (not in contact) and each group adequately tied with
 transverse reinforcement then the transverse reinforcement for
the compression member as a whole may be provided on the
assumption that each group is a single longitudinal bar for
the purpose of determining the pitch and the diameter of the
transverse reinforcement. The diameter of such transverse
reinforcement need not, however, exceed 20 mm (See Figure
2.26)

3. SPACING OF TRANSVERSE LINKS

This shall not exceed the least of the following :

(a) The least lateral dimension of the column.

(b) Sixteen times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal reinforcing
rod in the column.
(c) 300 mm.

4. DIAMETER OF TRANSVERSE LINKS

The diameter of the transverse links shall not be less than

(a) One-fourth the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar.

(b) 6 mm.

5. COVER
The minimum cover to a column reinforcement shall be 40 mm or
diameter of bar whichever is greater.(Cl.26.4.2.1)

6. EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF A COLUMN

The effective length of a column is not necessarily its actual length. It
depends on the degree of fixity of the ends of the columns. The table on
page 130 gives the effective length corresponding to the unsupported
length l of the column from floor to floor or between properly restrained
supports.

7. SHORT AND LONG COLUMNS

A column will be considered as short when the ratio of the effective
length to its least lateral dimension is less than or equal to 12. When
this ratio is exceeded the column will be considered as a long column.
 8. SLENDERNESS LIMITS FOR COLUMNS
The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60
times the least lateral dimension of the column.
If in any given plane, one end of a column
 is unrestrained, its unsup-
100b2
ported length l, shall not exceed Where b = width of that
D
cross-section, and D = depth of the cross-section measured in the plane
under consideration.

9. MINIMUM ECCENTRICITY
All
 columns  shall be designed for a minimum eccentricity equal to
1 b
+ subject to a minimum of 20mm
500 30
where
l = unsupported length of the column, and
b = least lateral dimension of the column

10. PERMISSIBLE LOAD ON A SHORT COLUMN A short column may

be analysed by the following methods: (i) Simple elastic theory. (ii)
I.S. code method. (i) Simple elastic theory Let A = area of the column
section Asc = area of the reinforcement Actual concrete area

= A − Asc

Equivalent concrete area

Ae = actual concrete area + 1.5 × modular ratio × area of steel

= A − Asc + 1.5mAsr = A + (1.5m − 1)Asr

Safe load on the column = Safe stress in concrete × equivalent concrete

area
W = c [A + (1.5m − 1)Asc ]
(ii) I.S. code method (working stress method) The safe load on a short
column is given by
       
area of Safe stress area of safe stress
W = × + ×
concrete in concrete steel in steel
 Table 2.7: Effective Length of Compression Members [I.S. 456]
Degree of end restraint of compression mem- Symbol Theoretical Recommended
ber effective effec-
length tive
length

Effectively held in position and restrained 0.50l 0.65l

against rotation at both ends. (i.e., both ends
are fixed)

Effectively held in position at both ends, re- 0.70l 0.80l

strained against rotation at one end (i.e., fixed
at one end and hinged at the other end)

Effectively held in position at both ends but 1.00l 1.00l

not restrained against rotation (i.e., both ends
are hinged)

Effectively held in position and restrained 1.00l 1.20l

against rotation at one end, and the other re-
strained against rotation but not held in posi-
tion

Effectively held in position and restrained −− 1.50l

against rotation at one end, and at the other
partially restrained against roation but not
held in position

Effectively held in position at one end, but not 2.00l 2.00l

restrained against rotation, and at the other
end restrained against rotation but not held
in position

Effectively held in position and restrained 2.00l 2.00l

against rotation at one end but not held in
position nor restrained against rotation at the
other end (i.e., fixed at one end and free at the
other end).
2.15 Solved Examples
Problem-12: A short column n 300 mm × 300mm in section is reinforced
with 8 bars of 22 mm diameter. Find the safe load on the column by simple
elastic theory. Take m = 13.33. Use M20 concrete and Fe 250 steel.
Solution.
Area of column
= A = 300 × 300 = 90000mm2
Area of steel
= Asc = 8 × 380 = 3040mm2
Equivalent concrete area

= Ae = A + (1.5m − 1)Asc
= 90000 + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)3040 = 147744.8mm2

Safe stress in concrete

=5N/mm2   
Safe stress Equivalent
= × = 5 × 147744.8N
in concrete Concrete area
= 738724N = 738.724kN

∴ Safe load
Problem-13: A short column 300mm × 300mm in section is reinforcement
with 8 bars of 22mm diameter. Find the safe load on the column as per
the I.S. code, permissible stress in concrete and steel being 5N/mm2 and
190N/mm3 respectively.
Solution.
Area of the column = 300 × 300 = 90000mm2

Area of steel Asc = 8 × 380 = 3040mm2

Actual area of concrete = 90000 − 3040 = 86960mm2
Safe stress in concrete = 5N/mm2
Safe stress in steel = 190N/mm2
∴ Safe load
       
area of Safe stress area of safe stress
= × + ×
concrete in concrete steel in steel
 = [86960 × 5] + [3040 × 190] = 434800 + 577600N
= 1012400N = 1012.40kN
Problem-14: A short R. C. column 250mm × 350mm is provided with
six bars of 20mm diameter. Find the safe load on the column. Use M 20
conerete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution.
Safe stress in concrete = 5N/mm2
Safe stress in steel = 190N/mm2

Area of steel Asc = 6 × 314 = 1884mm2

Area of concrete = (250 × 350) − 1884 = 85616mm2

Safe load on the column = area of concrete × safe stress in concrete + area
of steel × safe stress in steel.

= 85616 × 5 + 1884 × 190 = 786040N = 786.04kN

Problem-15: A reinforced concrete short column 400mm × 400mm has to

carry an axial compressive load of 1250 kN. Design the column. Use M 20
concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution.
Safe stress in concrete = 5N/mm2
Safe stress in steel = 190N/mm2
Let the area of steel be Asc mm2 ∴ Area of concrete = (400 × 400) − Asc =
160000 − Asc mm2
∴
   
area of concrete area of steel
∴ Safe load =  × + × 
safe stress in concrete safe stress in steel

= [160000 − Asc ] 5 + Asc × 190 = 1250 × 1000

∴ Asc = 2433mm2
Provide 8 bars of 20mm diameter (2512mm2 )
Diameter of ties
(i) 6mm
1 1
(ii) diameter of longitudinal bars = (20) = 5mm
4 4
Provide 6mm ties.
Spacing of ties. This is the least of the following.
(i) least lateral dimension = 400mm
(ii) 16× diameter of longitudinal bar = 16 × 20 = 320mm
(iii) 48× diameter of ties = 48 × 5 = 240mm
Provide 5mm ties @ 240mm centres.
Problem-15: A short column of square section is to be designed to carry
an axial load of 1023 kN. Design the column as per I.S. code. Permissible
stresses in concrete and steel are 5N/mm2 and 130N/mm2 .
Solution.

Safe stress in concrete = 5N/mm2

Safe stress in steel = 130N/mm2
Let us assume 2% of area of column as steel reinforcement. ∴ Area of steel
2
= × 1 − 0.02.4mm2
100
∴ Area of concrete = 0.98Amm2

Safe load = concrete area × safe stress in concrete + Steel area × safe
stress in steel

∴ 0.98A × 5 + 0.02A × 130 = 1023000N

7.5A = 1023000
A = 136400mm2
√
∴ Size of column = 136400 = 369mm
Hence provide 400mm × 400mm
∴ Área of column section = 160000mm2
∴ 5 (160000 − Asc ) + Asc × 130 = 1023000N
∴ 125Asc = 223000
∴ Asc = 1784mm2

Provide 8 bars of 18mm diameter (2032mm2 )

Lateral ties :
Diameter to be not less than
(i) 6mm
18
(ii) One-fourth of diameter of main steel = = 4 · 5mm
4
Let us provide 6 mm diameter ties.
Spacing :
This shall not exceed the following :
(i) Least lateral dimension = 400mm
(ii) 16 times the diameter of main bar = 16 × 18 = 288mm
(iii) 48 times the diameter of ties = 48 × 6 = 288mm
Provide 6mm ties at 250mm centres.

Figure 2.27: Arrangement of longitudinal bars and lateral ties (Problem-15)

2.16 LONG COLUMNS

When the ratio of the effective length of a column to its least lateral dimension
exceeds 12, the column will be regarded as a long column. Such columns are
liable to be buckled and to include this factor in the design the working
stresses in concrete and steel are taken at a lower value, by multiplying the
usual working stresses by a coefficient Cr called a reduction coefficient.
Hence for a long column
Safe stress in concrete = Cr × Corresponding safe stress for short column,
and safe stress in steel = Cr × Corresponding safe stress for short column.
The coefficient Cr , is to be determined from the following relation
 lef
Cr = 1.25 −
48b
lef
For more exact computations Cr = 1.25 −
160Km
Where
Cr = reduction coefficient
lcf = effective length of the column
Prblem-16: A column 400mm ×
b = least lateral dimension
Km = least radius of gyration.
400mm × 6 metre long has to support a load of 875 kilonewtons. Find the
necessary reinforcement for the column. Use M 20 concrete. For a short
column the safe stresses in concrete and steel are 5N/mm2 and 130N/mm2
respectively.
Solution.

b = Least lateral dimension = 400mm

lef = Effective length of the column = 6000mm
lef 6000
= = 15
b 400
This is greater than 12. Therefore, the column is a long column. Reduction
coefficient
lef 15
Cr = 1.25 − = 1.25 − = 0.937
48b 48
Safe load on long column
   
Reduction Safe load on
= ×
coefficient short column

Let the area of reinforcement be Asc mm2 ∴ Area of concrete

= (400 × 400) − Asc = (160000 − Asc ) mm2

∴ Safe load = 0.937 [5 (160000 − Asc ) + 130Asc ] = 875000 Newton

∴ Asc = 1071mm2
Provide 8 bars of 16mm diameter (1608mm2 ).
Lateral ties Diameter = greater of :
1 18
(i) diameter of main bars = = 4.5mm
4 4
(ii) 6mm
Provide 6mm ties.
Spacing of ties = least of following :
(i) least lateral dimension of the column = 400mm
(ii) 16 times diameter of main bars = 16 × 20 = 320m
(iii) 48 times the diameter of ties = 48 × 5 = 240mm
Provide 6 mm ties at 240mm centres

2.17 SPIRALLY REINFORCED CIRCULAR

COLUMNS
These are circular columns, which are reinforced with closely and uniformly
spaced spiral reinforcement in addition to longitudinal steel. Columns of
circular section are usually spirally reinforced. Sometimes separate loops may
also be provided in place of the spiral. The continuous spiral is adopted in
preference to separate loops. A column with helical reinforcement shall have
at least six bars as longitudinal reinforcement. The strength of a column
with helical reinforcement satisfying the requirement given below shall be
taken as 1.05 times the strength of similar member with lateral ties.
The ratio of the volume of helical reinforcement to the volume of the core
Ag fck
shall not be less than 0.36 −1
Ak fy
where,
Ag = Gross area of the section
Ah = Area of the core of the helically reinforced column measured to the
outside diameter of the helix.
fck = Characteristics compressive strength of concrete, (28 days strength of
concrete).
fy = Characteristic strength of the helical reinforcement but not exceeding
415N/mm2
Pitch of helical reinforcement (I.S. 456).
Helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with the turns of the helix
spaced evenly and its ends shall be anchored properly by providing one and
half extra turns of the spiral bar. The pitch of the helical turns shall be
not more than 75 mm,, nor more than one-sixth of the core diameter of the
column, nor less than 25 mm., nor less than three times the diameter of the
steel bar forming the helix.
Diameter of helical reinforcement.
The diameter of the helical reinforcement shall be not less than one- fourth
the diameter of the largest longitudinal bars and in no case less than 6 mm.
Long circular column.
A circular column will be considered as long if the ratio of the effective
length to the core diameter exceeds 12. The reduction coefficient Cr , for such
a column is given by
lef
Cr = 1.25 −
48b
where,
lef = Effective length of the column.
b = Diameter of the core.
Problem-17: Design a circular short column 400mm in diameter to support
an axial load of 800 kilonewtons. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 250 steel.
Solution.
Diameter of column = 400mm
Clear cover to longitudinal bars = 40mm
Let us provide 6mm diameter helical bars.
Clear cover to helical bar = 40 − 6 = 34mm

Figure 2.28: Circular column with helical reinforcement

∴ Core diameter = 400 − 2(34) = 332mm

Diameter of column corresponding to centre of helical bars

= 332 − 6 = 326mm
π
Gross area of the column = Ag = × 4002 = 125664mm2
4
π
Area of the core = Ak = × 3322 = 86570mm2
4
Let Asc = area of the longitudinal steel
Safe stress in concrete = 5N/mm2
Safe stress in steel = 130N/mm2
 
 concrete area x safe stesses in concrete 
Safe load = 1.05 +
steel area x safe stesses in steel
 

1.05 [5 (125664 − Asc ) + 130Asc ] = 800 × 103 N

Asc = 1069mm2
Provide 6 bars of 16 mm diameter (1206mm2 )
Provide 6mm diameter helical reinforcement at a pitch of 30mm.
Length of helix per pitch length
p
= (π × 326)2 + 302 = 1024.6mm

Volume of the helical reinforcement per pitch length = 28×1024.6 = 28689mm3

Volume of the core per pitch length = 86570 × 30 = 2602500mm3
28689
Ratio of volume of the helical steel to volume of core = = 0.01
2602500
This should not be less than
   
Ag fck 125664 20
0.36 −1 = 0.36 −1 = 0.01
Ak fy 86570 250
Hence, the provision of the helical reinforcement is satisfactory.
Problem-18: Design a short reinforced concrete column of circular section
to carry an axial load of 2000kN. The column should have a lateral reinforce-
ment in the form of a spiral. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 250 steel.
Solution.
Let A = Area of the column.
Let area of steel
Asc = 2% of A = 0.02A
∴ Area of concrete Ac = 0.98A
Safe load for the column = 1.05(5 × 0.98A + 130 × 0.02A) = 2000 × 103 N
∴ A = 253968.25mm2
Let the diameter of the column = D
πD2
= 253968.25 ∴ D = 568.6mm
4
Provide a diameter of 600mm
π
Gross area of the column = AZ = × 6002 = 282743.34mm2
4
1.05 [5 (282743.34 − Asc ) + 130Asc ] = 2000 × 103
Asc = 3928mm2

Provide 8 bars of 25mm diameter (3928mm2 ) Let us provide 8 mm diameter

helical reinforcement. Clear cover to longitudinal bars = 40mm Clear cover
to helical bar = 40 − 8 = 32mm

Core diameter = 600 − 2 × 32 = 5 : 3mm

Diameter of the column corresponding to the centre of the helical reinforce-

ment = 536 − 8 = 528mm
Pitch of helical reinforcement
(i) Not greater than 75mm
(ii) Nor greater than 1/6 core diameter = 1/6 × 536 = 89.3mm
(iii) Not less than 25mm
(iv) Not less than 3× diameter of the helical steel = 3 × 8 = 24mm Let us
provide a pitch of 50mm
p
Length of helix = (528π)2 + 502 = 1659.5mm
Volume of helical steel per pitch length = 50 × 1659.5 = 82975mm3
π
Area of the core = × 5362 = 2256641.75mm2
4
Volume of the core per pitch length = 225641.75 × 50 = 11282088mm3
Volume of helical steel per pitch length 82975
Ratio = = 0.00735
Volume of core per pitch length 11282088
This should not be less than
   
Ax fck 282743.34 20
0.36 −1 = 0.36 −1 = 0.007
Ak fy 225641.75 250
Hence, the provision of the helical reinforcement is satisfactory.
Problem-19: Design an axially loaded circular column to the following
requirement.
Actual length of the column = 7.80m
Axial load = 750kN
Type of reinforcement : longitudinal steel and helical steel
Quantity of steel : Minimum practical quantity
Note that the column is held in position and restrained against rotation at
both ends. Use M 20 concrete and Fe415 steel.
Solution.
Let the overall area of the column section
= Amm2
Area of longitudinal steel = Asc = 0.80% of A = 0.008Amm2
Area of concrete = Ac = A − 0.008A = 0.992Amm2

Safe load on the column = 1.05 (Ac × 5 + Asc × 190) = 1.05(0.9924 × 5 +

0.008A × 190) = 750 × 103

1.05 × 6.48A = 750 × 103 ∴ A = 110229.28mm2

∴ Diameter of the column

r r
4A 4 × 110229.28
D= = = 374.63mm
π π
Provide a diameter of 375mm
Effective length of the column = l = 0.65× actual length of the column
Slenderness ratio
= 0.65 × 7.80 = 5.07m
l 5.07 × 103
= = 13.52
D 375
This is greater than 12. Hence, this column is a long column.
l 13.52
Reduction coefficient Cr = 1.25 − = 1.25 − = 0.968
48D 48
3
750 × 10
Equivalent load on short column = = 774793.39N
0.968
π
Area of steel = 0.008 × × 3752 = 883.6mm2
4
Provide 6 bars of 14mm diameter
Actual area of steel provided = 6 × 153.938 = 923.63mm2
Safe load = 1.05 (Ac × 5 + 923.63 × 190) = 774793.39

∴ Ae = 112481.75

Overall area = A = Ac + A0 = 112481.75 + 923.63 = 113405.38mm2

r r
4A 4 × 113405.38
∴ Diameter of the column = D = = = 379.99
π π
π
Provide a diameter of 380mm ∴ As = × 3802 = 113411.49mm2
4
Clear cover to longitudinal bars = 40mm
Clear cover to helical bar (8mm dia. ) = 40 − 8 = 32mm
Diameter of the column corresponding to the centre of the helical reinforce-
ment = 380 − 8 = 372mm
Pitch of the helical reinforcement
(i) Not greater than 75mm
(ii) Not greater than 1/6 core diameter = 1/6(372) = 62mm
(iii) Not less than 25mm
(iw) Not less than 3 times the diameter of helical steel = 3 × 8 = 24mm
Let us provide a pitch
p of 60mm
Length of helix = (372π)2 + 602 = 1170.2mm
Volume of helical steel per pitch length

= 50 × 1170.2 = 58510mm3
π
Area of the core = × 3722 = 108686.54mm2
4
Volume of the core per pitch length = 108686.54 × 60 = 6521192.4mm3
58510
Ratio = = 0.008972
6521192.4
 
Ax fck
This ratio should not be less than 0.36 −1
 Ak fy 
113411.49 20
∴ Minimum value of the ratio = 0.36 −1 = 0.00075
108686.54 415
For practice (Columns)
1. A short column 350 mm×350mm in section is reinforced with 4 bars of
20mm diameter. Find the safeload on the column by simple elastic the-
ory. Take n = 13.33 use M20 concrete and Fe250 steel. (Ans:731.79kN )

2. A short column 400 min×400mm in section is provided with 8 bars of

20mm diameter. Find the safe axial load by I.S. code. Safe stresses in
concrete and steel are 5N/mm2 and 190N/mm2 . (Ans:1264.72kN )

3. A reinforced concrete columm 400mm × 450mm has to carry an axial

compressive load of 1700kN. Design the column. Use M20 concrete and
25mmφ415 steel. (Ans: (Asc = 3716.2mm2 say 8 bars of 357mm and 5mm , ties @ 240mm c/

4. An R.C. column 450mm × 450mm of effective length 6.75m has to sup-

port an axial load of 1250kN. Find the necessary reinforcement required
for the column. Safe stresses for concrete and steel and 5N/mm2 and
190N/ mm2 respectively. (Ans: (A6c = 1734.23mm2 , 4 − 16mmφ and 4 − 18mmφ)

5. Design a short circular column 450mm in diameter to support an axial

load of 1500kN. Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel. The helical steel
should be 6mmφ bars at a pitch of 30mm. Use M20 concrete and Fe415
steel. (Ans: (Asc = 3423.5mm2 , say 8 bars of 25mmφ)

2.18 Columns subjected to Combined Bend-

ing arid Direct Stresses
Often we come across members subjected to direct stresses accompanied by
bending stresses. A very common example is that of a column subjected to
an eccentric load or a column of a storeyed building. Other instances are in
arches, tank walls, chimneys, silos, bins etc. In some cases the direct stresses
may be predominant and the bending stresses may be small. While in some
cases the bending stresses may be predominant as compared with the direct
stresses.
IS Code recommendations:
Design Based on Untracked Section
A member subjected to axial load and bending (due to eccentricity of load,
monolithic construction, lateral forces, etc) shall be considered safe provided
the following conditions are satisfied:

(a)
σcc,cal σcbc,cal
+ ≤1
σcc σcbc

where

σcc,cal = calculated direct compressive stress in concrete,

σcc = permissible axial compressive stress in concrete
σcbc,cal = calculated bending compressive stress in concrete, and
σcbc = permissible bending compressive stress in concrete.
P
σcc,cal = + 1.5mAsc for columns with ties
Ac
where P, Ac and Asc defined in Cl.B-3.1 and
m is the modular ratio.
M
σcbc,cal =
Z
where M equals the moment and
Z equals modulus of section.
In the case of sections subject to moments in two directions, the stress
shall be calculated separately and added algebraically.

(b) The resultant tension in concrete is not greater than 35 % and 25 %

of the resultant compression for biaxial and uniaxial bending respec-
tively, or does not exceed three-fourths, the 7 day modulus of rupture
of concrete.

Simplification:
Rectangular section subjected to compression and bending. Eccentricity is
less than (See Fig. ). In this case the resultant stresses in concrete will
 Figure 2.29: Column section subjected to eccentric loading

remain compressive and resultant stresses are given by where

P M
c= ±
Ae Z
P = Eccentric load
M = B.M. due to eccentric Load = P e
Z = Section modulus of the equivalent concrete section about the axis with respect to which the
Ac = Equivalent concrete area.
For the section shown in the figure with symmetrical reinforcement, we have
the equivalent area of the section.
= Ae = bD + (1.5m − 1)Asc
where
Asc = Total area of the reinforcement. Equivalent moment of inertia about
the axis XX

2
bD3

D
Ie = + (1.5m − 1)Asc − dc
12 2
Ie
Z=
D
2
∴ The resultant stresses are
 
P P.e D
c= ±
Ae Ie 2

The following examples illustrate the above case.

Design Based on Cracked Section:

If the requirements specified above are not satisfied, the stresses in concrete
and steel shall be calculated by the theory of cracked section in which the
tensile resistance of concrete is ignored. If the calculated stresses are within
the permissible stress specified in Tables 21,22 and 23 (IS-456:2000) the sec-
tion may be assumed to be safe.
NOTE - The maximum stress in concrete and steel may be found from tables
and charts based on the cracked section theory or directly by determining
the no-stress line which should satisfy the following requirements:

(a) The direct load should be equal to the algebraic sum of the forces on
concrete and steel,

(b) The moment of the external loads about any reference line should be
equal to the algebraic sum of the moment of the forces in concrete
(ignoring the tensile force in concrete) and steel about the same line,
and

(c) The moment of the external loads about any other reference lines should
be equal to the algebraic sum of the moment of the forces in concrete
(ignoring the tensile force in concrete) and steel about the same line.
Members Subjected to Combined Direct Load and Flex-
ure
Members subjected to combined direct load and flexure and shall be designed
by limit state method as in Cl. 39.5 (IS 456-2000) after applying appropriate
load factors as given in Table 18 (IS 456-2000).

Solved Examples
Problem-20: A rectangular reinforced concrete section 400 mm wide and
600 mm deep is reinforced with 6 bars of 20 mm diameter placed at a cover
of 40 nun. from the top edge and 6 similar bars at the same cover from the
bottom edge. Determine the maximum thrust on the section, which cap be
applied at a distance of 80 mm. from the centre line, if the compressive stress
in concrete is not to exceed 7N/mm2 Take m = 13.33.
Solution.
e = 80 mm
Effectively cover to steel = 50 mm
D 600 D
= = 100 mme <
6 6 6
Area of steel = 12 × 314 = 3768mm2
Equivalent area of concrete Ae = bD + (1.5m − 1)Asc

= (400 × 600) + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)3768

= 311573.2mm2

Equivalent moment of inertia about the centroidal axis XX.

400 × 6003
Ie = + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)3768 × 2502
12
= 116.733 × 108 mm4
Permissible compressive sinçss un concrete

= 7N/mm2
P Pe
+ yc = 7
Ae Ie
P P × 80
+ × 300 = 7
311573.2 166.733 × 108
(3.20952 + 2.05597)10−6 P = 7
P = 1329411N = 1329.41kN

Problem-21: A rectangular reinforced concrete section 700 mm deep and

450 mm wide is reinforced with 7 bars of 28 mm diameter placed at an
effective cover of 50 mm from the top edge and seven similar bars at the
same effective cover from the bottom edge. Determine the maximum thrust
on the section, which can be applied at a distance of 100 mm from the centre
line if the compressive stress in concrete is not to exceed 7 N/mm2 . Take m
= 13.33.
Solution.
e = 100 mm
Effectively cover to steel = 50 mm
D 700 D
= = 116.7 mme <
6 6 6
Total area of steel provided= 14 × 615.8 = 8621.2 mm2 Equivalent area of
concrete for section
Ae = bD + (1.5m − 1)Akc
= (450 × 700) + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)8621.2mm2 = 478759.7mm2

Equivalent rnoment of Inertia about the centroidal axis XX.

2
bD3

D
= Ie = + (1.5m − 1)Asc − dc
12 2
450 × 7003
= + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1) × 8621.2 × (350 − 50)2 mm4
12
= 2.76009 × 1010 mm4
 Figure 2.30: Column Cross section (Problem-21)

P M
Maximum compressive stress in concrete = c = + y
Ae Ie
P P × 100 × 35
7= +
478759.7 2.76009 × 1010
P = 3159503N = 3159.503kN
Problem-22: A circular R.C.C. column of 500 mm diameter is provided
with 12 bars of 20 mm diameter arranged as shown in Fig. 11.7. The column
section is subjected to an axial load of 800 kN and a bending moment of 35
kNm. Investigate the safety of the design. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415
steel. Solution.
Area of steel
π × 202
= Asc = 12 × = 3769.9mm2
4
 Figure 2.31: Circular column cross section(Problem-22)

Equivalent concrete area

π
Ae = (500)2 + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)3769.9
4
= 267958.8mm2

The steel reinforcement may taken as equivalent to a thin circular pipe of

area 3769.9 mm2 and diameter 400 mm Moment of inertia of steel component
Moment of inertia of steel component

3769.9 × 2002
= Is = = 7.539 × 107 mm4
2
Equivalent moment of inertia of the transformed concrete section.

π × 5004
= Ie = + (1.5 × 13.33 − 1)7.539 × 107
64
= 45 × 108 mm4
Induced direct compressive stress in concrete

W 800 × 103
= σcc,cal = = = 2.985N/mm2
Ae 267958.8
Extreme compressive stress in concrete due to bending moment

M 35 × 106
= σcbc,cal = ·R= × 250 = 1.944N/mm2
Ie 45 × 108
σcc = 5N/mm2
σcbc = 7N/mm2
σcc,cal σcbc,cal 2.985 1.944
+ = + = 0.597 + 0.278 = 0.875 < 1
σcc σcbc 5 7
∴ The design is safe
Chapter 3

Module-2: Limit State Method

(LSM)

3.1 Introduction
The limit state method ensures the safety at ultimate load and serviceabilitv
at working load rendering the structure fit for its intended use. Thus, it
considers the fitness of the structure to perform its function satisfactorily
during its service life span.
The salient features and the merits of the methods are briefly given
below:

(i) It considers the actual behaviour of the structure during the entire
loading history up to collapse.

(ii) It adopts the concept of fitness of structure to serve the desired function
during the service life span and defines the limiting state of fitness as
the ’limit state’.

(iii) It attempts to define quantitatively the margins of safety or fitness on

some scientific mathematical foundations rather than on ad-hoc basis
of experience and judgement.
The mathematical basis is derived from classical reliability theory and
statistical probability ( e.g. the reliability of the fitness of the structure
and probability of attainment of a critical limit state).

94
 (iv) The method, adopts the idea of probability of structure becoming unfit,
and attempts to achieve the minimum acceptable probability of failure.

(v) The method is based on statistical probabilistic principles.

In the limit state method, a structure is essentially designed for safety against
collapse i.e. for ultimate strength to resist ultimate load and checked for its
serviceability at working loads.

3.2 Types and Classification of Limit States

The various limit states required to be considered for normal structures arc
conveniently grouped into two major categories, namely:
(a) Limit states of collapse
(b) Limit states of serviceability,

3.2.1 Limit State of Collapse (Ultimate Limit State)

It is the limit state on attainment of which the structure is likely to collapse.
It relates to stability and ultimate strength of the structure. Design to this
limit state insures safety of structure from collapse. The structural failure
can be any of the following types :

(i) Collapse of one or more members occurring as a result of force coming

on the member exceeding its strength (Types (a) and (b) given below);

(ii) Displacement of the structure bodily due to lack of equilibrium between

the external forces and the resisting reactions (Types (c), (d), (e) given
below).

The various conditions leading to structural failures are as follows:

1. Failure, breakage and hence division into segments of one or more mem-
bers of the structure either due to material failure or structure as a
whole or on account of formation of mechanism by development of
plastic hinges at one or more critical sections.

2. Buckling;

3. Sliding;
 4. Overturning;
5. Sinking

ˆ The failure of member could be in axial compression, axial tension,

bending, shear, torsion, hand or their combination. For safety, it is
necessary to ensure that failure occurs by none of these.
ˆ Material failure can be due to crushing of concrete or yielding of steel
resulting finally in crushing of concrete.

This limit state is attended to by providing resistance greater than the force
coming on it and keeping a margin of safety through safety factors.
I.S. Code prescribes different safety factors for overturning and sliding
without giving any special status to sinking and buckling.

3.2.2 Limit State of Serviceability

Limit states of serviceability relate to performance or behaviour of structure
at working loads and are based on causes affecting serviceability of the struc-
ture.
They are mainly subdivided into following categories :
1. Limit State of Deflection,
2. Limit State of Cracking, and
3. Other limit states.

3.2.3 Limit State of Deflection :

Design to this limit state safeguards the serviceability of the structure from
adverse effects of excessive deflection given below :
1. Excessive deflection creates feeling of lack of safety.
2. It affects geometry and shape and hence the appearance of the struc-
ture.
3. It leads to misalignment of sensitive machinery and hence affects smooth
functioning and performance, and increases wear and tear of the ma-
chinery and thereby reduces its life.
 4. It leads to deformations of door and window frames and hence affects
fitting of shutters.

5. It leads to objectionable cracks in walls, ceiling finishes, floor and roof

slabs creating leakage problems in roof slabs which retain water.

6. It creates problems of poor drainage and ponding on roofs.

This limit state is attended to by prescribing maximum allowable deflections

or by prescribing maximum allowable span to depth ratios.
This limit state is critical especially in case of roof and floor slabs.

3.2.4 Limit State of Cracking:

Design to this limit state safeguards the serviceability of the structure against
damage due to excessive cracking. Attainment of this limit state has the
following adverse effects:

1. It mars the appearance of exposed surface.

2. It creates a feeling of lack of safety whe11 present in large proportions

in walls and beams.

3. It reduces the imperviousness, creating leakage problems in roofs, tank

walls and floors rendering them unserviceable.

4. It leads to corrosion of steel and hence reduction in strength and dura-

bility of the structure.

5. It reduces the stiffness of the member and hence increases deflections.

6. It creates lot of maintenance problems.

Cracking is not dangerous directly but leads to ill effects shown above.
This limit state is attended to by imposing restrictions on maximum crack
width for important structures,and, by adhering to appropriate detailing
rules arid restrictions on bar diameter, spacing, cover etc., for common type
of structures.
This limit state is critical for water retaining structures.
3.2.5 Other Limit States :
Structures designed for special or unusual functions need considerations of
appropriate Limit States.
They are briefly given as under :

1. Vibration : This limit state is applicable to structures subjected to dy-

namic loads. Attainment of this limit state causes discomfort or alarm
to occupants, structural damage and interferes with proper function-
ing of the structures. Acceptable vibration limits arc given in specialist
literature.

2. Fire Resistance: In this case a structure or a structural element

should be designed to possess an appropriate degree of resistance to
flame penetration, heat transmission and collapse, to avoid loss of hu-
man life and damage to the structure. The requirement for fire safety
depends on the type of structure ( e.g. hotel, paints factory, textile
mills, electronic data processing installation etc.). One may refer to IS
: 1642 for details of construction for fire safety of buildings.

3. Durability: This limit state relate to durability of concrete structures

against exposure conditions. (such as rain, continuously under water,
aggressive soil, sea water, freezing and thawing, exposure to aggressive
chemicals, sulphate attack etc.)
This limit state is attended to by increasing the durability of concrete.

3.3 Characteristic Strength And

Characteristic Load
A structure is normally designed to provide safety against collapse. The fail-
ure occurs when the load acting on the structure exceeds its strength.
Thus, the load, and the strength of constituent material forming a structural
member become the two basic design parameters which decide the safety of
the structure.
Since both these factors are totally independent of each other, they need sep-
arate treatment in the process of determination of safety. Each of the above
factors has hardly ever a constant value. It is prone to variations and that
is its characteristic. These inherent variations can, however, be quantified
on the basis of statistical principles because either the data may be available
or the possibility of getting the statistical data in terms of numerical values
exists. Since collapse of a structure is related to simultaneous occurrence of
overload and under-strength, the value to be assigned to the load has to be
that value which has minimum acceptable probability of not being exceeded
during the life time of the structure, and the material strength has to be
that value which has maximum reliability (probability of being achieved).
The values assigned to loads, and material strength on this basis are known
as ’characteristic values’ on the basis of statistical probabilistic principles.

3.3.1 Characteristic Strength

The characteristic strength of material is that value of material strength be-
low which not more than a minimum acceptable percentage of test results are
expected to fall. I.S. Code, prescribe this minimum acceptable percentage
equal to 5% for reinforced concrete structures. It means that characteristic
strength has 95% reliability or there is only 5% probability of actual strength
being less than the characteristic strength.
The characteristic value of a quantity liable to variations is obtained from
frequency distribution curve.
It is a curve obtained by plotting the frequency ordinates for different as-
sumed intervals of the quantity between the range of minimum and maxi-
mum values of the given data. If the variation is normal, the curve is called
a normal (Gaussian) distribution curve (see Figure.3.1).
The value of the quantity corresponding to peak of the curve is known as
the mean value. A normal frequency distribution curve is symmetrical about
this value. The area of the curve from the beginning to any ordinate having
a value say ’f’ gives the probability of occurrence of a value less than ’f ’.
Thus, in Figure. 3.1, the shaded area indicates the probability of a value
going below fck . Assuming normal distribution curve for material strength
(which holds good in case of steel and concrete strengths to a great extent),
the value of characteristic strength corresponding to only 5% probability of
not being achieved can be obtained as that value upto which area of curve is
5 % of the total area. The particular value, as obtained from the properties
of the normal distribution curve, is given by the following equation :
A+B =C
fk = fm − 1.64s
 Figure 3.1: Freqvency Distribution Curve for Strength

where,
fk is the characteristic strength,
fm is the mean strength,
s is the standard deviation, and
1.64 is a value corresponding to 5% probability.
The value of the standard deviation ’s’ is given by
sP
M2
n−1
where,
M = deviation of the individual test strength from the average or mean strength of n samples;
n = number of sample test results.
The design codes always prescribe a minimum number of test results or
arriving at the standard deviation. They also prescribe the requirements for
number of samples and the acceptance criteria.

3.3.2 Characteristic Load

A) Defination :
A characteristic load is defined as that value of load which has 95% prob-
 ability of not being exceeded during the service life span of the structure.
It is given by the ordinate upto which area of curve is 95% of the total
area as shown in Figure. 3.2 Assuming normal distribution curve for

Figure 3.2: Frequency Distribution Curve for Load

loads also, the characteristic load Fk is given by :

Fk = Fm + 1.64s
where,
Fm is the mean value of the load,
s is standard deviation.

B) Load Types :
The various types of loads acting on the structures and requiring con-
siderations in design are essentially as follows :
(i) Dead Load (DL): Dead loads are permanent or stationery loads
which are transferred to the structure or structural members through-
out their life span. Dead load is mainly due to self weight of
structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed permenant
equipment and fittings.
The magnitude of dead load is calculated from unit weights of
different materials and are contained in IS 875 (Part-1).
 (ii) Live Load (LL) or Imposed Load (IL) : Live loads or imposed
loads are either movable opnoving loads without any acceleration
or impact. These loads are assumed to be produced by intended
use or occupancy of the building including weight of movabl par-
tition or furniture etc.
The imposed loads to be assumed in design of buildings are con-
tained in IS 875 (Part-2)
(iii) Wind Load: Wind load is a primary hOiizontal load caused by
movement of air relative to earth. The design wind load is a
function of design wind speed, risk coefficient, terrain roughness,
aspect ratio of building and local topographical features. IS 875
(Part-3)
(iv) Earthquake Load: Earthquake loads are horizontal forces caused
by earthquake and shall be computed in accordance with IS:1893
and IS:4326.
Either wind load and earthquake load is to be considered because
their probability of simultaneous occurrence is almost zero.

3.4 Partial Safety Factors

Since the safety of the structure depends n each of the two principal design
factors ( viz. loads and material strengths) which are not the functions of
each other, two different safety factors, one for load and the other for material
strength are used instead of a single safety factor.
Because each of the two safety factors contribute partially to safety, they are
termed as partial safety factors.

3.4.1 Partial Safety Factors:

(Γf )For Loads and Design Load (Fd )
Partial safety factor for load is a load increasing factor (greater than unity)
which when multiplied to characteristic load gives a load known as Design
Load for which the structure is to be designed.
It takes into account unforeseen possible increase in load, inaccurate assess-
ment of load effects, unexpected stress redistribution and variation in dimen-
sional accuracy.
Thus, it makes provision for margin of safety. The partial safety factor for
load is given by :
Fd
γf =
Fk
F d = γf F k
where,

Fd = design load, and

Fk = characteristic load.
γf = Partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and limit state being considered

The partial safety factor for loads, which at times is simply known as load
factor, depends upon

1. the type of load and the load combination

2. the type of limit state.

3.4.2 Partial Safety Factors For

Material Strength (Γm ) and
Design Strength (Fd )
Partial safety factor for material strength is a strength reduction factor
(greater than unity) when applied to the characteristic strength gives a
strength known as Design Strength. It takes account of differences between
actual and laboratory values, local weaknesses, variation in strength etc.
fck
γm =
fd
The design.strength is thus given by
fck
fd =
γm
where, fd is design strength, fck is characteristic strength.
The partial safety factor γm for material strength recommended by IS:456
are given as
Table 3.1: Partial Safety Factor (γf ) for Loads (according to IS : 456-2000)
Load Limit State of Collapse Limit State of Serviceability
Combination DL IL WL DL IL WL
DL+IL 1.5 1.5 – 1.0 1.0 –
1.5 or
DL+WL – 1.5 1.0 – 1.0
0.9*
DL+IL+WL 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8

* This value is to be considered when stability against overturning or stress reversal is

critical.
Notes:
1. * DL = dead load, IL = Imposed load or Live load, WL = wind load.
2. While considering earthquake effects, substitute EL for WL.
3. Since the serviceability relates to behaviour of the structure at working load the
partial safety factors for limit state of serviceability are unity.
4. For limit state of serviceability, the values giveh in this table are applicable for
short term effects. While assessing the long-term effects due to creep, the dead
load and that part of the live load likely to be permanent may only be considered.

Table 3.2: Partial Safety Factors for Material Strength (IS : 456 )
Material Limit State of Collapse
Concrete 1.5
Steel 1.15

3.5 Difference between WSM(Working Stress

Method) and LSM(Limit State Method)
Table 3.3: Difference between WSM(Working Stress Method) and
LSM(Limit State Method)
Working Stress Method{WSM) Limit State Method(ISM)
Follow Hooks law i.e. stress-strain di- Does not follow Hooks law, hence
agram is linear. stress-strain diagram is non linear.
All tensile stresses are taken by steel The tensile strength of concrete is ig-
only and not by concrete. nored.
Factor of safety is used. Here partial safety factors are used.
It is based on deterministic approach It is based on probabilistic approach
i.e. original behavior of structure un- to design.
der real applied loads.
Here material strength is underesti- Here material strength is underesti-
mated and loads are working loads. mated and loads are generally working
loads with extra safety i.e. overesti-
mated.
WSM satisfies serviceability criteria Major concern is Safety and Service-
but highly uneconomical. ability before failure.
The plane section before bending Plane section before bending remains
remains plane after bending means plane after bending means only strain
stress-strain diagram linear. diagram is linear.
Non-Cracking zone is generally consid- Cracking Zone is considered.
ered.
There is a need of modular ratio. There is no need of modular ratio.
Stresses from working loads are com- Stresses obtained from design loads
pared with permissible stresses. are compared with design strength.
It is based on elastic theory. It is based on plastic theory.
Chapter 4

Module-3: Limit State of

Collapse – Flexure, Shear,
Bond and Torsion

4.1 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE -

FLEXURE
In limit state design, a reinforced concrete structure is normally designed
for limit state of collapse and is checked for limit state of serviceability.
The collapse of structure occurs by failure of its member either in· flexure,
shear, bond, torsion, axial compression or tension, or by combination of these
actions.
The strength of a memher at limit state of collapse is known as ultimate
strength and this term will, therefore, be used hereafter for convenience.

4.1.1 THEORY OF BENDING OF R. C. MEMBERS

AT LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE:
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS :
The design codes make the following basic assumptions for the theory of
bending of R. C. members at collapse :
(a) A normal section plane before bending remains plane after bending
right upto collapse.

106
 (b) The ultimate state of collapse is said to have reached in flexure when the
maximum compressive strain in concrete in the outermost fibre reaches
the ultimate crusting strain cu . I.S. code prescribes the maximum
compressive strain in concrete equal to 0.0035 even though it varies
with the grade of concrete between 0.003 to 0.005.
(c) Concrete under tension is ignored.
Tension is assumed to be carried entirely by reinforcement.
(d) The distribution of compressive stress in concrete across the section is
defined by an idealized stress-strain curve of concrete.
(e) Perfect bond exists between steel and concrete right upto collapse.
(f) The design stress in steel reinforcement is obtained from the strain at
reinforcement level using idealized stress-strain curve for the type of
reinforcement used.
(g) According to IS code, the maximum strain in steel in tension shall not
he less than :
fy
0.002 + at collapse.
(1.15Es )

4.1.2 CONCRETE
Idealized Stress-Strain Curves :
To enable the mathematical treatment possible, various investigators have
proposed different shapes and expressions for an idealized curve in place of
the actual stress-strain curve for concrete under axial compression. Whitney
has pioneered a simplified rectangular stress block. This concept consid-
erably reduces the computational efforts. A commonly used curve is that
proposed by CEB/FIP (International recommendation for the design and
construction of concrete structures 1970) which consists of a parabola for the
initial ascending part followed by a horizontal straight line terminating at a
prescribed ultimate strain, irrespective of the grade of concrete (Figure 4.1).
The equation of the idealized stress-strain curve is given by :
"  2 #
2ε ε
σ= − σ0 for 0 < ε < ε0
ε0 ε0 (4.1)
and, σ = σ0 for ε0 ≤ ε < εcu
 Figure 4.1: Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete

where,
ε = strain at any point
σ = stress at any point
ε0 = strain at which parabolic part ends = 0.002 as per IS.code.
σ0 = idealized maximum stress corresponding to ε0
The effect of size and shape of test specimen with that of actual structural
member in flexure is taken into account and the idealized stress strain curve
for concrete in member is obtained by multiplying each ordinate by 0.67
giving maximum stress σ0 = fmax = 0.67fck .
In addition to this partial safety factor of 1.5 is applied to get the design
curve.
Thus, the design stress= 0.67fck /1.5 = 0.446fck ≈ 0.45fck

4.1.3 REINFORCING STEEL

Reinforcing steel consists of bars, usually circular in cross section. These are,
at present, available in three different grades viz., Fe250, Fe415 and Fe500,
wherein Fe refers to Ferrous metal and the number refers to the specified
guaranteed yield stress in N/mm2
Plain Round Bars of Mild Steel :
They are usually of mild steel (grade Fe 250) conforming to IS:432. It has
a well defined yield point giving yield stress of 250 N/mm2 , and excellent
ductility with percentage elongation at failure not less than 23% and guar-
anteed weldability. The actual stress-strain curve and idealized stress-strain
curve for mild steel is shown in Figure 4.2. For mild steel, the stress is pro-

Figure 4.2: Stress-strain Relationship for Mild Steel

portional to strain upto yield point. Thereafter the rate of increase of strain
is more than that of stress, reaching the maximum stress. Then the necking
continues to form with reduction of stress and increase in strain and finally
the test specimen breaks. For the purpose of analysis an idealized curve is
drawn in place of actual stress-strain curve, with the change that the strain
is considered to increase at constant stress after reaching the yield stress.

High Yield Strength Deformed Bars. (HYSD):

As the name indicates the high yield strength deformed bars have much
high yield point, but the yield point is not well defined. The yield stress or
characteristic stress is given by 0.2% proof stress. These bars possess ribs,
lugs or deformations on their surface with the result their bond characteristic
is improved. The bars are either hot rolled from steel billets or by cold
working. In the cold working process the bars having deformations are cold
twisted. Twisting is continued till the strains are in the elasto-plastic range
and then unloaded. During this process the bar gets hardened with the
result stress increases but ductility decreases. These cold twisted bars are
commercially manufactured under the trade name ”TORSTEEL” and, at
present, available in two varieties viz TOR40 and TORSO of grade Fe415
and Fe 500 respectively. The high strength deform bars shall confirm to IS:
1786.
These bars have following advantages :

1. Because of the high yield strength the quantity of steel required in R.C.
work is reduced. Since the difference in its cost compared to mild steel
is marginal there is reduction in the overall cost of R.C. construction.

2. HYSD bars have very good bond with concrete than mild steel so that
they may be placed without end hook and resulting in saving in steel.

3. By cold working the strength of the bar is increased in a radially sym-

metrical pattern. During the twisting process the defects, if any, are
noticed they are rejected. Thus, each bar is severely tested for defects.

The disadvantages are :

1. With increase in stress level the cracking tendency increases. Hence for
Fe550 or higher grade of steel it becomes necessary to use high grade
concrete.

2. Due to reduction in percentage of tension steel, the design shear strength

of concrete is reduced.

IS code idealizes the stress-strain curve and the one for Fe415 grade of steel
is shown in Figure 4.3. For HYSD bars the stress is proportional to a strain
upto a stress of 0.8fy and thereafter the curve is nonlinear. It attains the
yield stress at a strain of 0.002 + fy /Es in which the first part of 0.002 is an
inelastic strain and the later part (fy /Es ) is an elastic strain.
The inelastic strain of 0.002 is added to the elastic strain so that there is
sufficient yielding of steel before failure at constant stress can occur. Ap-
plying partial safety factor of steel as 1.15, the design stress, fyd = fy /1.15
i.e. 0.87fy . Thus, the design stress-strain curve is linear upto design stress
of 0.8fy /1.15 and nonlinear till it reaches a value of fy /1.15 at a strain of
0.002 + 0.87fy /Es .
 Figure 4.3: Stress-strain curve for HYSD bars

Table 4.1: Design Stress-strain Curve of HYSD Bars

Design Inelastic Fe415 Fe500
stress strain Elastic Total Stress Elastic Total Stress
2
strain strain N/mm strain strain N/mm2
0.80fy /1.15 0 0.00144 0.00144 288.7 0.00174 0.00174 347.8
0.85fy /1.15 0.0001 0.00153 0.00163 306.7 0.00185 0.00195 369.6
0.90fy /1.15 0.0003 0.00162 0.00192 324.8 0.00196 0.00226 391.3
0.95fy /1.15 0.0007 0.00171 0. 00241 342.8 0.00207 0.00277 413.0
0.975fy /1.15 0.0010 0.00176 0.00276 351.8 0.00212 0.00312 423.9
fy /1.15 0.0020 0.00180 0 .0038 0 360.9 0.00217 0.00417 434.8

The modulus of elasticity of steel is taken equal to 2,00,000 N/mm2 . The

values of design stress and the corresponding values of inelastic and elastic
sttains at some typical points for steel grade Fe415 and Fe500 are given Table
4.1. Intermediate values required can be obtained by linear interpolation.

Properties of Round Bars

The basic weight of steel is taken equal to 7850 kg/m3 A quicker method to
assess the weight of bar of circular section is given by the formula :
 Figure 4.4: Stress-strain curve for mild steel bars

Weight of bar in kg/m = φ2 /162.2

Table 4.2: Structural Properties of Steel Reinforcement

Sr.No. Property Value
Characteristic yield strength - (fy )
(a) Mild steel - Fe 250 250 N/mm2
1. (b) High grade steel
- Fe415 415 N/mm2
- Fe500 500 N/mm2
2. Partial safety factor for material strength, γm 1.15
3. Design yield strength (fyd = fy /γm ) 0.87fy
4. Modulus of elasticity ( Es ) 2 × 105 N/mm2
5. Minimum strain in bending tension at collapse 0.002 + fy /(1.15Es )
4.1.4 PROPERTIES OF A SINGLY REINFORCED
RECTANGULAR SECTION
ACCORDING TO I.S. CODE
The characteristic properties of a reinforced concrete section are as follows :

xu =Depth of neutral axis below the compression face or depth of concrete under compression
representing useful concrete. It is also the depth of stress-block.
Mur =Ultimate flexural moment of resistance of the section.
By equilibrium, it is also equal to the external design momentMu
A =Area of tension steel representing useful tension reinforcement.

The other geometric quantities are: b = width of section., d = effective depth

of the section. The characteristic quantities described above are usually ex-
pressed in a non-dimensional form, as follows, for their convenient use in
design.

Expressing, xu = ku d
(4.2)
∴ ku = xu /d
Expressing Mu in general which is equal to Mur as :

Mu = Mur = Ru · bd2
∴ Ru = Mu /bd2
(4.3)
Expressing, Ast = pt · bd
∴ pt = Ast /bd

Here, ku is termed as 1neutral axis factor,

Ru is termed as moment of resistance factor
pt is termed as steel factor or the reinforcement index,
and is usually expressed in terms of percentage of reinforcement i.e.,100pt

The design quantities and the design parameters defining properties of sec-
tions are derived below :
The section with its geometric dimensions, strain diagram and stress di-
agram are shown in Figure 4.5. The idealized design stress-strain curve for
 Figure 4.5: Properties of Under - reinforced Section1

concrete as prescribed by I.S. code is rectangular-parabolic as shown in Fig-

ure 4.1. Accordingly, the shape of the stress-block is shown in Figure 4.5. It
consists of a parabola emerging from the neutral axis with its apex al a point
having strain of 0.002, and a rectangle in the region beyond that point upto
compression face where maximum strain is 0.0035.
Thus, the depth of parabolic part of the stress block
 
0.0102 4xu
= xu = (4.4)
0.0035 7
4xu 3xu
∴ The depth of rectangular part = xu − = (4.5)
7 7
Knowing the shape and maximum ordinate of the stress block
Area of stress block (OABCDO) = A = Area of rectangular ABCD + Arca
of parabola OAD
 
3 4 2
∴ A = (0.446fck ) × xu + 0.446fck × xu ×
7 7 3 (4.6)
= 0.361xfck · xu ≈ 0.36fck · xu

faν
∴ Average stress = faν = 0.361xfck ∴ k1 = = 0.361 ≈ 0.36 (4.7)
fck
Similarly the distance of centroid of stress-block from compression face is
obtained by taking its moment of areas about compression face.
       
3xu 1 3xu 2 4xu 3 3 4xu
0.446fck × × + 0.446fck × xu + ×
7 2 7 3 7 7 8 7
x=
0.361fck xu
=0.416xu
≈0.42 · xu
x
∴ k2 = = 0.416 ∼= 0.42
xu
(4.8)
The three parameters fully define the stress-block, in the sense that they
enable us to get total compression on concrete, and moment contributed by
concrete compression.

4.1.5 Under-Reinforced Section

For an under-reinforced section,
fs = fyd = 0.87fy and εs shall be taken ≥ 0.002 + (0.87fy /εs ) and k1 = 0.36

(a) Depth of Neutral Axis (xu ) and Neutral Axis factor ( ku ):

Considering equilibrium of internal forces, when no external axial load
is acting,

Total Compression Cu = Total tension Tu

But Cu = Area of stress block × b = 0.36fck b xu
and Tu = fyd × Ast = 0.87fy Ast

0.87fy Ast
∴ 0.36fck · bxu = 0.87fy Ast ∴ xu = (4.9)
0.36fck · b
The neutral axis factor
xu 0.87fy Ast 0.87fy
ku = ∴ ku = = · pt (4.10)
d 0.36fck · bd 0.36fck

(b) Ultimate Moment of Resistance ( Mu ) and Ultimate Moment

of Resistance factor ( Ru ) :
the moment of resistance of the section is obtained by taking moment
of total compression about C.G. of steel and vice-versa.
The moment of resistance is a couple formed by equal and opposite
internal forces Cu and Tu acting at lever arm distance zu .

∴ Mur = Cu ·zu or Mur = Tu ·zu where, zu = lever arm = (d − 0.42xu )

(4.11)

(i) Mur from Tension in Steel :

Mur = Tu · zu or Mu = Mur = 0.87fy Ast (d − 0.42xu ) (4.12)

Mur can be expressed in terms of Ast only, by substituting the

value of xu the above equation.
 
0.87fy Ast
∴ Mur = 0.87fy Ast d − 0.42 ×
0.36fck · b
  (4.13)
fy Ast
∴ Mur = 0.87fy Ast d 1 −
fck bd

In order to express Mur in the form Rbd2 , we substitute A = pt .bd

in the above equation,
 
fy
∴ Mur = 0.87fy pt 1 − · pt bd2 = Ru bd2 ;
fck
  (4.14)
fy
∴ Ru = 0.87fy pt 1 − pt
fck

Ru is know as moment of resistance factor and has a unit of

N/mm2 .
(ii) Mur from Compression in Concrete :

Mur = Cu zu
= 0.36fck bxu zu (4.15)
or Mur = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu )
In order to get Mur in the form Ru bd2 , we substitute x = ku d in
the above equation

∴ Mur = {0.36fck ku (1 − 0.42ku )} bd2 = Ru bd2

(4.16)
∴ Ru = 0.36fck ku (1 − 0.42ku )
 Taking exact value of lever arm zu = (d − 0.416xu ), the solution
of the equation
s !
4.62Mur
xu = 1.2 1 − 1 − d
fck bd2
s ! (4.17)
4.62Ru
ku = 1.2 1 − 1 −
fck

(iii) Area of Steel (Ast ) and Steel factor (Pt ) :

In design problems, usually the reinforcement is required to be
determined for resisting a given Mu . The expressions for Ast and
pt have, therefore, been obtained in terms of xu and ku respectively
as follows:
0.36fck · bxu 0.36fct · ku
Ast = or pt = (4.18)
0.87fy 0.87fy
 r 
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bd
fy  fck bd2
r (4.19)
0.5fck 4.6Ru
pt = 1− 1−
fy fck

Balanced Section
The strain distribution and stress distribution diagrams are shown in Figure
. As per assumptions made above. The maximum compressive strain in
concrete is 0.0035 and the maximum strain in tension reinforcement at failure
shall not he less than ,
fy 0.87fy
0.002 + = 0.002 + (4.20)
1.15 × Es Es
Since IS. code does not allow over-reinforced section, the depth of the neutral
axis is restricted to that of a balanced section and hence the depth of the
critical neutral axis will be the maximum depth of the neutral axis, xu.max
. Therefore, all the design parameters, ku , Ru , pt , for a balanced section will
he the maximum values, and therefore, they have been appropriately termed
as ku.max , Ru.max , pt.max .
xu.max 0.0035
=
d − xu.max 0.002 + 0.87fck /Es
(4.21)
xu. max 0.0035
∴ =
d 0.0035 + (0.002 + 0.87fck /Es )
Substituting E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
700
xu max = ·d
1100 + 0.87fy (4.22)
700 xu,max
ku max = =
1100 + 0.87fy d

Figure 4.6: Balance Section

Also
Mur,max = 0.36fck bxu,max (d − 0.42xu,max ) = Ru.mar bd2 = Mu

Ru,max = 0.36fck ku,max (1 − 0.42ku,max )

(4.23)
0.36fck
pt max = ku..max
0.87fy

0.36fck bxu.muxr
or Ast max =
0.87fy
 Table 4.3: Design Parameters for a Balanced Section
Concrete Grade M20 M25
Steel Grade Fe250 Fe415 Fe500 Fe250 Fe415 Fe500
ku.max 0.53 0.48 0.46 0.53 0.48 0.46

Ru.max 2.97 2.76 2.67 3.71 3.45 3.34

or Ru.max 0.149fck 0.138fck 0.133fck 0.149fck 0.138fck 0.133fck

Pt.max 1.76 0.96 0.76 2.2 1.2 0.95

4.1.6 Types of Problems

1. Section Analysis

2. Section Design

Type-I : Analysis Problem (Calculation of Mur of a Given Section)

Given :
fck , fy , b, d, Ast
Required :
(a)Mur
(b) Allowable load on given span and end conditions.
Solution :
0.87fy Ast
(1) Determine xu , xu =
0.36fck · b
(2) Obtain xu max , the depth for balanced nelutral axis
700
xu max = · d (Eq
1100 + 0.87fy
For different grades of steel the values of xu max may be remembered. They
are given below for ready reference.
(3) Compare xu with xu max

Steel Fe250 Fe415 Fe500

xu max = 0.53d 0.48d 0.46d

If xu < xu max , the section is under-reinforced.

If xu = xu max , the section is balanced.
If xu > xu max , the section is over-reinforced and is not permitted by the code.
In short, check that xu < xu max If xu > xu max , take xu = xu max
(4) Calculate Mur ,
Mur = 0.87fy Ast (d − 0.42xu )
or Mur = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu )
(5) If the intensity of the load is required for given span and end conditions
: Obtain Mu in terms of wu and L , and equate it with calculated value of
Mu to get the value of wu and hence the working load.
Example- A R.C. beam of rectangular section 250mm wide and 600mm
deep is reinforced on tension side by 4 bars of 20 mm diameter. The beam
is subjected to mild exposure conditions. The characteristic strengths of
concrete and steel used are 25 N/mm2 and 460 N/mm2
(a) Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the section.
(b) Determine the maximum uniformly distributed load a simply supported
beam of this section can carry over a span of 6m.
Given
: fck = 25N/mm2 , fy = 460N/mm
π
2
 , b = 250mm, D = 600mm
Ast max = 4 − 20mm = 4x x202 = 1256.6mm2 , L = 6m, Mild environment.
4
Required :
(a) Mur
(b) U DL
Solution :
From IS-456-2000, Table-16
nominal cover for mild exposure condition = 20mm
Assuming 10mm diameter links, and 20mm diameter bar.
effective cover = 20 + 10 + 20/2 = 40mm.,
∴ effective depth = d = 600 − 40 = 560mm
0.87fy Ast 0.87 × 460 × 1256.6
xu = = = 223.5mm
0.36fck · b 0.36 × 25 × 250
700d 700 × 560
xu max = = = 261.3mm
1100 + 0.87fy 1100 + 0.87 × 460
∴ xn < xu mar ∴ O · K
Mur = 0.87fy Ast (d − 0.42xu )
= 0.87 × 460 × 1256.6(560 − 0.42 × 22.3.5) × 10−6 = 234.4kN.m
(b) For a simply supported heam of span L carrying a uniformly distributed
load w, the ultimate design moment is given by
 wu L2 wL2
Mu = where wu is ultimate load = 1.5 where, 1.5 is a load factor
8 8
to be applied to working load w to get ultinate load.
Mu = Mur by equilibrium.
1.5wL2
but Mu =
8
1.5w × 62
∴ 234.4 = ,
8
∴ w = 34.73kN/m
Self weight
wd = 25bDkN/m(b and D in meters ) = 25 × 0.25 × 0.6 = 3.75kN/m
Imposed load
wu = w − wd = 34.73 − 3.75 = 30.98kN/m
Type-2(a): Design Problem
(Calculation of A for given Section and M
Given:
fck , fy , Mu , b and D or (L/d and L)
Required : Area ol steel
Solution Procedure: (1) Assume effective cover d0 and obtain d
L
If ratio L/d is given then, Obtain d =
(L/d)
2
(2) Calculate Mur,max = Ru·max bd
By Eq. Ru.max = 0.36fck · ku.max (1 − 0.42ku.max )
700
and ku max =
1100 + 0.87fy
(3) Compare given Mu with Mur. max ,
Check that Mu < Mur max
If Mu > Mur·max , the section is either required to be increased or the given
section is required to be doubly reinforced.
(4) Obtain Ast from r 
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− .bd
fy fck bd2
0.85bd
(5) Check that the calculated Ast ≮ which is the minimum steel
fy
prescribed by the Code.
Example-calculate the area of reinforcement required for a singly reinforced
concrete beam 230 mm wide and 380 mm deep to resist an ultimate moment
of 50 kN.m. Assume M20, Fe 500 combination of concrete and steel and
effective cover equal to 35 mm.
Given
: fck = 20N/mm2 , fy = 500N/mm2
b = 230mm, D = 380mm, d0 = 35mm, Mu = 50kN.m

Required: Asi Solution :

d0 = 35mm, d = D − d0 = 380 − 35 = 345mm

For Fe 500, ku,max = 0.46,
Ru,max = 0.36 × 20 × 0.46(1 − 0.42 × 0.46) = 2.67N/mm2
Mur.max = Ru.max bd2 = 2.67 × 230 × 3452 × 10−6 = 73.1kN.m,
∴ Mur < Mur.max ∴ O.K.

∴ The section is under-reinforced.

" s #
0.5fck 4.6M
∴ Ast = 1− 1− .bd
fy fck bd2
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × 50 × 10 
= 1− 1− × 230 × 345
500 20 × 230 × 3452

= 378.5mm2

Type - 2(b): Design Problem

(Design of a Balanced Section for given Mu )
Given :fck , fy and Mu
Required :b, d, D, Ast for a balanced section.
Solution Procedure :
(1) Calculate design parameters ku max , Ru,max and pt.max for a balanced sec-
tion.
700
ku. max = , Ru,max = 0.36fck · ku·max (1 − 0.42ku,max )
1100 + 0.87fy
(2) Either assume width b from practical considerations or assume ratio b/d
(say between 1/3 and 2/3 ).
(3) Calculate
s effective depth d required.
Mu
d= when b is assumed.
Ru,max b
or
 r
Mu
d= 3
when ratio (b/d) is assumed
Ru:max (b/d)
(4) Calculate the area of reinforcement.

0.36fck b · xu,max
Ast =
0.87fy

(5) Assume appropriate cover d’and determine a practical total depth

D = d + d0
Note : It is worth to note an important fact in a R. C. design that the
balanced design always gives the smallest concrete section and maximum area
of reinforcement. The balanced section is many times not desirable from
economy point of view because of high cost of steel. Since an under-reinforced
design always gives a Larger concrete section and Lesser area of steel the same
is normally preferred to a balanced design and it works out to be economical.
Example- Design a smallest concrete section of a R C. beam to resist an
ultimate moment of 62 kN.m., assuming width 230 mm., concrete of grade
M20 and HYSD bars. of grade Fe415. Given :

fck = 20 | N/mm2 , fy = 415N/mm2 , Mu = 62kN.m, b = 230mm

Required : minimum d.
Solution :
The smallest section corresponds to the balanced section.
For Fe415, ku max = 0.48,
Ru max = 0.36 × 20 × 0.48(1 − 0.42 × 0.48) = 2.76N/mm2

pt max = 0.36fck kumax / (0.87fy ) = 0.36 × 20 × 0.48/(0.87 × 415)

= 0.0096 i.e., 0.96% r
r
Mu 62 × 106
Required d = = = 312mm
Ru. max b 2.76 × 230

Assuming cover d0 = 38mm., Provide D = 312 + 38 = 350mm

Type-2(c) Design Problem
(Design of an Under-reinforced section for given Mu and given Pt )
(Design of an Under-reinforced section for given Mu and given pt )
Given: fck , fy , Mu , pt
To find :b, d, D and Ast for an under-reinforced section.
Solution Procedure
 0.36fck ku,max
(1) Calculate Pt,max =
0.87fy

700
ku max =
1100 + 0.87fy

Check that given pt < pt. max to ensure under-reinforced section.

0.87fy
(2) Compute ku = pt and Ru = 0.36fck ku (1 − 0.42ku )
0.36fck
(3) Either assume widthrb or assume ratio b/d, and calculate
r required effective
Mu Mu
depth d Required d = if b is assumed., or d = 3 if ratio b/d
Ru b Ru. (b/d)
is assumed.
(4) Calculate area of steel. Ast = pt .bd
(5) Assumc appropriate cover d and determine the total depth D = d + d0
Example-A singly reinforced beam of grade M 20 has to resist an ultimate
moment of 36kN.m. Design the section using 0.45% steel of grade Fe250.
Assume b = 230mm Given:
fck = 20N/mm2 , fy = 250N/mm2 , Mu = 36kN.m
pt = 0.45% i.e. 0.0045, b = 230mm

Required : d, D and Ast Solution :

0.36fck ku.max 0.36 × 20 × 0.53

For Fe250, xu,max = 0.53, pt.max = = = 0.0176 i.e. 1.76%
0.87fy 0.87 × 250

Given pt < pt, max , ∴ The section shall be under-reinforced.

0.87fy 0.87 × 250 × 0.0045

ku = , pt = = 0.136
0.36fck 0.36 × 20
Ru = 0.36 × 20 × 0.136(1 − 0.42 × 0.136) = 0.923N/mm2

(a) For b = 230mm

r s
Mu 36 × 106
Required d= = = 412mm
Ru b 0.923 × 230

Required Ast = pt bd = 0.0045 × 230 × 412 = 427mm2

Provide D = 450mm assuming d0 = 38mm
Type-2(d): Design of an Under-reinforced Section
(Calculation of Ast for given Mu and ku or Ru )
When a neutral axis factor k or a moment of resistance factor Ru is given as
data, it necessarily means that the section is required to be under-reinforced
for economy; because the under-reinforced design gives a larger section and
lesser steel by limiting ku or Ru to a value less than ku·max or Ru,max of a
balanced section.
Besides, many times, the value of k is required to be restricted to allow for
redistribution of moments considered in the analysis. But it may be clarified
that the design of a section taking lesser value of k does not necessarily mean
that the redistribution of moments has been done or is required to be done.
It only indicates that the redistribution of moment can be done if desired.
Given: fck , fy , Mu , ku or Ru
Required : b, d, D and Asl for an under-reinforced section.
Solution
700
(1) Calculate ku max for given steel grade , ku max =
(1100 + 0.87fy )
Check that ku < ku max
(2) Calculate Ru for given ku∗ , Ru = 0.36fck ku (1 − 0.42ku ) 4.5.4b) When Ru
is given instead of ku , the preceding two steps be omitted. Only check that
given Ru < Ru max r
Mu
(3) Assuming b, calculate the effective depth required. Required d = b
 r  Ru
0.5fck 4.6Mu
(4) Calculate Ast Ast = 1− 1− .bd
fy fck bd2
(5) Assume appropriate cover d0 and determine total depth. D = d + d0 .
Example-A R. C. beam has to resist an ultimate moment of 90 kN.m. De-
sign the section if for some reasons (a) depth of neutral axis is to be restricted
to 0.3d, or (b) Ru = 2.2N/mm2 Assume b = 300mm, fck = 20N/mm2 and
fy = 415N/mm2
Given: fck = 20N/mm2 , fy = 415N/mm2 , Mu = 90kN/m, b = 300mm
(a) xu < 0.3d or ku < 0.3
(b) Ru = 2.2N/mm2
Required :d, D and Ast
Solution:
(a) For Fe415, ku,max = 0.48. since given ku < ku max , the section is under-
reinforced.
Ru = 0.36fck ku (1 − 0.42ku )
Taking ku = 0.3, Ru = 0.36 × 20 × r 0.3(1 − 0.42 × 0.3) = 1.89N/mm2
r
Mu 90 × 106
Required d = = = 399mm
Ru .b 1.89 × 300
s s
0.5fck 4.6Mu 0.5 × 20 4.6 × (90 × 106 )
Ast = [1− 1 − ]hd = [1− 1 − ]300×399 = 714mm2
fy fck bd2 415 20 × 300 × 3992
Assuming cover d0 = 50mm. provide D = 399 + 50 = 450mm (b) Ru,max =
0.36 × 20 × 0.48(1 − 0.42 × 0.48) = 2.76N/mm2 Given Ru = 2.2N/mm2 <
Ru·max ∴ The scetion is under-rainforced.
r
90 × 106
Required d = = 370mm
2.2 × 300
r
0.5 × 20 4.6 × 90 × 106
Ast = [1 − 1 − 2
] × 300 × 370 = 791mm2
415 20 × 300 × 370
Assume cover d0 = 50mm. Provide D = 370 + 50 = 420mm

4.2 Doubly Reinforced Beams (LSM)

Normally, steel is provided in concrete beams to resist tension, while the im-
pression is resisted by concrete. But it has been observed that a given con-
crete section with steel only on tension side (i.e., a singly reinforced sections)
can offer only a limited moment of resistance equal to that of a balanced
section. On many occasions and under varied conditions, the size of concrete
beam has to be restricted due to architectural and practical requirements,
hut the same section is required to resist a moment greater than that of a bal-
anced section. Under these circumstances, additional moment of resistance
is obtained by adding steel on both tension and compression sides. Such a
section with steel on tension as well as on compression side is known as a
doubly reinforced section.
The doubly reinforced section is normally required under the following cir-
cumstances.
(i) Sectional dimensions are restricted due to requirements of head room,
appearance etc. and the strength of given singly reinforced section is
inadequate.
 (ii) The beam which acts as a flanged beam at midspan becomes a rect-
angular beam at supports of a continuous beam. At support tension
occurs on top making the flange ineffective, and therefore, the section
becomes inadequate to resist large peak value of support moment.

(iii) Basement with lower plinth level and combined with ventilator compels
one to design a doubly reinforced plinth beams.

(iv) Compression steel is provided sometimes to reduce the deflection i. e.,

to increase the stiffness and also to increase the rotation capacity

4.2.1 PROPERTIES OF A DOUBLY REINFORCED

RECTANGULAR SECTION
A rectangular section with reinforcement on tension as well as on compression
side is shown in Figure 4.7.
A doubly reinforced section may be looked upon as made up of two sections

Figure 4.7: Doubly Reinforced Section

1 and 2 given below :
Section-I: a singly reinforced section with concrete resisting compression
Cu1 balanced by tensile force Tu1 provided by tension steel Ast1 . This
section is assumed to resist part moment Mu1 out of total moment Mu
.

Section-2: an imaginary section (shown dotted) consisting of compression

steel providing additional compression force Cu2 which is balanced by
tensile force Tu2 given by tension steel Ast2 .This section is assumed to
ressist balance moment Mu2 = (Mu − Mu1 )
This has been shown in Figure 4.7. This type of idealization is helpful in
deriving properties of the section.
While deriving the properties, the following additional assumptions over and
above those made for a singly reinforced section are made.

(i) Stress-strain curve for steel is the same in tension and compression;

(ii) Yield stress fy in steel and modulus of elasticity of steel Es is the same
in tension and compression.

Depth of Neutral Axis

With no external longitudinal force acting on the section, by equilibrium of
longitudinal internal forces,
Total compression= Total tension
Cu = Tu or Cu1 + Cu2 = (Tu1 + Tu2 ) = Tu
where,

Cu1 = compression provided by· concrete in Section-I.

Cu2 = compression provided by compression steel in Section-2 making due allowance for loss
of compression due to replacement of concreie ’area by steel areaAsc
Tu1 = tension provided by tension steelAst1 in Section-1 to balanceCu1
Tu2 = tension provided by tension steelAst2 in Section-2 to balanceCu2 .

Expressing forces in terms ot)tresses in concrete and steel as :

(0.36fck bxu − fcc Asc ) + fsc Asc = 0.87fy Ast (4.24)

 0.87fy Ast − (fsc − fcc ) Asc
∴ xu =
0.36fck · b
(4.25)
0.87fy Ast − fsc Asc
xu ∼
=
0.36fck · b
where

fsc = stress in steel in compression.

fcc = stress in concrete in compression at level ofAsc = 0.45fck
−fcc Asc = deduction for reduction ot’,compression in concrete,
which is displaced by compression steel.

Comments :
1. In actual practice the refinement of deduction of fcc Asc is not considered
necessary and is usually ignored without much loss of accuracy.

2. From above equations it will be seen that the depth of neutral axis
decreases with the increase in compression steel thereby increasing the
rotation capacity and ductility. Structures with high ductility respond
better to seismic/ wind forces.

3. The brittleness of the flexural member increases with the increase in

amount of tensile steel.

4.2.2 Ultimate Moment of Resistance

The ultimate moment of resistance (Mur = Mu ) of a doubly reinforced sec-
tion (required in analysis types of problems) is obtained by taking moments
of Cu1 and Cu2 about the centroid of tension steel,
Now, Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
where

Mu1 = Ultimate moment of resistance offered by Sect.-1 which consists of

a couple formed by Cu1 and Tu1 at lever arm (d − 0.42xu )
Mu2 = (Mu − Mu1 ) = Ultimate moment of resistance offered by Sect.-2 which
consists of a couple formed by Cu2 and Tu2 at lever arm(d − dc ) in which
dc is the effective cover to compression steel
 Mu1 = Cu1 × (d − 0.42xu ) = 0.36fck bxi (d − 0.42xu )
Mu2 = Cu2 × (d − dc ) = (fsc − fcc ) Asc (d − dc )
Mu2 ∼
= fsc Asc (d − dc ) (4.26)
Mur = Mu = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu ) + (fsc − fcc ) Asc (d − dc )
∼
= 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu ) + fsc Asc (d − dc )
Comments : It may be noted that Mu2 , the additional moment of resistance
given by the couple Cu2 and Tu2 cannot be increased indefinitely by indiscrim-
inate increase of Asc and Ast2 . If more steel is provided in concrete section it
causes congestion. This creates practical difficulties in compaction of concrete
resulting in air pockets and voids which reduce the effective bond between steel
and concrete and also weakening of the section. Besides provision of more
steel tends to increase the cos,t of the section for given moment and hence
becomes uneconomical. IS Code, therefore, limits the area of tension as well
as compression steel to 4% of gross cross-sectional area.

4.2.3 Area of tension and Compression Steel

The area of steel is required to be obtained for resisting a given ultimate
moment Mu . The moment Mu is equal to the ultimate moment of resistance
of the section, Mur .
Mu = Mur = Mul + Mu2 (4.27)
The area of steel Ast1 and Ast2 are obtained by taking moment of Tu1 about
Cu1 and Tu2 about Cu2 (Refer Fig.4.7)

Mu1
∴ Mu1 = 0.87fy Ast1 (d − 0.42xu ) or Ast1 = (4.28)
0.87fy (d − 0.42xu )

For balanced section :

In design problems the section is kept balanced to make full utilization of
resistance of concrete (sec Fig. 4.8). Therefore Ast1 is worked out for balanced
singly reinforced section. Thus, for a balanced section,

xu = xu,max ; Mul = Mur.max and Ast1 = Ast,max = pt,max , bd

Therefore,
 Figure 4.8: Design of Doubly Reinforcement Section

Mur·max
Ast1 =
(0.87fy (d − 0.42xt. max )
and Mu2 = Mu − Mu1 = Tu2 (d − dc ) = 0.87ff Ast2 (d − dc ) (4.29)
Mu2
∴ Ast2 =
0.87fy (d − dc )

Total area of tension steel Ast = Ast1 + Ast2

By equilibrium,

Cu2 = Tu2 ∴ (fsc − fcc ) Asc = 0.87fy Ast2

0.87fs As12 0.87fy Ast2 (4.30)
∴ Asc = ≈
(fsc − fcc ) fsc

Or
Mu2 Mu2
Asc = = (4.31)
(fsc − fcc ) (d − dc ) fsc (d − dc )
Stress in Compression Steel
The stress in compression steel fsc depends on the strain εc at the level of
compression steel and is obtained from the appropriate stress-strain curve of
the type of steel used.
 
xu − dc dc
From Fig. 4.9 εsc = 0.0035 × = 0.0035 1 − (4.32)
xu xu

Substituting  
dc /d
xu = k u d , εsc = 0.0035 1 − (4.33)
ku
 Figure 4.9: Stress in Compression Steel

For balanced design, xu = xu max

   
dc dc /d
εsc = 0.0035 1 − = 0.0035 1 − (4.34)
xu.max ku.max

In case of mild steel ( Fe250 ), the stress-strain relationship is linear and

hence the relation between xu and fsc can be obtained as under :
For mild steel,
fsc = Es × εsc ≤ 0.87fy Substituting Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and from Eq. 432

fsc = 2 × 105 × 0.0035 (1 − dc /xu ) = 700 (1 − dc /xu )

Let us try to find out the relation between dc and xu so that fsc is not less
than 0.87fy , and thus, ensuring that full strength of compression steel is used.
For fsc ≮ 0.87fy ∴ 700 (1 − dc /xu ) × 0.87 × 250 i.e. 217.5

(1 − dc /xu ) ≮ 217.5/700 or dc /xu  1 − 217.5/700(= 0.69), ∴ dc × 0.69xu

Now normally, the doubly reinforced sections are provided when Mu exceeds
Mur. limit and therefore, xu is normally equal to xu,l imit . Assuming lowest
value of xu, limit = 0.3d corresponding to maximum 30% redistribution of
moments,
dc ≯ (0.69 × 0.3d) i.e. 0.21d or dc /d ≯ 0.21
 dc
In actual practice, normally hardly ever exceeds 0.2 , and therefore, if it
d
can be ascertained that xu is not less than 0.3d, fsc in most cases, can safely
be taken equal to 0.87fy .
However in case of high yield strength deformed bars ( Fe 415 and Fe 500 ) as
the direct relation between εsc and fsc is not available, the inter-relationship
between fsc and xu cannot be established. Therefore, Eq. 4.24 which contains
both xu and fsc is required to be solved by trial and error procedure to obtain
the depth of neutral axis xu . For design problems the stress in compression
steel is obtained from stress-strain curve of corresponding steel. The stress-
strain relationship is assumed to be linear for stress less than or equal to
0.8fyd , where , fyd = fy /1.15.
For stress greater than 0.8fyd the curve is non-linear and hence the value of
fsc is obtained corresponding to εsc using Table 4.10 .1 while Table 4.10 .2
gives values of fsc for different values of dc /d corresponding to ku
Note: (I) Total strain consists of elastic strain and inelastic strain (see Table

Table 4.4: Stress-Strain Relation for High Yield Strength Steels

Fe 415 Fe 500
Stress level Inelastic strain
Total Strain Stress Total Strain Stress
0.8fyd 0.0000 0.00144 288.7 0.00174 347.8
0.85fyd 0.0001 0.00163 306.7 0.00195 369.6
0.9fyd 0.0003 0.00192 324.8 0.00226 391.3
0.95fyd 0.0007 0.00241 342.8 0.00277 413
0.975fyd 0.0010 0.00276 351.8 0.00312 423.9
1fyd 0.0020 0.0038 360.9 0.00417 434.8
2
Stress is in N/mm

4.10 .1) Elastic strain = stress level 1 (2 × 104 ) , . . . Inelastic strain = Total
strain − Elastic Strain e.g. For Fe415 and at stress level of 0.90 fyd , total
strain = 0.00192. Elastic strain = 0.9 × (0.87 × 415)/ (2 × 105 ) = 0.00162, . . .
Inelastic strain = 0.00192 − 0.00162 = 0.0003.
(2) It is observed from stress-strain relationship for high grade steel that
the stress of 0.87fy reaches only at a strain of 0.0038 for Fe415 and 0.00417
for Fe500. Therefore, the stress fsc in compression steel never reaches value
of 0.87fy prior to crushing of concrete, because concrete fails at a strain of
0.0035
 Table 4.5: Values of fsc for High Grade Steels in N/mm2
Fe 415 Fe500
ku dc dc
d d
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
0.3 353 340 314 233 417 393 349 233
0.35 354 345 328 294 420 401 373 300
0.4 354 348 334 314 422 407 386 349
0.45 355 351 340 325 423 411 394 369
0.46 −− −− −− −− 424 412 395 371
0.48 355 352 342 329 −− −− −− −−

4.3 TYPES OF PROBLEMS

4.3.1 Analysis of Problem
Type-l(a) Analysis of problems using mild steel reinforcement.
Given: fck , b, D, d0 , dc , Ast0 , Asc and mild steel reinforcement.
Required: Mur
Solution :

1. 1. Obtain effective depth d = D − d0 , Assume fsc = 0.87fy and

calculate xu

2. Substituting fsc = 0.87fy in Eq. 4.25c

0.87fy Ast − 0.87fsc Asc
∴ xu = ; If xu > xu,max , take xu = xu,max
0.36fck b
3. calculate fsc , fsc = 700 (1 − dc /xu )

(a) If fsc ≥ 0.87fy , then take fsc = 0.87fy and the assumption is
correct.
(b) If fsc < 0.87fy then the assumption is wrong.
 Recalculate xu by substituting fsc = 700 (1 − dc /xu ) in Eq. 4.24 and
neglecting fcc for simplicity and without much loss of accuracy. It can
be written as :
 
dc
0.36fck b.xu + 700 1 − Asc = 0.87fy Ast
xu
or

0.36fck bx2u + (700Asc − 0.87fy Ast ) xu − 700dc Asc = 0

Obtain xu from solution of quadratic equation.

4. Check xu < xu,max , section is under-reinforced. Calculate fsc corre-

sponding to xu .

5. Calculate Mur , Mur = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu )+fsc Asc (d − dc ) . . . (Eq4.10.2e)

Problem- Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of R.C. beam of

rectangular section 300 mm wide and 380 mm deep for the following cases :
(a) Ast = 6 Nos.. φ20mm, Asc = 2 Nos. φ20mm,
(b)Ast = 5 Nos.. φ20mm, Asc = 5 Nos. φ16mm
Assume steel of grade Fe250, concrete of grade M20 and effective cover 40mm
on both sides.
Given: fck = 20N/mm2 , fy = 250N/mm2 ,
b = 300mm, D = 380mm, dc = d0 = 40mm
(a) Ast = 6 − φ20mm and A3c = 2 − φ20mm
(b) Ast = 5 − φ20mm and Asc = 5 − φ16mm
Required: Mur in each case.
Solution :
d0 = 40mm, ∴ d = 380 − 40 = 340mm, dc = 40mm
(a) Ast = 6 of φ20mm = 1885mm2 , Asc = 2 of φ20mm = 628mm2
Assume fsc = 0.87fy
0.87fy Ast − fsc Asc 0.87 × 250 × (1885 − 628)
xu = = = 126.6mm
0.36fck · b 0.36 × 20 × 300
For Fe250, xu,max = 0.53d = 0.53 × 340 = 180mm. > xu
∴ The section is under-reinforced.
Check for fsc ,
fsc = 700 (1 − dc /xu ) = 700(1 − 40/126.6) = 479N/mm2
479N/mm2 > 0.87fy (= 217.5N/mm2 )
∴ Take fsc = 217.5N/mm2
∴ Mur = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu ) + fsc Asc (d − dc )
= [0.36 × 20 × 300 × 126.6(340 − 0.42 × 126.6) + 217.5 × 628(340 − 40)]10−6
= 78.4 + 41 = 119.4kN.m
Note : If refinement for deduction of fcc = 0.446fck is done, then Mur =
117.9kN.m. The refinement shows an error of 1.4% which is negligible.
(b) Asc = 5 − φ16mm = 1005mm2 , Ast = 5 − φ20mm = 1570mm2

0.87 × 250x(1570 − 1005)

∴ xu = = 56.9mm
0.36 × 20 × 300
∴ fsc = 700(1 − 40.156.9) = 208N/mm2 < 0.87fy
∴ Assumption is wrong.
Calculate xu using Equation
0.36fck bx2u + (700Asc − 0.87fy Ast ) xu − 700dc Asc = 0
0.36 × 20 × 300x2u + (700 × 1005 − 0.87 × 250 × 1570)xu − 700 × 40 × 1005 = 0
∴ x2u + 167.9xu − 13028 = 0
∴ xu = 57.8 mm < xu,max (= 180 mm)
fsc = 700(1 − 40/57.8) = 215.6N/mm2 < (0.87fy )
Mur = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu ) + fsc Asc (d − dc )
= [0.36 × 20 × 300 × 57.8(340 − 0.42 × 57.8) + 215.6 × 1005 × (340 − 40)]10−6
= 104.4 kN.m

Type-I (b) Analysis Problems - HYSD bars

Given: fck , b, D, d0 , dc , Ast0 Asc and HYSD bars
Required Mur
Solution Procedure :
1. Calculate d = D − d0
2. Assume fsc
Hint : Guide lines for assuming approximate value of fsc to reduce iterations.
Assume
ku = 0.3, xu = 0.3d , Calculate Ast1 = 0.36fck b(0.3d)/ (0.87fy )
For given (Ast − Asc ) , calculate, ku = 0.3 × (Ast − Asc ) /Ast1

Calculate εsc = 0.0035 [1 − dc / (ku d)]

0.87fy Ast − fsc Asc
3. Calculate xu =
0.36fck b
4. Recalculate εsc and fsc and iterate till assumed value is equal to the
calculated value.
5. Calculate Mur by taking moment of Cu about Tu using Eq. 4.26.
Problem- A reinforced concrete beam of rectangular section is 230 mm
wide and 530 mm deep with an effective cover of 55 mm for both tension
and compression reinforcement consisting of 5 Nos. 20 mm. diameter and 5
Nos. 16 mm. diameter bars respectively. Calculate the ultimate moment of
resistance assuming concrete M20 and steel Fe 415.
Given :b = 230mm, D = 530mm, d0 = dc = 55mm,
Ast = 5Nos.#20mm., Asc = 5Nos.#16mm

fck = 20N/mm2 , fy = 415N/mm2

Required : Mur.
Solution: d0 = 55mm, d = 530 − 55 = 475mm, dc /d = 55/475 = 0.116
Asl = 5 Nos. #20mm = 1570mm2 , Asc = 5Nos.#16mm = 1005mm2

(Ast − Asc ) = 1570 − 1005 = 565mm2

Calculating fsc as :
For ku = 0.3,
0.36fck b(0.3d) 0.36 × 20 × 230 × (0.3 × 475)
Astl = = = 653mm2
0.87fy 0.87 × 415
For given (Ast − Asc ) ,
ku = 0.3 × 565/653 = 0.26
From Table 4.5 for dc /d = 0.116 and ku = 0.26, fsc may be taken nearly
equal to 340N/mm2 .
Try fsc = 340N/mm2
∴ 0.36fck bxu + fsc Asc = 0.87fy Ast
0.36 × 20 × 230 × xu + 340 × 1005 = 0.87 × 415 × 1570,
Solving xu = 136mm
Check for fsc , εsc = 0.0035(1 − 55/136) = 0.00208
From Table 4.4 by interpolation fsc = 331N/mm2 , < assumed fsc (= 340N/mm2 )
In second trial,
assuming fsc = 332N/mm2 , xu = 141mm
For xu = 141mm., εsc = 0.00213
From Table 4.4. fsc = 332.8N/mm2 ≈ assumed value. (= 332N/mm2 )
For Fe4I5, xu,max = 0.48d = 0.48 × 475 = 228mm. ∴ xu < xu,max
∴ The section is under-reinforced.

∴ Mur = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu ) + fsc Asc (d − dc )

= {0.36 × 20 × 230 × 141(475 − 0.42 × 141) + 332 × 1005(475 − 55)} × 10−6
= 97.08 + 140.13 = 237.21kN.m

4.3.2 Design Problems

Type-2(a) Design Problems
Given: fck , fy , b, D, d0 , dc and Mu
Required : Asc , Ast
Solution Procedure :
(i) Calculate ku,max , Ru,max
(ii) Calculate Mur,mux = Ru.mux bd2

Substituting E = 2 × 105 N/mm2

700
xu max = ·d
1100 + 0.87fy
700 xu,max
ku max = =
1100 + 0.87fy d

Mur,max = 0.36fck bxu,max (d − 0.42xu,max ) = Ru.mar bd2 = Mu

Ru,max = 0.36fck ku,max (1 − 0.42ku,max )
(iii) Compute Ast1 for balanced section
Mur,max
Ast1 = Ast.max = or Astl = pt,max hd
0.87fy (d − 0.42xu.max )
(iv) Compute Mu2 = Mu − Mur.mux
If the span and loading is given calculate ultimate moment Mu
(v) Obtain Ast2 by taking moment of Tu2 about Cu2 , using
Total area of tension steel = Ast = Ast1 + Ast2
(vi) Calculate Asc either from Mu2 or from Ast2 as follows.
 Mu2 0.87fy · Ast2
Ast2 = or Asc =
(fsc − fcc ) (d − dc ) (fsc − fcc )
fcr may either be taken equal to 0.45fck or may be ignored. If fcc is ig-
nored, Asc = 0.87fy .Ast2 /fsc For mild steel (Fe250), fsc = 0.87fy and, therefore,
Asc = Ast2 . For HYSD bars (Fe 415, Fe 500), fsc may be obtained correspond-
ing to εsc from the stress strain curve, where εsc = 0.0035 (1 − dc /xu,max )
The compression steel shall be laterally supported by stirrups according to
rules of lateral ties in columns. In case of members which are likely to be
subjected to tension on either side, equal steel shall be provided on both
sides.
Problem- Design the reinforcement for a reinforced concrete beam 300 mm
wide and 300 mm deep of grade M20 to resist an ultimate moment of 87
kN.m. using steel of grade (a) Fe 250 and (h) Fe 415.
Data : h = 300 mm., D = 300 mm, M = 87 kN.m., fck = 20 N/mm2
(a)fy = 250 N/mm2 , (b) fy = 415 N/mm2
Required: Ast and Asc in each case.
Solution :
(a) fy = 250N/mm2
Let d0 = 55mm = cover to tension steel. , d = 300 − 55 = 245mm
For M20− Fe 250, from Table 4.3,
Ru.max = 2.97N/mm2 , pt.max = 1.76%, ku.max = 0.53
OR
Ru,max = 0.36 × 20 × 0.53 × (1 − 0.42 × 0.53) = 2.97N/mm2 .
Mur,max = Rumax , bd2 = 2.97 × 300 × 2452 × 10−6 = 53.48kN.m.
Mur,max < Mu (= 87kN.m.)
∴ The section shall be doubly reinforced.
Mu2 = Mu − Mur,max = 87 − 53.48 = 33.52kN.m
Tension Steel :
Mur,max
∴ Astl = where, xu. max = 0.53 × 245 = 130mm
0.87fy (d − 0.42xu. max )
53.48 × 106
Asc1 = = 1291mm2
0.87 × 250(245 − 0.42 × 130)
Alternatively, ∴ Ast1 = pt,max bd = 1.76 × 300 × 245/100 = 1293mm2 ,
Mu2
Ast2 =
0.87fy (d − dc )
Assuming dc = 40mm.∗
33.52 × 106
Ast2 = = 752mm2
0.87 × 250(245 − 40)
Ast = Ast1 + Ast2 = 1291 + 752 = 2043mm2 ∴ O.K
Compression Steel :
For Fe250, fsc = 700 (1 − dc /xu,max ) but ×0.87fy

= 700(1 − 40/130) = 485N/mm2 but ∴ × 0.87 × 250

= 217.5N/mm2
Now
0.87fy · Ast2 0.87fy Ast2
Asc = = ∴ In this case Asc = Ast2 = 752mm.2
fsc 0.87fy
(b) For Fe 415, since Ast required would be less, the cover d ’ may be
assumed to be less.
Let d = 40mm and dc = 40mm. ∴ d = 300 − 40 = 260mm
For M20 − Fe415, from Table 4.3, Ru. max = 2.76N/mm2 and pt.max = 0.96%
Mur,max = Ru,max bd2 = 2.76 × 300 × 2602 × 10−6 = 55.97kN · m < Mn (=
87kN.m.)
∴ The section shall be doubly reinforced.
Mu2 = Mu − Mur, inax = 87 − 55.97 = 31.03kN.m
Tension Steel :
Mur,max
Ast1 = , wherexu,max = ku,max d = 0.48 × 260 = 125 mm
0.87fy (d − 0.42xu,max )
55.97 × 106
∴ Ast1 = = 747 mm2
0.87 × 415(0.42 × 125)
Mu2 31.03 × 106
Ast2 = = = 391 mm2
0.87fy (d − dc ) 0.87 × 415(260 − 40)
Ast = Ast1 + Ast2 = 747 + 391 = 1138 mm2

Compression Steel :

dc = 40/260 = 0.1538, εsc = 0.0035 (1 − dc /d)

In this case xu = xu. max = 125mm. as calculated above.

∴ εsc = 0.0035(1 − 40/125) = 0.00238
(342.8 − 324.8)
fsc = 324.8 + × (0.00238 − 0.00192) = 341.7N/mm2
(0.00241 − 0.00192)
0.87fy · As12 0.87 × 415 × 391
Asc = = = 413mm2
fsc 341.8
The factor 1.056 ccan be used to get Asc directly as
Asc = 1.056 × 391 = 413mm2
from Table for dc /d = 0.15 and ku = 0.48 for Fe415

Type-(B) : Design Problems

Given: fck , fy , b, D, d, Mu0 , Asc Required : Ast when Asc is also given.
Comments : This type of problem occurs when due to requirements of
detailing A happens to be over and above that required. For example, in
a continuous beam, some of the bottom bars from adjacent spans instead
of curtailing are continued at bottom over an intermediate support or even
some of them are curtailed the area of steel is in excess of the requirement
as compression reinforcement. In such a case, the section no more remains
balanced section but becomes under-reinforced and Ast1 is no more equal to
Ast.max of a singly reinforced section. Problems arising out of such situations
come under this category.
Solution Procedure:
When Asc is given and Ast is required to be calculated.
(1) Assuming fsc , obtain Mu2 = fsc Asc (d − dc )

and hence Mul = Mu − Mu2

(2) Determine xu by relation Mul = 0.36fckbxu (dr− 0.42xu ) 

4.62Mu1
The solution of which is given by xu = 1.2 1 − 1 − ·d
fck bd2
(3) Determine xu,max for given fck , fy , 
Check that
 xu < xu,max
dc
(4) Check for fsc . For Fe250, fsc = 700 1 − but ×0.87fy
  xu
dc
For Fe 415 or Fe500, εsc = 0.0035 1 −
xu
and fsc is obtained from Table 4.4 corresponding to εsc
(5) Calculate
Mu1
Ast1 = and
0.87fy (d − 0.42xu )
fsc Asc
Ast2 = ,
0.87fy
Ast = Ast1 + Ast2
Problem- A. R. C. beam 300 mm wide and 450 mm deep has to resist a
design moment of 150 k.N.m. at an intermediate support of a continuous
beam. Assuming concrete of grade M20 and mild steel reinforcement (grade
Fe250), calculate Ast at top, if 3 Nos. φ16 mm are required to be continued at
bottom from one span to other, with an effective cover 40 mm. to compression
steel. Assume effective cover to tension steel equal to 50 mm.
Given: fck = 20N/mm2 , fy = 250N/mm2 , b = 300mm,
D = 450mm, d0 = 50mm
Mu = 150kN.m., Asc = 3 Nos. φ16mm with dc = 40mm Required: Ast
Solution :
Let
d0 = 50mm, dc = 40mm
∴ d = D − d0 = 450 − 50 = 400mm
Asc = 3 Nos. φ16mm = 603mm2
Assuming fsc = 0.87fy ( because steel is of grade Fe250 ).

Mu2 = fsc Asc (d − dc ) = 0.87 × 250 × 603(400 − 40) × 10−6 = 47.2kN.m

Mu1 = Mu − Mu2 = 150 − 47.2 = 102.8kN.m

But Mu1 = 0.36fck bxu (d − 0.42xu )
The solution of this equation is given by
s !
4.62Mu1
xu = 1.2 1 − 1 − ·d
fck bd2
 s 
6
4.62 × 102.8 × 10 
=1.2 1 − 1 − × 400
20 × 300 × 4002

=138.8mm < xu.max (= 0.53 × 400 = 212mm.)

∴ xu < xu max
∴ The section is under-reinforced.
Check for fsc
 
dc
For Fe250, fsc = 700 × 1 − but × 0.87fy
xu
 
40
fsc = 700 × 1 − but × 0.87 × 250(= 217.5)
1388
= 498N/mm2 but × 0.87 × 250 = 217.5N/mm2


∴ Assumption for fsc is correct.
Mul
Astl =
0.87fy (d − 0.42 × xu )
102.8 × 106
=
0.87 × 250(400 − 0.42 × 138.8)
=1383mm2
Since fsc = 0.87fy

∴ Asl2 = Asc = 603mm2

Ast = Ast1 + Ast2 = 1383 + 603
= 1986mm2

Comments : If the same section is designed as doubly reinforced section

it requires Ast = 2115mm2 and Asc = 89mm2 . Thus the excess quantity of
steel in tension = 2204 − 1986 = 218mm2 i.e. about 10% excess over actually
required quantity of steel of 1986mm2 in this case.
4.4 FLANGED SECTIONS
4.4.1 Introduction
With the exception of precast systems, reinforced concrete floors, roofs,
bridge decks, consist of beams and slabs which are almost always cast mono-
lithically. Forms are erected fo r beams and slabs together and concrete is
poured in one operation from bottom of the beam to the top of the slab. Stir-
rups and bent up bars also extend into the slab. This results in an integral
connection between the slab and the beam due to which certain portion of
the slab acts along with the beam in resisting compression, in sagging (pos-
itive bending) moment regions of. the beam and it acts like a flange of the
beam. The total resulting section is a flanged section in the span region as
shown in fig.4.10. Thus, in the case of a flanged section, part of the slab (bf )

Figure 4.10: Flanged Action

acts along with the beam in resisting compressive forces, provided slab lies in
the compression zone with respect to bending of the beam and provided both
slab and the beam are effectively bonded together. The portion of the beam
below the flange is known as web or rib of the beam. The slab thus performs
two functions. It transfers the load to the beam by spaning across the beam
and also assists the beam in transferring the load longitudinally. The two
actions are slab action and the beam action causing normal stresses in slab at
right angles to each other. At intermediate supports of a continuous beam,
the beam is subjected to negative or hogging moment causing tension in the
slab region at top with the result that the slab portion becomes ineffective in
resisting compression and the effective section of the beam is simply a rect-
angular section. Thus at supports of a continuous beam, the beam no more
acts like a flanged beam but just a rectangular beam with total depth from
top of the flange to the bottom of the beam (and NOT the depth below the
flange of the beam) even though the slab and beam are cast monolithically.
When the slab occurs on both the sides of the beam as in the case of an
intermediate beam the section looks like T-section and the beam is known
as T-beam. When the slab is only on one side of the beam as in the case of a
spandrel beam ( an outermost beam at the end of floor slab) the section be-
comes an inverted L section and the beam is known as L-beam. In a flanged
beam the flange provides compressive resistance while the web provides the
depth, and hence the lever arm, shear resistance and the stiffness. The width
of web mainly serves to accommodate the area of tension steel. The entire
slab-beam system is also looked upon as a stiffened or a ribbed plate which
web acts like a rib or a stiffener.
Comments : Will a cantilever beam with a slab cast monolithically at top
act as a flanged beam under the action of downward load ? Obviously not.
Because the slab lies in the tension zone and hence ineffective in resisting
compression. For the cantilever beam to act as a flanged beam, the slab
should be provided al the bottom of the beam.
It may be noted that normally a slab spans across the beams and, there-
fore, the main reinforcement of slab runs at right angles to the beam which
further helps in bonding the slab and the beam together thereby ensuring
the monolithic action between them. The bonding of slab and beam in the
vertical direction is achieved by continuing stirrups and bent up bars in the
beam into the slab portion also. Therefore, for composite action between the
slab and beam, not only the monolithic casting of slab and beam is neces-
sary but the vertical and transverse reinforcement connecting the two is also
necessary. However at times, a situation arises when the slab does not span
across the beam but parallel to the beam AB (Fig.4.11).
In such a case, the main reinforcement of the slab runs parallel to the
beam and the distribution steel is not adequate to bind the slab and beam
together and the slab does not act as a flange of the beam unless the slab is
 Figure 4.11: Provision of transverse steel for Flanged Action

properly bonded with the beam transversely. Therefore, in such a case, if the
slab is required to act as a flange , transverse reinforcement (perpendicular
to the beam) is required to be provided at the top of the flange portion for a
length equal to l/4 on each side of the beam where L is the span of the slah
and th e transverse reinforce ment shall not be less than 60% o f main ste el
at midspan of the slah as shown in Fig.4.11.
It may he remembered in general that since the area of concrete in com-
pression of flanged beam is quite large as compared to that or a rectangular
section, the flanged section can offer large moment of resistance than the
rectangular section. It is, therefore, always economical and advantageous to
design the beam as a flanged beam utilizing the composite (integral) action
between the beam and the slab.

4.4.2 Effective Width of Flange

In a beam of rectangular section, the compressive stress acting normal to
the section is constant along the width of the section because the width is
small in comparison to span of the beam. In the flanged-beam, since flange
is sufficiently wide, the normal compressive stress is not constant along the
width or the flange.The stress is maximum (= fmax ) equal to the stress in
beam max at the centre of the beam width and it reduces with the distance
from web, with minimum value occurring at midspan of the slab. It is found
that the part of the flange away from the beam is relieved of some part of
the normal stress due to shear deformation of slab between the beams (in the
plane of the slab).This phenomenon is known as shear lag. The portion of the
flange width (L1 /2 + L2 /2) acting with the beam is, therefore, subjected to
varying normal stress as shown in Fig. 4.12. The total Compression offered
hy the flange over a width (L1 /2 + L2 /2) with varying stress distribution can
he replaced hy an effective flange widthbf subjected to uniform stress equal
to fmax at the centre of the beam. Indirectly the slab is said to contribute
only a width equal to bf to max the beam for resisting compression, with a
stressfmax The resulting section is a flanged section of effective flange width-

Figure 4.12: Effective width of flange

bf . The study of composite action of slab and beam indicates that normal
stress-distribution along the width and hence the effective width of flange
depends upon the following factors.

ˆ Distance between centres of adjacent slabs (L1 /2 + L2 /2),

ˆ Depth of slab or flange (Df ),

ˆ Span of the beam L,

ˆ Width of the beam plw ,

ˆ End conditions of the beam, and

ˆ Nature of loading on the beam.

The recommendations given by IS:456 for using effective width of flange
(00/1) for practical design may be written in the general form.
 
Lo
bf = k + 6Df + bw ≤ actual width (B) (4.35)
6
For Isolated beams
 
Lo
bf = k + bw ≤ actual width (B) (4.36)
Lo /b + 4
The bracket value in Eq.7.1 and Eq.7.2 represents the contribution due to
outstanding flanges. Thus, k = 1 for T-beam , k = 1/2 for L-beam , k = 0
for rectangular beam, where , B = actual width equal to the breadth of the
beam bw plus half the dear distances to the adjacent beam on either side.
bf = effective width of the flange,
L0 = distance between points of zero bending moments in the beam.
For continuous beams and frames L0 may be determined from actual BMD
or in absence of actual value it may be taken-equal to 0.7 times the effective
span as specified by the code.
bw = breadth of the web, Df = Depth of flange = thickness of slab.

4.5 PROPERTIES OF FLANGED SECTION

4.5.1 Under-Reinforced Section (xu < xu.max )
In case of a flanged sect1on, following different cases arise depending on the
depth of flange Df in relation to the depth of neutral axis xu , and in relation
to the rectangular part 3xu /7 of rectangular-parabolic stress distribution
ˆ Case - 1 : Neutral axis lying inside the flange i.e. xu < Df
ˆ Case - 2 : Neutral axis lying outside the flange or inside the web
i.e.xu > Df . This case is further subdivided into two sub-parts de-
pending on whether the rectangular part of the stress block (3xu /7) is
less thanDf or greater than Df as given below :
– Case-2 a : Rectangular part of the stress block less than Df i.e.
3x/7 < Df
– Case-2 b : Rectangular part of the stress block greater than Df
i.e. 3x/7 > Df
Case-1. Neutral Axis lying inside the flange (xu < Df )
Since the concrete below the neutral axis is assumed to be cracked, the flanged
beam can be considered as a rectangular beam of width b = bf (Fig.4.13) and
the expression for xu , Mur , and Ast for singly reinforced rectangular beam can
be used by replacing bf in place of b.

Figure 4.13: NA lying inside the flange

1. Depth of Neutral Axis (xu ):

From equilibrium condition Cuf = Tu where, Cuf = compression re-
sisted by flange
0.87fy Ast
xu = (4.37)
0.36fck bf
2. Moment of Resistance (Mur ) :

Mur = 0.36fck bf xu (d − 0.42xu ) (4.38)

Or
Mur = 0.87fy Ast (d − 0.42xu ) (4.39)
Or  
fy Ast
Mur = 0.87fy Ast 1 − (4.40)
fck bf d
3. Area of steel (Ast ):
It is given by the solution of the Eq.7.6 above, which is in quadratic in
Ast " s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bf d (4.41)
fy fck bf d
The bifurcation between case-1 and case-2
The bifurcation between case-1 and case-2 shall be the conditionxu = Df ; i.e.
Neutral axis is lying at the junction of flange and web as shown in Fig.4.14

Figure 4.14: NA at the junction of flange and web

The moment of resistance of the section and the area of steel can be
obtained from Eq.7.6 by replacing xu = Df as

f or xu = Df , Murl = 0.36fck bf Df (d − 0.42Df ) (4.42)

And
0.36fck bf Df
Ast = (4.43)
0.87fy

Case-2 Neutral Axis lying in Web xu > Df :

In this case, the shape of concrete under compression is itself a T-section
(Fig.4.15 and Fig.4.16 ). For convenience of calculations, it is divided into
two parts, one consists of concrete in the web portion of width bw and depth
xu , and the other consists of projecting flanges of width (bf − bw ) and depth
Df

Case - 2a : Depth of rectangular part of stress block is less than

the depth of the flange:i.e. 3xu /7 < Df
Since the depth of the rectangular part of the stress block 3xu /7 is less than
the depth of the flange (Df ) the stress distribution across the depth of the
flange is rectangular and partly parabolic as shown in Fig.4.15
 Figure 4.15: Parabolic part of stress-block inside flange

This stress distribution across the section can be taken equivalent to web
subjected to rectangular-parabolic stress distribution for a depth equal to x
and the outstanding portion of the flange (bf − bw ) subjected to rectangular
and partly parabolic stress distribution which can be considered to be equal
to rectangular stress distribution of width 0.446fck ≈ 0.45fck over the reduced
depth, yf (see Fig.4.15b). where, yf = 0.15xu + 0.65D ≤ Df

1. Depth of Neutral Axis :

The expression for the depth of neutral axis xu , can be written by
considering equilibrium of internal forces:
Total compression Cu = Cuw + Cuf = total tension Tu .
Where,Cuw = compression resisted by web ,Cuf = compression resisted
by flange

Cuw + Cuf = 0.87fy Ast

(4.44)
0.36fck bf xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf = 0.87fy Ast

Substituting yf = 0.15xu + 0.65Df in the above equation we get,

0.87fy Ast − 0.45 × 0.65fck Df (bf − bw )

xu = (4.45)
0.36fck b + 0.45 × 0.15fck (bf − bw )
 2. Moment of Resistance:
The moment of resistance is obtained by taking moment of compressive
forces about the C.G. of tension steel and is given by

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf (d − yf /2) (4.46)

3. Area of steel:

0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf

Ast = (4.47)
0.87fy
The bifurcating case between Case-2a and Case-2b is 3xu /7 = Df
∴The limiting value of xu in this case is xu = 7Df /3
when 3xu /7 = Df or xu = 7Df /3, yf = 0.15 × 7Df /3 + 0.65Df = Df .

∴ Mur2 = 0.36fck bw (7Df /3)(d−0.42×7Df /3)+0.45fck (bf −bw )Df ×(d−Df /2)
(4.48)
Or

Mur2 = 0.84fck bw Df (d − 0.98Df ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df × (d − Df /2)

(4.49)
This expression is useful, in bifurcating Case 2a and Case 2b.

Case-2b : Depth of rectangular part of stress block greater titan

the depth of flange 3xu /7 > Df or xu > 7Df /3
In this case the stress distribution across the depth of the flange is rectangular
and is subjected to constant stress of 0.45fck . Hence, all the design equations
can be obtained from Eq.4.79 and Eq.7.13 by replacing yf by Df or the
equations for xu and Ast can be obtained by equating total compression to
total tension and Mur by taking moment of compressive forces about the
C.G. of tension steel.(See Fig.4.16 )

1. Depth of Neutral Axis:

0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df = 0.87fy Ast (4.50)

0.87fy Ast − 0.45fck (bf − bw )
xu = (4.51)
0.36fck bw
 Figure 4.16: Parabolic part of stress-block outside flange

2. Moment of resistance :

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d−0.42xu )+0.45×fck (bf −bw )Df (d−Df /2) (4.52)

3. Area of steel: from Eq.7.16

0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
Ast = (4.53)
0.87fy

4.5.2 Properties of a balanced Section : For a balanced

section, xu = xu max
When xu = xu max the case is usually either Case-2 (a) or (b) depending
upon the value of ratio Df /d and xu max /d. The limit dividing Case-2 (a) or
2 (b) is xu = 7Df /3(i.e.xu /Df = 7/3).
xu/max 7 xu max /d 7 Df 3 xu max
Taking xu = xu max , = or = or =
Df 3 Df /d 3 d 7 d
The values of Df /d dividing case-2(a) and Case-2(b ) for different grades of
steel are given below.
 Steel xu max /d Df /d
Fe250 0.53 0.227
Fe415 0.48 0.206
Fe500 0.46 0.197

Table 4.6:

I.S. Code recommends only a single value of 0.2 for Df /d for calculating
values of Mur max and states that if Df /d ≤ 0.2, Equation for Case - 2 (b)
shall be considered taking xu = xu max .
If Df /d > 0.2 , Equation for Case-2 (a) shall be considered taking xu =
xu max .
According to I.S. Code recommendations, therefore, the equation for Mur max
and Ast max are as follows.
For Df /d ≤ 0.2, substituting xu max for xu in Eq. 7.18
 
Df
Mur max = 0.36fck bw xu max (d − 0.42xu max )+0.45fck (bf − bw ) Df d −
2
  (4.54)
 
xu max 0.42 × xu max 2 Df
Mur max = 0.36 1− fck bw d +0.45fck (bf − bw ) Df d −
d d 2
(4.55)
0.36fck bw xu.max + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
Ast.max = (4.56)
0.87fy
For Df /d > 0.2, substituting xu.max for xu in Eq. 4.46

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu.max (d − 0.42xu.max ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf (d − yf /2) (4.57)

 
xu.max 0.42xu.max 2
 yf 
Mur = 0.36 1− fck bw d + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf d −
d d 2
(4.58)
where, yf = (0.15xu.max + 0.65Df ) but ≯ Df

0.36fck bw xu.max + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf

Ast = (4.59)
0.87fy
4.6 Solved Problems on Flanged Beams
4.6.1 Analysis problems procedure:
Given : fck , fy , bf , Df , bw , D and Ast
Required: Mur
Solution procedure :
1. Assume xu < Df and calculate xu by equating Cuf = Tu
0.87f yAst
0.36fck bf xu = 0.87f yAst or xu = (4.60)
0.36fck bf
If xu < Df then the assumption is correct. Calculate M by taking
moment of Cu about Tu

M = 0.36fck bf .xu (d − 0.42xu ) (4.61)

If xu > Df then the assumption is wrong proceed to step 2.

2. Assume xu > 7Df /3 and calculate xu by equating Cu = Tu

0.36fck bw xu + 0.45 × fck (bf − bw )Df = 0.87fy Ast (4.62)

0.87fy Ast − 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
∴ xu = (4.63)
0.36fck bw
Check that xu < xu.max , if not put xu = xu.max and calculate Mur.max
and Ast.max using
 
Df
Mur max = 0.36fck bw xu max (d − 0.42xu max )+0.45fck (bf − bw ) Df d −
2
(4.64)
and
0.36fck bw xu.max + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
Ast.max = (4.65)
0.87fy
Calculate M by taking moment of Cu about Tu

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d−0.42xu )+0.45×fck (bf −bw )Df (d−Df /2) (4.66)

If 3xu /7 < Df then first calculate xu by equating Cu = Tu

0.36fck bf xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )(0.15xu − 0.65Df ) = 0.87fy Ast (4.67)

 0.87fy Ast − 0.45 × 0.65fck Df (bf − bw )
∴ xu = (4.68)
0.36fck b + 0.45 × 0.15fck (bf − bw )
If xu > xu.max put xu = xu.max and calculateMur.max using Eq.7.5 and
Ast.max from Eq.7.6.
If xu < xu.max calculate, yf and then Mur , yf = 0.15xu + 0.65Df

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf (d − yf /2) (4.69)

Example-1 Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of a L-beam for

the following data : width of the flange = 1200 mm , Depth of slab = 110
mm Effective depth = 600 mm, width of web = 300 mm The characteristic
strength of concrete obtained from test results is 22 N/mm2 and yield stress
of steel is 460 N/mm2 Area of tension steel provided as
( a) 4 - # 25 mm ( b ) 7 - # 25 mm ( c ) 5 - # 32 mm
Given: fck = 22 N/mm2 , fy = 460 N/mm2 , bf = 1200 mm
Depth of flange= Depth of slab = Df = 110 mm, d = 600 mm, bw = 300 mm
Required : Mur for three different values of Ast
(a) Ast = 4 − #25 mm = 1963 mm2
Assume xu < Df
0.87f yAst 0.87 × 460 × 1963
∴ xu = = = 82.66 mm < Df (= 110 mm)
0.36fck bf 0.36 × 22 × 1200
∴ Assumption is correct.

∴ Mur.max = 0.36fck bf xu (d − 0.42xu ) = 0.36 × 22 × 1200 × 82.66 × (600 − 0.42 × 82.66)10−6

= 444.10 kN.m

b Ast = 7 − #25 mm = 3436 mm2

Assume xu < Df
0.87f yAst 0.87 × 460 × 3436
∴ xu = = = 144.68 mm > Df (= 110 mm)
0.36fck bf 0.36 × 22 × 1200
∴ Assumption is wrong. Now, assume 3xu /7 > Df or xu > 7Df /3
0.87fy Ast − 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
∴ xu =
0.36fck bw
0.87 × 460 × 3436 − 0.45 × 22(1200 − 300) × 110
= = 166.24 mm < 7Df /3(= 256.7mm)
0.36 × 22 × 300
∴ Assumption is wrong. ∴ 3xu /7 < Df
For 3xu /7 < Df calculate the depth of neutral axis by equating Cu = Tu

0.87fy Ast − 0.45 × 0.65fck Df (bf − bw )

xu =
0.36fck b + 0.45 × 0.15fck (bf − bw )
0.87 × 460 × 3436 − 0.45 × 0.65 × 22 × 110(1200 − 300)
=
0.36 × 22 × 300 + 0.45 × 0.15 × 22(1200 − 300)
xu = 198.8 mm < 7Df /3(= 256.7 mm) ∴ O.K.
700 700
xu.max = d= × 600 = 279.96 mm
1100 + 0.87fy 1100 + 0.87X460
∴ xu < xu.max , the section is under-reinforced.
Now,yf = 0.15xu + 0.65Df 1 = 0.15 × 198.8 + 0.65 × 110 = 101.32 < Df (=
110 mm)

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf (d − yf /2)

Mur = [0.36 × 22 × 300 × 198.8(600 − 0.42 × 198.8)

+ 0.45 × 22 × (1200 − 300) × 101.32 × (600 − 101.32/2)]X10−6

Mur = 739.89 kN.m

(c) Ast = 5 − #32 mm = 4021 mm2

Assume 3xu /7 > Df or xu > 7Df /3

0.87fy Ast − 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
xu =
0.36fck b
0.87 × 460 × 4021 − 0.45 × 22 × (1200 − 300) × 110
=
0.36 × 22 × 300
xu = 264.77 mm > 7Df /3(= 256.7 mm) ∴ O.K.

∴ Assumption is correct.
xu.max = 279.96 mm, ∴ xu < xu.max , the section is under-reinforced.

Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45 × fck (bf − bw )Df (d − Df /2)

 Mur = [0.36 × 22 × 300 × 264.77 × (600 − 0.42 × 264.77)
+ 0.45 × 22(200 − 300) × 110 × (600 − 110/2)] × 10−6

∴ Mur = 841.65 kN.m

Type-2 Analysis Problem:

Given : fck , fy , Df , D, d0 , span, end conditions.
0
Required: Mur.max ws (max. allowable imposed load).
Solution Procedure :
1. Calculate L0 from given span, end conditions and bending moment dia-
gram, else take it equal to 0.7L. Calculate bf
L0
bf = k × ( + 6Df ) + bw ) ≤ B
6
k = 1 for T-beam , k = 1/2 for L-beam , k = 0 for rectangular beam
B = distance between centres of adjacent spans of slabs.
where, L0 = Distance between points of zero bending moments.
2. Determine xu.max for given grade of steel. 3. Calculate Df /d, If Df /d >
0.2, calculate Mu.max as,
 yf 
Mur.max = 0.36fck bw xu.max (d − 0.42xu.max ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw ) yf d −
2
where yf = (0.15xu.max + 0.65Df ) but ≯ Df
4. Compute Ast.max ,

0.36fck bw xu.max + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf

Ast.max =
0.87fy
If Df /d ≤ 0.2 take yf = Df in the above equations.
5. Calculate the allowable load w by equating Mu.max with Mu expressed in
terms of w and L for given end conditions. Apply load factor 1.5 for ultimate
load.
Mur = Mu = 1.5w × L2 × α where, α is the B.M. coefficient depending upon
the end conditions.
Determine self weight wd = 25bD (b and Din meters) and hence ws =
(w − wd )
Example-2 :A R.C. T-beam having total depth 380 mm, width 230 mm is
cast monolithically with slab 110 mm thick. The beam is simply supported
over a span of 4.44 m and spaced 2 m c/c. Concrete mix M20 and steel of
grade Fe500 have been used. Calculate the maximum uniformly distributed
imposed load the beam can carry and the corresponding area of steel.
Given : A simply supported beam of span L = 4.44 m, c/c spacing = 2 m
D = 380 mm, Df = 110 mm, bw = 230 mm.fck = 20 N/mm2 , fy = 500 N/mm2 .
Required: Allowable maximum imposed u.d. load and Ast.max
Solution:
For maximum load when Ast is not given, the section has to be a balanced
section.
∴ xu = xu.max , Mur = Mur.max andAst = Ast.max
Assuming d’= 60 mm, d = 380 - 60 = 320 mm
As the beam is simply supported, L0 = L = 4.44 m
for T-beam k = 1,
 
L0 4440
bf = k × ( + 6Df ) + bw ) = + 6 × 110 + 230 = 1630 mm
6 6
bf < 2000 mm ∴ O.K.
∴ (bf − bw ) = 1630 − 230 = 1400 mm
For Fe 500, Xu.max = 0.46d = 0.46 × 320 = 147mm < Df (= 110 mm)
AlsoDf /d = 110/320 = 0.34 > 0.2 ∴ yf will be calculated.
yf = (0.15xu.max +0.65×Df ) = 0.15×147+0.65×110 = 93.55 mm < 110 mm
∴ O.K.
 yf 
Mur.max = 0.36fck bw xu.max (d − 0.42xu.max ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw ) yf d −
2
Mur.max = [0.36×20×230×147(320−0.42×147)+0.45×20×1400×93.55×(320−93.55/2)]10−6
Mur.max = 387.93 kN.m
0.36fck bw xu.max + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf
Ast.max =
0.87fy
0.36 × 20 × 230 × 147 + 0.45 × 20 × 1400 × 93.55
=
0.87 × 500
2
= 3269/mm
Load Calculations :
Now Mur = Mu = wu L2 /8 = 1.5w × L2 /8, ∴ 384.93 = 1.5w × 4.442 /8
∴ w = 104.14 kN/m
Self weight wd = 25bD = 25 × 0.23 × 0.38 = 2.19kN/m
∴ Allowable imposed load ws = 104.14 − 2.19 = 101.95 kN m

Type-3 : Design Problem (Determination of Ast )

In the problem of design also, the same question arises as to which equations
of the three cases be used because exact position of the neutral axis is not
known before hand. In this case also, instead of using ’assume and verify’
approach, would be recommended to calculate Mu1 and Mu2 corresponding
to xu = Df and xu = 7Df /3 respectively. Comparison of given Mu with these
values immediately indicates the approximate location of xu and enables one
to choose an appropriate equation to determine the exact value of xu .
Given : fck , fy , bf , bw , D, Df , d0 andMu , or span, loading and end conditions.
Required:Ast
Solution Procedure :
(1) If Mu and bf are not given directly but span, load and end conditions are
given calculate bf and Mu .
where,
L0
bf = k × ( + 6Df ) + bw ) ≤ B
6
B = distance between centres of adjacent spans of slabs.
L0 = distance between points of zero bending moments
Mu = αwu L2 = α(1.5w)L2
where, α is bending moment coefficient depending upon the end conditions.
If Mu and bf are given, directly start from Step- 2.
(2) Calculate Mu for xu = Df
Murl = 0.36fck bf Df (d − 0.42Df )
(3) Compare given Mu with Murl
If Mu > Mur1 , xu > Df , , and hence go to Step - 4.
If Mu ≤ Mur1 , xu ≤ Df ,
(a) Calculate Ast
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1−
fy fck bf d2
(b) Calculate xu from
0.87fy Ast
xu =
0.36fck bf
Check xu < xu.max
(4) ComputeMu2 f orxu = 7Df /3

∴ Mu2 = 0.36fck bw (7Df /3)(d−0.42×7Df /3)+0.45fck (bf −bw )Df ×(d−Df /2)
Or
Mu2 = 0.84fck bw Df (d − 0.98Df ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df × (d − Df /2)
(5) Compare given Mu with Mu2
If M u > M u2, xu > 7Df /3 then go to Step, - 6.
If M u ≤ Mu2 , xu ≤ 7Df /3
(a) Calculate xu corresponding to given Mu ( by process of trial and error ).
 yf 
Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw ) yf d −
2
where yf = (0.15xu + 0.65 × Df )
Check that xu ≤ xu.max . If xu > xu.max , take xu = xu.max
(b) Calculate Ast

0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf

Ast =
0.87fy
(6) For Mu > Mu2 Determine xu corresponding to given Mu
 
Df
Mu = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw ) Df d −
2
Check that xu ≤ xu.max . If xu > xumax , take xu = xu.max
(7) Calculate Ast from known value of xu .
0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
Ast =
0.87fy
Comments : In most of the cases of beam-slab construction xu the thickness
of the slab is sufficiently large with the result xu works out to be less than Df
and generally Case-I governs the design.
Example-3: Calculate the area of reinforcement required-for an L-beam
of flange width 1000 mm, flange thickness 120 mm, width of rib 250 mm,
total depth 750 mm and effective cover 70 mm, to resist an ultimate bending
moments of
 (a) 400 kN.m. (b) 750 kN.m. (c) 800 kN.m.

Assume concrete of grade M20 and steel of grade fe 415.

Given : L beam, b =l000 mm, D =120 mm, b =250 mm , D=750 mm,
d’=70 mm, fck = 20N/mm2 , fy . = 415N/mm2
Required : Ast for Mu equal to (a) 400 k.N.m, (b) 750 kN.rn, (c) 800 kN.m,
(d) 850 kN.m.
Solution :
d = D − d0 = 750 − 70 = 680 mm, (bf − bw ) = 1000 − 250 = 750 mm
To locate x , let us obtain Mu1 for xu = Df
For xu = Df ,

Mru1 = 0.36fck bf Df (d − 0.42Df )

= [0.36 × 20 × 1000 × 120 × (680 − 0.42 × 120)] × 10−6
= 544 kN.m

Mu = 400 kN.m < Mur1 , ∴ xu < Df

For Fe 415 xu.max = 0.48d = 0.48 × 680 = 326 mm.
Since xu < Df and Df < xu.max ∴ xu < xu.max ∴ O.K.
" s #
0.5fck 4.63Mu
Ast = 1− 1−
fy fck bf d2
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × (400 × 10 ) 
= 1− 1− × 1000 × 680
415 20 × 1000 × 6802

= 1720 mm2
(b) Given : Mu = 750 kN.m
Mu > Mur1 = 544 kN.M calculated in part (a) above. ∴ xu > Df
Let us now, therefore, find Mur2 for xu = 7Df /3 (= 7 × 120/3 = 280 mm)

∴ Mu2 = 0.36fck bw (7Df /3)(d − 0.42 × 7Df /3) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df × (d − Df /2)
Mu2 = 0.84fck bw Df (d − 0.98Df ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df × (d − Df /2)
= 0.84 × 20 × 250 × 120(680 − 0.98 × 120) + 0.45 × 20 × 750 × 120(680 − 120/2) × 10−6
= 283.4 + 502.20 = 185.6 kN.m
Since given Mu (= 750 kN.m) < Mur2 = 185.6 kN.m ∴ xu < 7Df /3 (=
280 mm).
  yf 
Mur = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw ) yf d− = Mu
2
where,
yf = (0.15xu + 0.65Df )

∴ (0.36 × 20 × 250 × xu )(680 − 0.42 × xu )

+ (0.45 × 20 × 750 × (0.15 × xu + 0.65 × 120))(680 − (0.15 × xu + 0.65 × 120)/2)
= 750 × 106

∴ xu = 254.334 mm
∴ yf = (0.15xu + 0.65Df )
= (0.15 × 254.334 + 0.65 × 120)
= 116.15 mm < Df ∴ O.K.
0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )yf
Ast =
0.87fy
(0.36 × 20 × 250 × 254.334) + (0.45 × 20 × 750 × 120)
=
0.87 × 415
2
= 3439.45 mm
(c) Given: Mu = 800 kN.m

Mu > Mur2

∴ xu > 7Df 3 = 7 × 120/3 = 280mm

Now xu will be obtained for Mur = Mu = 800 kN.m
 
Df
Mu = 0.36fck bw xu (d − 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (bf − bw ) Df d −
2
= (36 × 20 × 250 × (680 − 0.42Xu ) + (0.45 × 20 × 750 × 120)(680 − 120/2) = 800 × 106
∴ x2u − 1619xu + 393915 = 0 ∴ xu = 298 mm

∴ xu < xu.max (= 326 mm), The section is under-reinforced.

 0.36fck bw xu + 0.45fck (bf − bw )Df
Ast =
0.87fy
0.36 × 20 × 250 × 298 + 0.45 × 20 × 750 × 120
= = 3729 mm2
0.87 × 415
Example-4: Design the reinforcement for a T-beam for the following data
: Span 8 m, ends simply supported, spacing of beams = 3 m, superimposed
load = 5 kN/m2 , floor finish =0.7 kN/m2 , thickness of slab = 130 mm,
weight of wall on beam = 15 kN/m. Assume width of web 230 mm, total
depth 680 mm, concrete - M20 and steel -Fe250.
Given : Simply supported beam.
L = 8 m, ws = 5 kN/m2 , c/c spacing = 3 m Floor finish (FF)= 0.7 kN/m2 ,
wall load= 15 kN/m, bw = 230 mm, D = 680 mm, Df = 130 mm, fck =
20N/mm2 , fy = 250 N/mm2 .
Required : Ast
Solution:
Let d’ = 80 mm , d = D - d’ = 680 - 80 = 600 mm
Calculation for Mu :
Total load/m2 = W eight of slab+F F +ws = 25×0.13+0.7+5 = 8.95 kN/m2

Load on beam from floor = load intensity x beam spacing = 8.95 × 3 = 26.85 kN/m
Load from wall = 15.00 kN/m
Weight of rib = 25(0.68 − 0.13) × 0.23 = 3.16 kN/m
Total working load = w = 26.85 + 15 + 3.16 = 45.01 kN/m
Ultimate load wu = 1.5 w = 1.5 × 45.01
Ultimate load wu = 1.5 w = 1.5 × 45.01
Ultimate design moment Mu= wu L2 /8 
= 67.51 × 82 /8 = 540 kN/m
Lo
Calculations for bf : bf = + 6Df + bw
6 
8000
bf = + 6 × 130 + 230 = 2343 mm < 3000 mm
6

Calculations for Ast :

For xu = Df , Mur1 = 0.36fck bf Df (d − 0.42Df )
= 0.36 × 20 × 2343 × 130(600 − 0.42 × 130)10−6 = 1196kN.m
Given Mu < Mur1 and hence xu < Df
" r #
0.5 × 20 4.6 × 540 × 106
Ast = 1− 1− × 2343 × 600
250 20 × 2343 × 6002
= 4306 mm2

4.7 SHEAR FAILURE

4.7.1 Modes of Shear Failure
The different modes of shear failure can be studied from the test results nor-
mally conducted on a simply supported beam symmetrically loaded by two
equal concentrated loads acting at distance ’a’ from the supports as shown
in Fig.4.17(a). The maximum bending moment= M = W × a = V × a is also
independent of span L. The moment M and the ratio M/V can be changed
simply by varying ‘a ’ without change in V. Thus, the distance ’a’ (= M/V )
represents the dominance of shear over flexure and is called shear span. Many
tests on shear have established that diagonal tension in a function of M/V
and hence on the shear span ’a’. It also depends on the effective depth ’d’ of
the beam because the inclination of diagonal tension is not only a function
of shear span ’a’ but also on the effective depth ’d’. Therefore, the diagonal
tension failure i.e. shear failure is a function of the ratio a/d

The different modes of failure can be identified as follows:

1. Large Values of a/d(> 6)

In the case of large values of a/d > 6, (i.e.(M/V )d > 6)-effect of bend-
ing moment is predominant and the failure essentially occurs due to
flexure (starting with yielding of main steel and finally by crushing of
concrete) and formation of vertical cracks on tension side in the region
of maximum bending moment. The ultimate failure of beams under
this category is dependent solely on the maximum bending moment
and not on the shear force.
 Figure 4.17: Modes of shear failure

2. Intermediate Values of a/d(2.5 to 3.0) < a/d < 6

Beams having values of a/d < 6, fail due to combined effect of bending
and shear. A crack say PQ in Fig.4.17(b) is first initiated by flexure
in the vertical direct!on, which further propagates in an inclined direc-
tion QR towards the load due to the combined action of flexure and
shear. Such a crack is known as flexure-shear crock, or many times,
simply a diagonal crack. With further increase in load the crack fur-
ther progresses up to point-S in the compression zone and at some
stage it becomes unstable, splitting the beam into two segments I and
II Fig.b. This mode of failure is termed as diagonal-tension failure
or shear-flexure failure.

3. Small Values of a/d1 < a/d < (2.5 to 3.0)

For beams with values of aid between say 1 to 2.8, shear being pre-
dominant, the diagonal crack (in Fig.4.17(b)) is developed along with
flexure crack PQ. The beam usually remains stable after this diagonal
cracking. But further increase in V can lead to shear failure by one of
the following modes.
For higher value of a/d, with any increase in load (and hence in shear
force V), the diagonal crack, instead of progressing towards the load
upwards, stops at some point T(See Fig.4.17(c)) and propagates back-
 wards from Q to UV almost horizontally along the longitudinal re-
inforcement due to splitting caused by pressing down of the longitu-
dinal steel by increased shear. This results into destruction of the
bond between the concrete and the longitudinal steel, leading to fail-
ure by splitting of concrete along the reinforcement and pulling out of
main steel. This type of failure is known as shear-tension failure or
shear-bond failure. The ultimate load causing this type of failure
is not much higher than the load causing diagonal crack. This type
of failure is prevented by providing adequate anchorage and minimum
steel beyond the support. For lower values of a/d, if the longitudi-
nal reinforcement is well anchored beyond the centre of support, the
diagonal crack penetrates.inside the compression region carrying load
higher than that which causes diagonal crack, and failure occurs by lo-
cal crushing of concrete (sometimes explosively . This mode of failure is
called shear-compression failure.(Fig.4.17(d)). The load at failure
is practically 2 to 4 times the load causing diagonal crack. This type
of faalure is prevented by limiting the maximum shear at the section.
4. Deep Beam (a/d < 1)
For deep beams shearing stresses predominate and need more consider-
ations than flexural stresses. The magnitude of principal compression
and tension occurring along and across the line joining the load and
the reaction respectively is significantly high, the inclined cracks oc-
cur immediately near the support, and the beam gets transformed into
tied arch, wherein the load is carried by direct compression (shown by
shaded area) and the tension is carried by the longitudinal reinforce-
ment as shown in Fig.4.18(a).

Figure 4.18: Shear failure in Deep Beam

This tied-arch can fail in number of ways. The numbers in Fig.4.18(b) cor-
respond to the following modes of failure
1. Anchorage failure of tension reinforcement, usually combined with dowel
splitting effect (point-1),

2. Crushing failure at support (point-2)

3. Flexural failure arising from either yielding of steel (point-3) or crushing

o f concrete near the crown of the arch (point-3)

4. Arch-rib failure due to eccentric compression causing a tension.crack at

support (point-4) or crushing of concrete rib at point-5. The ultimate
load at failure by this mode is several times that due to load causing
diagonal cracking.
Provision of minimum tension steel at bottom, minimum anchorage, and
limitation on maximum shear stress prevents this type of failure.
Discussion of all these failure modes indicate that in general, while designing
for limit state of collapse in shear, all other modes of shear failure, except the
diagonal tension failure, are eliminated through appropriate codal provisions.
If at all the beam fails due to diagonal tension exceeding the limiting value
the design provisions are such that the failure commences with the yielding
of steel giving sufficient warning of the impending failure.

4.7.2 ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAM

WITHOUT SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
Shear Failure Mechanism
It will be clear from the earlier discussions on modes of failure that the load
causing diagonal crack corresponds to initiation of shear failure mechanism
and the ultimate load at collapse is not much different from the load caus-
ing diagonal crack. Therefore, the load at which the diagonal crack forms is
taken as the strength of beam in shear. The mechanism formed in the beam
at the ultimate state of shear due to the formation of the diagonal crack,
separating the beam into two segments I and II along the diagonal is shown
in Fig.4.19 a. The mechanism is known as mechanism of shear transfer at
ultimate state.
Extensive experimental studies have shown that the load (V) causing diag-
 Figure 4.19: Shear failure mechanism

onal crack is resisted by the beam, consisting of the following shear carrying
components (Fig.4.19(b)).
1. Shear resisted by the dowel action, Vd (i.e. force induced to prevent
slipping of steel from surrounding concrete) of the flexural reinforce-
ment. This is known as dowel-shear capacity.

2. Shear carried by the vertical component of the interface shear (V0 ) along
the crack due to aggregate interlock called as interface shear transfer.

3. Shear resisted by uncracked concrete in compression in compression

zone (Ve ).
Therefore, the load causing diagonal crack, and hence the shear resisting
capacity of the beam without the shear reinforcement, is given by :

V = V d + V a + Vc (4.70)

Test results have shown that the relative magnitudes of the contributions
to the shear resistance are as detailed below: Contribution (V) by dowel ac-
tion 15% to 30%
Contribution (V) by aggregate interlock a 33%to 50%
Contribution (V) by concrete in compression zone 20% to 40%
The research has shown that the mechanism of shear failure commences with
dowel action reaching its capacity first, thereafter aggregate interlock is de-
stroyed, resulting in transfer of large shear force to compression zone leading
to sudden and explosive failure.
Thus, the shear failure of reinforced concrete beam is not only affected by
a/d ratio, but also on number of above mentioned parameters.
4.7.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SHEAR RESISTANCE
OF A R.C. MEMBER
The important factors affecting the shear resistance of a R.C. member with-
out shear reinforcement are given below :

1. Characteristic Strength of Concrete

The tensile strength of concrete, dowel shear resistance, aggregate inter-
lock capacity and concrete strength in compression :zone all increase
with the concrete strength. Therefore, higher the grade of concrete,
greater will be the resistance to shear.

2. Percentage o f Longitudinal Tension Reinforcenunt

The increase in the percentage of tension reinforcement increases the
shear strength of a reinforced concrete beam reaching the maximum
value depending on the grade of concrete mix used.
The dowel shear contribution increases with the increase in the per-
centage of tension steel and strength of concrete. Therefore, the design
codes make the shear strength a function of percentage o f steel p1
and the grade of concrete. Of course, it is taken for granted that the
necessary anchorage to tension steel is provided to derive assistance of
dowel-shear capacity. For low percentage of longitudinal tension steel,
the dowel shear capacity is reduced while it increases with increase
in percentage of tension steel pt . It may be interesting to note that
according to test results, the grade of steel has little effect on shear
strength. On the contrary, since percentage of steel required for high
grade steel happens to be less than that required for mild steel, the
shear resistance of a R.C. member with high grade steel will be less
than that of mild steel.

3. Shear Span to Depth Ratio (a/d): The variation of M = Vu .a ,

and hence that of the shear strength, with aid ratio has been shown
in Fig.4.20 . It is evident from this figure that for values of ratio from
6 to say 2.6, the shear capacity, being governed by inclined cracking
strength, goes on reducing with reduction in a/d. For a value of aid
less than 2.8, the shear strength increases rapidly, because now, the
shear failure is governed by shear-bond or shear compression capacity
rather than by diagonal tension.
 Figure 4.20: Variation of shear failure with a/d ratio

4. Compressive Force
Presence of an axial compressive force prolongs the inclined cracking
and increases the shear strength of concrete. This effect has been taken
into account by the Code by increasing the design shear stress by a
modification factor.The shear resistance is found to increase with the
increase in the percentage of compression steel

5. Axial Tensile Force

Axial tension does not affect the crack pattern but only reduces marginally
the shear resistance of concrete.
However since I.S. Code does not make any provision for the effect of
axial tension, the shear strength of concrete (τuc ) under axial tension
may be assumed to be equal to zero for conservative design.

6. Effect of Cross-section
The shear strength of beams (without shear reinforcement) decreases as
the effective depth increases. No significant effect on shear strength of
beams has been observed for rectangular beams having b/d ratio rang-
ing from 1/4 to 1. In slabs some strength enhancement has been ob-
served in the critical range of b/d from 4 to 10 perhaps due to membrane
effect and the anti-elastic bending effects. This increase in strength has
 been accounted for in Code by multiplying the shear strength of slab
by factor k .
7. Effect of Shear Reinforcement
Concrete gets confined between the stirrup spacing, resulting in increase
in the shear capacity. Therefore, the shear strength of beam increases
with the shear reinforcement ratio.
8. Effect of Two-way Action
The two-way bending and shear action increases the shear strength of
slabs.

4.7.4 SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAM WITH SHEAR

REINFORCEMENT
General
When the shear acting on the section is greater than the shear capacity of
concrete (Vc ), the diagonal crack emerges. In order to prevent the formation
of the diagonal cracking and its widening, additional shear resistance is re-
quired to hold together the two parts of the beam, on opposite sides of the
possible crack, to prevent shear failure as shown in Fig.4.21 . The additional

Figure 4.21: Vertical stirrups and bent up bars

shear resistance is provided by the transverse reinforcement. This transverse

reinforcement is known as web steel or shear reinforcement. The shear rein-
forcement increases the ductility of the beam and reduces the possibility of a
sudden and catastrophic failure. Normally the shear reinforcement consists
of:

1. vertical stirrups, or links, at right angles to the longitudinal reinforce-

ment

2. inclined stirrups making an angle greater than or equal to 450 , with

the longitudinal steel,

3. inclined bent up bars obtained by bending some of the main longitu-

dinal bars at an angle of 450 or more, with the longitudinal axis of the
member

4. combinations of (1) or (2) with (3) (see Fig.4.21 ).

In case of beam with shear reinforcement, the external shear at ultimate

state is jointly carried by the concrete and the web steel, and the equilibrium
equation can be written as :

Vu = Vuc + Vus (4.71)

where Vuc = ultimate shear resisted by the concrete member without

shear reinforcement, and
Vus = ultimate shear carried by the web steel.

Shear Resisted by Shear Reinforcement

The ultimate shear resistance (Vus ) offered by the shear reinforcement is ob-
tained by considering the truss analogy. According to the analogy, the R.C.
member is assumed to be made up of an analogous truss in which concrete
compression zone acts as a compression chord, the longitudinal tensile rein-
forcement acts as a tension chord, the transverse reinforcements (stirrups)
correspond to the tension web members, and the concrete between the in-
clined cracks form the compression web members (Fig.4.22 ).
The shear resisted by shear reinforcement can be worked out by consid-
ering the equilibrium of forces across a potential diagonal crack, which is
assumed to extend at an angle of 450 with the horizontal. Fig.4.23 shows the
diagonal crack intersecting ’n’ number of web reinforcing bars, inclined at an
 Figure 4.22: Truss Analogy for R.C. beams

angle ’u’ with the axis of the member and spaced at distance ’s’ apart.
Since any design of a R.C. member (either for flexure or shear) has to be
such that the failure is not sudden and brittle, but slow and ductile giving
prior warning, the shear reinforcement is designed in such a way that shear
failure shall occur by yielding of shear reinforcement. Therefore, at failure
’n’ number of web bars crossing the diagonal crack reach the design yield
strength fyd .
For equilibrium,

shear carried by shear reinforcement = sum of the vertical components

of tensile forces developed in the shear reinforcement.
Thus,
Vus = nAsw fyd sin α (4.72)
where,
Vus =Ultimate shear carried by the shear reinforcement
Asw =total cross-sectional area of steel in web within a distance ’s ’,
fyd =design yield stress of steel(fyd = 0.87fy ),
n = number of bars or links crossed by the crack, and
α = inclination of the web steel with the axis of the member (α = 450 )
From geometry,

ns = (d − d0 ) cot 450 + (d − d0 ) cot α

= (d − d0 )(1 + cot α) (4.73)
or n = d(1 + cot α)/s
The dimension d0 is small in comparison with d in most of the cases, and
hence neglected.
 Figure 4.23: Shear resisted by Web steel

Substituting the values of fyd = 0.87fy , and n = d(1 + cot cot)/s in Eq. 7.3,
we get
0.87fy Asw d
Vus = (sin α + cos α) (4.74)
s
This equation can be used to find the shear strength of inclined stirrups or
series of bent-up bars at different cross-sections.

Vertical Stirrups
Representing verticality of stirrups by suffix ’v’ and substituting Vus = Vusv ,
s = sv , Asw = Asv and α = 900 in Eq.7.5 we get,
0.87fy Asv d
Vusv = (4.75)
sv
∴ Spacing of vertical stirrupsv
0.87fy Asv d
sv = (4.76)
Vusv
where
Vusv = Ultimate shear resisted by Vertical Stirrups
Asv = total a of Vertical legs of Stirrups at a section
fy = characteristic strength of steel ≯ 415N/mm2
From Fig. 4.23, it can be seen that to avoid shear failure the diagonal crack
must be intercepted by at least one stirrup.
Putting n = 1 and α = 900 in Eq. 7.4,
we get Maximum spacing of stirrup = d.
But the tests have shown that the links which intersect the diagonal crack
near the top are relatively ineffective and that a link, in addition to the
one crossed by the diagonal crack and within a close distance to it, further
increases the shear strength of the link.
Therefore the maximum spacing of stirrup is limited to 0.75d

Maximum spacing of stirrup ≯ 0.75d or ≯ 300 mm (4.77)

Common Types of Vertical Stirrups

The figure 4.24 shows the common types of vertical stirrups used in arious
types of beams in pratice. Which are:
1. Single legged stirrup

2. Two legged stirrup

3. Four legged stirrup

4. Six legged stirrup

Bent-up Bars
For single bent-up bar or a group of parallel bent-up bars (all bent-up at the
same cross-section) crossing the crack as shown in Fig. 4.23, the relation can
be obtained by putting n = 1, Vus = Vusb , Asv = Asb in Eq.7.3

Vusb = Asb fy sin α (4.78)

This system of bent-up bars is known as Single System. Likewise, for n = 2,
i.e. double system.

Vusb = 2 × Asb fy sin α (4.79)

Note: In the above equations, fy = characteristic strength of the stirrup or
btnt-up bar which shall not be greater than 415 N/mm2 . Research shows that
stress greater than 415 N/mm2 is not developed in the shear reinforcement
before failure.
 Figure 4.24: Common Types of Vertical Stirrups

From Fig.4.23 it can be seen that to avoid shear failure every diagonal
crack must be intercepted by at least one (n = 1) bent-up bar. Putting n =
l and α = 450 in Eq. 7.4 we get, maximum spacing of bent-up bar = 2d.
Thus, the maximum effective region for 450 bent-up bar = 2d from the bend
towards the support. The first bent-up bar should, therefore, be bent at a
distance not exceeding 2d from the centre of support, for resisting shear.
When any tension steel is no longer required to resist flexure, the main re-
inforcement from bottom of the beam can be bent-up to act as shear rein-
forcement and also to serve-as an additional main steel at top o f the beam
at the support. IS Code requires that shear at a section shall not be carried
entirely by bent-up bars only. The bent-up bars shall invariably be used in
combination with stirrups. However, their useful contribution to shear re-
sistance shall be considered not more than 50% of the total shear required
to be carried by both. The restriction is imposed because of the following
reasons :

1. Bent-up bars tend to cause longitudinal cracking or crushing at bent

points.
 2. They are less effective in tying the compression flange and web together.
3. They fail to confine the concrete in shear region,
4. They only prevent widening of diagonal crack but do not assist the
dowel action or aggregate interlock action. :
5. Bent-up bars only (without stirrups) are not effective in preventing
shear failure.
The shear resisted by bent-up bars can be calculated from Eq. 7.9 or Eq.
4.79 depending upon their type and arrangement. The total shear resistance
o f the combination of stirrups and bent-up, bars is taken equal to algebraic
sum o f the resistances of the vertical stirrups-and the bent-up bars.

4.7.5 Minimum Shear Reinforcement:

1. Reasons for providing minimum shear reinforcement :
The shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups (1.e. web reinforcement)
remains stress free until diagonal crack occurs at which instant the
web bars intersecting the diagonal crack receives a sudden increase in
stress. If the member is not provided with web steel sudden shear
failure occurs without giving any warning. Codes, therefore, prescribe
minimum shear reinforcement in the form of minimum vertical stirrups
for the following reasons :
(a) To prevent sudden shear failure with the formation of inclined
cracking and impart invaluable ductility to give warning of im-
pending failure.
(b) To prevent premature failure if the concrete cover bursts away and
the bond to the main reinforcement is lost.
(c) To act as ties for holding the beam reinforcement in position while
concreting, and thus maintaining the minimum requirements of
cover, clear distance between the bars etc.
(d) It performs the function of preventing the pressing down of the
longitudinal reinforcement and hence maintaining the dowel ca-
pacity.
(e) To confine the concrete and increase its strength and rotation
capacity.
 2. Amount of minimum shear reinforcement:
Available test data shows that the vertical stirrups shall be able to offer
a stress at least 0.4N/mm2 to avoid sudden development of a diagonal
crack. IS. Code, therefore, prescribes that
Asv 0.4 0.87fy Asv
≥ or s≤ (4.80)
b.s 0.87fy 0.4b
From Eq.4.77 and Eq.4.80, the ultimate shear resisted by minimum
vertical stirrups is given by:

Vusv.min = 0.4bd (4.81)

This means that minimum stirrups shall be such as to provide a shear

resistance of 0.4 bd.
Vusv.min = Ultimate shear resisted by Minimum Vertical Stirrups
b = width of member which for flanged beam shall be taken as
breadth of web bw
s = spacing of stirrups which shall be lesser of (0.75d or 300 mm)
Asv = total cross- sectioned area of stirrup legs effective in shear.
fy = characteristic length of stirrup reinforcement which shall
not exceed 415 N/mm2
However, in members of minor structural importance such as lintels or where
maximum shear stress calculated is less than half the design shear strength
of concrete this provision need not be complied with. Therefore, in the case
of beams when the shear resisted by concrete is less than half ultimate con-
crete strength (i.e. Vuc 2 ) only nominal shear reinforcement having minimum
diameter at the maximum permissible spacing should be provided to hold
the longitudinal bars in position. This will effect economy to some extent in
long span beams. However, in practice such minute details are not worked
out and only minimum shear reinforcement is provided.

4.7.6 Maximum Shear Reinforcement:

Shear reinforcement can prevent the diagonal tensile crack from spreading,
but cannot control failure due to diagonal compression by crushng of the
concrete in web (See Fig.4.17. Therefore IS Code specifies an upper limit on
the maximum value of nominal shear stress (= τuc.max ) even for a member
with shear reinforcement. Maximum allowable shear on the member is thus,
limited to
Vuc.max = τuc.max bd (4.82)
. where, τuc.max = Maximum allowable Ultimate shear in Concrete given in
Table 20 of IS 456-2000

4.7.7 Critical Section for Calculation of Design Shear:

Normally, a support may offer either a compressive reaction, as in case of
beams resting on walls or columns (Fig. 7.10 a) or a tensile reaction, as in
case of tank walls or slabs/beams connected to under side of supporting beam,
(i.e. hung supports) or secondary beam connected to main beam at the same
level (Fig. 7.10b). Tests show that in case of supports inducing compression

Figure 4.25: Critical sections for shear-1

in the supporting member, the diagonal crack nearest to the support starts
from the face of support and runs upwards at 450 approximately towards the
load. In such a case, the design shear is the force causing relative sliding of
end portion-I and inner portion-II along the diagonal crack. ( See Fig. 4.26)
 Figure 4.26: Critical sections for shear-2

It is given by

Design Shear = V uD = Reaction at support - the load over AB in Fig.4.26 a

= shear at B.
= shear force acting at section m-m at a distance ’d’
from the face of support.

The critical section for shear at supports offering compressive reaction is,
thus, the section at a distance ’d’ from the face of support i.e. ( bs /2 + d)
from the centre of support, where bs is the breadth of Support.
In case of supports offering tensile reaction, the diagonal crack starts from
face of support and runs backwards at 450 in the support region itself (Fig.7.10
b). The force causing diagonal tension failure is the load up to the face of
support. For calculation of design shear, the critical section is therefore, con-
sidered at the face support. In case of a secondary beam connected monolith-
ically to the main beam of nearly same height with their tops at same level,
the load from secondary beam is transferred at bottom of the main beam
inducing tensile reaction in the main beam, The critical section for shear in
this case also is considered to be at the face of main beam (i.e. supporting
beam). In such a case,
VuD = shear force at face the of support.
Thus in general,

VuD = Vu.max − wu (bs /2 + d) for supports offering compressive reaction

(4.83)
and VuD = Vu.max for supports offering tensile reaction. (4.84)
NOTE: Please refer IS:456-2000 and SP-34 for code provisions.

4.8 Design of Shear Reinforcement

Consider a beam loaded by a uniformly distributed load giving compressive
reaction over the support. Fig. 4.27 shows a beam simply supported at ends
carrying a uniformly,distributed ultimate load of intensity wu . In general
the section x-x is taken at which the shear force is zero.The steps for design
of shear reinforcement given below are valid for the general case of a beam
carrying a uniformly distributed load subjected to end moments, in which
case the shear force will be zero at any section x-x and not at the mid-span
as in the case of a beam simply supported at its ends.
The steps for design of shear reinforcement for such a beam loaded by UDL
are given as under:

1. Calculate the maximum ultimate shear, Vu.max at the end of the beam.
For a beam AB of span L and simply supported at ends and loaded
with ultimate UDL of intensity wu ,

Vu.max = wu .L/2 (4.85)

In general for a beam AB of span L and simply supported at ends and

loaded with ultimate UDL of intensity wu ,subjecteedd to end moments
MU A and MU B .
wu .L (MU A − MU B )
Vu.max = ± (4.86)
2 l

2. Compute design shear, VuD

for support offering compressive reaction

VuD = Vu.max − wu ((bs /2) + d) (4.87)

 Figure 4.27: Design of shear reinforcement

and for support offering tension reaction

VuD = Vu.max (4.88)

where,bs =Breadth of support and d =effective depth

3. Obtain the maximum allowable ultimate shearVuc.max

Vuc.max = τuc.max bd (4.89)

where τuc.max to be obtained from IS code Table no.20, Page No.73, as

given in Fig. 4.28 and b = width of beam

4. Check that VuD ≤ Vuc.max , If VuD > Vuc.max , increase the section.

5. Calculate the shear resisted by concrete,Vuc = τuc bd, τuc to be obtained

100Ast
corresponding pt % = and the type of concrete used from IS
bd
code Table No. 19, Page No. 73, as given in Fig. 4.29
6. Compute Ultimate shear resisted by Minimum Vertical Stirrups Vusv.min
by
Vusv.min = 0.4bd (4.90)

7. Therefore Ultimate shear Resistance of R.C. member with Minimum

Stirrups,Vur.min
Vur.min = Vuc + Vusv.min (4.91)

8. If Vud ≤ Vur.min provide minimum stirrups at spacing given by

0.87fy Asv
s= (4.92)
0.4b
where, b = width of beam or breadth of web (bw ) for flanged beams.
If VuD > Vur.min , design the shear reinforcement else proceed to Step10(ii).
9. Design of shear reinforcement
(a) Shear carried by shear reinforcement
Vus = VuD − Vuc (4.93)

(b) If bent-up bars are used calculate shear carried by bent-up bar,
Vusb
Vusb = 0.87fy Asb sin α ≤ 0.5Vus (4.94)
where Asb =area of bent-up bar
α =angle between bent-up bar and beam axis
If bent-up bars are not provided Vusb = 0
(c) Ultimate shear to be carried by Vertical Stirrups, Vusv
Vusv = Vus − Vusb ≥ 0.5 Vus (4.95)
And when bent-up bars are not provided
Vusv = Vus (4.96)
Spacings of stirrups of area Asv
0.87fy Asv d
s= ≤ (0.75d or 300 mm) (4.97)
Vusv
whichever is less.
Where fy ≯ 415 N/mm2 for stirrups or bent-up bars.
10. Calculate zones of shear reinforcement

(a) Zone - I : Zone of design shear reinforcement Ls1

Vu.max − Vur.min
Ls1 = (4.98)
wu

(b) Zone - II: Zone of minimum shear reinforcement

Vur.min − 0.5 Vuc

Ls2 = (4.99)
wu
Or
Vu.max
Ls2 = − Ls1 − Ls3 (4.100)
wu
If Vu.max < Vur.min or VuD < Vur.min then Ls1 = 0
and
Vur.min − 0.5 Vuc
Ls2 =
wu
(c) Zone - III: Zone of nominal shear reinforcement

0.5 Vuc
Ls3 = (4.101)
wu
In Ls3 zone minimum diameter of stirrups shall be 6 mm and
maximum spacing shall not exceed 0.75d or 300 mm whichever is
less.
All these steps mentioned above for a beam loaded with UDL and
without the provision of bent-up bars, are shown in Fig.4.27 .

Figure 4.28: τC−M ax

 Figure 4.29: τc

Solved problems on Shear (LSM)

Example-1: A R.C. beam, 230mm wide and 450 mm deep, is reinforced
with 3 Nos. #16 mm bars of grade Fe415, on the tension side, with an
effective cover of 50 mm. Design the shear reinforcement, consisting only of
verticals stirrups, for each of the following sections.

1. Ultimate design shear force = 20 kN. Full tension steel is available.

2. Ultimate design shear force = 80 kN.

(a) Full tension steel is available.

(b) Only 2 Nos.#16 mm bars are available, the third bar being cur-
tailed.

Assume concrete grade M20.

Solution:
Given : fy = 415N/mm2 , fck = 20N/mm2 , b = 230 mm, D = 450 mm, d0 =
50 mm Ast = 3 − #16
Required :Design o f Stirrups.
Effective depth d = D − d0 = 450 − 50 = 400 mm
(1) Design shear VuD = 20 kN .
Maximum allowable shear Vuc .max = τuc.max bd
From Table 20 (IS:456-2000), τuc.max = 2.8 N/mm2 for M20 concrete
∴ Vuc.max = 2.8 × 230 × 400/1000 = 257.6 kN > VuD ∴ O.K.
Ast = 3N os.#16 mm = 3 × 201 = 603 mm2
Pt = 100Ast /bd = 100 × 603/(230 × 400) = 0.655%
Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.655% is
0.655 − 0.50
τuc = 0.48 + × (0.56 − 0.48) = 0.53 N/mm2
0.75 − 0.50
Shear resistance of concrete
Vuc = τuc bd = (0.53 × 230 × 400)/1000 = 48.76 kN
Design shear VuD = 20 kN < Vuc /2 (i.e. = 48.76/2 = 24.38 kN )
∴ No shear reinforcement is necessary theoretically. However, in practice,
nominal stirrups of grade Fe250 of minimum 6mm diameter at maximum
spacing of 0. 75d (= 0. 75 x 400) = 300 mm may be provided.

(2)(a) Design shear VuD = 80kN .

Vuc.max = 257.6kN as calculated in part- (1) above > VuD ∴ O.K.
For Ast = 3N os.#16mm, Vuc = 48.76 kN as calculated in part-(1) above
Shear resistance of minimum stirrups

Vusv.min = 0.4bd = (0.4 × 230 × 400)/1000 = 36.8 kN.

Shear resistance of member with minimum stirrups
Vur.min = Vuc + Vusv.min = 48.76 + 36.8 = 85.56/kN > VuD (= 80 kN )
Minimum stirrups are sufficient.
∴ Assuming # 8 mm 2-legged vertical stirrups of grade Fe415,
Asv = 2 × 50 = 100 mm2
Spacing
0.87fy Asv 0.87 × 415 × 100
s= = = 392 mm
0.4b 0.4 × 230
According to Code, s ≯ 300 mm or 0.75d (i.e.0.75 × 400 = 300 mm.)

∴ s = 300 mm
Since spacing required from design calculations comes out to be quite higher
than that permitted from requirements of s ≯ 0.75d, either the diameter of
stirrups may be reduced and/or stirrups of lower grade steel may be used to
avoid unnecessary wastage.
Using φ 6mm 2 legged Fe250 stirrups, A = 2 × 28 = 56mm2
0.87 × 250 × 56
s= = 132 mm say 130 mm < 300 mm
0.4 × 230
∴ Provide φ 6 mm 2-leggcd Fe 250 stirrups at 130 mm, c/c

(2)(b) Ast = 2N os.φ 16 mm available Ast = 2 × 201 = 402 mm2

pt = 100Ast /bd = 100 × 402/(230 × 400) = 0.437%

Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.437% is
0.437 − 0.25
τuc = 0.36 + × (0.48 − 0.36) = 0.45 N/mm2
0.50 − 0.25
Shear carried by concrete
Vuc = τuc bd = (0.45 × 230 × 400)/1000 = 41.4 kN
Shear resistance of minimum stirrups

Vusv.min = 0.4bd = (0.4 × 230 × 400)/1000 = 36.8 kN.

Shear resistance of member with minimum stirrups

Vur.min = Vuc + Vusv.min = 41.4 + 36.8 = 78.2/kN < VuD (= 80 kN )

∴ Minimum stirrups are not sufficient.

Shear to be carried by stirrups (without bent up bars)

Vusv = VuD − Vuc = 80 − 41.4 = 38.6 kN

Assuming φ 6mm 2-legged Fe250 stirrups, Asv = 2 × 28 = 56 mm2

0.87fy Asv d 0.87 × 250 × 56 × 400
Spacing s = = = 126 mm
Vusv 38.6 × 1000
say 125 mm < 300 mm ∴ O.K.

Example-2: A R.C. beam, 300 mm x 450 mm in cross-section, is rein-

forced with 3 Nos.of 20 mm diameter bars, of grade Fe250 with an effective
cover of 50 mm. The ultimate shear at the section is 138 kN. Design the
shear reinforcement.
1. using only vertical stirrups without bending any bar for resisting shear.
2. bending 1 bar φ 20 mm at 450 to resist shear at the section.
Assume concrete of grade M 20.
(1) Using Vertical Stirrups Only
Given: b = 300 mm, D = 450 mm, d0 = 50 mm,
Ast = 3 − φ 20 = 942 mm2 , VuD = 138 kN
fck = 20 N/mm2 , fy = 250 N/mm2
Required: Design of stirrups
Design shear VuD = 138 kN , Effective depth d = D−d0 = 450−50 = 400 mm
Maximum allowable shear on the section with shear reinforcement
Vuc .max = τuc.max bd
From Table 20 (IS:456-2000), τuc.max = 2.8 N/mm2 for M20 concrete
∴ Vuc.max = 2.8 × 300 × 400/1000 = 336 kN > VuD ∴ O.K.
Ast = 3N os.#20 mm = 3 × 314 = 942 mm2
Pt = 100Ast /bd = 100 × 942/(300 × 400) = 0.785%
Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.785% is
τuc = 0.568N/mm2
Shear resistance of concrete
Vuc = τuc bd = (0.568 × 300 × 400)/1000 = 68.16 kN

Vusv.min = 0.4bd = (0.4 × 300 × 400)/1000 = 48 kN.

Shear resistance of member with minimum stirrups
Vur.min = Vuc + Vusv.min = 68.16 + 48 = 116.6/kN < VuD (= 138 kN )
∴ Minimum stirrups are not sufficient.
Shear to be carried by stirrups (without bent up bars)
Vusv = Vus = VuD − Vuc = 138.00 − 68.16 = 69.84 kN
Using φ 10mm 2-legged stirrups of grade Fe250 , Asv = 2 × 78.5 = 157 mm2
0.87fy Asv d 0.87 × 250 × 157 × 400
Spacing s = = = 195 mm < 300 mm < 0.75d
Vusv 69.84 × 1000
O.K.
∴ Provide φ10 mm Fe 250 stirrups at 190 mm c/c.
(2) Using Bent - Up Bars also
Given: b = 300 mm, D = 450 mm, d0 = 50 mm,
Ast = 2 − φ 20 = 628 mm2 , one bar bent − up, VuD = 138 kN
fck = 20 N/mm2 , fy = 250 N/mm2
Required: Design of stirrups
Vud < Vuc.max (= 336kN ) as obtained in part-(1) above
One number φ 20 mm is bent-up to resist shear

Ast = 2 − φ 20 = 628 mm2

Pt = 100Ast /bd = 100 × 628/(300 × 400) = 0.0.523%
Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.523% is
τuc = 0.487N/mm2
Shear resistance of concrete
Vuc = τuc bd = (0.487 × 300 × 400)/1000 = 58.44 kN

∴ Vus = VuD − Vuc = 138.00 − 58.44 = 79.56 kN

Shear resistance of 1 No. φ 20 mm(Asb = 314 mm2 ) bent up at 450 is given
by

Vusb = 0.87fy Asb sin α = 0.87 × 250 × 314 × sin 450 /1000 = 48.28 kN

According to Code,Vusb ≯ Vus /2i.e.79.56/2 = 39.78 kN.

∴ Useful contribution of bent-up bar = 39.78 kN only
∴ Shear required to be resisted by vertical stirrups

Vusv = Vus /2 = 79.56/2 = 39.78 kN.

Shear resistance of minimum stirrups

Vusv.min = 0.4bd = (0.4 × 300 × 400)/1000 = 48 kN > Vusv (= 39.78 kN )

∴ Minimum stirrups are sufficient.
∴ Assuming # 8 mm 2-legged vertical stirrups of grade Fe250,
Asv = 2x50 = 100mm2
Spacing
0.87fy Asv 0.87 × 250 × 100
s= = = 181 mm
0.4b 0.4 × 300
say = 180 mm < 300 mm < 0.75d(= 300 mm) ∴ O.K.
∴ Provide φ 8 mm2 − legged stirrups at 180 mm c/c

Example-3 A simply supported R.C. beam, 380 mm wide and 750 mm

deep, carries a uniformly distributed load of 84 kN/m (including self weight)
over a span of 6 m. The beam is reinforced with 6 No. 22 mm diameter bars
of grade Fe 500 on tension face. Design the shear reinforcement.
(a) using vertical stirrups only and no curtailment of bars.
(b) using bent - up bars.
Assume concrete grade M 20 and effective cover 50 mm, load factor= 1.5 ,
width of support 380 mm.
Given : b = 380 mm, D = 750 mm, d0 = 50 mm, L.F. = 1.5, L = 6 m, b =
380 mm, Ast = 6 − #22 mm, w = 84 kN/m., fck = 20/N/mm2 , fy =
415 N/mm2 (even though fy = 500N/mm2 but f or shear design fy ≯
415 N/mm2 )
Required : Design of shear reinforcement.
Effective depth d = D - d’ = 750 - 50 = 700 mm,
wu = 1.5w = 84 × 1.5 = 126 kN/m
Maximum shear Vu.max = wu L/2 = 126 × 6/2 = 378kN
Critical section occurs at a distance of effective depth ( = 700 mm) from the
face of support i.e. 700 + breath of support/ 2, (i.e.700+380/2 = 890 mm)
from the centre of support.
∴ Ultimate design shear
VuD = Vu.max − wu × 0.89 = 378 − 126 × 0.89 = 266 kN
Maximum allowable ultimate shear strength for M20 concrete Vuc .max =
τuc.max bd
From Table 20 (IS:456-2000), τuc.max = 2.8 N/mm2 for M20 concrete
∴ Vuc.max = 2.8 × 300 × 400/1000 = 336 kN > VuD ∴ O.K.
Maximum allowable ultimate shear
2.8 × 380 × 700
Vuc.max = τuc.max bd = = 744.8 kN > VuD (= 266 kN ) ∴ O.K.
1000
(a) Design of shear reinforcement Using Vertical Stirrups and No
Curtailment of Bar:

Ast = 6 N os. #22 = 6 × 380 = 2280 mm2

2280 × 100
pt = = 0.857%
380 × 700
Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.857% is
τuc = 0.5856N/mm2 by linear interpolation.
Shear resistance of concrete
Vuc = τuc bd = (0.5856 × 380 × 700)/1000 = 155.77 kN
Shear resistance of minimum vertical stirrups

Vusv.min = 0.4bd = (0.4 × 380 × 700)/1000 = 106.4 kN

Shear resistance of member with minimum stirrups,
Vur.min = Vuc + Vusv.min = 155.77 + 106.4 = 262.17 kN < VuD (= 266 kN )
∴ Design shear reinforcement is required. Shear to be carried by vertical
stirrups without bent up bars,
Vusv = Vus = VuD − Vuc = 266.00 − 155.77 = 110.23kN
Using 2 legged # 8 mm stirrups with fy = 415N/mm2 , Ast = 2 × 50.26 =
100.52/mm2
0.87fy Asv d 0.87 × 415 × 100.52 × 700
Spacing s = = = 230 mm < 300 mm < 0.75d
Vusv 110.23 × 1000
Determination of zones of shear reinforcement along the length of beam:

Fig.4.30 shows the shear force diagram for half the span length.
ZONE - I:
Let Ls1 be the length of zone - I in which shear reinforcement is required to
be designed (i.e., where minimum stirrups are not sufficient).
Vu.max − Vur.min (378 − 262.17) × 1000
Ls1 = = = 919 mm say 920 mm
wu 126
∴ Provide # 8 mm stirrups at 230 mm, starting the first stirrup at 50 mm
from the face of support i.e. 50 + 190 = 240 mm from the centre of support
 Figure 4.30: Shear reinforcement-detailing

(As per SP 34 -1987 specifications : start first stirrup at distance of 50 mm

from the face of support).
Provide Ls1 = 240 + 3 × 230 = 930 > 920 mmfrom the centre of support.
ZONE - II:
In Zone- III , in which Vu < Vuc /2 theoretically, no shear reinforcement is
required
0.5Vuc 0.5 × 155.77 × 1000
∴ Ls3 = = = 618 mm
wu 126
Zone-II.
L
∴ Ls2 = − Ls1 (provided) − Ls3
2
6000
= − 930 − 618
2
= 1452 say 1450 mm
In this zone only minimum stirrups need be provided.
Using φ8 mm 2 legged vertical stirrups of grade Fe 415, Asv = 2 × 50.26 =
100.52 mm2
Spacing
0.87fy Asv 0.87 × 415 × 100.52
s= = = 238 mm say 230 mm
0.4b 0.4 × 380
Provide 6 Nos. - # 8 mm stirrups at 230 c/c covering a length of 1380 mm.
Each stirrups is effective for a length of s/2 on each side of stirrups
∴ region covered by these stirrups = 1380 + 230/2 = 1495 mm which is
greater than the length of the zone Ls2 ( = 14S0 mm) ∴ O.K.
ZONE III:
In the remaining central zone, in which only nominal stirrups, say φ 6 mm
minimum diameter at maximum spacing 300 mm. shall be provided. Actual
length ∴ Ls2 = L/2−Ls1 −Ls2 = 6000/2−930−6×230 = say 690 mm Provide
2 No. anchor bars of 12 mm diameter. The details of shear reinforcement
are shown in Fig. 4.30
(b) Using Bent - up Bar:
Vud = 266 kN < Vuc.max as checked in part - (a). On bending 1 No. # 22
mm bar to resist shear, area of main steel remaining on tension side is just
of 5 Nos. # 22 mm.
Ast = 5 N os. #22 = 5 × 380 = 1900 mm2
1900 × 100
pt = = 0.714%
380 × 700
Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.714% is
τuc = 0.548 N/mm2 by linear interpolation.
Shear resistance of concrete
Vuc1 = τuc bd = (0.548 × 380 × 700)/1000 = 145.77 kN
Shear resisted by 1 No. #22 mm (Asb = 380mm2 ) of grade Fe415 bent at
450 is:

Vusb = 0.87fy Asb sin α

= 0.87 × 415 × 380 × sin 450 /1000
= 97.00 kN
Vus = VuD − Vuc1
= 266 − 145.77
= 120.23 kN
Shear contribution of bent-up bars allowed by the Code
Vus1 = 120.23/2 = 60.11 kN instead of 97.00 kN.
Shear required to be resisted by Vertical stirrups,
Vusv = Vus /2 = 60.11 kN. Shear resistance of minimum stirrups Vusv.min =
106.4 kN as shown in part-(a) above.¿ Vusv
∴ Minimum stirrups are sufficient.
Using # 8 mm 2-legged vertical stirrups of grade Fe415,
Asv = 2 × 50 = 100mm2
Spacing
0.87fy Asv 0.87 × 415 × 100
s= = = 237 mm say 230 mm
0.4b 0.4 × 380
< lesser of [300 mm and 0.75 × d]

Determination of zones of shear reinforcement:

Zone-I:
This is the zone with bent - up bar. The bent-up bar is effective over a
region 2d from the centre of support and will be bent at this distance from
the centre of support.
∴ Ls1 = 2 × 700 = 1400 mm > 920 mm obtained in case (a)

In this region minimum stirrups # 8 mm at 230 mm shall be provided

starting first stirrup at 50 mm from the face of support.

Zone-II: This is the zone beyond zone - I in which no bent-up bar is

available See Fig.4.31 Design shear at the end of zone - I i.e. at 1400 mm
(1.4m) from the centre of support
VuD2 = Vu.max − wu (Ls1 ) = 378 − 126 × 1.4 = 201.6 kN
 Figure 4.31: Shear Reinforcement with bent-up bar

In this zone,
Ast = 6N os #22 = 6 × 380 = 2280mm2
Pt % = 2200×100
380×700
= 0.857%
Shear strength of concrete of grade M20 as given by Table 19 (IS:456-2000),
for pt = 0.857% is

τuc = 0.5856N/mm2 by linear interpolation.

Shear resisted by concrete in this region is given by

Vuc2 = τuc bd = (0.5856 × 380 × 700)/1000 = 155.77 kN
Shear resistance of minimum stirrups,
Vur.min = Vuc + Vusv.min = 155.77 + 106.4 = 262.17 kN > VuD2
∴ Minimum stirrups are sufficient beyond
Provide 9 Nos. of # 8mm 2 legged Fe415 stirrups at 230 mm spacing as
obtained for zone - I above.
∴ Length covered by these stirrups from the centre of support = 190 + 50
+ 9 x 230 = 2310 mm
( See Fig. ) But each stirrup is effective for a length of s/2 = 230/2 = 115
mm ∴ Actual length covered by these stirrups = 2310 + 115 = 2425 mm
Zone - III:
This is the region in whichVuD < 0.5Vuc and theoretically, no shear reinforce-
ment is necessary, though nominal stirrups are provided in practice.
Let the length of this region be Ls3 from the centre of span.
0.5Vus 0.5 × 155.77 × 1000
Ls3 = = = 618 ≈ 620 mm
wu 126
Provide nominalφ 6 mm 2-legged stirrups at 300 mm c/c in this region.
Actual length of zone-3 Ls3 = 3000 − 2425 = 575 mm while length for
which nominal stirrups to be provided 3000-2310=690 mm. The details of
reinforcement are shown Fig.4.31

4.9 Torsion
4.9.1 Introduction
Structural concrete members are often subjected to torsional moments in
addition to bending moments and axial or shear forces. Torsion develops in
structural members as a result of asymmetrical loading, member geometry,
or structural framing. In complex structures such as helical stairways, curved
beams, and eccentrically loaded box girders, torsional effects dominate the
structural behaviour. Earthquakes can cause dangerous torsional forces, es-
pecially in asymmetrical structures where the centres of mass and rigidity
do not coincide. Torsional moment tends to twist the structural member
around its longitudinal axis, inducing shear stresses. However, structural
members are rarely subjected to torsional moment alone. Usually, torsional
moments act concurrently with bending moment (B.M.) and shear or axial
forces. Earlier structural codes were silent regarding torsion design.

Torsion was considered to be a secondary effect and covered by the factor

of safety. Improved methods of analysis and new design approaches resulted
in the better understanding of the behaviour of reinforced concrete (RC)
members subjected to torsion. It has to be noted that unlike shear, which is a
two-dimensional (2D) problem, torsion is a three-dimensional (3D) problem,
involving both the shear problem of membrane elements and the warping of
the cross section. Although the diagonal tension stresses produced by torsion
are very similar to those caused by shear, they occur on all the faces of the
member; hence, they have to be added to the stresses caused by the shear
on one face whereas subtracted from the stresses on the other face. As the
torsional cracks spiral around the beams, it is necessary to provide closed
stirrups as well as additional longitudinal reinforcement, especially at the
corners of the faces of the beams.

4.9.2 Equilibrium and Compatibility Torsion

While considering torsion in RC structures, it is useful to distinguish be-
tween primary and secondary torsions (see Fig.4.32). Primary torsion, also
called equilibrium torsion or statically determinate torsion, exists when the
external load has no alternative load path but must be supported by tor-
sion (see Figs4.32 a and b). For such cases, the torsion required to maintain
static equilibrium can be uniquely determined from statics alone. For ex-
ample, in the cantilevered slab shown in Fig.4.32(a), the loads applied to
the slab surface cause twisting moments T to act along the length of the
supporting beam. These are equilibrated by the resisting torque T provided
at the columns. The structure will collapse if the beam is not designed for
the applied torsional moments. Other examples of primary torsion may be
found in eccentrically loaded box girders (Fig.4.32c), edge beams of con-
crete shell roofs, ring beams at the bottom of circular water tanks, as shown
in Fig.4.32(e) (particularly the Intz type), continuous curved bridge girders
(Fig.4.32a), and helicoidal stairway slabs (Fig.4.32b).
On the other hand, secondary torsion, also called compatibility torsion or
statically indeterminate torsion, occurs due to the requirements of continuity,
that is, due to compatibility of deformation between the adjacent elements
of a structure (see Fig.4.32d). In this case, the torsional moments cannot be
found based on static equilibrium alone. The beams in a grid structure also
have compatibility torsion. The torsion acting on the members can be found
using a 3D analysis program and by specifying the torsional stiffness to the
members. The explanatory handbook SP 24:1983, based on experimental
results, suggests that torsional rigidity (GC) may be calculated by assuming
the modulus of rigidity G as 0.4Ec and the torsional stiffness C equal to half
of the St Venant value calculated for the plain concrete section.
Figure 4.32: Structural elements subjected to torsion (a) Beams supporting
cantilevered canopy slabs (b) Cantilever beam supporting eccentric load (c)
Box-girder bridges (d) Edge beams in framed structures (e) Circular ring
beams
4.9.3 Design Considerations for Torsion as per IS 456
: 2000
1. Critical section :
As per clause 41.2, page No. 75 of IS-56: 2000, section located less
than a distance d, from the face of the support may be designed for
the same torsion as computed at a distanced, where d is effective depth.

2. Equivalent shear :
The equivalent shear Vue is calculated as follows:
 
Tu
Vue = Vu + 1.6 (4.102)
b
Where,

Vu = Factored shear force

Tu = Factored torsion moment
b = Width of the beam (= bw , for the flanged section)

3. Equivalent nomlnal shear stress τve The equivalent nominal shear

stress τve is calculated as,
Vue
Vve = for beams of uniform depth
bd
(4.103)
[Vue ± (Mu /d) tan β]
= for beams of varying depths
(bd)
where d and β are the effective depth and the angle between the top
and bottom edges of the beam, respectively. The - ve sign shall be used
when the moment M increases numerically in the same direction as the
effective depth.
The value of τve shall not exceed τc.max given in Table 20, Page No. 73
of IS-456 : 2000
If the equivalent nominal shear stress τve does not exceed τc.max given
in table 20 of IS-456 : 2000, minimum shear reinforcement is provided
as give by,
Asv 0.4
≥ (4.104)
bsv 0.87fy
where
 Asv = total cross-sectional area of stirrup legs effective in shear
sv = stirrup spacing along the length of the member
sv = stirrup spacing along the length of the member
b = breadth of the beam or breadth of the
b = breadth of the beam or breadth of the web of fanged beam. and
fy = characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement in N/mm2
which shall not be taken grater than 415 N/mm2

Where the maximum shear stress calculated less than half the permissi-
ble value and in member of minor structural importance such as lintels
this provision need not be complied with.
4. Reinforcement In member subjected to Torsion:
When τve , both longitudinal and transverse reinforcement are provide
as per clause 41 : 4, Page No. 75 of IS-456: 2000.
5. Longitudinal reinforcement :
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be design to resist equivalent bending
moment MeL .
MeL = Mu + Mt
Where, MeL = bending moment at any section Mt = torsional moment
D
 
1+
Mt = T 
 b 
1.7


If Mu > Mt , longitudinal reinforcement provide on the flexural com-

pression face, such that the beam can withstand an equivalent Me2
which is acting in opposite sense to the moment Mu
Me2 = Mt − Mu
Transverse reinforcement :
The cross-sectional area Asv of two-legged closed hoops or stirrups
enclosing in the corners longitudinal bars is given by
Tu s v Vu s v
Asv = + (4.105)
b1 d1 (0.87fy ) 2.5d1 (0.87fy )
 Figure 4.33: Cross-sectional dimensions for Torsion

but the total transverse reinforcement shall not be less than

(τve − τc )bsv
(4.106)
0.87fy

where,

Tu = Torsional moment
Vu = shear force,
sv = spacing of the stirrup reinforcement
b1 = centre-to-centre distance between corner bars in the direction of
the width.
d1 = centre-to-centre distance between corner bars
b1 = breadth of the member
fy = characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement
τve = equivalent shear stress
τc = shear strength of the concrete as per Table 19 page 73 of IS-456:
2000 .

6. Distribution of torsion reinforcement:

As per clause 26.5.1.7, Page No. 48 of IS-456: 2000
 (a) Transverse reinforcement

i. Transverse reinforcement for torsion shall be rectangular closed

stirrups placed perpendicular to axis of the member.
ii. Spacing shall not be exceed

A. x1
x1 + y 1
B.
4
C. 300 mm
Where,
x1 = short dimension of stirrups
y1 = long dimension of stirrups
(b) Longitudinal reinforcement :
ˆ Longitudinal reinforcement should be placed as close as pos-
sible to the comer of section.
ˆ At least one longitudinal bar should be place in each comer
of the ties.
ˆ When cross-sectional dimension is more than 450 mm, addi-
tional longitudinal bars shall be provided to satisfy the re-
quirement of minimum reinforcement and spacing of side face
reinforcement shall be provided along the two faces. The total
area of such reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 percent
of the web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces
at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web thickness whichever
is less.

Example-1: Calculate the resistance in pure torsion of a concrete beam

rectangular, in section 250mm wide and 300mm deep when reinforced with
2Nos, #10mm at top and 2 nos. #12mm at bottom provided at an effective
cover of 35mm. Assume steel of grade Fe 415 and concrete of grade M 20.
Solution: Data: b = 250mm, D = 300mm,
Ast , = 2#12mm, Asc = 2#10mm
fck = 20N/mm2 fy = 415N/mm2
Required : Tu When a section is under pure torsion, the torsional resistance
is governed by Me1 or Me2 whichever is less. where Me1 is bending moment
of resistance of the section with bottom steel acting as tension steel Me2 is
bending moment of resistance of the section with top steel acting as tension
steel. since top steel is having lesser area than the bottom steel. Me2 will
govern.
For Me2 , Ast = 2 Nos. #10mm = 157mm2
157 × 100
d = 300 − 35 = 265mm, pt = = 0, 237%
250 × 265
For M20, Pt. max = 0.96% > pt (= 0.237%).
∴ Section is under reinforced.
 
fy Ast
Me2 = Mur = 0.87fy Ast d 1 −
fck bd
 
415 × 157
= 0.87 × 415 × 157 × 265 × 1 − × 10−6
20 × 250 × 265
= 14.28kN.m
(1 + D/b)Tu (1 + 300/250)
Mu = 0 ∴ Mt = Me2 = = × Tu
1.7 1.7
∴ 14.28 = 1.294Tu
or Tu = 14.28/1.294
= 10.03 kN.m

Example-2: A. R. C. beam rectangular in section 230 mm wide and 400

mm deep is reinforced with 3 nos. of 16 mm bars at top and 4 nos.of 20
mm bars at bottom, with-an effective cover of 35 mm from the nearer face.
Calculate the strength of the section in torsion when it is also subjected to
an ultimate shear of 10 kN and ultimate bending moment of 42 kN.m. Also
design the transverse reinforcement for the section. Assume concrete of grade
M 20 and steel of grade Fe 250.
Data:
b = 230mm, D = 400mm, d0 = dc = 35mm, fck = 20N/mm2
fy = 250N/mm2 , Ast = 4 − φ20mm = 1256mm2 , Asc = 3 − φ16mm = 603mm2
Vu = 10kN, Mu = 42kN.m
Required : (a) Allowable Tn , (b) Transverse reinforcement.
Solutions:
(a) Calculation of Tu :

d = D − d0 = 400 − 35 = 365mm
(i) Calculations for Mur1 = Me1 with bottom steel as tension steel. For
determining the position of neutral axis in a given doubly reinforced section,
it will first be necessary to verify whether the stress fsc in compression steel
reaches 0.87fy or not.

xu. max = 0.53 × 365 = 193.4mm

Assuming fsc = 0.87fy and calculate xu by

0.87fy Ast − 0.87fy Asc

xu =
0.36fck b
0.87 × 250 × 1256 − 0.87 × 250 × 603
=
0.36 × 20 × 230
= 85.76mm < xu. max

fsc = 700 (1 − (d/xu ))

= 700(1 − 35/85.76)
= 414.3N/mm2
> 217.5N/mm2 (= 0.87 × 250)
∴ fsc = 217.5N/mm2
Mur = Me1 = 0.36fck b × (d − 0.42cu ) + fsc Asc (d − d0 )
= [0.36 × 20 × 230 × 85.76 × (365 − 0.42 × 85.76) + 217.5 × 603 × (365 − 35)] × 10−6
= 90kN.m
(ii) Calculation for Mur2 = Me2 with top steel as tension steel and bottom
steel as compression steel

Ast = 603mm2 and Asc = 1256mm2

 
dc
0.36fck bxu + 700 1 − Asc = 0.87fy Ast
xu
0.36 × 20 × 230xu + 700 (1 − 35/xu ) × 1256 = 0.87 × 250 × 603
∴ x2u + 451.7xu − 18582 = 0
∴ xu = 37.9mm
Me1 =Mur2
=[0.36 × 20 × 230 × 37.9(365 − 0.42 × 37.9) + 700 × (1 − 35/37.9) × 1256(365 − 35)] × 10−6
=44.lkN.m
Me1 = Mu + Mt
Mt = Me1 − Mu = 90 − 42
= 48kNm
Also
Me2 = Mt − Mu
∴ Mt = Me2 + Mu = 44.1 + 42
= 86.1kN.m
∴ Allowable M t = 48 kN.m
But
D
 
1+
Mt = Tu 
 b 
1.7


400
 
1+
= Tu 
 230 
1.7


∴ Tu =29.8kN.m
(b) Calculation of Transverse Reinforcement :

Vue = Vu + 1.6Tu /b
= 10 + 1.6 × 29.8/0.23
= 217.3kN

Vuc. max = τuc. max bd τuc. max = 2.8.N/mm2 for M20 from Table 20 of IS :
456 − 2000
Vuc.max = 2.8 × 230 × 365/1000
= 235.1 > 217.3kN ∴ O.K.
Ast = 804mm2
804 × 100
pt = = 0.96%
230 × 365
From Table 19 of IS : 456 − 2000 for M20 concrete, τuc = 0.61N/mm2

Vuc = τuc .bd

= 0.61 × 230 × 365/1000
= 51.2kN

And
Vus = Vue − Vuc
= 217.3 − 51.2
= 166.1kN
Spacing,
0.87fy Asv d
s=
Vus
  
Tu Tu d
Where, Vus = + or (Vue − Vuc ) whichever is greater Assum-
b1 2.5 d1
ing mild environment and 8 mm diameter of stirrups,

b1 = 230 − 2 × (20 + 8 + 16/2) = 158mm

d1 = 400 − 2 × 36 = 328mm
∴ Vus = (29.8/0.158 + 10/2.S)(365/328) = 214kN
> (Vue − Vuc = 166.lkN )
∴ Vus = 214kN

Assuming φ 12 mm 2-legged Fe250 grade stirrups

Asv = 2 × ll3 = 226mm2

0.87 × 250 × 226 × 365
s=
214 × 1000
= 84mm say 80mm

Now s 6> 0.75d, (x1 + y1)/4, or 300mm, whichever is the least.

x1 = 230 − 2(20 + 12/2) = 178mm

y1 = 400 − 2(20 + 12/2) = 348mm
(x1 + y1 ) /4 = (178 + 348)/4 = 131mm
0.75d = 0.75 × 365 = 274mm
least value = 178mm.
∴ Provide s = 80mm < 178mm ∴ O.K Provide φ12 mm two legged
stirrups at 80 mm c/c
Example-3: Design a rectangular beam section of 300 mm width and 500
mm effective depth which is subjected to ultimate moment of 50 kN, ultimate
shear force of 50 kN and torsional moment of 20 kN-m. Use M20 and Fe415.
Solution:
Design of beam subjected to torsion with flexure and shear shall depends on

Vue ≤ Vuc or Vue > Vuc

Equivalent shear Vue

 
Tu
Vue = Vu + 1.6
b
20
= 50 + 1.6 × = 156.67 kN
0.3
Shear resistance of concrete Vuc

Vuc = τc bd
Value of τc is depends on percentage of steel
Longitudinal steel is design for bending only.
When Vue ≤ Vuc and provide longitudinal reinforcement for equivalent mo-
ment Mue .

Mue = Mu + Mt
Torsional moment,
D
 
1+
Mt = T 
 b 
1.7


535
 
1+
= 20 × 
 300 
1.7


= 32.75 kN
since, Mu > Mut , design of section should be done for equivalent moment
Me only
Me = Mu + Mut = 50 + 32.75 = 82.75kN − m
Mulim = 0.136fck bd2 = 0.136 × 20 × 300 × 5002
= 204 × 106 N − mm
Since Mue < Mulim (i.e.82.75 < 204) the beam is design as a singly reinforced
beam.
Area of steel in tension :
" s #
0.5fc 4.6Mue
Ast = 1− 1−
fg fck bd2
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × 82.75 × 10 
= 1− 1− × 300 × 500
415 20 × 300 × 5002

= 492mm2
Number of bar ( 18 mm φ)
Ast 490
n= = = 1.93 ≈ 2 numbers
Aφ 254
∴ Provide tension reinforcement 2 − 18mmφ at bottom and hanger bar at
top 2 − 12mmφ
π
Area provided Aotp = 2 × (18)2
4
= 508mm2
Shear reinforcement :
100Ast 100 × 508
%pt = = = 0.34
bd 300 × 500
Design shear stress in concrete
τc for M20 and % pt = 0.34 from Table 19 of IS 456: 2000 P. No. 73
100Ast
τc
bd
0.25 0.36
0.50 0.48
0.48 − 0.36
∴ τc = 0.36 + (0.34 − 0.25)
(0.5 − 0.25)
= 0.4032N/mm2
4.10 Bond
4.10.1 Introduction
‘Bond’ in reinforced concrete refers to the adhesion between the reinforcing
steel and the surrounding concrete. It is this bond which is responsible for
the transfer of axial force from a reinforcing bar to the surrounding concrete,
thereby providing strain compatibility and ‘composite action’ of concrete and
steel . If this bond is inadequate, ‘slipping’ of the reinforcing bar will occur,
destroying full ‘composite action’. Hence, the fundamental assumption of
the theory of flexure, viz. plane sections remain plane even after bending,
becomes valid in reinforced concrete only if the mechanism of bond is fully
effective.
It is through the action of bond resistance that the axial stress (tensile or
compressive) in a reinforcing bar can undergo variation from point to point
along its length. This is required to accommodate the variation in bending
moment along the length of the flexural member. Had the bond been absent,
the stress at all points on a straight bar would be constant, as in a string or
a straight cable.

4.10.2 Mechanisms of Bond Resistance

Bond resistance in reinforced concrete is achieved through the following
mechanisms:

1. Chemical adhesion — due to a gum-like property in the products of

hydration (formed during the making of concrete).

2. Frictional resistance — due to the surface roughness of the reinforce-

ment and the grip exerted by the concrete shrinkage.

3. Mechanical interlock — due to the surface protrusions or ‘ribs’ (oriented

transversely to the bar axis) provided in deformed bars.

Evidently, the resistance due to ‘mechanical interlock’ (which is considerable)

is not available when plain bars are used. For this reason, many foreign codes
prohibit the use of plain bars in reinforced concrete — except for lateral
spirals, and for stirrups and ties smaller than 10 mm in diameter. However,
there is no such restriction, as yet, in the IS Code.
4.10.3 Bond Stress
Bond resistance is achieved by the development of tangential (shear) stress
components along the interface (contact surface) between the reinforcing bar
and the surrounding concrete. The stress so developed at the interface is
called bond stress, and is expressed in terms of the tangential force per unit
nominal surface area of the reinforcing bar.

4.10.4 Two Types of Bond

There are two types of loading situations which induce bond stresses, and
accordingly ‘bond’ is characterised as:
1. Flexural bond;

2. Anchorage bond or development bond.

‘Flexural bond’ is that which arises in flexural members on account of shear
or a variation in bending moment, which in turn causes a variation in axial
tension along the length of a reinforcing bar [Fig. 4.34(d)]. Evidently, flexu-
dM
ral bond is critical at points where the shear (V = ) is significant.
dx
‘Anchorage bond’ (or ‘development bond’) is that which arises over the length
of anchorage provided for a bar or near the end (or cut-off point) of a rein-
forcing bar; this bond resists the ‘pulling out’ of the bar if it is in tension
[Fig. 4.34(e)], or conversely, the ‘pushing in’ of the bar if it is in compression.

4.10.5 Anchorage (Development) Bond

As mentioned earlier, anchorage bond or development bond is the bond de-
veloped near the extreme end (or cut-off point) of a bar subjected to tension
(or compression). This situation is depicted in the cantilever beam of Fig.
8.3, where it is seen that the tensile stress in the bar segment varies from
a maximum (fs) at the continuous end D to practically zero at the discon-
tinuous end C. The bending moment, and hence the tensile stress fs , are
maximum at the section at D. Evidently, if a stress fs is to be developed in
the bar at D, the bar should not be terminated at D, but has to be extended
(’anchored’) into the column by a certain length CD. At the discontinu-
ous end C of the bar, the stress is zero. The difference in force between C
and D is transferred to the surrounding concrete through anchorage bond.
 Figure 4.34: Bond stress in a beam

The probable variation of the anchorage bond stress ua is as shown in Fig.

8.3(b)− with a maximum value at D and zero at C. It may be noted that a
similar (but not identical † ) situation exists in the bar segment CD of the
simply supported beam in Fig. 8.1(e)
An expression for an average bond stress uav can be derived by assuming
a uniform bond stress distribution over the length L of the bar of diameter
[Fig. 8.3(c)], and considering equilibrium of forces as given below:

φfs
(πφL)uav = πφ2 /4 fs ⇒ uav =


4L
This bond stress may be viewed as the average bond stress generated over a
length L in order to develop a maximum tensile (or compressive) stress fs at a
critical section; hence, this type of bond is referred to as ’development bond’.
 Figure 4.35: Anchorage bond stress

Alternatively, this bond may be viewed as that required to provide anchorage

for a critically stressed bar; hence, it is also referred to as ’anchorage bond’.

4.10.6 Development Length

The concept of ‘development length’ is explained in the Code as follows:
“The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be
developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length
or end anchorage or by a combination thereof” [Cl. 26.2]. The concept
underlying ‘development length’ is that a certain minimum length of the bar
is required on either side of a point of maximum steel stress, to prevent the bar
from pulling out under tension (or pushing in, under compression). However,
when the required bar embedment cannot be conveniently provided due to
practical difficulties, bends, hooks and mechanical anchorages can be used to
supplement with an equivalent embedment length [refer Section 8.5.3]. The
term anchorage length is sometimes used in lieu of ‘development length’ in
situations where the embedment portion of the bar is not subjected to any
flexural bond [Fig. 4.35]. The expression given in the Code (Cl. 26.2.1) for
‘development length’ Ld follows from Eq. :

ed = φfs
L
4τbd
Table 4.7: Design bond stress in limit state method for plain bars in tension
Grade of concrete M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M40 andabove
Design bond stress, 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
τbd N/mm2

where τbd is the ’design bond stress’, which is the permissible value of the
average anchorage bond stress ua . The values specified for τbd (Cl. 26.2 .1 .1
of the Code) are 1.2MPa, 1.4MPa, 1.5MPa, 1.7MPa and 1.9MPa for concrete
grades M20 M 25, M 30, M 35 and M 40 and above respectively for plain
bars in tension, with an increase of 60 percent for deformed bars in tension,
and a further increase of 25 percent for bars in compression.
The development length requirements in terms of Ld /φ ratios for fully
stressed bars (fs = 0.87fy ) of various grades of steel in combination with
various grades of concrete are listed in Table 5.6. It may be noted that when
the area of steel As actually provided is in excess of the area required (for
fs = 0.87fy ), then the actual development length required L̃d may be pro-
portionately reduced [Ref. 8.5] :

(As )reqd
e d = Ld ×
L
(As )provided

In the case of bundled bars, the Code specifies that the ”development length
of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the individual bar, increased
by 10 percent for two bars in contact, 20 percent for three bars in contact
and 33 percent for four bars in contact.” Such an increase in development
length is warranted because of the reduction in anchorage bond caused by
the reduced interface surface between the steel and the surrounding concrete.

4.10.7 Bends, Hooks and Mechanical Anchorages

Bends, conforming to standards are frequently resorted to in order to provide
anchorage, contributing to the requirements of development length of bars in
tension or compression. The Code (Cl. 26.2.2.1) specifies that ”the anchorage
value of a bend shall be taken as 4 times the diameter of the bar for each 45◦
bend, subject to a maximum of 16 times the diameter of the bar”. Commonly
a ’standard 90◦ bend’ (anchorage value = 8φ ) is adopted [Fig. 8.8 (a)
], including a minimum extension of 4φ. Any additional extension beyond
the bend also qualifies to be included in development length calculations.
However, for bars in compression (as in column bases), it is doubtful whether
such extensions can meaningfully provide anchorage. The 90◦ bend itself is
very effective in compression as it transfers part of the force by virtue of
bearing stresses, and prevents the bar from punching through the concrete
cover. When the bend is turned around 180◦ (anchorage value = 16φ ) and
extended beyond by 4φ, it is called a standard U-type hook [Fig. 8.8(b)].
The minimum (internal) turning radius ( r in Fig. 8.8 ) specified for a hook
is 2φ for plain mild steel bars and 4φ for cold-worked deformed bars [Ref.
8.5]. Hooks are generally considered mandatory for plain bars in tension
[refer Cl. 26.2.2. 1 a of the Code]. In the case of stirrup (and transverse tie)

Figure 4.36: Anchorage lengths of standard bends and hooks

reinforcement, the Code (Cl. 26.2.2.4b) specifies that complete anchorage

shall be deemed to have been provided if any of the following specifications
is satisfied:

ˆ 90◦ bend around a bar of diameter not less than the stirrup diameter
φ, with an extension of at least 8φ

ˆ 135◦ bend with an extension of at least 6φ

ˆ 180◦ bend with an extension of at least 4φ

It may be noted that bends and hooks introduce bearing stresses in the
concrete that they bear against. To ensure that these bearing stresses are
not excessive, the turning radius r (in Fig. 8.8 ) should be sufficiently large.
The Code (Cl. 26.2 .2 .5 ) recommends a check on the bearing stress fb inside
any bend, calculated as follows:
Fbt
fb =
rφ
where Fbt is the design tensile force in the bar (or group of bars), r the internal
radius of the bend, and φ the bar diameter (or size of bar of equivalent area in
case of a bundle). The calculated bearing stress should not exceed a limiting
1.5fck
bearing stress, given by , where a is the centre-to-centre spacing
1 + 2φ/a
between bars perpendicular to the bend, or, in the case of bars adjacent to
the face of the member, the clear cover plus the bar diameter φ. For fully
stressed bars,  2
πφ
Fbt = 0.87fy
4
Accordingly, it can be shown that the limiting radius is given by
  
fy 2φ
r ≥ 0.456φ 1+
fck a
Mechanical anchorages in the form of welded plates, nuts and bolts, etc.
can be used, provided they are capable of developing the strength of the
bar without damage to concrete (Cl. 26.2.2.3 of the Code). In general, the
effectiveness of such devices must be ascertained through tests.

4.10.8 Solved examples on Bond/Development length

Problem-1: Check the adequacy of the anchorage provided for the longitu-
dinal bars in the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 8.10 and suggest appropriate
modifications, if required. The beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed
factored load of 100 kN (total, including self-weight). Assume M 20 concrete
and Fe 415 steel, deformed bars.
Solution
Preliminary check on anchorage length

ˆ Assuming the bars are fully stressed at the location of maximum mo-
ment (i.e., face of column support), full development length Ld is re-
quired for anchorage of the bars inside the column, beyond this section.
 Figure 4.37: Example-1
 
0.87fy
ˆ For the tension bars (2 − 25φ at top ), Ld = φ = 47φ
4τbd
This follows from fy = 415 MPa and τbd = 1.2MPa × 1.6 for M20
concrete with Fe 415 steel deformed bars;
[5.4] ⇒ Ld = 47 × 25 = 1175mm
Actual anchorage length provided (including effect of the 90◦ bend and
extension of bar beyond bend +4φ minimum extension = 280 + (4 ×
25) + 300 = 680mm

< Ld = 1175mm ⇒ Not OK

ˆ For the compression bars (2 − 16φ at bottom , τbd can be increased by

25 percent, whereby Ld = (47φ) × 0.8
⇒ Ld = 47 × 16 × 0.8 = 602mm
Actual anchorage length provided = 300mm.

< Ld = 602mm ⇒ NotOK

ˆ Before providing increased anchorage length, it is desirable to verify

whether the bars are fully stressed under the given loading, and to
make more precise development length Ld calculations

Actual anchorage length required Maximum factored moment at the critical

section :
Mu = Wu × L/2 = 100kN × (2.0m)/2 = 100kNm
b = 200mm, d = 400 − 40 = 360mm
 Mu 100 × 106
⇒ = = 3.858MPa > Mu,lim = 0.1389 × 20
bd2 200 × 3602
= 2.778MPa (for M20)
Hence, the section has to be doubly-reinforced.
Using Design Aids [Table A.4 or SP : 16], with d0 /d = 40/360 = 0.11,
(pt )reqd = 1.30 ⇒ (Ast )reqd = (1.30/100) × (200 × 360) = 936mm2
(pc )reqd = 0.37 ⇒ (Asc )reqd = (0.37/100) × (200 × 360) = 266mm2
(Ast )provided = 2 × 491 = 982mm2 > 932mm2
(Asc )provided = 2× | 201 = 402mm2 > 266mm2
Actual anchorage length required
(As )reqd
= L̃d = × Ld
(As )provided
⇒ For the tension bars,
936
L̃d = × 1175 = 1120mm > 680mm provided.
982
For the compression bars,
266
L̃d = × 602 = 398mm > 300mm provided
402
⇒ Not OK

Modifications proposed
It is desirable to reduce the anchorage length requirements by providing
smaller diameter bars:
For tension bars (at top), provide 3 − 20mmφ( instead of 2 − 25φ) : ⇒ Ast =
3 × 314 = 942mm2 > 936mm2 reqd
e ≈ Ld = 47 × 20 = 940mm > 680mm provided ⇒ Extend the bars by
L
940 − 680 = 260mm
For compression bars (at bottom), provide 3 − 12mmφ( instead of 2 − 16φ)
⇒ Asc = 3 × 113 = 339mm2 > 266mm2 reqd L ed = 266 × (47 × 12) × 0.8 =
339
354mm > 300mm provided
⇒ Extend the bars by providing a standard 90◦ bend (Additional anchorage
obtained = 8φ = 8 × 12 = 96mm)
Hence OK.
Problem-2: A cantilever carrying a uniformly distributed load has a breadth
of 150 mm and effective depth of 260 mm. The reinforcement consists of four
16 nun bars. If the factored total load is 75 kN, calculate (a) the max-
imum local bond stress, and (b) the anchorage length required. Assume
fck = 30 N/mm2 and fy = 415N/mm2
Solution
Local bond stress (Note: Local bond is not generally checked for ribbed bars
but only for smooth bars.)
V V
u= ≈ , ΣO = 4(π × 16) = 201
ΣOjd ΣOd
75 × 103
u= = 1.44N/mm2
201 × 260
Anchorage length required
Bond stress (τ0 ) for grade 30 concrete and Fe 415 steel
= 1.5 × 1.6 = 2.4N/mm2
Anchorage length = full development length
(0.87fy ) φ
Ld = = 37.6φ = 602mm
4τbd
Note: SP 16: Table 65 checks anchorage length for 16mm bars, the length
being 602mm The steel should extend an equivalent length (including hooks,
bends, etc.) of 602mm from the face of the support into the support.
Problem-3: A simply supported beam is 6 m in span and carries a char-
acteristic load of 60 kN/m. If 6 Nos. of 20 mm bars are provided at the
centre of the span and 4 Nos. of these bars are continued into the supports,
check the development at the supports assuming grade 15 concrete and Fe
415 steel.
Solution
BM and SF in the beam
Design load = 1.5 × 60 = 90kN/m

SF = V0 = 50 × 3 = 270kN
wl2 90 × 6 × 6
Mmax = 6 = 405kNm
8 8
Moment of resistance of bars continued into support (4 bars)
One may calculate the exact value if beam dimensions are given. As an
estimate,
4
M1 = (405) = 270kNm
6
Ld for 20mm bars
M15 concrete Fe 415 steel
Ld = 1128mm
Check development length at support Using 30 per cent increase as in IS, we
get
1.3M1 1.3 × 270 × 1000
= = 1300mm
V0 270
Condition to be satisfied:
1.3M1
L0 + > Ld
V0
where L0 = anchorage beyond support line L0 + 1300 > 1128
Chapter 5

Module-4: Design of Slabs

using LSM

5.1 Design of Slab

Definition
A slab is a flat, two-dimensional, planer structural element having thickness
small compared to its other two dimensions. It provides a working flat sur-
face or a covering shelter in buildings. It supports mainly transverse loads
and transfers them to support primarily by bending action in one or more
directions. Reinforced concrete slab covers relatively large area compared to
beam or column. Therefore, volume of concrete and, hence, dead load is large
in.the case of slab. A small reduction in depth of slab therefore, leads to a
considerable economy. But care has to be taken to see that its performance
(serviceability) is not affected due to excessive deflection and cracking.
Reinforced concrete solid slabs are constructed in one of the following ways:

1. One-way slabs (spanning in one direction)

2. Two-way slabs (spanning in both axes of its plane)

3. Flat slabs (supported directly on columns with no beams)

4. Ribbed slabs (slabs supported on grid beams)

221
5.1.1 Methods of Analysis
The analysis of slab is very complicated because of the influence of number
of factors such as shape of the slab, boundary condition, loading and state
of stress ( elastic, inelastic, plastic) with the result rigorous or exact (closed-
form ) solutions are not easily available. Various methods of analysis, evolved
are as follows :
(1) Classical methods of elastic analysis,

(2) Semi - empirical method based on coefficients. These are normally pre-
scribed by design codes for practical design in lieu of classical methods

(3) Yield line theory for the ultimate load analysis.

(4) Numerical techniques requiring use of computers ( e.g. Finite difference

method, Finite element method etc.). The use of these methods is
helpful for slabs with complex loading and boundary conditions.

5.1.2 CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN OF SLABS

Classification of Slabs
Slabs are classified in general as follows: Figure 5.1
(1) On the basis of shape : Rectangular circular, other shapes.

(2) On the basis of spanning directions : Spanning in one direction i.e.

One - way slab, spanning in two orthogonal direction i.e. Two - way
slab.

(3) On the basis of type of support: Slab simply supported on walls, slab
cast monolithically with the supporting beams, slab supported directly
on columns.

(4) On the basis of support or boundary conditions : Single span slab,

cantilever, slab simply supported at both ends, slab overhanging on
one or both ends, slab fixed or continuous at one or both ends; Multi-
span slabs.

(5) On the basis of use: Roof slab, floor slab, wall slab, or foundation slab
like footing or raft etc.
 Figure 5.1: Different Types of Slabs based on configuration

(6) On the basis of Sectional configuration of the plate : Solid slab, ribbed
plate. waffle plate stiffened plate, corrugated plate, folded plate.
Solid slab is a flat horizontal plate without ribs or stiffeners.
Ribbed plate is a plate with longitudinal ribs in one directions.
Waffle plate or stiffened plate is flat plate with ribs or stiffeners in one
or both directions.
Corrugated plate is a thin plate bent to corrugated shape to get stiffness
in one direction.
Folded plate is a plate folded to get stiffness in one or two directions.

(7) On the-basis of composition across the thickness : Homogeneous plates,

layered or sandwich plates. Layered or Sandwich plates comprise of
with, more than one layer of thin plates glued together. on the basis of
theoretical solution for analysis : Thin plates subjected only to bending
action analyzed by small deflection theory. Thin plates subjected to
bending as well as membrane action (in plane forces) analyzed by large
deflection theory; and thick plates involving shear deformations besides
bending.

In practical design, rectangular slabs are most common. They are categorized
as under :

(i) One - way slab, (ii) Two - way Slab, (iii) Flat slab

When a slab is supported only on two opposite parallel edges, it spans only
in the direction perpendicular to two supporting edges. It bends in one di-
rection and the deflected surface is primarily of single curvature. The main
reinforcement is provided only in the direction of the span to resist- one way
bending. Such a slab is known as a one - way slab or slab spanning in one
direction. Fig.5.2a.
A slab supported on four parallel or non - parallel edge supports, which

Figure 5.2: One-way and Two-way slabs

may either be walls or beams, bends in more than one direction. When the
supports are orthogonal, the slab spans in two directions at right angles to
supporting edges. The deflected surface is of double curvature. The load
is carried in both directions to the four supporting edges, hence the slab is
called a two - way slab or slab spanning in two directions. ( Fig. 5.2b ).
In this slab, main reinforcement runs across both the spans to resist two -
way bending. The two - way bending action is not only a function of non
- parallel support conditions but also on the ratio of long span Ly to short
span Lx .
In the case of a rectangular slab supported on all four sides, the two-way
bending is predominant only when Ly /Lx is less than 2.
Note : Students many times blindly give emphasis on the ratio Ly /Lx with-
out reference to support conditions. A square slab with Ly /Lx = 1 will also
act as one way slab if it is supported only on two opposite edges.
A R.C. slab supported directly on the columns. without any intermediate
beams is called a flat plate or a flat slab. It gives pleasing appearance and
larger clear ceiling height. It is also provided with steel in both principal di-
rections. But portion of slab close to the supporting column is often required
to be thickened to provide adequate strength in shear and flexure.
The design of slab is made to satisfy both serviceability and strength re-
quirements. Since the depth of slab is small it is generally governed by
serviceability requirement for deflection rather than the flexural strength of
slab.
The deflection criteria is normally satisfied by adhering to effective span to
depth ratio. In some critical cases actual deflection may be worked out and
checked with the permissible value. The serviceability requirement for crack
is met with by adhering to normal detailing rules. The reinforcement is pro-
vided to satisfy strength requirements.
In solid slabs the shear strength of concrete is greater than the nominal shear
stress, Tests have shown that shallower members fail at a higher nominal
shear stress and hence shear reinforcement is generally not required.

5.1.3 EFFECTIVE SPAN FOR SLAB. OR BEAM

Initially the effective span is computed depending on the supporting condi-
tions.
(1) For simply supported slab or beam which is not built integrally with its
supports, and for continuous slab or beam having breadth of support
less than 1/12 of clear span.

Effective span = L = ( centre to centre distance between supports or

clear span + effective depth ) whichever is less.

(2) For continuous slab or beam having breadth of support greater than
1/12 of clear span or 600 mm whichever is less, the effective span shall
be taken as under :
(1) For end span with one end fixed and the other continuous or for
intermediate spans: Effective span = L = clear span between sup-
ports.
(2) For end span with one end free and the other continuous, Effective
span = L = ( clear span + 12 effective depth of slab/ beam or clear
span + half the width of discontinuous support) whichever is less.
 (3) For cantilevers:
(a) Effective span = L = Length of a cantilever to the face of
support + half the effective depth.
(b) Cantilever at the end of continuous beam Effective span =
L = Length of cantilever to the centre of support.
(4) Continuous Frames: Effective span= L = distance between cen-
ters of supports.

In practice the centre to centre distance between the supports is taken

as an effective span for simplicity and on the safer side.

5.1.4 ONE-WAY SLAB:

One - way slab bends only in one direction across the span, and acts like a
wide beam of unit width. A slab is assumed to be made up of such small strips
placed side by side and acting independently. In fact, the compression acting
on the concrete above the neutral axis makes the slab strip to expand laterally
i.e. causing increase in width at top, and reduction of width at bottom due to
Poisson’s effect. But this lateral expansion is actually prevented by adjacent
strips creating a condition of confinement of concrete which increases the
stiffness. However, this beneficial effect derived from this Poisson’s effect is
ignored making the design more safe.

Design of One way Slab:

The analysis and design of one - way slab is the same as that of beam of
width 1 m. The slab supported on two opposite edges is a one - way slab
and also the slab having Ly /Lx > 2 acts as one - way slab bending primarily
along the short span. The design steps are as under :

1. Span: Depending on end conditions determine the effective span of the

slab. Since the effective span is also dependent on effective depth as-
sume effective depth between L/22 to L/28 for Fe 415 and L/28toL/34
tor Fe 500 type of steel.
 Figure 5.3: Modification factor

(Normally the width of support is greater than the effective depth of

the slab, hence in practice effective span is taken equal to the centre to
centre distance between the support on the safer side.)
2. Trial depth : The total depth of the slab is equal to effective depth
plus effective cover (= clear cover + half bar diameter). The effective
depth is governed by serviceability requirements of deflection.
Calculate the effective depth of slab based on L/d ratio.
Span
Required Effective depth = d =
(L/d) × Modification factor α1

Use the graphs given in Figure 5.3 Initially assume the percentage of
steel as given below:

Total depth =D= d + clear cover + half bar diameter

Clear cover or nominal cover to be provided depends on exposure con-

ditions
 Grade of steel Percentage of steel
Fe250 0.5% to 0.90%
Fe415 0.25% to 0.45%
Fe500 0.2% to 0.35%

3. Loads: Consider one metre wipth of the slab

Dead load per meter = self weight of slab + floor finish = 25 D + FF
where, D is in metre
Live Load or imposed load (LL), are to be taken as per the require-
ments of the building as prescribed by Codes.
Compute total working load:

Total working loads = DL + LL

Total (maximum) ultimate load = wmax = wu = 1.5(DL + LL)
and (Minimum) design load = wmin = DL

4. Design Moment (Mu )

Critical Section for Bending Moment :
The critical section for positive or sagging bending happens to be at
the point of zero shear. However, the maximum negative or hogging
bending moments are calculated at the centre of supports assuming
point support. In R.C. construction, the support to slab is given either
by wall or beam or column which has width quite large compared to
thickness of slab. These supports give distributed reactions causing
reduction in maximum support moment. This decrease in bending
moment is accounted for by taking the critical section for negative
moment at the face of support. But the computation of moment at
the face of the support involves tedious calculation and hence, bending
moment is normally calculated at the centre of support.
For simply supported slab Mu = wu L2 /8
For continuous slab :

(1) The design moments can be worked out using different combina-
tions of loads.
OR
(2) Design moments can be obtained as per the coefficients given in
the code as:
M u = αd wud L2 +αL wuL L2 where wud = 1.5 DL and wuL = l.5 LL
The coefficient for bending moment and shear force are given in
Table (Figure 5.4 ) Note that:

Figure 5.4: BM and SF Coefficients

i. DL = Dead load , LL= Live load or imposed load not fixed.

ii. For obtaining the bending moment, the BM coefficients shall
be multiplied by the total design load and span.
iii. For obtaining the shear force, the shear force coefficients shall
be multiplied-by the total design load.
iv. These coefficients are applicable for three or more spans which
do not differ by more than 15% of the longest span. In other
cases exact analysis should be made.
v. At supports where two unequal spans meet or where the spans
are riot equally loaded, the average of the two values for the
negative moment at the support may by taken for design.
 vi. When coefficients given in the above Table are used for cal-
culation of bending moment redistribution of moments shall
not be permitted.
5. Check for concrete depth:
Since the depth of the slab is obtained (in step 2) from serviceability
considerations it is required to be checked from bending moment re-
quirements.
Calculate maximum moment carrying capacity of the section.Mur.max =
Ru.max bd2

Type of steel Mur.max

Fe250 0.149fck bd2
Fe415 0.138fck bd2
Fe500 0.133fck bd2

If Mur.max > Mu.max the section is adequate from bending moment

requirements.
Alternatively, obtain for b=1000 mm
r
Mu.max
d= which shall be less than d provided
Ru.max × 1000
If the above condition is not satisfied provide the depth required from
BM considerations.

6. Main Steel
For Slabs, for b = 1000 mm, Required Ast
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− × 1000 × d ≮ Ast.min
fy fck × 1000 × d2

Ast.min = 12% for HYSD bars (Fe415 or Fe500)

Or Ast.min = 0.15% for Mild Steel, (Fe250)
Required, spacing , s = 1000ast /Ast
where , ast = area of bar used, Ast = total area of steel required.
Maximum spacing ≤ (3d or 300 mm) whichever is less.

7. Check for deflection:

Calculate , pt % = 100Ast /(bd) where, Ast is the maximum area of steel
 provided at mid-span.
Calculate steel stress = 0.58fy × Ast (reqd)/Ast (prov)
From Fig. 5.3 calculate the modification factor and required depth
which should be less than the effective depth provided.
The other shortcut method is to check that (pt.reqd ) < (pt.assumed ), be-
cause as pt.reqd increases modification factor decreases with the result
required depth increases.
8. Distribution steel :

RequiredAst = 0.12% bD for Fe 415 and Fe500 and

= 0.15%bDf orF e250

where , b = 1000 mm and D is the overall depth of the slab.

Minimum spacing : s= (5d or 450 mm) whichever is less.
9. Check for shear:
Calculate maximum shear Vu.max taking into consideration continuity
coefficients given in Table (Figure 5.4)
Obtain the design-shear stress τuc corresponding to pt = 100Ast /(bd)
from Table 19 of IS:456-2000.
where, Ast = area of tension steel at the section under consideration.
Calculate shear resistance of slab = V = kτuc bd
Where , k accounts for increase in shear Resistance due to membrane
action of slab and is given in table shown in Figure 5.5 Normally depth

Figure 5.5: Values of k for slab

of slab in building is less than 150 mm therefore factor k equal to 1.3 is

used and Vuc works out to be much greater than Vu.max and therefore,
shear check is not taken. If Vuc > Vumax then safe else increase the
thickness of the slab.
10. Check for development length:
(a) For positive moment steel i.e. bottom steel at support
Ld at discontinuous end < 1.3 MV 1 + L0 , where, M1 =moment of resis-
tance of the section assuming all bars stressed to fyd (= 0.87fy ), when
50 % bars are available at support, M1 can be approximately taken
equal to Mu.max /2
Or
 
fy Ast
M1 = Mu = 0.87fy Ast × d 1 −
fck bd
L0 = sum of anchorage beyond the centre of support plus hook al-
lowance (ha )
L0 = x2 + ha and x2 = b2s − x1 − (r + φ)
x1 = end cover; bs = Breadth of Support, r = 2φ for Fe 250 and r = 4φ
for HYSD bars
ha = 16φ for 1800 bend and ha = 8φ for 900 bend Using 900 bend for

Figure 5.6: Details of Anchorage

HYSD bars,L0 = bs /2 − x1 − (4φ + φ) + 8φ = bs /2 − x1 + 3φ

Using 1800 bend for Fe 250, L0 = bs /2 − x1 − (2φ + φ) + 16φ =
bs /2 − x1 + 13φ
( b) For support steel or negative moment steel:
 The lengths of the bars provided for resisting negative moment should
not be less than the development length given by: Required, Ld = kφ =
(0.87fy /4τbd )
where ,τbd = Design bond stress given in Table of Figure 5.7 The avail-

Figure 5.7: Design bond stress

able development length is the actual length of the bar from the face
of intermediate support of a continuous beam/slab or a cantilever.
In case of continuous beam,
Required length = x0 +(12φ or d or clear span/16) whichever is greater
where, x0 = distance of point of confraflexure from the centre of sup-
port.
In practice top oars in slab are provided for a length equal to 0.3L
or-50% curtailed at0.1 5L from the face of support, These lengths shall
be greater than Ld .

5.1.5 Detailing of Reinforcement:

In the case of a continuous slab of equal spans and loaded by a uniformly
distributed load the points of contraflexures occur at a section away from
the continuous end at a distance varying between 0.2 L tq 0.27 L. In view of
this 50% of bottom tension steel can be curtailed or bent up at a distance
of 0.25 L from-the centre of support and the top bars can be continued for
a length of 0.3L from the face of the supports. Based on these, the detailing
of reinforcement in the slab is made. The different methods used in detailing
of one way or two way continuous slabs are given below:

Type - A Detailing:
In this case all the bars provided in each row are bent up in one direction.
If the bars in the odd rows are cranked to the right, the bars in the even
rows are cranked to the left. Additional steel to resist the negative moment,
if required, is provided at the top of support. The typical details of bar
bending is shown is Fig. a in which even though the bars are in the same
layer they are shown in separate layer for clarity. The fabrication of bars in
this type of detailing is much simpler for slabs having equal spans, because
diameter of bars required are normally less than 16 mm diameter so that
they can be bent-up easily.

Type - B Detailing:
In this type the required diameter- spacing combination of bars is provided
at top face over the support to resist negative moment and independent
diameter spacing combination of the bars is provided at the bottom face of
the mid span region to resist positive bending moment as shown in Fig. b.
This avoids completely the cranking of bars thereby fabrication is very simple
resulting in reduction in time and cost of fabrication. However, chairs are
required to be provided for supporting top bars during concreting. This type
of detailing is particularly convenient in case of slabs of irregular pattern.

Figure 5.8: Reinforcement Detailing

Type - C Detailing:
It is a running type detailing in which each bar runs from one end of the
support to the other end of the support as a continuous bar. The alternate
bottom bars are bent up at the supports, and the remaining half number
of bars run as continuous bars at the bottom. Fig. c shows reinforcement
details for this type of detailing. In this case the bottom bars are designed for
maximum positive moment and extra bars are provided at top of support to
meet the requirements of steel to resist negative moment. Since the diameter
spacing combination of bars is decided based on maximum moment at mid
span of the end span, this reinforcement will be in excess of requirements at
mid span of interior supports. Therefore, the quantity of steel required is
more than the other cases.
Example-1: Design a simply supported one-way saab provided over a clear
span of 3.37 m carries a live load of 4.0 kN/m2 and floor finish of 1.5 kN/m
. Width of supporting walls is 230 mm. Steel grades used Fe 415 and grade
of concrete is M25. Assume moderate environment.
solution:
Given: For moderate environment required clear cover from is 30 mm.
fck = 25 N/mm2 , fy = 415 N/mm2
LL = 4 kN/m, F F = 1.5 kN/m, bs = 230 mm
Clear span L = 3370 mm
1. Trial Depth D:
Assuming effective depth d= 130 mm,
Effective span = ( clear span + d) or ( c/c distance between supports )
whichever is less
Effective span = lesser of( 3.37 + 0.13 or 3.37 + 0.23)
L = 3.5m. Assuming pt = 0.35 %
Modification factor= 1.4 from Fig. 5.3(IS-456-2000) corresponding to f s =
240 N/mm2 andpt = 0.35%
Basic L/d =20, Allowable L/d = 20 × 1.4 = 28 ∴ Required d= 3500/28 =
125 mm
Provide total depth of 160 mm.
Assuming 8 mm diameter of bars Provided d= 160-30- 8/2 = 126 mm
2) Loading :
 Total load w = self weight+ floor finish+ live load
= 25 × 0.16 + 4 + 1.5
= 9.5 kN/m.
Ultimate load wu = 1.5w = 1.5 × 9.5
= 14.25 kN/m
3)Design moment:

Mu = wu L2 /8
= 14.25 × 3.52 /8
= 21.8kN.mF orM 25 − F e415
Mu.max = 0.138fck bd2
s
21.8 × 106
∴d=
0.138 × 25 × 1000
= 79.49 say 79.5 mm
Required D for strength= 79.5 + 30 + 8/2 = 113.5 mm < 160 mm
4) Main steel :
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bd
fy fck bd2
 s 
6
0.5 × 25  4.6 × 21.8 × 10 
= 1− 1− 1000 × 126
415 25 × 1000 × 1262

= 515 mm2
Pt (reqd.) = 100 × 515/(1000 × 126) = 0.4%
Providing 8 mm diameter bar at s = 1000 × 50/515 = 97 mm say 90 mm
c/c Area of steel provided = 1000 × 50/90 = 556 mm2
5)Check for deflection:
 Steel stress = fs = 0.58 × fy × (Ast.reqd )/(Ast.provided )
= 0.58 × 415 × 515/556 = 223 N mm2
(pt )provided = 100 × 556/(1000 × 126) = 0.44%
Actual modification factor corresponding to pt = 0.44%
and fs = 223N/mm2 from IS:456-2000 = 1.4
∴ Required depth = 3.5 × 1000/(20 × 1.4)
= 125 mm < 126 mm. ∴ O.K.
6) Distribution steel:
Required Ast = 0.12 × 1000 × 160/100 = 192 mm2 ∴ Provide# 8 mm at 260
mm c/c giving Ast = 193 mm2 .
7) Check for shear :
Design shear VuD = wu L/2 = 14.25 × 3.50/2 = 24.9 kN
Design shear strength of concrete = τc = 0.46 N/mm2 f or pt = 0.44% and
concrete grade M25
For slab for D = 160 mm, k =1.28 by linear interpolation ( IS:456-2000)

Shear resisted by concrete = Vuc = (τc × 1.28) × bd

= 0.46 × 1.28 × 1000 × 126/1000
= 74.2kN >> VuD (= 24.9kN )

8) Check- for Development length :

0.87 × 415
Ld = φ
4 × (1.4 × 1.6)
= 41 × φ = 41 × 8
= 328 mm
Ld < 1.3M1 /V + L0
Since the alternate bars are bent up at support available M1 = Mu /2 =
21.8/2 = 10.9 kN.m
Assuming L0 = 0, 328 mm < 569 mm(= 1.3 × (10.9 × 1000)/24.9)
∴ Theoretically no anchorage is required however the bar shall extend for a
length of 110 mm ( = Ld /3) from the inner face of support.
The details of reinforcement are shown in-Fig.5.9.

Example-2: Design the roof slab of a multipurpose hall having height of

 Figure 5.9: Reinforcement details for One way-slab-Example-1

6 m above the floor level and inside dimensions of 19.77 m x 9.97 m. The
thickness of the wall is 230 mm. The centre to centre distance between
the beams is 4 m. The live load on the slab is 1.5 kN/m2 and floor finish
of 1.5kN/m2 Concrete grade used is M20 and steel Fe 415. Assume mild
environment.
Given: fck = 20 N/mm2 , fy = 415 N/mm2 Hall size = 19.77 m × 9.91 m
LL = 1.5 kN/m2 , F F = 1.5 kN/m2 , b = 230 mm.
For mild environment with bar size not exceeding 12 mm, Nominal cover =
20-5 = 15 mm.
Required : Design of roof slab
Solution :
The centre to centre distances between end supports.

= (19.77 + 0.23) × (9.97 + 0.23) = 20 m × 10.2 m

Th beams will be placed at distance of 4 m. The structural plan is shown

in Fig. (a)//
The effective span will be taken equal to centre to centre distance between
the supports for conservative design.
The slab is five span continuous slab.
Span : L = c/c distance between supports = 4 m.
(1) Trial Depth: Assume pt = 0.35%, Modification factor= 1.4, Basic
L/d=26
∴ Required effective depth = 4000/ ( 26 x 1.4 ) = 110 mm
Provide total depth = 130 mm
Using # 8 mm bars effective depth provided d= 130-15 - 8/2 = 111 mm.
(2) Loads: Consider one metre width of the slab i.e. b = 1000 mm
Dead load = 25 x 0.13= 3.25 kN/m
Floor finish = 1.50 kN/m
 Figure 5.10: Structural Plan

Working dead load = wd = 3.25 + 1.5 = 4.75 kN/m

Ultimate dead load = wud = 1.5 x 4.75 = 7.125 kN/m
Live load = wL = 1.5 kN/m
Ultimate live load = wuL = 1.5 x 1.5 = 2.25 kN/m
(3) Design moments: Ultimate moments are calculated at different sec-
tions using IS:456-2000 Code coefficients given in Table.5 and are given as
under :
Considering symmetry design moments are worked out for half portion.
Ultimate moment at any section is given by:

Mu = αd wud L2 + αL wuL L2

(5) Check for depth of slab from B.M. consideration.

M = 0.138×20×1000×1112 ×10−6 = 34 kN.m > Mu2 (= 15.4 kN ) ∴ Saf e
(6) Main steel: The area of steel at different section are calculated using
Equation
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bd
fy fck bd2

The calculated Ast at different locations and corresponding to respective

B.M. are given in Table 5.
Using bent up bars all of size # 8 mm, ( Area = 50 mm2 ) the spacing is
calculated :
 Table 5.1: Bending Moments Calculations:
B.M. At End Near At Sup- At Mid- At Other At Mid-
Coefficient Support Middle of port Next dle of Interior dle of
for End Span to the interior Supports interior
End Sup- Span Span
port
D.L. αd 0 1/12 - 1/10 1/16 - 1/12 1/16
L.L. αl 0 1/10 - 1/9 1/12 - 1/9 1/12
Ult. Mo- 13.1 -15.4 10.13 -13.5 10.13
ments in -
kN.m
Ast mm2 350 417 266 361 266

1. At middle of end span, Ast , = 350 mm2 ,

s = 1000 × 50/350 = 143 mm say 140 mm < ( 3d or 300mm)
Area provided = 1000 × 50/140 = 357 mm2

2. At middle of interior span, Ast = 266 mm2

s = 1000 × 50/266 = 188 mm say 180 mm < ( 3d or 300mm)
Area provided = 1000 × 50/180 = 278 mm2

3. At support next to end support, Ast = 417 mm2

The alternate bars from mid-spans will be bent up at 0.25 L ( = 1000
mm) from the centre of support and extended for a length of 0.3L ( =
1200 mm) from the face of support on each side of top of support.
Area of steel available at top of support due to bending of alternate bars
from middle of end span and middle of interior span = (357 + 278)/2 =
317.5mm2 Extra steel required= 417 − 317.5 = 99.5 mm2 ,
∴ Required spacing = 1000 × 50/99.5 = 502 mm
Provide extra bars of # 8 mm @ 500 c/c over the penultimate (next-
to-last) support.
Total area provided = 317.5 + 100 = 417.5 mm2

4. At interior support, Ast = 361mm2

Area of steel available at-top of support due to bending of alternate
bars from middle of interior spans = (266 + 266)/2 = 266 mm2 ,
∴ Extra steel required = 361 − 266 = 95mm2
Required spacing = 1000 × 50/95 = 526 mm say 520 mm.
 Provide extra bars of # 8 mm @ at 520 c/c for a length of 0.3 L ( =
1200 mm) from the face on both sides of support.
Note:
(a)The requirement maximum spacing of ( 3d or 300mm) whichever is
less is not applicable for the extra steel at support.
(b) From practical considerations it is preferable to use the same diam-
eter of bars instead of bars of different diameters and adjusting their
spacing. The details of reinforcement is shown in Fig.5.11

Figure 5.11: Reinforcement detailing for one way continuous slab

(7) Check for deflection :

The deflection can be maximum at mid-span ( and not at support). There-
fore, the maximum steel provided at midspan is taken for computation.
Area of steel provided at mid span of end span = 357mm2
(pt )provided = 100 × 357/(1000 × 111) = 0.32%
fs = 0.58 × 415 × 350/357 = 236 N/mm2
From IS:456-2000 For fs = 236 N/mm2 and pt = 0.32%, modification
factor= 1.48
∴ Required depth = 4000/(26 × 1.48) = 104 mm < 111 mm ∴ Safe.
(8) Check/or shear:
wud = 7.125 kN/m, wuL = 2.25 kN/m.
Shear force at any section is given by, Vu = αd wud L + αL wuL L,
Values of αd , αl taken from IS:456-2000 The calculated shear force at differ-
ent supports is as shown in Table 1b.
Maximum shear occurs at support next to end support. Vu.max = 22.5 kN.

Table 5.2: Shear Force Calculations:

B.M. Coef- At End At Sup- At
ficint for Support port Other
Next to Interior
the End Sup-
Support ports
Outer Inner Outer Inner
Side Side Side Side
D.L. αd 0.4 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.5
DL shear 11.40 17.10 15.68 14.25 14.25
= Coef. x
w ud x L
L.L. αl 0.45 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
LL shear= 4.05 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4
coef x wuL
xL
Total shear 15.45 22.5 21.08 19.65 19.65
in kN

% of area provided at this support = 100 × 417.5/(1000 × 111) = 0.37% For

pt = 0.31% and M20 grade of concrete, τc = 0.417 N/mm2
Permissible shear = kτc bd = 1.3 × 0.417 × 1000 × 111/1000 = 60.l7kN >>
Vu.max (= 22.5 kN )
(9)Check for development length for + ve moment reinforcement:
Vu.max = 15.45 kN ,
Since 50% bars are bent up ∴ M1 = 13.1/2 = 6.55kN
Providing 900 bend, L0 = bs /2 − x/2 + 3φ = 230/2 − 25 + 3 × 8 = 114 mm
Ld = 47φ = 47x8 = 376 mm
Ld < 1.3M1 /V + L0 i.e. 376 < 665 mm (= 1.3 × (6.55 × 1000)/15.45 + 114)
∴ safe

Example-3: In a multipurpose assembly hall a cantilever porch of size

2500 mm wide and 5000 mm long is to be provided at a height of 3 m above
the floor level. The porch slab which overhangs 2500 mm beyond the face of
the beam is to be cast in flush with the top face of the beam. Assume the
following additional data : Live load= 0.75kN/m2 Floor finish= 0.8kN/m2 ,
Use concrete grade M20 and mild steel reinforcement.
Given: fck = 20N/mm2 ,fy = 250N/mm2 , LL= 0.75kN/m2 , FF= 0.8kN/m2
Cantilever span L1 = 2.5m
Required: Design of cantilever slab
Solution:
1. Span : Cantilever span L1 = 2.5 mm.
Effective span L = 2500 + [(200 + 100)/2 - 20]/2 = 2565 mm
2. Trial Depth: Assuming pt % = 0.4%, Modification factor M.F. = 2
corresponding to fs = 145 N/mm2
Basic L/d ratio = 7, ∴ Allowable L/d ratio = 2 x 7 = 14
Required d = L/14 = 2565/14 = say 180 mm.
Assuring 10 mm diameter of bar, effective cover= 15 + 10/2 = 20 mm
Provide total depth of200 mm, ∴ d= 200-20 = 180 mm.
Let the overall depth of the slab be reduced to 100 mm at the cantilever
end where bending moment is zero.

3. Loads: Consider one meter width of the slab.

Self wt. of slab = (0.20 + 0.10)/2 × 25 = 3.75kN/m
W eight due to f inish = 0.80kN/m
Live load(since unapproachable) = 0.75kN/m
T otal = 5.3kN/m
Ultimate load/m = wu = 5.3 × 1.5 = 7.95kN/m.
Maximum -ve moment at the face of support :
Mu = wu L2 /2 = 7.95 × 2.52/2 = 24.84kN.m

4. check depth from B.M considerations :

Mu.max = 0.148×20×1000×1802 ×10−6 = 96.2/kN.m >> 24.84 kN.m
∴ Section is under - reinforced.
5. Area of Steel :
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bd
fy fck bd2
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × 24.84 × 10 
= 1− 1− 1000 × 180
250 20 × 1000 × 1802

= 666 mm2

Using 10 mm φ bars, area = 78.5 mm2 , Spacing= 1000 x 78.5/666 =

117 mm
say 110 mm,≤ ( 300 mm or 3d= 540 mm)
Provide φ 10 mm bars at 110 mm c/c, Area provided= 1000 x 78.5/110
= 713 mm2
Curtailment of steel :
Ii is proposed to curtail 50% of the steel required at the support. Since
the depth of the slab is tapering and B.M. variation parabolic the area
of reinforcement will get reduced to half at a distance greater than half
the span from the free end.
Let us check the requirement of steel at a distance 1.6 m from the free
end.
Mu = 7.95 × 1.62 /2 = 10.176 kN m
Total depth of the slab at 1.6 from free end = 100 + 1.6 x ( 200 - 100
)/2.5 = 164 mm
∴ d = 164 - 20 = 144 mm.
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × 10.176 × 10 
Ast2 = 1− 1− 1000 × 180
250 20 × 1000 × 1442

= 335 mm2 < (713/2)provided at support.

Distance of the point of curtailment from support = 2500 - 1600 = 900

mm.
Curtail 50% of the bars at a distance greater of the following:

(1) 900 + 12φ = 900 + 120 = 1020 mm

(2) 900 + d = 900 + 144 = 1044 mm
 Curtail 50 % steel at a distance of 1050 mm from the face of support.

6. Distribution Steel :
Area required= 0.15% bD = 1.5 D = 1.5 x ( 200 + 100 )/2 = 225 mm2
Spacing= 1000 x 28/225 = 124 mm ∴ Provide φ 6 mm @ 120 mm c/c.

7. Check for deflection :

Pt(required) = 100 × 666/(1000x180) = 0.37%, < 0.4% ∴ O.K.
As per the normal procedure the check is again carried out as under :
fs = 0.58 × 250 × 666/713 = 135N/mm2
pt(provided) = 100 × 713/(1000 × 180) = 0.4%, M.F. = 2
∴ Required d = 2565 /( 7 x 2) = say 180 mm

8. Check for development length:

Required Ld = [0.87×250/(4×1.2)]φ >= 45.3φ > say 46φ = 46×10 =
460 mm.

(a) The available length of curta led bars from the support up to TPC
= 900 mm > Ld
(b) The available length ofuncurtailed bars from TPCto end of can-
tilever = 1600 mm > Ld

Provide anchorage length of 460 mm from the outer face of beam.

The details of reinforcement are shown in Fig.5.12

 Figure 5.12: Reinforcement Details for Porch Slab

5.2 Two way slab

Behaviour of a Two-Way Slab
(a) Two - way Bending : A rectangular slab supported on four sides and
subjected to transverse load spans in both directions perpendicular to the
supports and deflects in the form of a dish or saucer. It transfers the load
to all supporting edges by bending in both the directions. Consider a slab
element at E common to two central strips AEB and CED in Fig. (a). This
slab element is subjected to bending moment mx due to bending of strip CD
along span Lx , and bending moment my due to bending of strip AB along the
span Ly , This action of occurrence of flexure in two perpendicular direction
in a two - dimensional planer element is known as two -way bending. See
Fig.5.13 (b)
Since bending moments are functions of curvatures (M = 1/R × EI), they
depend upon the deflection profile of a member i.e. deflection surface in case
of such two - dimensional member. From the behaviour of slab seen above,
the deflection surface is that of a dish or saucer. The deflection contours
obtained from these deflection surfaces are shown in Fig.5.13 (c) for different
shapes. From these contours, it is seen that the curvature is more steep in
the shorter direction (because contours are closely spaced ) than those in the
Figure 5.13: Two-way Slab: (a) Plan, (b) Two-way Bending, (c) Deflection
contours, (d) Lifting of Corners, (e) Rotation of edge strips, (f) Torsion in
Edge Strips for Slabs restrained at corners, (g) Diagonal Bending at Corners
longer direction (as contours are widely spaced). Since bending moments are
proportional to curvatures, steep variation of slopes along short span implies
large moments in the short span direction than those in the long span direc-
Ly
tion. For the ratio of Lx < 2, bending moments of comparable magnitude
occur in both the directions necessitating provision of main steel in both di-
rections.
(b) Lifting of Corner:
A slab resting freely on all sides when subjected to transverse load gets lifted
at the corners as shown in Fig.5.13 (d). To understand lifting of corners, let
us examine the behaviour of a strip PQ near A and perpendicular to AB in
Fig.5.13 (a). Since entire slab is acting as a unit, as strip AB bends along
span Ly , the portion R which is common to AB and PQ undergoes certain
rotation θ equal to slope of AB at R. As a result of rotation of portion R,
the entire strip PQ also rotates about an axis parallel to strip PQ. If it is
assumed that the strip PQ just simply rests at the two edges, rotation of PQ
along the longitudinal axis causes the face 1-2 of strip PQ to get lifted up
when face 3-4 gets support at point 4. See Fig.5.13 (e). Consequently, the
effect of two -way bending is to cause lifting of slab at corners as shown in
Fig.5.13 (d). As a result, the slab looses its support over some region near
the corners. This phenomenon is known as lifting of corners.
(c) Torsion in Slabs :
When the corners of slab are restrained from lifting, downward reaction re-
sults at corners and the ends P and Q of strip PQ gets restrained against
rotation,However, when ends P and Q are restrained against rotation and
as the rotation of strip AB still occurs causing rotation at R, the strip PQ
is subjected to torsion Fig.5.13 (f). The torsion is maximum at the corners
only at the intersection of strips PQ and P’Q’. The twisting moments in two
perpendicular directions causes bending about an axis m-n perpendicular to
the diagonal as shown in Fig.5.13 (g). Since provision of reinforcement along
the diagonal is difficult, torsion reinforcement is provided along two direc-
tions perpendicular to supports in the form of grid at top and at bottom.
When the corners are restrained from lifting, the downward forces induced,
reduce the span moment and develop negative moments about the direction
perpendicular to the diagonal and causing tension at top in the direction of
the diagonal. Torsion reinforcement resists this tension.
5.2.1 Types of Two - way Slabs:
Two - way slabs are categorized into following two types depending on sup-
port conditions. These are as follows :

(1) Slabs simply supported on walls and corners free to lift.

(2) Slabs supported on beams cast monolithically or slabs supported on

walls with corners not free to lift.

The supports in above two cases are assumed to be sufficiently rigid and non-
yielding. The beams are considered as rigid when the depth of the beam lies
between 2.5 to 6 times the thickness of the slab. If the supporting beam are
flexible having shallow depths, the deflections of these beams significantly
alter the distribution of moments in the slab panel.

5.2.2 Analysis of Two - Way Slab

(A) Elastic Analysis:
Two -way slab, even simply supported on all sides, is a statically indeter-
minate structure because it requires determination of not only moments mx
and my but also magnitudes of support reactions on all four sides and their
variation along a given edge. Usually slabs are analyzed as thin plates of
homogeneous, isotropic, elastic material using small deflection theory. The
rigorous mathematical solution is too much involved and are not suitable
for application in practical design. The approximate methods based on sim-
plified assumptions are used for practical design. These are of two types.
One based on elastic analysis and the other based on ultimate load analysis
known as yield - line theory of slabs.
(B) Ranking - Grashoff Method (for Slabs with corners free to lift)
:
The flexural behaviour of slab is assumed to consist of series of intercon-
nected intersecting strips of slab. The load acting on the slab is assumed
to be transferred to strips in proportion to their flexural stiffnesses. This
assumption is based on condition of compatibility of deflection of the two
cross strips at their junction. Consider two central strips AEB and CED of a
slab simply supported on all four edges and free to lift at corners, subjected
to a uniformly distributed load as shown in Fig.5.13a.
Let the intensity of loads transferred to short and long span be wx and wy
respectively.

Deflection at E for strip AB = Deflection at E for strip CD

5 wx L4x 5 wy L4y
=
384 EIx 384 EIy
Assuming moment of inertia of slab in two directions to be equal i.e. Ix =
Iy = I, we get,
wx L4x = wy L4y
wx L4y
∴ = 4
wy Lx
wx L4y L4y /L4x
∴ = 4 =
wx + wy Lx + L4y 1 + L4y /L4x
wy L4 1
Similarly, = 4 x 4 =
wx + wy Lx + Ly 1 + L4y /L4x
But by Equilibrium, w = wx + wy
Assuming k = Ly /Lx and substituting w for (wx + wy )
k4 1
wx = 4
× w and wy = ×w
1+k 1 + k4
From values of wx and wy , maximum bending moments mx and my can be
worked out as under :
wx L4x k4
mx = = wL2 = αx wL2x
8 8 (1 + k 4 ) x
wy L4y wy L2y 2 k2 2 k2
my = = L = w y L = wL2 = αy wL2x
8 8 L2x x 8 x
8 (1 + k 4 ) x
mx = αx wL2x and my = αy wL2x
where,
k4
αx =
8 (1 + k 4 )
k2
αy =
8 (1 + k 4 )
Ly
and k =
Lx
On the same lines, the equations for other boundary conditions can be de-
rived by replacing the coefficient 5/384 in above Equation by an appropriate
value.
The bending moment coefficients for a rectangular slab simply supported on
all four edges with corners free to lift or the slabs not having adequate provi-
sions to prevent lifting of corners and resist torsion at corners, are obtained
from above Equation. These coefficients have been given by I.S. Code and
are reproduced in Table given in Fig. 5.16.

5.2.3 I.S. Code Method

The method is based on inelastic analysis of R.C. slabs using yield line theory
taking into account the redistribution of moments on account of provision
of main reinforcement in the central strips only as explained later. It also
takes into account the effect of torsion at the corners. Therefore, the method
makes it rather obligatory to provide torsion reinforcement at corners. The
coefficients, given by I.S. Code have been based on the work of Taylor et.al.
taking uniform distribution of steel over middle strips.
According to this method, maximum bending moment per unit width is given
by
mx = αx wL2x and my = αy wL2x
where, Mx , My = maximum span moments along spans Lx and Ly
αx and αy = B.M. coefficients for span moments Mx and My given in Table
given in Fig. 5.16
Lx and Ly = lengths of short and long spans respectively
w = intensity of uniform load i.e. load per unit area.

5.2.4 Support Conditions

The various types of support conditions given in Table are illustrated dia-
grammatically in Fig.5.14.
The support conditions encountered in practice are shown in Fig.5.15 . It
shows how these boundary conditions occur in floor system. In some situa-
tions, a slab may be continuous or free over part of the length or may have
different boundary conditions. Such slabs are supposed to be analyzed using
finite difference method or finite element method or analytical solution may
be obtained using yield line theory.
Figure 5.14: Different Types of Support Conditions for Rectangular Two -
way Slabs

Figure 5.15: Practical Illustration of the Support Conditions

5.3 Design of Two - way Slab.

1. Span : Determine the effective span Lx , LY i.e. short span and long
span respectively. Check that Ly /Lx < 2

2. Trial Depth: It is decided by deflection criteria based on short span Lx

(a) For slab with shorter span, Lx up to 3.5 m with mild steel re-
 inforcement and loading class up to 3 kN/m2 , the effective span
to overall depth ratio (Lx/D) shall be as specified in IS:456-2000,
Clause No.24.1, reproduced in table5.3.

Table 5.3: L/D ratio for Two-way slab for short span Lx ≤ 3.5m and loading
class ≤ 3500 N/m2
Grade of steel
End Condition
Fe250 Fe415
Simply supported slabs 35 28
Continuous slabs 40 32

(b) If L > 3.5 m or loading class live load > 3 kN/m2 , the ratio of
shorter span to effective depth ( Lx /d ratio) will be the same as
stipulated for one - way slab.
3. Calculate the ultimate load in kN/m for one meter width of slab.
wu = 1.5 ( 25 D + LL + FF) , where , D in metre.
4. Obtain design moment coefficients ( αx , αy ) along short and long span,
depending on the boundary conditions given in Table or Table as ap-
plicable.
Calculate the bending moments by multiplying the coefficients by wu L2x

5. Calculate Mur.max which shall be greater than the absolute maximum

ultimate moment ( Mu.max ). This condition is normally satisfied.
6. Calculate the area of steel at mid - span and at support if the slab is
continuous over that edge using the formula
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− × 1000 × d ≮ Ast.min
fy fck × 1000 × d2

The short span bars are provided in the bottom layer and the long
span bars are provided above the short span bars in the mid-span re-
gion, giving higher value of effective depth in the shorter direction.

Thus, for long span steel at mid-span, d = D − (clear cover + φ/2) − φ

While for calculating steel at all other sectionsd = D − (clear cover + φ/2)
 Figure 5.16: BM Coefficients for Two way slabs

The main reinforcement shall be provided in the middle strip of width

equal to 3/4 slab width at right angles to the slab i.e. steel along
the short span shall be provided in the width of (3/4)Ly while steel
along the long span shall be provided in the width of (3/4)Lx . In the
remaining width of Ly /8 and Lx /8 distribution steel will be provided.

7. Check for deflection :

If Lx < 3.5 and LL < 3 kN/m2 the deflection check (given in item 2)
 is normally satisfied, else increase the depth.
For other cases apply the deflection check as per the check given for
one - way slab. In this case span to effective depth ratio shall be taken
as Lx /d and percentage of steel shall be maximum mid - span steel.

8. Torsional steel : At corners where slab is discontinuous over both the

edges, At = (3/4).Astx
At corners where slab is discontinuous over one edge, At = (3/8)Astx
At corners where slab is continuous over both edges, At = 0 (i.e no
torsional steel is required)
where, Astx = area of steel for maximum mid-span moment.
This area of torsional steel will be provided at corners in the form of
mesh one at top and the other at bottom for a length of Lx /5 in each
orthogonal direction, parallel to the sides of the slab.

9. Check for shear : Maximum shear force at the edge of two - way slab
is given by the following expressions

(a) At middle of short edge Vu.max = qLx /2

qLx k
(b) At middle of long edge Vu.max = where, k = Ly /Lx
2k + 1
The check for shear is mostly satisfied in all cases of slabs subjected
to uniformly distributed load and therefore skipped.

10. Check for Development Length Ld

The check for development length should be carried out as outlined for
one - way slab.
Comments:

(1) If the area of steel provided is more than the area of steel required
then the requirement for development length will be reduced since
the development length is a function of stress in steel. The mod-
ified expression for development length ( Ldm ) can be approxi-
mately written as :
Ldm = [(Ast )reqd /(Ast )provided ] Ld
(2) For slab loaded by a uniformly distributed load, the checks for
shear and development length are normally satisfied hence omitted
in design calculation.
Unbalanced moments in adjacent spans:
When there is a series of continuous slabs in one or both directions, the
negative moments obtained at a common support (using the coefficients), on
the left and right-hand sides, may not be equal and may differ significantly,
as shown in Fig.5.17. This may be due to any one or more of the following
reasons:

Figure 5.17: Unbalanced moments in adjacent spans of a continuous slab

1. The two adjacent spans being unequal

2. The loading on one panel being different from that of the other

3. The boundary conditions in the two adjoining panels being different

Clause 24.4.1 of IS 456-2000 suggests the following procedure in such situa-

tions

1. Calculate the sum of the mid-span moment and average of the support
moments (neglecting the signs) for each panel.

2. Treat the values found from Table given in fig. 5.16 (Table 26 of IS
456) as fixed-end moments (FEMs).
 3. Distribute the FEMs across the supports according to the relative stiff-
ness of adjacent spans, giving new support moments.

4. Adjust the mid-span moment for each panel: this should be done in
such a way that when it is added to the average of the support moments
(neglecting signs) from step 3, the total should be equal to that from
step 1.
If, for a given panel, the resulting support moments are significantly
greater than the value obtained from Table 26 of the IS:456-2000 as
given in Figure. 5.16, the code suggests that the tension steel over the
supports should be extended beyond the provisions of Clause D-1.5. It
also recommends the following procedure

5. Take the span moment as parabolic between supports: the maximum

value is found from step 4.

6. Determine the points of contraflexure of the new support moments

(from step 3) with the span moment (from step 5).

7. Extend half the support tension steel at each end to at least an effec-
tive depth or 12 times the bar diameter beyond the nearest point of
contraflexure.

8. Extend the full area of support tension steel at each end to half the
distance from step 7.

The unbalanced moments (M1 − M2 ) in Fig. 5.17 may be distributed by

using the following (assuming slab S1 is free at the other end) formulae: .

k1 = Distribution factor for slab S1

Stiffness of Slab S1
=
Stiffness of Slab S1 + Stiffness of Slab S2
(3EI/L)S1
=
(3EI/L)S1 + (3EI/L)S2
And k2 = Distribution factor for slab S2 = 1 − k1

Distributed moment for slab S1 = Unbalanced moment ×k1

Distributed moment for slab S2 = Unbalanced moment ×k2
The span moments are modified by adding half of the distributed moments.
5.3.1 Simply Supported Two-way Slabs:
The flexural reinforcements in the two directions are provided to resist the
maximum bending moments Mx and My calculated as per Equation given
below where αx and αy are the bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning
in two directions at right angles, simply supported on four sides given in Table
5.4.
Mx = αx wu L2x
My = αy wu L2x

Table 5.4: Bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions
at right angles, simply supported on four sides
Ly /Lx 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
αx 0.0625 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.11 0.122 0.124
αy 0.0625 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029 0.020 0.014

It has to be noted that the bending moments Mx and My are the maxi-
mum moments occurring at the midspan and hence less steel is required at
locations away from the mid-span and near the supports. However, in prac-
tice, bars are provided uniformly spaced throughout the span (in both direc-
tions), with a spacing not exceeding 3d or 300 mm (whichever is smaller).
For the special case of simply supported two-way slabs (torsionally unre-
strained), Clause D-2.1.1 of IS:456-2000 suggests to extend 50 per cent of
the mid-span reinforcement to the supports. The remaining 50 per cent of
the bars may be terminated within a distance of 0.1Lx or 0.1Ly from the
support.
When the slab is truly simply supported at the edges, there will not be any
negative moments near the supports. However, there may be some unfore-
seen partial fixity. Hence, in practice, to safeguard against partial fixity,
either alternate bars are bent up or separate top steel is provided, with an
area equal to 0.5 times of that provided at the bottom of the mid-span, with
an extension of 0.1Lx or 0.1Ly from the face of the support (see Fig.5.18 ).
It should be noted that nowadays separate top and bottom layers of rein-
forcement are preferred instead of bent-up bars.
 Figure 5.18: Detailing of wall-supported two-way slabs with bent-up bars

Detailing of torsional reinforcement at corners

The torsional stresses and torsional moments are developed near the corners
of a simply supported slab, which will result in the lifting up of the corners as
shown in Fig.5.19 (a) unless the slab is restrained at corners. This will result
in cracking of the slab near the corners as shown in Fig.5.19 (b). Hence,
torsional reinforcements are to be provided in the corners of the slab to take
care of these torsional moments. Two types of reinforcement are indicated
in Figs 5.19(c) and (d). The type shown in Fig. 5.19(d) is normally adopted
as it is easy to fabricate and provide.

5.3.2 Detailing for Restrained Two-way Slabs

When restrained slabs are designed by using the moment coefficients given
in IS:456-2000, they should be detailed as per Clauses D-1.4 - D-1.10 of the
code. They are briefly discussed here:
1. The tension steel calculated for the positive design moments (per unit
width) at the short and long spans should be provided, as shown in Fig.
5.20, at the bottom of the mid-span in the middle strip in the short-
Figure 5.19: Torsional effects and torsional reinforcements (a) Lifting of cor-
ners due to torsion (b) Potential crack pattern (c) Torsion reinforcement
using skewed bars (d) Torsion reinforcement using top and bottom bars

and long-span directions, respectively. These bars should extend to

within 0.25Lx or 0.25Ly of a continuous edge or 0.15Lx or 0.15Ly of a
discontinuous edge, as per Clause D-1.4. SP 34:1980 recommends that
alternate bars (bottom steel) should extend fully into the support, as
shown in Fig. 5.20.

2. The tension steel calculated for the negative design moments in the
short and long spans at continuous supports should be provided at the
top and uniformly distributed across the edge strips of the short and
long spans, respectively (see Fig. 5.20). According to Clause D-1.5 of
the code, at least 50 per cent of these bars should extend to a distance
of 0.3Lx or 0.3Ly from the face of the continuous support, on either
side. The remaining bars may be curtailed at a distance of 0.15Lx or
0.15Ly from the face of the continuous support, as shown in Fig. 5.20.

3. At discontinuous edge, negative moments may arise due to partial fixity.

Figure 5.20: Reinforcement detailing in restrained two-way slabs (a) Plan
(b) Section AA

Hence, to safeguard against such situations, Clause D-1.6 of the code

recommends that 50 per cent of the bottom steel at the mid-span should
be provided at these edges and such steel should extend over a length
of 0.1Lx or 0.1Ly from the face of the support, as shown in Fig. 5.20.

4. Reinforcement in an edge strip parallel to the edge need not exceed the
minimum area of tension reinforcement together with the recommen-
dations for torsion given as per Clause D-1.7 of the code.

It has to be noted that straight reinforcements alone are shown in Fig. 5.20.
Some designers prefer to provide cranked or bent-up reinforcement bars as
shown in Fig. 5.21(a). For comparison, straight bars are also shown in Fig.
5.21(b).
Detailing of torsional reinforcement at corners:

Figure 5.21: Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in two-way slabs-section

through middle strip (a) Using bent-up bars (b) Using straight bars

Clause D-1.8 of the code stipulates that torsion reinforcement should be pro-
vided at any corner where the slab is simply supported on both edges meeting
at that corner.

The following points need to be noted:

1. This torsion reinforcement should be provided at the top and bottom

in a mesh or grid pattern, each with layers of bars placed parallel to the
sides of the slab and extending from the edges to a minimum distance of
one-fifth of the shorter span (i.e., 0.2Lx ). The area of reinforcement in
each of these four layers should be three-quarters of the area required for
the maximum mid-span design moment in the slab, that is, 0.75A+ st,x .
The bars can be made U-shaped (wherever convenient) and provided
in the two orthogonal directions as shown in Fig. 5.22.
2. Torsion reinforcement equal to half that described in 1, that is, 0.375A+
st,x
, should be provided at a corner where one edge of the slab is continuous
and the other edge is discontinuous as per Clause D-1.9 of IS:456-2000.
They are shown in Fig. 5.22.

3. Torsion reinforcement need not be provided when both edges meeting at

a corner are continuous, as per Clause D-1.10 of IS:456-2000. However,
such a location will have some reinforcements provided to resist the
negative moment over supports in the middle strips and the distributor
reinforcements in the edge strips.

Figure 5.22: Detailing of torsional reinforcement in restrained slabs

5.4 Solved Examples on Two-way Slab
Example-1:
Design a R.C. slab for a room measuring 6.5 m x 5 m. The slabs is to be
cast monolithically over the beams with comers held down. The width of
the supporting beams is 230 mm. The slab carries superimposed load of 5
kN/mm2 Use M20 grade of concrete and steel grade Fe 500.
Solution:
Given : fck = 20 N/mm2 , , fy = 500 N/mm2 bs = 230 mm, w = 5 kN/m2 ,
Clear spans = 6.5 m and 5 m,
The length of the slab is less than twice its width it is to be designed as a
two - way slab.
The breadth of support ( = 230 mm) is less than clear span/12 ( = 5000/12
), ∴ effective span = ( c/c between supports or clear span + d) whichever
is less. As the effective span is dependent on effective depth, the trial depth
will be determined first.
Trial Depth : Assume effective span L= c/c between supports = 5000 +
230 = 5230 mm
Since the span is greater than 3.5 m the serviceability requirements for de-
flection is governed by L/d ratio.
For simply supported slab basic L/d ratio= 20
For pt = 0.25 % and steel Fe 500, (fs = 290N/mm2 ) Modification factor =
1.3
∴ Required effective depth = 5230 / (20 x 1.3) = 200 mm
Required effective depth = 5230 / (20 x 1.3) = 200 mm Try total depth of225
mm ∴ effective depth provided= d= 225 - 20- 8/2 = Say 200 mm ∴ effective
span = Lx = 5000 + 200 = Say 5200 mm, Ly = 6500 + 200 = Say 6700 mm
β = Ly /Lx = 6700/5200 = 1.29
Loads: Consider one meter width of the slab . i.e. b = 1000 mm
Dead load = 25 x 0.225 = 5.6 kN/m.
Superimposed load = 5.0 kN/m.
Total working load = 10.6 kN/m.
Ultimate load wu = 1.5 x 10.6 = 15.9 kN/m.
∴ wu L2x = 15.9 × 5.22 = 430 kN.m
Design Moments
The boundary condition for slab is all four edges discontinuous,
The design moments are worked out using the formula Mu = αwu L2x
where, α = B.M. coefficients (from IS:456-2000)
 0.079 − 0.072
For Ly /Lx = 1.29, αx = 0.072+ ×(1.29−1.2) = 0.0783 and αy =
0.1
0.056
B.M. at mid-span of short span Mux = αx × wu L2x ∴ Mux = 0.0783 × 430 =
33.67 kN.m
Muy = αy Wu L2y = 0.056 × 430 = 24.08 kN.m.
Check depth from B.M considerations :

Mu.max = 0.133fck bd2

= 0.133 × 20 × 1000 × 2002
= 106.4 kN.m. > M ux(= 33.67kN.m.)
∴ Section is under - reinforced
Main Steel: Area of steel along short span.
" s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bd
fy fck bd2
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × 33.67 × 10 
= 1− 1− 1000 × 200
500 20 × 1000 × 2002

= 408 mm2
Usjng 8 mm bars ( area = 50mm2 ), c/c spacing = 1000 x 50 / 408 = 122
mm
say 120 mm < ( 3 x 200 or 300 mm)
Width of middle strip= 0.75 x 5.2 = 3.9 m,
Width of edge strip = Lx /8 = 5200/8 = 650 mm
provide# 8 mm at 120 mm c/c in the middle strip of width= 3.9 m
Bend alternate bars at 0.15 x 5200 = 780 mm from the centre of support.
Area of steel along long span
Since long span bars are placed above the short span bars, effective depth=
200 - 8 = 192 mm
 " s #
0.5fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− bd
fy fck bd2
 s 
6
0.5 × 20  4.6 × 24.08 × 10 
= 1− 1− 1000 × 192
500 20 × 1000 × 1922

= 300 mm2
Using# 8 mm bars, c/c spacing = 1000 × 50/300 = 166 mm Say 160 mm
Width of middle strip = 0.75Ly = 0.75 × 6.7 = 5m
Width of edge strip = Ly /8 = 6700/8 Say 840 mm
Provide # 8 mm @ 160 mm c/c in the mfddle strip of width 5 m
Bend alternate bars at 0.15 × Ly = 0.15 × 6700 = 1000 mm from the centre of support.
Reinforcement in edge strips is given by :Ast = 0.12 × 1000 × 225/1000 =
270 mm2
Using# 8 mm bars, s = 1000 x 50/270 = 185 mm say 180 mm c/c
Provide # 8 @ 180 mm c/c along the short span and along the long span in
the edge strips.
Check for deflection :
Area of steel required along short span = 408mm2 , (Pt )reqd− = 100 ×
408/(1000 × 200) = 0.2%
Area of steel provided along short span = 1000 × 50/120 = 417 mm ∴ fs =
0.58 × 500 × 408/417 = 284 N/mm2
pt.(prov.) = 100 × 417/(1000 × 200) = 0.21% < (0.25 % assumed) ∴ for
pt = 0.21 % and fs = 284 N/mm2 , M.F = 1.35
Required d = 5200/(20 × 1.35) = 192 mm < 200 mm ∴ Safe
Note : Since (pt )reqd < (pt )assumed (i.e.0.20% < 0.25%) the deflection
check will be satisfied and there is no need to do further check.
Torsion Steel :
All the edge are contained by discontinuous edges.

∴ Required, area of steel = 0.75 × Astx = 0.75 × 408 = 306 mm2

Using # 8 mm bars, s = 1000 × 50/306 = 160 mm c/c
Size of torsional steel mesh = Lx /5 = 5200/5 = 1040 mm
Summary of Results:

Total depth of slab = 225 mm Middle strip 3.9 x 5 m, edge strip 650 x 840 m
Short-span steel : # 8 mm at 120 mm c/c in the middle strip of width of3.9 m.
Long-span steel : # 8 mm at 160 c/c in the middle strip of Sm.
Edge strip steel : # 8 mm at 180 c/c
Torsion Steel : # 8 mm at 160 mm c/c in both orthogonal direction at
− discontinuous supports for a length of 1040 mm.
The details of reinforcement are shown in Fig.5.23
Exampl 2:
The part plan of a double storeyed office building to be constructed in mod-
erate exposure condition is shown in Fig.. Design the slab S4 and S5 for the
following data live load= 4 kN/m2 Floor finish = 1.5 kN/m2 Floor to floor
height= 3 m steel Fe 415 is to be used. For moderate environment minimum
grade of concrete is M 25 and clear cover of 30 mm
Solution:
Given: fck = 25 N/mm2 , fy = 415N/mm2 , LL = 4kN/m2 , F F = 1.5kN/m2 ,
Lx = 3.4 m, Ly = 4.1 m Required : Design of slab S4 and S5
1. Span : Long span= LY = 4.1 m, Short span LX = 3.4 m, LY /LX =
4.1/3.6 = 1.2 < 2
∴ The slab will be designed as two - way continuous slab.
2. Trial depth : In the case of two - way slab the shorter span is used
for calculating L/d ratio for deflection check. Since live load in this case 4
kN/m2 which is greater than 3 kN/m2 the serviceability requirements for
deflection should be worked out by using Modification factor an basic L/d
ratio given in IS:456-2000.
In the case of two.- way slab the loads are distributed in both direction, the
design moments are small compared to one - way slab. The percentage of
steel required, in general is less between 0.2 % to 0.35 % for HYSD bars.
Assume pt = 0.3%
For Pt = 0.3%,
Modification factor, M.F. = 1.45 for Fe 415 corresponding to fs = 240 N/mm2
Now, Basic L/d = 26 for continuous slab.
Required d = L/(26 x 1.45) = 3400/37.7 = 90.2 mm say 100 mm X Required
D = 100 + 30 + 8/2 = 134 mm say 140 mm
∴ Effective depth provided = d = 140- 30- 8/2 = 106 mm Effective depth
for mid-span steel in y direction = 106 - 8 = 98 mm
 Figure 5.23: Reinforcement details of simply supported slab

3. Loads: Consider one meter width of slab : wu = 1.5 ( 25 x 0.14 + 1.5 +

4) = 13.5 kN/m.
4. Design Moments: The boundary conditions for slab S4 are three edges
discontinuous with the one long edge continuous ( i.e. case 7) while slab S5
will have two short edges discontinuous ( i.e. case 5 ).
 Figure 5.24: Key plan Example-2

The design moment are worked out using the Formula:

M = αwu L2x where, α bending moment coefficients as per IS:456-2000

wu L2x = 13.5 × 3.42 = 156.06 kN.m
F or k = Ly /Lx = 1.2,
0 0
For slab S4 : αx = 0.071, αx = 0.053, αy = 0, αy = 0.043
0 0
For slab S5 : αx = 0.052, αx = 0.040, αy = 0, αy = 0.035
0
where, α is negative BM coefficient at continuous edge .
The calculation of bending moments at various section are shown in the fol-
lowing Table:

B.M. Coefficient BM in kNm

slab Lx Ly /Lx wu L2x Case No. Short Span Long Span Short Span Long Span
0 0 0 0
αx αx αy αy Mux Mux Muy Muy
S4 3.4 1.2 156.06 7 0.071 0.053 - 0.043 -11.08 8.27 - 6.71
S5 3.4 1.2 156.06 5 0.052 0.04 - 0.035 -8.11 6.24 - 5.46

It is to be noted that at the common edge of slab S4 and slab S5 the negative
moments are -11.08 kN.m and - -8.11 kN.m respectively.
Average Moment Method :
 Average of moments over the common long edge = (11.08 + 8.11)/2 = 9.6 kN.m
Decrease in negative moment for slab S4 = 11.08 − 9.6 = 1.48 kN.m
Mid-span moment for slab S4 = 8.27 + 1.48/2 = 9.01kN.m.
Negative moment increased from 8.11 kN.m. to 9.6 kN.m. = 9.6 − 8.11 = 1.49 kN.m.
Decreasing span moment by 1.49 kNm. for span S5 we get,
∴ Span moment of S5 : 6.24 − 1.49 = 4.75 kN.m.
Logical Method:
Stiffness of slab S4 = 3EI/L , Stiffness of slab S5 = 4EI/L
∴ Distributed moment for S4 = 0.43,
Distribution factor for S5= 0.57
The distribution table is given below:

D.F. 0.43 0.57

Initial moments -11.08 8.11
Distribute 1.28 1.69
Final moments -9.8 9.8

For slab S4 : Sum of midspan and support moment= 8.27 + (0+11.08)/2 =

13.81 kN.m.
∴ Final moment at midspan of S4 = 13.81 - 9.8/2 = 8.91 kN.m
For slab S5 : Sum of midspan and support moment= 6.24 +( 8.11+8.11)/2
= 14.35 kN.m
∴ Final moment at midspan of S5 = 14.35 - 9.8 = 4.55 kN.m

Comparison of moments S4 S5
Initial moments at worked out 8.27 -11.08 -8.11 6.24
Average moment method 9.01 -9.6 -9.6 4.75
Logical method 8.91 -9.8 -9.8 4.55

Since the difference in moments between these methods is < 5 %. The average
moment method which is much simple can be used.
5. Check the depth from B.M Considerations :
Mur.max = 0.148×25×1000×1062 ×10−6 = 38.76 kN.m >> 11.69 kN.m. ∴
Saf e
6. Main Steel:
The main steel at different sections is calculated using the formula:
 s 
6
0.5 × 25  4.6 × Mu × 10 
Required Ast = 1− 1− 2
bd ≮ 168 mm2 (= 1.2 × 140)
415 25 × 1000 × d

and spacing: ≯ 3 × 98 = 294 mm

The area of steel and diameter - spacing combination of bars are calculated
as under:
7. Check for deflection :

Table 5.5: Area of steel Calculation

Mu d (Ast)Reqd Dia (mm) and (Ast)Provided
Span Position
kNm mm mm2 Spacing (mm) mm2
SLAB-S4
(a) Along Short-span
# 8 @ 400 +# 8 @ 580
Support -9.6 106 262 299
Extra #8 @ 580
Midspan 9.01 106 245 # 8 @ 200 251
(b) Along Long-span
Support - - - - -
Midspan 6.71 98 197 # 8 @ 250 201
SLAB-S4
(a) Along Short-span
#8@400 + #8@580
Support -9.6 106 262 299
Extra #8 @ 580
Midspan 4.75 106 168 # 8 @ 290 173
(b) Along Long-span
Support - - - - -
Midspan 5.46 98 168 # 8 @ 290 173
Minimum spacing of 3d and minimum reinforcement governs. The area of
extra steel required along the short span support = 262 - (251 + 173)/ 2 =
50 mm2 only. The spacing of # 8 mm bars works out to 1000 mm c/c. But
the spacing of 580 mm has been provided so that these bars can be placed
at tM position of bent up bar, to save labor cost.

pt(reqd) = 100 × 245/(1000 × 106) = 0.23% < 0.3% assumed ∴ Saf e

However, detailed check is carried out for verification.
pt(prov.) = 100 × 251(1000 × 106) = 0.24%
fs = 0.58 × 415 × 245/251 = 235 mm2 ,
f or pt = 0.24% and fs = 235 N/mm2 , M.F. = 1.6
∴ d = 3400/(26 × 1.6) = 82 mm < 106 mm ∴ Saf e
8. Distribution Steel :
Using Fe 415 grade steel Ast = 0.12 × 1000 × 140/100 = 168 mm2
Using # 8 mm bars, spacing = 1000 × 50/168 = say 290 mm c/c.
9. Torsion Steel:

1. At the comer contained by discontinuous edges Torsional steel required

= 0.75Ast = 0.15 × 245 = 184 mm2
Provide # 8 @ 270 mm c/c in both direction at right angles in each of
the two meshes one at the top and the other at the bottom for a length
of Lx /5 = 3400/5 = 680mm.

2. At the comer at which one edge is discontinuous and the other contin-
uous Torsion steel required = 3/8Ast = 0.315 × 245 = 92 mm2
Provide # 8 @ 540 mm c/c for distance of Lx /5 = 3400/5 = 680 mm.
in both directions.

10. Check for shear - Slab - S4

(a) Long Continuous edge.
k 1.2
Vu.max = 1.2wu Lx = 1.2 × 13.5 × 3.4 × = 1.2 × (16.2)
2k + 1 (2 × 1.2 + 1)
= 19.5 kN
Area of tension steel piovided = 299 mm2

Vuc = kτc bd
where,
100 × 299
pt = = 28%,
1000 × 106
τc = 0.37 N/mm2 , and k = 1.3 from IS:456-2000
∴ Vuc = 1.3 × 0.37 × 1000 × 106/1000
= 50.9 >> 19.5kN ∴ saf e
Long Discontinuous edge :
k 1.2
Vu.max = 0.96wu Lx = 0.9 × 13.5 × 3.4 × = 0.9 × (16.2)
2k + 1 (2 × 1.2 + 1)
= 14.6 kN
Ast = 251 mm2 at mid span
Assuming 50% bars bend up to resist B.M. due to partial fixity,
100 × 125.5
Ast1 = 251/2 = 125.5 mm2 , pt% = = 0.12%
(1000X106)
τuc = 0.29 N/mm2 , k = 1.3
Vuc = 1.3 × 0.29 × 1000 × 106/1000 = 39.96 kN >> 14.6kN ∴ Saf e
(b) Short Discontinuous edge : Slab S4
Vu.max = wu Lx /3 = 13.5 × 3.4/3 = 15.3 kN.
Assuming 50% bars bent up at support, Ast = 201/2 = 100.5 mm
100 × 100.5
Pt % = = 0.1%,
1000X.98
τuc = 0.29N/mm2
∴ Vuc = 1.3 × 0.29 × 1000 × 98/1000 = 36.9 kN >> 16.2 kN ∴ Saf e

10. Check for Development Length : slab S4

(a) Long Discontinuous edge
Vu.max = 14.6 kN., For 50 % bars bent up, M1 = 9.01/2 = 4.5 kN.m.
0.87 × 415
Ld = = 40φ = 40 × 8 = 320 mm
4X(1.4X1.6)
L0 = b/2 − x1 + 3φ = 230/2 − 30 + 3 × 8 = 109 mm.
Ld < 1.3M1 /V + L0
< 1.3 × 4.5 × 1000/14.6 + 109 (= 509 mm)
∴ 320 < 509 mm ∴ Saf e
(b) Short Discontinuous edge
Vu.max = 15.3 kN, Ld = 320 mm, M1 = 6.71/2 = 3.36kN.m L0 = 109 mm
320 < 1.3 × 3.36 × 1000/15.3 + 109(= 394 mm) ∴ Saf e
(the check for shear and bond are normally satisfied and hence are nonnally
omitted)
Comments :
When the development length check is not satisfied then one of the following
methods may be used .

1. Do not bend alternate bars but bend only third bar thereby the area
of steel available at bottom gets increased.

2. If alternate bars are to be bent, as per usual practice, reduce the bar
spacing so that area provided increases and development length re-
quirement reduces.

3. In the case of two - way slab having small span ( Lx < 4 m ) there
is no point in dividing the slab into middle strip and edge strip. This
is because the width of the edge strip works out to be less than 500
mm which can hardly accommodate 2 bars. Instead of this only main
steel with alternate bars bent up can be provided. This also saves some
labor cost.

Example-3:
The slab of a residential building of size 4.3m×6m is simply supported on all
the four sides on 230 mm walls. Assuming an imposed load of 2 kN/m2 and
load due to finishes of 1.0 kN/m2 , design the floor slab. Use M25 concrete
and Fe 415 steel. Assume mild exposure.
SOLUTION:
Step 1 Calculate the thickness of the slab and effective spans.
Lx = 4.3m; Ly = 6m Since the aspect ratio, that is, the ratio Ly /Lx =
6/4.3 = 1.4 < 2,
we should design the slab as a two-way slab.
L/D ratio of simply supported slab (as per Clause 24.1 of IS 456) for Fe 415
steel = 0.8 × 30 = 24 (Note that this is valid only up to Lx = 3.5 m as per
the code)
Hence, D = 4300/24 = 179 mm
Provide D = 175 mm
Assuming 10 mm diameter bars are used, from Table 16 of IS 456, cover for
mild exposure and M 25 concrete = 15 mm.
Hence, dx = 175 − 15 − 5 = 155 mm and dy = 155 − 10 = 145 mm
Effective span: The effective span of the slab in each direction = Clear span
+ d (or width of support, whichever is smaller).
Thus, effective span
Figure 5.25: Reinforcement details Example-2
Lx = 4300 + 155 = 4455 mm; Ly = 6000 + 145 = 6145 mm
Hence, k = Ly /Lx = 6145/4455 = 1.38
Step 2 Calculate the loads on the slab.
Considering 1 m width of the slab i.e. b=1000 mm

Self-weight of slab = 0.175 × 25 = 4.375 kN/m

Weight of finishes (given) = 1.0 kN/m
Imposed load = 2.0 kN/m
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −−
Total load, w = 7.375 kN/m
Factored load wu = 1.5 × 7.375 = 11.06 kN/m

Step 3 Design the moments (for strips at mid-span, with 1 m width in each
direction).
For Ly /Lx = 1.38, from Table 10.2 (Table 27 of the code)

αx = 0.098
αy = 0.0515
Hence, Mx = αX wu L2x = 0.098 × 11.06 × 4.4552 = 21.51 kN m
My = αY wu L2x = 0.0515 × 11.06 × 4.4552 = 11.30 kN m

Check the depth for maximum bending moment.

Mmax = 0.138fck bd2

21.51 × 106 = 0.138 × 25 × 1000 × d2
∴ d = 79 mm < 155 mm
Hence, the depth adopted is adequate and the slab is under-reinforced.
Step 4 Design the reinforcement.
The main steel at different sections is calculated using the formula:
 s 
6
0.5 × 25  4.6 × Mu × 10 
Required Ast = 1− 1− bd ≮ 168 mm2 (= 1.2 × 175)
415 25 × 1000 × d2

and spacing: ≯ 3 × 145 = 435 mm or 300 mm

The area of steel and diameter - spacing combination of bars are calculated
as under:
 Table 5.6: Area of steel Calculation
Mu d (Ast)Reqd Dia (mm) and (Ast)Provided
Span Position
kNm mm mm2 Spacing (mm) mm2
(a) Along Short-span
Midspan 21.51 155 402 # 10 @ 190 c/c 413
(b) Along Long-span
Midspan 11.30 145 221 # 8 @ 220 228

The reinforcement detailing for the slab is shown in Fig. with alternate bars
bent up at 0.1Lx and 0.1Ly in the shorter and longer directions, respectively.
(It should be noted that at the support in the longer direction, the 8 mm
bars are provided at 440 mm c/c; spacing ≈ 3 × 145 = 435 mm. Hence, it is
adequate.)
Step 5 Check for deflection.
Let us check the deflection in the shorter direction, since it is critical.
100Ast 100413
pt = = = 0.266%
bd 1000155
402
fs = 0.58 × 415 × = 234 M P a
413
Modification factor from Fig. 4 of the code = 1.61
Basic span to depth ratio for simply supported slab = 20 (Clause 23.2.1)
Allowable L/d = 20 × 1.61 = 32.2
Provided span to depth ratio = 4455/155 = 28.74 < 32.2
Hence, the assumed depth is enough to control deflection.
Note: As per this calculation, an effective depth of 140 mm is sufficient.
We may redesign the slab with lesser depth slightly greater than 140 mm to
achieve economy; this is left as an exercise to the reader.
Step 6 Check for shear.
Average effective depth d = (155 + 145)/2 = 150 mm
The maximum shear force occurs at a distance of effective depth from the
face of support.

Vu = wu(0.5Lx − d) = 11.06(0.5 × 4.3 − 0.15) = 22.12 kN/m

tv = 22.12 × 103 /(1000 × 150) = 0.148 M P a
F or pt = 0.266%,
 Figure 5.26: Reinforcement detailing for slab of Example 3

τc for M25 concrete (Table 19 of IS 456) =0.368 MPa

kτc > 0.148 M P a
Hence, the slab is safe in shear.
Note: It is clearly seen that the shear will not be critical in two way slabs
subjected to uniformly distributed loads.
Step 7 Check for cracking.
Steel more than 0.12 per cent in both directions, Spacing of steel < 3d =
3 × 145 = 435 mm or 300 mm in both directions.
Diameter of steel reinforcement < 175/8 = 21 mm Hence, no calculation is
required for cracking.
Step 8 Check for development length
as per Clause 26.2.3.3(d), it should be checked whether
 
Mu
Ld ≤ 11.3 + L0
Vu
It is found that a 10 mm diameter bar is satisfactory.
Length of embedment available at the support
= 230 − clear side cover = 230 − 25
= 205 mm > Ld/3
08741510
Ld = = 403 mm
4 × 14 × 16)
Ld /3 = 135 mm < 205 mm
Hence, the length provided is sufficient to develop the bond.

For Practice:
1. Design a floor slab for an interior room, with clear dimensions of 3.0 m
Ö 8 m, for a building located in Mumbai. The slab is resting on 230
mm thick masonry walls. Assume live load as 3.0 kN/m2 and dead load
due to finish, partition, and so on as 1.2 kN/m2 . Use M20 concrete
and Fe 415 steel.
2. A hall in a building has a floor consisting of continuous slab cast mono-
lithically with simply supported 230 mm wide beams spaced at 3.5 m
c/c. The clear span of the beam is 6 m. Assuming the live load on slab
as 3.0 kN/m2 and partition plus load due to finishes as 1.5 kN/m2 ,
design the slab with M25 grade concrete and Fe 415 steel.
3. Design a cantilevered portico slab of 6 m width and 1.75 m clear span,
assuming moderate environment, with M20 concrete and Fe 415 grade
steel.
4. Design a simply supported slab to cover a room with internal dimen-
sions 4.0m× 5.0m and 230mm thick brick walls all around. Assume a
live load of 3kN/m2 and a finish load of 1kN/m2 . Use M 20 concrete
and Fe415 steel. Assume that the slab comers are free to lift
up. Assume mild exposure conditions.
5. Design a simply supported slab to cover a room with internal dimen-
sions 4.0m× 5.0m and 230mm thick brick walls all around. Assume a
live load of 3kN/m2 and a finish load of 1kN/m2 . Use M 20 concrete
and Fe415 steel. Assume that the slab comers are prevented
from lifting up. Assume mild exposure conditions.
Chapter 6

Module-5: Limit State of

Collapse-Compression

6.1 COLUMN
6.1.1 Definition
In reinforced concrete construction, a compression member having its ef-
fective length greater than 3 times-its least lateral dimension is called as a
Column or a Strut. A vertical compression member coming under above
definition is usually called a column, while that in any other direction, as
in case of frames and trusses, is called a strut. A column with an effective
length less than three times the least lateral dimension is called a pedestal.

Short - coming and Necessity of Constituent Materials

(a) Concrete: Concrete being very strong in compression should not the-
oretically, require any reinforcement but for a given load the column
may require a large section, further its short - coming is that it is very
weak in tension, and therefore, in all circumstances leading to develop-
ment of tension need to be examined. In view of this reinforcement is
required to be provided to resist tension and to reduce the size of the
column.
The tension is likely to develop in column due to accidental transverse
loads, eccentric loads, and the end moments which cause bending in the
member. Further since bending can occur in any direction, inducing

280
 tension on any face, the reinforcement is required on all the extreme
faces running parallel to the axis of the member. This, thus, forms a
longitudinal steel. For short members, there is a possibility of failure
by longitudinal splitting due to development of transverse tension, or
failure by shear i.e. diagonal tension. This therefore, requires trans-
verse reinforcement. The two reinforcements are obviously required to
hold each other.
The various functions served by the longitudinal and transverse rein-
forcement can be summarized as under.
(b) Longitudinal Reinforcement :
(a) To assist concrete, in resisting compression, so as to reduce the
overall size, of the column. Fig.6.1(i)

Figure 6.1: Functions or Longitudinal Reinforcement

(b) To resist any tension that might develop due to bending caused
by transverse load, eccentric load or the moments. Fig 6.1(ii)
(c) To reduce the effect of creep and shrinkage due to sustained load-
ing.
(d) To prevent or delay sudden brittle collapse.
 (e) To impart necessary ductility to the column.
(f) To hold the transverse reinforcement.

(c) Transverse Reinforcement :

(a) To prevent buckling of longitudinal bars Fig. 6.2(i)

(b) To prevent longitudinal splitting of concrete. Fig.6.2(ii)
(c) To resist diagonal tension due to transverse shear. Fig.6.2(iii)
(d) To confine the concrete. Fig.6.2(iv)
(e) To hold the longitudinal reinforcement in position.
(f) To prevent or delay sudden collapse and impart necessary ductility
to the members.

Figure 6.2: Functions or Transverse Reinforcement

Design of a R.C. column, therefore, involves determination of size of

concrete section and the amount and arrangement of longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement.

6.1.2 RELATED DEFINITIONS FOR COLUMN

1. Unsupported Length
The unsupported length L of a compression member is defined as clear
distance between the end restraints.
In the case of columns in a framed structure, unsupported length is
taken as follows for the different situations
 (a) ln beam-slab floor construction, it is the clear distance between
the floor and the underside of the shallower beam framing into the
columns in each direction at the next higher floor level. Fig.6.3 a.
(b) In flat slab construction, it is the clear distance between the
floor and lower extremity of the capital, the drop panel or slab
whichever is the least. Fig.6.3 b.
(c) In columns restrained laterally by struts ( as in case of a staging for
overhead tanks), it is the clear distance between the consecutive
struts in each vertical plane, provided two such struts shall meet
the columns at approximately the same level and the internal angle
between vertical planes through the struts does not exceed 1350 .
Such struts are expected to have sufficient rigidity to restrain the
column against lateral deflection. Fig.6.3 c.
(d) In columns restrained laterally by struts or beams with brackets
used at the junction, it is taken equal the clear distance between
the floor and the lower edge of the bracket, provided that the
bracket width equals that of the beam strut and at least half that
of the column. Fig.6.3 d.

Figure 6.3: Unsupported Length for Columns or Struts

Slenderness Limits for Column

The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60 times
the least lateral dimension of the column. If, in a given plane, one end of a
column is unrestrained, its unsupported length L shall not exceed 100b2 /D,
where b is the width of cross-section, and D is depth of cross-section mea-
sured in the plane under consideration.
Minimum Eccentricity
A column can be said to be truly axially loaded only when the load actually
acts along the centroidal axis of the column as a whole. But in practice, the
load is hardly ever axial because of the following reasons :

1. Due to lack of homogeneity of the material the true centroid of sec-

tions at different levels may not be collinear, and the centroid may not
coincide with geometric centre of the cross section where axial load is
supposed to act. There is therefore a possibility of presence of inherent
eccentricity of the load with respect to true centroid of the section.
Eccentricity due to this depends upon the length of the column.

2. Loads acting at the ends may not be truly axial, truly perpendicular to
the section or they may not be collinear, on account of misalignment
either of the column or of the load due to bad workmanship or practi-
cal difficulties. Eccentricity due to this varies directly with the lateral
dimension h.
Code takes into consideration both these aspects and prescribes a mini-
mum eccentricity about either of the principal axes in design of columns
as given below :
L h
emin = + But ≮ 20 mm
500 30
where, L = unsupported length of the column,
h = lateral dimension of the column perpendicular to the axis of bending
For a column of rectangular cross section the lateral dimension can be either
the width ’b’ or the depth ’D’ of the column depending on the axis of bending.
Some of the important points, which should be noted for computation of
minimum eccentricity, unsupported length, and axis of bending, are given
below :

1. The axis of bending is a transverse axis perpendicular to the plane of

bending.
2. The plane of bending is a plane of the frame or a member in which
loads and longitudinal axis lie and in which the deflection profile can
be seen.

3. The unsupported length of the member is the length of the member

contained in the plane of bending.

4. The properties viz moment of inertia, deflection, stiffness are calculated

about the axis of bending

5. The major axis of bending x-x, is taken as an axis bisecting the depth
of the column or in other words the depth of the column shall be con-
tained in the plane of bending. The minor axis of bending y-y is one
which bisects the width of the column. Thus, minimum eccentricity,
eminx , for bending about major axis x-x bisecting the depth of the col-
umn D is given by :
Lx D
eminx = + ≮ 20 mm
500 30
And minimum eccentricity, eminy , for bending about minor axis y-y bi-
secting the width of the column b is given by
Ly b
eminy = + ≮ 20 mm
500 30
where, Lx and Ly are the unsupported lengths of the columns for bend-
ing about x and y axes respectively.
When minimum eccentricity requirements control, the bending only
about one axis at a time shall be considered and NOT as a case of
biaxial bending.
It may be noted that ’x’ is used here as suffix of ’e’ indicating eccen-
tricity of load from x - axis or eccentricity for bending about x - axis.
It is not the distance along x - axis. It is also not an x - co-ordinate.
For a given lateral dimension h, the maximum unsupported length up
to which emin = 20 mm can be obtained as follow:
L h
+ = 20 mm ∴ L = 500(20 − h/30)
500 30
For a value of L less than that given by this equation emin = 20 mm
and for L greater than, emin > 20 mm.
 Figure 6.4: Equivalent length of isolated columns

Effective Length
Effective length of a column is a length between points of zero bending mo-
ments or between the points of contraflexure of a buckled column. It depends
upon the end conditions as regards restraint against rotation and that against
transverse displacement. The theoretical values of the effective length can be
obtained from theory of elastic columns in theory of structures. However, in
actual practice, ideal end conditions considered in the theory hardly ever ex-
ist. Code, therefore, recommends modified values of effective length, in terms
of unsupported length, slightly on the conservative side. (Refer Fig.6.4)Table
6.1
 Table 6.1: Effective Length of Compression Member
Effective Length of Compression Members
Theoretical Recommended
Case No. End Condition
value of length value of Eff. Length
Effectively held in position
1 and restrained against 0.5L 0.65L
rotation at both ends
Effectively held in position
2 at both ends and restrained 0.7L 0.80L
against rotation at only one end
Effectively held in position
3 but not restrained against 1.0L 1.0L
rotation at both ends
Effectively held in position
and restrained against rotation
4 at one end, and at the other end 1.0L 1.20L
restrained against rotation but not
held in position
Effectively held in position
and restrained against rotation at
5 one end, and at the other end - 1.50L
partially restrained against rotation
but not held in position
Effectively held in position
at one end but not restrained
6 against rotation and at the other 2.0L 2.0L
end restrained against rotation
but not held in position
Effectively held in position
and restrained against rotation
7 at one end but neither held in 2.0L 2.0L
position nor restrained against
rotation at the other end

Example-1:
A.R.C. column is 3.2 m long between two floor levels. At top, a beam of
depth D1 frames on to one side of column and another beam of depth D2
frames on to opposite side of the column in the same plane. Determine the
unsupported length of the column in the plane contained by the beam and
the column, when-
(a) D1 = D2 = 400 mm,
(b) D1 = 380 mm, D2 = 530 mm.
Solution :
(a) L = 3200-400 = 2800 mm.
(b) L = 3200 -380 = 2810 mm. i.e. D1 or D2 whichever is less i.e. 380 mm.
Example-2:
A corner column between two floors 3.6 m apart connect & a beam B1 300
mm deep in one plane and a beam B2 , 450 mm deep in a plane at right
angle at the same level. Determine the unsupported lengths of the column
for bending about both principal axes.
Solution :
Let the plane of B1 and the column be x-y plane, and the plane of B2 and
the column be y-z plane.
For bending about z- axis the plane of bending is x-y plane therefore the
unsupported length in x y plane is to be considered.
∴ Lz = 3600 - depth B1 in xy plane ( i.e. 300 mm) =3600- 300 = 3300 mm.
For bending about x- axis the plane of bending is y-z plane, therefore the
unsupported length in yz plane is to be considered.
∴ Lx = 3600 - Depth of B2 in yz plane ( i.e. 450 mm)= 3600 - 450 = 3150
mm.
Example-3:
An edge column in a side wall of size 250 mm x 250 mm is 3.5 m long between
the floors. It carries a beam B1 600 mm deep at right angles to the plane
of the wall, and beams B2 and B3 500 mm and 550 mm deep respectively in
the plane of the wall on opposite sides of the column. Neglecting the lateral
support offered by the wall, determine the unsupported length of the column
in the plane of the wall at right angle to it.
Solution:
Let the plane of the wall be yz plane and the vertical plane at right angles
to the wall be xy plane.
For unsupported length in yz plane of the wall, the bending is about x-axis,
and yz is the plane of bending.
Lx =3500 - depth of shallower beam out of B2 and B3 in the plane of wall (
i.e.500 mm)
 Figure 6.5: Example-3

z = 3500- 500-= 3000 mm

For unsupported length in (xy) plane perpendicular to wall, the bending is
about z - axis,
Lx = 3500 - depth of B1 (i.e. 600 mm)= 3500 - 600 = 2900 mm.
Example-4
A staging of an overhead water tank 9 m high above footing level is provided
with three horizontal regular polygonal bracing system at a vertical distance
of 3 m. If the depth of bracing member is 250 mm, determine the unsup-
ported length of the column for bending about y axis ( radial axis) bisecting
the internal angle θ between the bracing members, and about x axis perpen-
dicular to it ( i.e. tangential axis) if the number of columns is (a) 6, ( b) 10
Solution:
(a) For 6 COLUMNS:
the internal angle between the adjacent bracings θ = 1200 < 1350
The struts can be assumed to give effective lateral restraint about both x
and y axis.
L = 3000 - 250 = 2750 mm.
(b) For 10 COLUMNS:
θ = 1440 > 1350
∴ The struts cannot be assumed to offer effective lateral support to each
other. Therefore separate radial bracings are also required.
When no such radial bracing is provided,
Lx = 9000 − 250 = 8750 mm for bending about x - axis.
Ly = 3000 − 250 = 2750 mm for bending about y-axis.
Remarks: In practice the radial bracings are provided and therefore the
check for bending about x- axis is not taken.
Example-5:
A single storey rectangular frame of a gymnasium hall has column 8 m high
and a beam 12 m between centres of columns, all having uniform cross section
along their lengths. Determine the effective length of columns for bending
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the frame for (i) vertical symmet-
rical loading (ii) horizontal loading and (iii) vertical unsymmetrical loading,
where (a) the base of column is hinged, (b) there is wide footing at the base
capable of resisting moment.
Solution:

Figure 6.6: Example-5

Since horizontal beam at top is not rigid but an elastic one, it is liable to
bending. Therefore, the deflected shapes under different loading and base
conditions will be required to be examined for deciding the end conditions
and, hence, effective lengths of columns. These are shown in Fig.6.6.
(a) Base hinged
(i) Vertical symmetrical loading :
When there is only vertical symmetrical load, and the columns are of same
size, length and have the same end conditions and beam section is also uni-
form , the columns do not undergo any sway ( i.e. no lateral displacement),
and thus, the columns are held in position at both ends. However, the ends
are not restrained against rotation and, therefore, the frame deflects as shown
in Fig. a(i). Thus this case corresponds to Case - 3 of Table 23 of IS-456-2000
∴ Lef f = 1.0L = 8 m.
Remarks : For the case of no sway, all the following conditions should be
satisfied

(a) Symmetry of loading,

(b) Symmetry of end conditions of the columns,

(c) Symmetry of geometry of the frame as regards to :

(a) length of columns, (They should be equal.)

(b) Size of columns, (Variation of cross -section along the height should
be the same for all columns),
(c) Variation of cross - section of the beam along the length should
be the same on two sides of line of symmetry,

(d) Symmetry of physical properties of the frame. i.e. grades of concrete,

elastic modulus of concrete of all columns should be the same .

Strictly speaking, L is the unsupported length in the above expression. How-

ever, since depth of beam is not given, centre to centre length of column is
taken in place of unsupported length. If depth of beam is assumed as say
900 mm, the unsupported length. L becomes 8000 − 900/2 = 7550mm and,
hence, effective length will he 7550 mm instead of 8000 mm.

(ii) Horizontal loading : The deflected shape of the frame under this type
of loading is shown in Fig.6.6 a(ii) which indicates that the frame sways later-
ally. The columns are held in position but not restrained against rotation at
the base and they are neither held in position nor restrained against rotation
at top. This does not fit in any end condition given in Table 23 of IS-456-
2000. It has an effective length even greater than 2L and can be determined
only after knowing the sizes and hence, stiffnesses of beam and columns.
(iii) Unsymmetrical Vertical load: In this case also, the frame under - goes
sway due to non-symmetry of loading, as shown in Fig.6.6a(iii) The effective
length of column in this case is, therefore, same as that in Part - (a)(ii) above.
(b) Base having wide moment - resistant footing
( i) Vertical symmetrical loading: In this case also, frame does not undergo
any sway as in Part - (a) ( i) above. The deflected shape of the frame is
shown in Fig.6.6b ( i) which indicates that the columns are fixed in position
and direction at the base but are fixed in position only ( not in direction i.e.
not against rotation ) at top. This condition corresponds to Case-2 in Table
23 of IS-456-2000
∴ Lef f = 0.8L = 0.8 × 8 = 6.4 m.
(ii) Horizontal loading: In this case, frame deflects laterally as shown in Fig.
6.6b(ii) the column is effectively restrained in position and direction at bot-
tom but not held in position and partially restrained against rotation at top.
This corresponds to Case-5 of Table 23 of IS-456-2000 giving
∴ Lef f = 1.5L = 1.5 × 8 = 12.0 m.
(iii) Unsymmetrical-loading: In this case also the frame undergoes sway con-
dition as shown Fig. 6.6(iii) and the end condition are same as those Part -
(b) (ii) above
∴ Lef f = 1.5 × 8 = 12.0 m
Example-6;
For the, columns supporting a rigid overhead tank at the top 4m above the
base as shown in Fig. determine the effective length of the column for (i)
vertical loading and (ii) horizontal loading when the column is (a) fixed at
the base, (b) Hinged at the base. The connection between the tank and the
column may be assumed to be rigid.

Figure 6.7: Example-6

Solution: In this case, since the tank held at top is quite rigid, it can be
assumed that it will not deflect or bend in vertical plane and the deflected
shapes of columns will be as shown in Fig.6.7.
1. VERTICAL LOADING :
(a) Base fixed: The columns do not sway (See Fig.6.7a). They are held in
position and restrained in direction at both ends. Therefore, it corresponds
to end condition No. I Table 23 of IS-456-2000 giving,
Lef f = 0.65L = 0.65 × 4 = 2.6 m.
(b) Hinged base: The columns do not sway in this case too ( See Fig. 6.7b)
but now the columns are held in position at both ends but restrained against
rotation only at top. This corresponds to end condition No. 2 in Table 23 of
IS-456-2000 giving,
Lef f = 0.8I = 0.8 × 4 = 3.2 m.
II. HORIZONTAL LOADING :
(a) Base fixed: The frame gets laterally displaced under this loading (See
Fig.6.7c). The columns are now restrained against rotation at both ends but
they are held in position only at the base, not At the top. This corresponds
to end condition No. 4 in Table 23 of IS-456-2000, giving,
Lef f = 1.2L = 1.2 × 4 = 4.8 m.
(b) Hinged base : The frame sways laterally as shown in Fig. 6.7d. The
columns are held in position but not restrained in direction at bottom, and
restrained in direction but not held in position at top. This corresponds to
end condition No.6 in Table 23 of IS-456-2000, Lef f = 2 × 4 = 8 m.
Example-7:
Two vertical cantilever poles 6 m high fixed at the base, hold a horizontal ca-
ble at top to carry a vertical load Determine the effective length of columns.
Solution: The columns are effectively restrained in both in position and
direction at the base but is neither held in position nor restrained in direc-
tion at top. Therefore, this corresponds to end condition No.7 in Table 23 of
IS-456-2000 giving
Lef f = 2L = 2 × 6 = 12 m.
Example-8:
Determine the effective length of columns hinged at their bases if columns
are 300 mm wide and 500 mm deep, and beam 300 mm wide and 800 mm
deep as shown in Fig.. The width of the beam and column is perpendicular
to the plane of the frame. The columns are subjected to horizontal loads.
Solution:
 Figure 6.8: Example-7
Moment of Inertia I(mm4 ) L(mm)
Column 300 × 5003 /2 = 3125 × 106 8000
Column 300 × 8003 /2 = 12800 × 106 12000

3I 3 × 3125 × 106
Since the column is hinged at the base, kc = = = 292970 mm3
4L 4 × 8000
3I 3 × 12800 × 106
For a sway condition, kb = = = 1600000 mm3
2L 2 × 12000
∴ (kb + kc ) = 1892970 mm3
End restraint factor at top
kc 292970
β1 = = = 0.155
(kc + kb) 1892970
At bottom β = 1 as bottom is hinged
From Fig.27 of IS:456-2000, for β1 = 0.155 and β2 = 1.0;
Lef f
= 2.15
L
∴ Lef f = 2.15L = 2.15 × 8 = 17.2 m.

6.1.3 ANALYSIS OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COL-

UMN:
Behaviour and strength of a R. C. member under axial compression at col-
lapse is based on the fo11owing assumptions.
 1. The limit state of collapse in axial compression is said to have reached
when the maximum compressive strain in concrete reaches a value equal
to 0.002.
This is evident from the idealized stress - strain curve for concrete, that
at a strain of 0.002, stress in concrete reaches its maximum value and
remains constant till failure and the concrete is incapable of taking any
more load.

2. Strains in concrete and steel are equal i.e. εcc = εsc .

3. Behaviour of concrete is governed by the characteristic stress - strain

curve, which according to I.S. Code

4. Stress in steel is governed by the characteristic stress - strain curve of

steel in compression. According to assumption (i) above, the maximum
allowable stress in steel is that corresponding to maximum value of
0.002.

5. The stress - strain curves (and hence, the moduli of elasticity) of steel
in compression is the same as in tension.

6. The column is short when Lex /D and Ley /b are < 12. else it is called
long column. where,

Lex = effective length in respect of the major axis,

D = depth in respect of the major axis,
Ley = effective length in respect of the minor axis, and
b = width of the member.

The behaviour and strength of a R.C. member under axial compression also
depends upon the type of lateral reinforcement whether lateral ties or helical
reinforcement. The members under the two categories have, therefore, to be
dealt with separately.
DERIVATION OF DESIGN FORMULA FOR SHORT COLUMNS
The ultimate failure is assumed to be reached when the section reaches a
uniform compression strain of 0.002. Ultimate load is given by the expression

Ultimate load = load carried by concrete + load carried by steel

P = Ac f c + As f s ,
where fc and fs , are the stresses in the material at a uniform strain of 0.002.
The compression in concrete fc at failure (εc = 0.002) is given by
fc = 0.45fck
The compression in steel fs , at failure (εc = 0.002) will be
fs = 0.87fy for steel with bilinear stress-strain curve as in Fe 250 steel
= 0.75fy for steel with stress-strain curve as in Fe 415 steel
Hence, the ultimate carrying capacity of the column Pu is given by the ex-
pressions
1. For Fe 415 steel,
P = Ac (0.45fck ) + As (0.75fy − 0.45fck )
2. For Fe 250 steel,
P = Ac (0.45fck ) + As (0.87fy − 0.45fck )
However, it is never possible to apply the load centrally on a column, Ac-
cidental eccentricities are bound to happen. Indian and the British codes
allow an accidental eccentricity of 5 per cent of the lateral dimension of the
column in the plane of bending (0.05D) in the strength formula itself. For
this purpose the ultimate load Pu derived above is reduced by 10 per cent.
Neglecting the last negative term in the above expressions, the equation
for Pu for Fe 415 steel reduces to
Pu = 0.9(0.45fck Ac + 0.75fy As )
i.e. Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy As as given in IS 456: clause 39.3.
With Fe 250 steel the corresponding expression will be
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.75fy As
It should be clearly noted that these formulae already take into account a
maximum accidental eccentricity of (0.05D) or (0.05b) in these columns.
CHECKING ACCIDENTAL ECCENTRICITY
Accidental eccentricities are caused by imperfections in. construction, inac-
curacy in loading etc.
IS 456: clause 25.4 gives an expression for the possible minimum eccentricity
as
L0 D
emin = + but not less than 20 mm
500 30
where
L0 = the unsupported length
D = lateral dimensions in the plane of bending
For sections other than rectangular, the Explanatory Handbook SP 24 rec-
ommends a value of Le /300, where Le , is the effective length of the column.
Thus, for example, for a column 600 x 450 of unsupported height 3 m, con-
sidering the long direction according to IS formula,
L0 D 3000 600
emin = + = + = 26 mm
500 30 500 30
As 26 mm is greater than the minimum specified 20 mm,
use emin = 26 mm. Then
emin 26
= = 0.043
D 600
Considering the short direction, we have
3000 450
emin = + = 21 mm > 20 mm
500 30
Hence,
emin 21
= = 0.047
b 450
Both these values are less than the specified ratio of 0.05, and hence the sim-
ple column formula is applicable to the above column. If the eccentricities
are more, then the column has to be designed as subjected to direct load P
and moment Pe.
DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL STEEL
The area of the longitudinal steel is to be calculated by the strength formula
given above. However, there are a number of other factors that should be
taken into account in choosing the longitudinal steel and they are given in
IS 456: clause 26.5.3.1. The important provisions for design of longitudinal
steel are:

(a) The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement, shall be not less

than 0.8 percent nor more than 6 percent of the gross cross-sectional
area of the column.
NOTE - The use of 6 percent reinforcement may involve practical diffi-
culties in placing and compacting of concrete; hence lower percentage is
recommended. Where bars from the columns below have to be lapped
with those in the column under consideration, the percentage of steel
shall usually not exceed 4 percent.

(b) In any column that has a larger cross-sectional area than that required
to support the load, the minimum percentage of steel shall be based
upon the area of concrete required to resist the direct stress and not
upon the actual area.

(c) The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column shall

be four in rectangular columns and six in circular columns.

(d) The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter.

(e) A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement shall have

at least six bars of longitudinal reinforcement within the helical rein-
forwment.

(f) In a helically reinforced column, the longitudinal bars shall be in con-

tact with the helical reinforcement and equidistant around its inner
circumference.

(g) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of the col-
umn shall not exceed 300 mm.

(h) In case of pedestals in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not taken

in account in strength calculations, nominal longitudinal reinforcement
not less than 0.15 percent of the cross-sexonal area shall be provided.
DESIGN OF LATERAL TIES (LINKS)
All longitudinal bars (as these are in compression) should be properly re-
strained by ties, tied at proper intervals, so that the steel bars do not in their
turn act as long columns. Detailed rules are given in IS 456: clause 26.5.3.2
regarding provision of transverse steel. Briefly stated, these rules are:

1. Links should be so arranged that every corner and alternate longitudi-

nal bar, if spaced not more than 75 mm, should have lateral support
provided by the corner of a link having an internal angle of not more
than 135 degrees. For circular columns the support is calculated ad-
equate if they are provided by circular ties touching the longitudinal
steel. Recommended arrangements of column bars and ties are given
in SP 34, Section 7 as shown in Fig.6.9.

Figure 6.9: Arrangement of steel in tied columns

2. The diameter of the links should be at least one quarter of the largest
diameter of the longitudinal steel. In any case, the links should not be
less than 5 mm in diameter.

3. The spacing of the links should not exceed the least of the following:

(a) The least lateral dimension of column

 (b) Sixteen times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar
(c) Forty eight times the diameter of the link.

4. Proper cover should be provided for the links.

(Note: The provision for restraining compression steel in columns is
also similar to the provisions for restraining the longitudinal compres-
sion steel in beams.)

DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMN BY SP-16

Charts 24 to 26 of the IS publication Design Aids SP 16 can be used for rou-
tine office design of short columns. These charts are made from the column
formula
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy As
If, Ag = area of cross-section
p = percentage of steel = 100As /Ag
The areas of steel and concrete are given by
pAg
As =
100
p 
A c = Ag − As = Ag 1 −
100
we obtain
Pu  p   p 
= 0.4fck 1 − + 0.67fy
Ag 100 100
h p i
OR Pu = 0.4fck + (0.67fy − 0.4fy ) Ag
100
Charts 24 to 26 of SP 16 have been prepared from these formulae for Fe 250,’
Fe 415 and Fe 500 and fck = 15, 20, 30, 35 and 40.

PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF CENTRALLY LOADED SHORT

COLUMN
The step-by-step procedure for design of a centrally loaded short column can
be arranged as follows:

1. Compute the factored load on the column.

 2. Choose a suitable size for the column, depending on the size of the
beam that has to be placed on it and the architectural requirements.
Usually, the beams are accommodated inside the column. Check also
the minimum eccentricity.

3. Determine the effective length and slenderness of the column about

the principal axes. If it is less than 12, it can be considered as a short
column. If it is 12 or more, it is to be designed as a long column.

4. Compute the area of the longitudinal steel required by either (a) by

using the formulae or (b) by using SP 16 in the following manner:

(a)
Pu  p   p 
= 0.4fck 1 − + 0.67fy
Ag 100 100
h p i
OR Pu = 0.4fck + (0.67fy − 0.4fy ) Ag
100
(b) By use of SP 16 as already indicated in above. The minimum per-
centage of steel adopted should be greater than 0.8. As regards the
maximum percentage, it should be less than 4 in normal designs
where lapping becomes essential; where lapping is not adopted,
one may accept a percentage of up to 6.

5. Detail the steel by choosing a suitable size and number (size not to
be less than 12 mm and for a symmetrical arrangement with at least
four bars for a rectangular column and six bars for a circular column).
Adopt a suitable cover to the steel (clause 26.4.1) and check perimeter
spacing of bars (IS clause 26.5.3.1) is not more than 300 mm as shown
in Fig.6.9.

6. Detail the transverse steel. Adopt a suitable size, determine spacings,

etc. as explained in Section (Design of longitudinal steel)

STRENGTH OF HELICALLY REINFORCED SHORT COLUMN

IS 456: clause 26.5.3.2(d) deals with design of helically reinforced column. In
working stress design, it was the practice to consider the strength of spirals
also in contributing to the strength of the column. Tests on spirally reinforced
columns show that the additional strength due to spirals in working stress
design can be estimated by considering the volume of spiral steel per unit
height of the column is approximately twice as effective as the same volume
were put as longitudinal steel. Hence, the equation for strength of spiral
columns in working load (P) is usually written as

Pc = (load taken by core)+(load taken by longitudinal steel)+2(Vsh )(stress in spiral)

where Vsh is the volume of the spiral per unit length of the column which
is also termed as the equivalent area of helical steel per unit height of the
column. However, when dealing with ultimate loads and limit state design,
it has been observed that

1. The containing effect of spirals is useful only in the elastic stage and it
is lost when the spirals also reach yield point.

2. The spirals become fully effective only after the concrete cover over the
spirals spalls off after excessive deformation.

Hence in ultimate load estimation, the strength of spirally reinforced columns

is expressed by

1. Pu (spirally reinforced column)= 1.05Pu (tied column)

2. the volume of spirals to be provided which is calculated on the principle

that it should be adequate to offset the loss of strength of the cover
which cracks up at ultimate stage.

CALCULATION OF SPACING OF SPIRALS

From point 2 given above, one can derive an expression to calculate the area
and spacing of spirals used for these columns as follows: As shown in Fig.6.10,
let

s = pitch or spacing of spirals used

a = area of spiral steel
D = diameter of the column
Dk = diameter of the core

The condition is that the loss of strength due to spalling of cover should be
equal to the contribution due to spirals.
 Figure 6.10: Arrangement of steel in spirally reinforced columns

Taking Ak as the area of the core and Ag as the area of cross-section and
using the same assumptions about the action of the spiral as is used in the
elastic design, the relationship at failure is given by
2Vsh (0.87fy ) = 0.63fck (Ag − Ak )
 
fck
Vsh (0.87fy ) = 0.36(Ag − Ak )
fy
which can be reduced to the form given in IS 456: clause 38.4.1 as
    
Vsh Ag fck
= 0.36 −1
Ak Ak fy
where,
Ag = gross area of section
Ak = area of core
This expression gives the ratio of the volume of the helical reinforcement
required for the volume of the core per unit height of the column.
Simplifying this expression further, one can write
Vsh = (volume of the spiral in one ring) x (No. of rings per unit length)
Taking Dk as the diameter of the core, we get
(area of spiral)πDk aπD
Vsh = =
spacing (pitch) s
Rewriting the IS equation by using the above value forVsh we obtain
aDk 0.36 (D2 − Dk2 ) fck
=
s 4 fy
 
4aDk fck
s= 2 2
0.36 (D − Dk ) fy
11.1aDk fy
s=
(D2 − Dk2 fck )
which can be used as the expression for calculating the pitch of the spirals
for a given steel of cross-sectional area a.
The rules regarding detailing of helical steel are given in IS 456: clause
26.5.3.2. The main considerations are:
1. The diameter of the helicals shall be at least 5 mm or one-fourth the
diameter of longitudinal steel.
2. The pitch shall be
(a) as derived from formula given in Eq. (13.5),
11.1aDk fy
s=
(D2 − Dk2 fck )
(b) not more than 75 mm,
(c) not more than 1/6th core diameter,
(d) not less than 25 mm,
(e) not less than three times the diameter of the steel bar forming the
helix.
If the diameter and the pitch of the spirals do not comply with the
above rules, the strength is to be taken as only that of a tied column
of similar dimensions.

PLACEMENT OF STEEL 1N CIRCULAR COLUMNS

Circular columns can be tied or spirally reinforced. The minimum number
of longitudinal rods should be six and the diameter of the rods should not
be less than 12 mm. In tied columns the laterals are individual ties whereas
in helically reinforced columns a continuous helix of steel of the required
diameter goes around the longitudinal steel at a given pitch.
COMPARISON OF TIED AND SPIRALLY REINFORCED COLUMNS
Even though there is not much difference in the ultimate load carrying ca-
pacity of ties and spirally reinforced columns, as discussed above, there is a
marked difference between them in the type of failure that takes place, i.e.
the load deformation curve obtained from tests. Whereas tied columns fail
suddenly, spirally reinforced columns fail gradually, exhibiting considerable
amount of ductility and deformation. Consequently, there will be a lot of
warning before final failure of such columns.

DETAILING OF COLUMNS
Columns are to be detailed according to standard practice. shown schemati-
cally in Figs.6.11 to Fig.6.14. The line sketches of reinforcements of columns
in buildings are indicated as in Fig.6.14.
Figure 6.11: Splicing of columns
Figure 6.12: Details of reinforcement at column junctions-1: (a) Termination
of column bars inside slab, (b) Fixed-end joint in a column, and (c) Typical
detail of beam-column junction at external column.
Figure 6.13: Details of reinforcement at column juctions-2: (d) Detail of
beam-column junction at internal column.
Figure 6.14: Detailing of R.C.C. Columns
 Example-9 Design an axially loaded tied column 400 x 400 mm pinned
at both ends with an unsupported length of 3 m for carrying a factored load
of 2300 kN. Use grade 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution:
1. Factored load on column
Pu = 2300kN
2. Size of column and check emin
D
Size of column = 400 x 400, = 20 mm
20
L D 3000 400
emin = + = + = 19.33 < 20mm
500 30 500 30
emin less than D/20 is assumed in the formula.
Hence short column formula for axial load can be used.
3. Calculation of slenderness
IS 456- Cl. 25.1.2
Le = 1.0L = 3000 mm
Le 3000
= = 7.5 < 12
b 400
4. Find area of steel and check percentage

(a) By formula,IS 456- Cl. 39.3

Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy As
2300 × 103 = 0.4 × 20 × (4002 − As ) + 0.67 × 415 × As
As = 3777 mm2 ,
3000
p= × 100 = 2.36%
4002
This is more than 0.8% and less than 6%. Hence O.K.
(b) By SP 16,
Ag = 1600 cm2 , P = 2300 kN,
From Chart 25 (SP-16)
Pu 2300 × 103
For = = 14.375
Ag 400 × 400
100As
= p = 2.4%
Ag
 2.4 × 400 × 400
∴ As = = 3840 mm2
100
Use 8 Nos. of 25 mm φ bars (3927 mm2 )

5. Detailing of the longitudinal steel

(IS 456 Cl. 26.4.1) Use cover = 40 mm
(400 − 40 − 40 − 25)
Steel spacing= = 147.5
2
Clear spacing between bars = 147.5−25 = 122.5 < 300 (Cl.26.5.3.1(g))

6. Design transverse steel

25
Diameter of links: not less than 4
or 5 mm;
Use 10 mm
Spacing not less than

(a) dimension of column = 400 mm

(b) 16 times ,p of long steel= 16 x 25 = 400 mm
(c) 48 times ,p of trans. steel = 48 x 10 = 480 mm

Adopt 400 mm.

Use Fe 250 steel for ties.
Provide 10φ @ 400

Example-10
Design a circular pin-ended cqlumn 400 mm dia and helically reinforced, with
an unsupported length of 4.5 m to carry a factored load of 900 kN. Assume
M 30 concrete and Fe 415 steel.

1. Factored load Pu = 900 kN

2. Size of column D = 400 mm, cover = 40 mm

Dcore = 320 mm
D/20 = 400/20 = 20 mm
L0 400 4500 400
emin = + = + = 223 mm > 20 mm
500 30 500 30
As emin > D/20, theoretically short column formula for centrally loaded
column is not applicable. However, the column is designed as centrally
loaded, as the moment to be considered is small.
3. Slenderness of column
Le 4500
= = 11.25 < 12. Short column
D 400
Centrally loaded short column

4. Area of longitudinal steel (IS 456 Cl. 39.4)

P u = 1.05(0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy As )
π × 4002
Ac = = 125.6 × 103 mm2
4
P 900
= = 857 kN
1.05 1.05
857 × 103 = [0.4 × 30 × (125600 − As ) + 0.67 × 415As ]
= 1507 × 103 + As (278 − 12)
Concrete itself can carry more than the required load.
Hence provide minimum steel
IS 456 Cl. 25.5.3.l(b)
As(min) =0.8% (of area required to carry P)
900 × 103
Ac to resist given P= = 71428 mm2
1.05 × 0.4 × 30
0.8
As (min) = × (71428) = 571.4 mm2
100
∴ Provide 6 Nos. of 12 mm φ bars giving area 678 mm2 as minimum
number of bars allowed is 6 Nos.

5. Design spirals
Choose 6 mm; a = 28 mm2 (area); s = pitch

(a) Cl. 39.4.1 and Cl. 26.5.3.2(d)

11.1aDk fy
s=
(D2 − Dk2 fck )
11.1 × 28 × 400 × 415
=
57600 × 30
= 30 mm

(b) Spacing not more than 75 mm

320
(c) Spacing not more than = 53.3 mm
6
(d) Spacing not less than 25
 (e) Spacing not less than 6 x 3 = 18 mm

Choose 6 mm φ at 30 mm spacing.

6.1.4 Design of Short Columns with Moments

Columns, such as the external columns of framed buildings, or columns carry-
ing crane loads through corbels of a column, are subjected not only to direct
loads (P), but also to moments (M) due to the eccentricity in application of
the load, (Fig.6.15). In the above columns, the eccentricity is with respect
to one axis only and these columns are said to be under uniaxial bending.
On the other hand, a corner column of a building is subjected to eccentric
load along both the X and Y axes. Such columns are said to be under biaxial
bending.
We know that the short column formula considers accidental eccentric-

Figure 6.15: Columns under direct load and moments: (a) Uniaxial bending,
(b) Biaxial bending.
ity to a certain extent. However, if the accidental eccentricity given by the
expression
L D
+ or 20 mm
500 30
(whichever is more) is greater than 0.05D already provided in the formula
for short column, then the short column formula cannot be used for design
of such columns. The theory of short columns subjected to axial load and
moments should be used for their strength calculations.

6.1.5 METHODS OF DESIGN

The three methods that are commonly used to design these columns are:

1. Use of design charts (interaction diagrams)

2. Use of equilibrium equation to determine the minimum steel required

3. A simplified approximate method considering the section as a doubly

reinforced beam.

Of these, the interaction diagram is extensively used for design of rectangular

or circular columns with symmetric arrangement of steel. The equilibrium
method is based on fundamental concepts and is applicable to any cross-
section and any arrangement of steel. The simplified method is found useful
for columns with large eccentricities where the column acts more like a beam.

6.1.6 UNIAXIAL BENDING (DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS)

in eccentrically loaded columns the strain distribution across the section will
not be uniform as in the case of centrally loaded columns. As there is bending
in addition to direct load, the strain distribution will vary linearly across the
section as in the case of beams. The following assumptions as given in IS
456: clause 39.1(b) are used to calculate the value of Pu and Mu of a given
section:

1. Plane sections remain plane even after bending.

2. The strain at different points in the section will be different. The

maximum compressive strain in concrete at failure is the governing
 criterion for ultimate failure. The magnitude of this failure strain is
given by the expression (see also Fig.6.16)

0
εc = 0.0035 − 0.75εc
where εc is the ’maximum’ strain in compression in the section at failure
0
and εc is the ’minimum’ strain in compression in the section at failure.
0
The minimum compression strain in a beam εc is equal to zero so
0
that εc = 0.0035. In an axially loaded column, εc = εc so that εc
at failure= 0.002. It is interesting to note that the above expression is
also equivalent to assuming that the strain distribution diagram rotates
around a fulcrum at a distance 3D/7 from the highly compressed edge.
This fulcrum point is the same point where the concrete strain will be
0.002 at failure with the neutral axis at the far edge of the section, as
shown in Fig. 6.16.

Figure 6.16: Failure strain in concrete under direct load and moments

3. The design compression stress block under the varying strain is the
same as assumed for beams. It is rectangular parabolic with the max-
imum stress value 0.446fck (approximately equal to 0.45fck ) at failure.

4. The design stress-strain curve for steel in compression is the same-as in

tension. The same design curve as for beams IS assumed for columns
also.

5. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.

6.1.7 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR STEEL
One should have a good idea of the stress-strain curves recommended by IS
for the different types of steels to correctly assess the stresses corresponding
to the strain in the steel. According to IS 456, mild steel (Fe 250) has
a bilinear stress-strain curve, and failure strain on the design stress-strain
curve is given by the expression

(0.87 × 250)
εs = = 0.00109
(200 × 103 )

However, the design stress-strain curves of cold drawn bars, like Fe 415 steel,
is not bilinear. There is a linear and a non-linear strain, for the stress levels
beyond 0.87fy so that the strains on the design stress-strain curve corre-
sponding to the various design stress levels will be as in Table 1, see Fig.3.

Figure 6.17: Stress-strain curve for Fe 415 steel

Table 6.2: VALUES OF DESIGN STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR Fe 415
STEEL
Strain
Stress level
Elastic Inelastic Total
0.8 X (0.87fy) = 0.7fy 0.00144 0 0.00144
0.85 X (0.87fy) = 0.74fy 0.00153 0.0001 0.00163
0.90 X (0.87fy) = 0.78fy 0.00162 0.0003 0.00192
0.95 X (0.87fy) = 0.83fy 0.00171 0.0007 0.00241
0.975 X (0.87fy) = 0.85fy 0.00176 0.001 0.00276
1.00 X (0.87fy) = 0.87fy 0.0018 0.002 0.0038

6.1.8 COLUMN INTERACTION DIAGRAM

A column subjected to varying magnitudes of P and M will act with its
neutral axis at varying points as described now.
1. When P = Pu and M = 0 (Axial load only)
In this case it acts as a column. The strain distribution across the
section is uniform (Fig.6.18 b). Its ultimate load Pu is reached-when
the compression strain reaches the failure strain of εc = 0.002. The
corresponding stresses in concrete and steel can be calculated and, by
using the equilibrium equation, Pu can be calculated as

Pu= (Ac) x (Stress in concrete) + (As) x (Stress in steel)

2. When P = 0, M = M, (Moment only)

In this case the member acts as a pure beam. The failure moment is the
ultimate moment in pure bending (Fig.6.18 ). The ultimate moment
Mu was calculated on the basis of the assumption that ultimate failure
is reached when εc = 0.0035.
In this case the section is subjected to a pure couple and the neutral
axis is determined from the two equilibrium equations

C=T
Mu = moment of the couple

3. When both P and M act on the member

When an eccentrically loaded column is subjected to P and M, for every
Figure 6.18: Strain distribution in column section with P and M: (a) Section,
(b) Failure with axial load only (N.A. at infinity), (c) Failure with N.A. Inside
section, (d) Forces under ultimate load with N.A. inside the section.

load P there is a particular value of M which will cause failure. Thus

there will infinite combinations of Pu and Mu, which can safely act
together for a given R.C. section. The particular value of Mu for a
given value of Pu can be found only by trial and error and the work is
quite tedious. It will be more convenient especially for routine design
to construct a curve showing the Pu, Mu combination and the read
off value of Mu for a given value of Pu or vice versa. Such a curve
showing the limiting values of Pu or vice versa. Such a curve showing
the limiting values of Pu and Mu is called a P-M interaction curve.
This can be made non-dimensional by using a diagram such as Fig.6.19
.
M
(non-dimensional quantity along x-axis)
fck bD2
pu
(non-dimensional quantity along y-axis)
fck bD
Thus, the interaction curves give the strength envelopes for the rein-
forced concrete section subjected to combinations of direct load and
bending moment (P and M). Points outside these diagrams represent
failure of the column. Combinations on or inside the diagram are safe.
 Figure 6.19: Column interaction diagram

6.1.9 USE OF EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS TO CON-

STRUCT THE INTERACTION DIAGRAM FOR
RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
1. 1. INTERCEPT ON y-axis (AXIAL LOAD ONLY)
The intercept of the interaction diagram on the y-axis represents the
strength of the section as a short column without corrections made for
accidental eccentricity. Considering a rectangular section (Fig.6.18),
with symmetrical arrangement of steel (with one-half the percentage of
steel, on either side) the equation for the ultimate load can be written
 as
pbD
Pu = 0.446fck bD + (fsc − 0.446fck )
100
Rearranging the terms, we get
Pu p
= 0.446 + (fsc − 0.446fck )
fck bD 100fck
where p represents the total steel in the section.
The second term within the brackets can be either neglected or in all
cases an average value of fck = 20 (corresponding to M 20 concrete)
can be used for calculations. The above value gives the y-intercept for
the interaction diagram. It may be noted that as the strain distribution
at failure is uniform, equal to 0.002, one may assume that the neutral
axis for this case lies at infinity. It can also be seen from the above
equation that it is more convenient to represent the non-dimensional
curves for various (p/fck ) values rather than for the percentage of steel.

2. INTERCEPT ON x-AXIS (MOMENT ONLY)

The intercept on the x-axis represents the strength of the section as
a beam in pure bending. Considering the same R.C. section as in the
previous case, but with symmetric steel, the value of M, can be calcu-
lated from the equilibrium equation as obtained for theory of beams in
bending.
First, the position of the neutral axis can be determined from the con-
dition that tension will be equal to the compression. The equilibrium
equation for this condition is

Compression in concrete + Compression in steel = Tension in steel

C c + C s = Ts

Assuming that the neutral axis in pure bending is at k1 D, we get

Cc = 0.36fck bk1 D
Cs = f1 (p1 /100)bD

(where f1 is the stress in compression steel)

TS = f2 (p2 /100)bD
 ( where f2 is the stress in tension steel)
The values of f1 and f2 will correspond to the strain ε1 and ε2 of these
steels assuming that the compressive strain in concrete at failure εc =
0
0.0035 and that steel is placed with cover equal to d’ so that d /D =
m. Assuming that steel is placed symmetrically and p represents the
percentage of total steel in the section, we have

(0.5p) (0.5p)
0.36fck bk1 D + f1 fck bD = f2 fck bD
100fck 100fck

εc
ε1 = (k1 − m)D
k1 D

εc εc (1 − m − k1 )D
ε2 = (D − mD − k1 D) =
k1 D k1 D

From the above equations, k1 D can be obtained. The ultimate moment

capacity of the section is the moment of the couple which can be easily
calculated by taking the moment of Cc and Cs about the tension steel.
This will give the moment Mu for P = 0.
It may be noted that the neutral axis for a section subjected to pure
bending will be inside the section as the tension and compression should
balance.

3. INTERMEDIATE POINTS (COMPRESSION, BALANCED AND TEN-

SION FAILURES)
For all intermediate points the neutral axis can be between the above
two extreme cases, as represented by the axially loaded column (with
the neutral axis at infinity) and the section in pure bending (with the
neutral axis at k1 D). The values of Pu and Mu corresponding to any
given position neutral axis can be calculated from the equilibrium equa-
tions

Pu = Cc + Cs1 ± Cs2

Mu = moment of the forces at the centre of the column about which

eccentricities (P e = M ) are calculated.
4. BALANCED FAILURE CONDITION
One of the special cases that can be investigated is the one where con-
crete reaches failure strain and the steel the yield strain in tension
simultaneously. This is called the balanced figure condition (point B
in Fig.6.19). In this case the neutral axis will be within the section
and its position can be determined by the condition εc = 0.0035 and
εs = yield strain. The value of Cc and its position of application can
be easily determined from standard formulae. The corresponding axial
load and moments can also pe calculated.

Figure 6.20: Columns with neutral axis outside the section

It can be noted that points from A to B on the interaction diagram

Fig.6.19 represent tension failure condition, where the steel on the ten-
sion face reaches yield point before failure. Points B to C represent
compression failure condition where the failure is initiated by concrete
reaching its ultimate strain first. In the first case, the neutral axis will
lie between pure bending and balanced failure conditions. In the sec-
ond case it will lie between the balanced and axial load conditions.
When the neutral axis is outside the section (Fig.6.20), part of the
parabola will be outside the concrete area. Then the values of kD will
be greater than D (i.e. k > unity). Table 2 (as given in SP 16) provides
the area of the stress block and the position of centroid for various val-
ues of k. These values can be used to simplify the calculations for case c.
Table 6.3: STRESS BLOCK PARAMETERS WHEN THE NEUTRAL
AXIS LIESOUTSIDE THE SECTION
Distance of centroid from
k Area of stress block
highly compressed edge
1.00 0.361fck D 0.416D
1.05 0.374fck D 0.432D
1.10 0.384fck D 0.443D
1.20 0.399fck D 0.458D
1.30 0.409fck D 0.468D
1.40 0.417fck D 0.475D
1.50 0.422fck D 0.480D
2.00 0.435fck D 0.491D
2.50 0.440fck D 0.495D
3.00 0.442fck D 0.497D
4.00 0.444fck D 0.499D

A slightly different value of Pb obtained on the assumptions that εcu =

0.0035 and εsu = 0.002 is used for calculating the reduction factor that
corrects the deflection in long columns.

6.1.10 APPLICATION TO CIRCULAR SECTIONS

The stress block parameters for rectangular sections are not applicable to
circular sections. Hence circular sections are usually divided into strips and
the forces on these strips are summed up for determining the total forces and
moments due to stresses in concrete. This procedure has been followed in
SP 16 to obtain the design curves.

The extreme fibre strain for circular section is also taken as 0.0035, even
though some authorities feel that the failure strains in compression of cir-
cular sections will be less than that for rectangular sections. Alternatively,
a simple rectangular stress distribution of 0.4fck may be assumed for the
compression block for simplified calculation (Fig.6.21).

The following relationships for circular sections are useful in computations

of such sections. Let c be the length of the chord at a distance x from the
extreme fibre (depth of neutral axis), see Fig:6.21, given by
 Figure 6.21: Circular column under direct load and moments

 c 2
= x(2r − x)
2
 α  α  2x
cot 90 − = tan =
2 2 c
The area of the circular segment (shaded in Fig.6.21)
 
2 2α − sin 2α
A=r
2
where α is in radians. The depth of the centre of gravity is given by
c3
 
x̄ = r −
12A

6.1.11 INTERACTION CURVES IN SP 16

Interaction curves for rectangular and circular columns with symmetrical
arrangement of steel for Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500, and for various cover
0
ratio d /D values are given in Charts 27 to 62 in SP 16. Typical curves are
shown in Charts 1 and 2. The steel ratios are represented by p/fck in the
diagram and it varies from 0 to 0.26. It should be remembered that p is
the percentage of the ’total steel’ with respect of bD and it is distributed
symmetrically on the two faces or on all the four faces as shown in the
diagrams given for the corresponding set of interaction diagrams in SP 16.
 (Figure 6.22 and 6.23 show the charts 1 and 2 presented here are from SP 16.)
The values of the stress level in the steel on the ’tension side’ are represented
in the interaction diagram by the dashed line so that the type of failure can
be easily identified.

6.1.12 INTERACTION DIAGRAM FOR P = 0

The interaction curve for P/fck = 0 (for a rectangular section with no steel
as shown in Fig. 8) can be derived as follows:

Case-1: Neutral axis, at infinity: Column centrally loaded P = Pu , Mu = 0

The concrete strain at failure is 0.002 and stress is uniform equal to
0.446fck Therefore,

P = 0.446fck bD

Rearranging the terms, we get

P
= 0.446
fck bD

Case-2: Let the neutral axis be inside the section at kD from the compression
face. Using the equilibrium equation for bending, we obtain

Pu = 0.36fck b(kD)

Points on the Y-ordinate will be obtained by rearranging the terms as

Pu
= 0.36k
fck bD

Taking moments about the centre of the section about which eccentric-
ities are measured as shown in Fig. 6.24(c), we get
 
D
Mu = 0.36fck bkD − 0.42kD
2

Points on the X-ordinate will be given by rearranging the terms as

Figure 6.22: Column Interaction Diagram (Chart 32 of SP 16)
Figure 6.23: Column Interaction Diagram (Chart 33 of SP 16)
Figure 6.24: Basis of drawing of interaction diagram for columns with no
steel

Mu
= 0.36k (0.5 − 0.42k)
fck bD2

Putting different values of k in above Equations, the Y and X ordinates

are obtained as

(a) For k = 1, Y = 0.36 and X = 0.029

(b) For k= 0.5, Y = 0.18 and X = 0.12
(c) For k = 0, Y = 0 and X=0

These are the values plotted in the interaction diagrams given in SP 16

SHAPE OF INTERACTION CURVES

The shape of the interaction diagram will vary with the shape of the stress-
strain diagram of steel, with kinks corresponding to the kinks in the stress-
strain for steel. This can be noted from the differences in the shapes of the
curves given in SP 16 for Fe 250, 415 and 500 steels.

ACCIDENTAL ECCENTRICITY IN COLUMNS

We know that the accidental eccentricity that should be assumed in a R.C.
column according to IS 456 (2000) is
 L D
emin = + but not less than 20 mm
500 30
With small values of M and P, the consequent eccentricity e = M/P maybe
small. In such cases one should note that the design moment should be
always larger of the following:

M = M (given)
M = P emin (due to accidental accentricity)

USE OF INTERACTION DIAGRAMS FOR DESIGN AND ANAL-

YSIS
(METHOD 1)

Case-1: Use of interaction curves to determine the area of steel required for a
given column size for specified P and M

(a) Check whether the column is short or long.

If short, proceed as follows:
(b) Find the following design parameters:
M L D
e= > emin = + or 20mm
P 500 30
0
d Pu Mu
Find , and for column design.
D fck bD fck bD2
(c) Determination of areas of steel from interaction curve is as follows:

0
ˆ Choosing proper curve for grades of steel and d /D, find p/fck .

ˆ Calculate As = p/100(bD).

ˆ Distribute this total area As as distributed in the sketch given

in SP 16 for the interaction diagram.

Case-2: Use of interaction curve to analyse the safety of the given column for
given P and M, with symmetrical distribution of steel.
 (a) Find the following parameters:
0
d Pu p Mu
, , and
D fck bD fck fck bD2
(b) Determine safety of column as follows:
Determine the point corresponding to the given
Pu Mu
, and
fck bD fck bD2
on the corresponding interaction curve for p/fck . If the point is
on or inside the interaction curve, the column is safe. If the point
is outside the curve, it is unsafe.

DESIGN OF ECCENTRIC COLUMNS BY EQUILIBRIUM EQUA-

TION
(METHOD 2)
Another method that can be used for design of eccentrically loaded column
is to work from fundamentals by using equilibrium equation and to arrive at
the necessary steel for a given section of breadth b, depth D, with given P
and M, as follows:

1. Assume the arbitrary depth of neutral axis. Let the extreme fibre in
concrete reach failure strain as per the assumptions.

2. Determine the strains in the steels.

3. Determine the compression force in concrete by using Table 1 or by

other means. Find also the stress fs in compression steel that will be
provided near the compression face from the strain at the level of steel.

4. Determine the area of steel to be provided at the compression face (As1 )

by taking moments of all the forces about the position of the steel at
the tension face. The moment equilibrium equation will be
 
D 0
P e+ −d =
2
(Moment of compression in concrete about tension
0
steel)+fsc As1 (d − d )
 5. Determine As2 , the steel required on the tension face, from the second
equation of equilibrium of forces

P = Cc + fs1 As1 ± fs2 fs2

6. From these, determine the total area of steel

As = As1 + As2

Plot the value of As against the value of the depth of the neutral axis
assumed (Fig.6.25)

Figure 6.25: Plot to determine minimum steel in section under direct load
and moment

7. Assume other suitable values of the depth of neutral axis and plot the
values of As (total steel) needed, in the above diagram. The values of
the neutral axis corresponding to minimum value of As can be taken
as the optimum solution of the problem

8. Provide the steel As1 and As2 as obtained in step 7 for optimum value
of x.

SIMPLIFIED METHOD (METHOD 3)

Columns under large eccentricity of load may be solved by considering them
as equivalent to a doubly reinforced beam with a concentrated load acting
Figure 6.26: Approximate method for design of eccentrically loaded columns
with large eccentricity

on it (for equilibrium of forces) as shown in Fig.6.26.

The effect of P and M may be regarded as equivalent to a modified moment

(M + M a) and a force P applied along the steel on the tension side, where
 
D
M + Ma = M + P − d2
2
In addition, P acts through the tension steel. As tables for doubly reinforced
beams for these large eccentricities will not be available, calculation has to
be made from the basic equations. The simplified stress block with 0.4fck
as uniform compression can be used for satisfying the equilibrium of forces.
Taking moments about the tension steel, we get
0
Ma = (0.4fck b)(0.5d)(0.75d) + 0.72fy Asc (d − d )
0
= 0.15fck bD2 + 0.72fy Asc (d − d )
from which the value of Asc, the area of compression steel, can be calculated.
For equilibrium of forces, the area of tension steel Ast is given by the equation

0.87fy As t = (0.4fck b)(0.5d) + 0.72fy Asc

= 0.2fck bD + 0.72fy Asc

However, a correction has to be made for the value of P acting as compression

P on tension steel. This reduces the tension steel required and the area of
the reduced tension steel is given by
 
P
Ast1 = Ast −
0.87fy
Itis evident that the equations are valid only when the beam theory is valid
for the situation, i.e. the eccentricity is larger than (D/2 − d2 ).

6.1.13 MEMBER SUBJECTED TO BIAXIAL BEND-

ING
IS 456: clause 39.6 deals with biaxial bending. The analysis may be used by
one of the following two methods:

1. By choosing the neutral axis which is in the XY-plane. Calculations

are made from fundamentals to satisfy the equilibrium of load and
moments about both the axes. (This method is quite tedious and is
not generally recommended for routine design.)

2. By the use of the formula recommended for use of IS-456. The above
code recommends the use of the following relation:
 (αn )  (αn )
Mx My
+ ≤ 1.0
Mx1 My1

where Mx and My are the applied moments about the X and Y axes
and Mx1 and My1 are the maximum uniaxial moments the column can
take under the actual load P by bending along the XX- and YY-axis,
respectively.

αn is related to the value of P/P z

 Where
P = design load on the column
P z = 0.45f ck + 0.15f yAsc (i.e. value of Pu when M = 0)
αn = exponent whose value is to be taken-as-follows:

Table 6.4:
P/Pz αn
0.2 1.0
0.8 2.0

The intermediate values are to be obtained by interpolation, as shown

in Fig. 6.27. The value of αn can be also determined by the equation

Figure 6.27: Illustration of coefficient αn for biaxial bending of columns

 
2 5P
αn = 1+
3 2 Pz

which should be within 1.0 and 2.0 as above.

The IS code formula follows the ”Bresler Load Contour Method”. It
is based on the concept of a failure surface which is the envelope of a
Figure 6.28: Interaction curve for biaxial bending of columns: (a) Section,
(b) Interaction surface, (c) Section at A3 C3 , (d) Section at A1 C1 , (e) Section
at A2 C2 .

number of interaction curves for different axes of bending of a column,

as shown in Fig. 12.
Any point of the failure surface corresponds to failure condition in a
column about a neutral axis and any point inside the surface can be
considered safe. A horizontal section at each level defines a load con-
tour corresponding to a particular P/Pz value. The general form of the
contour is defined by above relation.
It may be noted that the limiting value αn = 1.0 for P/Pz = 0.2
represents the equation of a straight line and the value ofαn = 2 for
P/Pz = 0.8 represents a circle. These values are meant to represent
the shape of the interaction diagrams at these points. Application of
this formula is greatly facilitated by Chart 64 given in SP 16 (Fig.6.29).
 Figure 6.29: Check for Safety in Biaxial Bending

6.1.14 SHEAR IN COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO MO-

MENTS
BS 8110 requires that columns which are subjected to axial load and bending
are checked for shear also. If there are no imposed load along the height-of-
the-column, the shears at top and bottom of the column are equal and given
by V so that (with proper signs)
(Mtop + Mbottom )
V =
(Storey height)
This shear will be acting over the entire height of the column. The shear
stress is given by the formula
V
v=
bd
As the concrete is under compression and shear, its shear strength is larger
than the value for pure shear. The enhanced shear recommended in BS 8110
is given by the formula
 0 P Vd p
τc = τc + 0.75 ≤ 0.8 (fck ) or 5 N/mm2
Ac M
whichever is less. The critical section for shear on the column is usually
taken as 2d from the bottom of the beam. Normally columns should be safe
without extra shear reinforcement.

6.1.15 REPRESENTATION OF COLUMN DESIGN

CHARTS
Mu Pu
1. on the x-axis and on the y-axis for various values of
fck bD2 fck bD
p/fck It also gives the value of fst the stress in steel. Plots are made
0
for different values of fy and d /D. This is used in IS publication SP
16.
Mu Pu
2. on the x-axis and on the y-axis for various values of steel
bD2 bD
percentages 0 to 8. It also gives the reduction factor k. Plots are made
0
for different values of fck , fy and d /D. This representation is used
in BS 8110 charts. Some American publications also use this type of
plots.
Mu Pu
3. 2
on the x-axis and on the y-axis for various values of
fck bD fck bD
p/fck = 0 to 1.4 Charts are plotted for different values of d’/D. This
is used in the Institution of Structural Engineers Manual and is non-
dimensional in its representation. This has the advantage that a smaller
number of charts will cover all the combinations required for the de-
signer.
All these representations can be used in design. The first representation
as given in SP 16 is commonly used in India.

6.2 Solved Examples on columns subjected

to Combined axial compression and Bend-
ing
Example-1
A short column is 230 x 300 mm and is reinforced with four rods of 20 mm,
one at each of the corners and two rods of 16 mm, one each at the middle of
the longer sides. Calculate the value of P and M for tension failure of steel
by bending on the major axis. Assume cover = 40 mm, fck = 20N/mm2 , Fe
415 steel. Assume cover to centre of steel as 50 mm.
Solution:

Figure 6.30: Example-1

1. Taking As1 and As2 as steels in tension and compression, the depth of
neutral axis is calculated as follows: Step-1: Strains when tension steel
reaches yield
εc = 0.0035
fy
εs1 = 0.002 + = 0.0038
(1.15Es )
x 0.0035
= = 0.48
d 0.0073
x = 0.48 × 250 = 120 mm
Stress at εs 1, fs1 = (0.87)(415) = 361 N/mm2
εs3 = 0.0035/120 × 30 = 0.000875 (less than yield)
Stress at εs3 , fs3 = (0.000875)(Es ) = 175 N/mm2
εs2 = 0.0035/120 × 70 = 0.00204 (less than yield)
For εs2 = 0.00204 we have fs2 = 330 N/mm2 (from SP-16 Or from
Stress-strain curve)
2. Direct load P under the above condition
As strain in steel is greater than 0.002, the stress in concrete at level
of steel is

0.45fck = 0.45 × 20 = 9 N/mm2

 We have, (As1 = As2 = 2 − 20 mm φ = 628 mm2 , As3 = 2 − 16 mm φ =
402 mm2 )

P = compression in concrete + compression in steel − tension in steel

= (0.36fck bx) + (fs2 − 0.45fck )As2 − (fs1 × As1 ) − (fs3 × As3 )
= (0.36fck bx) + (330 − 9)628 − (361 × 628) − (175 × 402)
= [(0.36 × 20 × 120 × 230) + (201.6) − (226.7) − (70)] × 10−3
= [198.7 − 95.1] = 103.6 kN
P = 103.6 kN.

3. Moment M under the condition in step 1

M = moment of all forces about the C.G. of column

M = [(198.7)(150 − 0.42x) + (201.6 × 100) + (226.7 × 100)] × 10−3
= 19.8 + 20.2 + 22.6
M = 62.6 kN m.

Example-2
Construct the interaction diagram for a -column of size b x D with steel ratio
p/f ck = 0.1 for d0 /D = 0.1 and Fe 250 steel. Assume steel is placed equally
on the two sides and moment is applied about the major axis.
Solution:

1. Intercept on the y-axis (acting as column N.A. at infinity)(k = ∞)

p
Pu = 0.45fck bD + bd(fsc − 0.45fck )
100
The second 0.45fck is the deduction for concrete area occupied by steel.
It may be neglected, or an average value corresponding to fck = 20 may
be used as in SP 16. Neglecting the Output term for simplicity, we get
(k = ∞),
Pu P
= 0.45 + (fsc )
fck bD 100fck
Failure strain of column = 0.002. Fe 250 steel reaches yield fsc = 0.87fy .
 
Pu 0.1
= 0.45 + (0.87 × 250) = 0.67
fck bD 100
 i.e. x = 0, y = 0.67

2. Intercept on the x-axis (acting as a pure beam N.A. within section)

(As1 and As2 are steels in compression and tension respectively)
Tension = compression, i.e. P = 0
   
0.5p 0.5p
0.36fck bkD + fs1 fck bD − fs2 fck bD = 0
100fck 100fck

-where fs1 and fs2 are stresses in steel, depending on the strain in these
steels at failure. Taking As1 as steel on the more compressed face, we
obtain

Figure 6.31: Example-2

0.0035(kD − 0.1D) 0.0035(k − 0.1)

εs1 = =
kD k
fs1 = εs1 Es
0.0035(0.9 − k)
εs2 =
k
Assuming εs2 reaches yield at failure and εs1 may not have reached
yield and simplifying the equation above, we get (IS 456- Cl.5:6.2)

p
Es = 200 × 103 , = 0.1
fck
  
0.0035(k − 0.1) 3 0.5
0.36k + × 200 × 10 (0.1) − 0.87 ×
k   100
0.5
250 (0.1) = 0
100

Solving 0.36k 2 + 0.241k − 0.035 = 0 for k, we obtain

k = 0.125 and fs1 = 140 N/mm2

 0 
kD − d
fs = 0.0035 × Es
kD

As P = 0, M is obtained by taking moment of compression about

tension steel.

M=  
0.05
0.36fck b(0.125D)(0.9D −0.42×0.125D)+140 fck bD(D −0.2D)
100

This reduces to
M
= 0.36 × 0.125(0.848) + 0.056 = 0.094
fc kbD2

∴ x = 0.094, y=0

εs2 = 0.0035(0.9 − 0.125)

Check strain in = 0.0217
0.125
0.87 × 250
Yield strain of Fe250 = = 0.0011
200 × 103
Hence steel yields.

3. Taking balanced failure as the one in which tension steel yields, we get

εs2 = yield strain of steel

Steel yields at εs2 = 0.0011

εc = 0.0035
 εc 0.0035 kD
= =
εs2 + εc 0.0046 0.9D

Solving k = 0.685

we obtain
0.035(0.685 − 0.1)
εs1 = = 0.003 (steel yields)
0.685
0.035(0.9 − 0.1)
εs2 = = 0.0011 (steel yields)
0.685
P = 0.36fck bD + (compression in steel − tension in steel)
P
= (0.36)(k) = (0.36)(0.685) = 0.25
fc kbD
Moment of the compression forces and the tension about the centroid
of section at D/2 from the edge.
Taking both tension and compression steel together,
we get
 
0.05
M = 0.36fck bD(0.5D − 0.42kD) + fck bD(0.87fy )(0.8D)
100
M
= 0.36k(0.5 − 0.42k) + 0.087
fck bD2
= 0.36 × 0.685(0.5 − 0.288) + 0.087
= 0.052 + 0.087
= 0.139

Hence,

M P
2
= 0.139, = 0.25
fc kbD fc kbD
i.e. x = 0.139, y = 0.25

(Check with SP 16 Chart 28)

Note:

(a) For pure bending, N.A. is at 0.125D

 (b) For balanced failure, N.A. is at 0.685D
(c) For pure compression. N.A. is at infinity.
Other positions for N.A. can be assumed and the curve plotted. For
N.A. more than 1.0D the stress block parameters in Table-H of SP-16
can be used with advantage.
4. Neutral axis at k = 1.00

0.0035 × 0.9
εs1 = = 0.0031 (yields)
1.0
fs1 = 0.87 × 250 = 217.5 N/mm2
0.0035 × 0.1
εs2 = = 0.0035
1.0
fs2 = εs1 Es = 70N/mm2
0.05
P = 0.36fck bD + fck bD(217.5 + 70)
100
P
= 0.36 + 0.109 + 0.035 = 0.506
fc kbD
By taking moments about centre line of column, we obtain
M
= 0.36(05 − 0.42) + (0.109 × 0.4) − (0.035 × 0.4)
fc kbD2
= 0.0288 + 0.0436 − 0.014
= 0.058
Hence the ordinates are
P M
= 0.5, and = 0.06
fc kbD fc kbD2
i.e. x = 0.06, y = 0.5

Check the curve with Chart 28 of SP 16.

Example-3
A column 300 x 400 mm has an unsupported length of 3 m and effective
length of 3.6 m. If it is subjected to Pu = 1100 kN and Mu= 230 kNm about
the major axis, determine the longitudinal steel using fck = 25 N/mm2 and
0
fy = 415 N/mm2 Assume d = 60 mm.
Solution:
1. Calculation of slenderness: [IS-456 Cl. 25.4]

Le = 3600, L = 3000,
Le
= 3600/400 = 9.0
D

L D 3000 400
emin = + = + = 6 + 13.3 = 19.3 mm
500 30 500 30

D 400
= = 20mm
20 20

2. Calculation of parameters

M 230 × 106
=e= = 209 mm > 20 mm (design f or M )
P 1100 × 103
Pu
= (1100 × 103 )/(25 × 300 × 400) = 0.37
fck bD
Mu
= (230 × 106 )/(25 × 300 × 4002 ) = 0.19
fck bD2
0
d 60
= = 0.15
D 400
3. Amount of steel required [SP-16, Chart 33]
p
= 0.15, p = 0.15 × 25 = 3.75%
fck

3.75 × 300 × 400

As = = 4500
100

Provide 4 Nos. 28 mm φ on each side (As provided = 8 − 28φ =

4926 mm2 ).
300 − (60 + 60 + 28 + 28 + 28)
Spacing of steel =
3
= 32 mm
> (aggregate size+5 mm)
< 300 mm
 4. Details of ties

Example-4: corner column (400mm × 400mm), located in the lowermost

storey of a system of braced frames, is subjected to factored loads: Pu =
1300 kN, Mux = 190 kNm and Muy = 110 kNm. The unsupported length
of the column is 3.5m. Design the reinforcement in the column, assuming M
25 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
SOLUTION
Given: Dx = Dy = 400mm, l = 3500mm,
Pu = 1300kN, Mux = 190kNm
Muy = 110kNm, fck = 25MPa, fy = 415MPa
Slenderness ratios
Assuming an effective length ratio of 0.85 for the braced column,
lex = ley = 0.85 × 3500 = 2975mm
⇒ lex /Dx = ley /Dy = 2975/400 = 7.44 < 12
Hence the column may be designed as a short column.
Check minimum eccentricities
Applied eccentricities: ex = 190 × 103 /1300 = 146mm

ey = 110 × 103 /1300 = 84.6mm

Minimum eccentricities as per code :

ex,min = ey,min = 3500/500 + 400/30 = 20.3mm > 20mm
As the minimum eccentricities are less than the applied eccentricities, no
modification to Mux , Muy is called for.
Trial section: Longitudinal reinforcement
Designing for uniaxial eccentricity with Pu = 1300kN and
q
Mu ≈ 1.15 Mux 2 + M2
uy
√
= 1.15 1902 + 1102 = 252kNm
- Assuming d0 = 60mm

d0 /D = 60/400 = 0.15
Pu 1300 × 103
= = 0.325
fck bD 25 × 4002
Mu 252 × 106
= = 0.157
fck bD2 25 × 4003
- Referring to chart 45 of SP : 16 (”equal reinforcement on all sides”),
p/fck = 0.14
⇒ preqd = 0.14 × 25 = 3.5
Note: This relatively high percentage of steel is particularly acceptable for a
column located in the lowermost storey of a tall building.
⇒ As,reqd = 3.5 × 4002 /100 = 5600mm2
- Provide 12 − 25φ : As = 491 × 12 = 5892mm2 > 5600mm2 .
The arrangement of bars is shown in Fig. 7.22 .
Uniaxial moment capacities: Mux1 , Mux2 [Here, due to symmetry, Mux1 = Mux2 ]
Pu /fck bD=0.325 (as calculated earlier)
pprovided = 5892 × 100/4002 = 3.68
⇒ p/fck = 3.68/25 = 0.147
d0 = 40 + 8 + 25/2 = 60.5mm
(assuming a clear cover of 40mm and 8mm ties )
⇒ d0 /D = 60.5/400 = 0.151 ≈ 0.15
- Referring to Chart 45 (d0 /D = 0.15)
Mux1
= 0.165
fck bD2
⇒ Mux1 = Muy1 = 0.165 × 25 × 4003 = 264 × 106 Nmm
=264kNm
which is significantly greater than Mux = 190kNm and Muy = 110kNm
Values of Puz and αn
Puz = 0.45fck Ag + (0.75fy − 0.45fck ) Asc

= (0.45 × 25 × 4002 ) + (0.75 × 415 − 0.45 × 25) × 5892

= (1800 × 103 + 1767.6 × 103 ) N = 3568kN
⇒ Pu /Puz = 1300/3568 = 0.364 (which lies between 0.2 and 0.8)
0.364 − 0.2
⇒ αn = 1.0 + (2.0 − 1.0) = 1.273
0.8 − 0.2
Check safety under biaxial loading
 α αn  1.273  1.273
Mux n

Muy 190 110
+ = +
Mix1 Muy1 264 264
= 0.658 + 0.328
= 0.986 < 1.0
Hence, the trial section is safe under the applied loading.
Transverse reinforcement
- The minimum diameter φ i and maximum spacing st of the lateral ties are
25/4 = 6.25mm
specified by the Code φt >
 6mm
 D = 400mm
⇒ Provide 8φ ties st < 16 × 25 = 400mm
300mm

Provide 8φ ties @300c/c as shown in Fig. 7.22 .

Figure 6.32: Example-4

Chapter 7

Module-6: Design of
Foundations

7.1 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

7.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Structures built below the ground are called substructures or foundation
structures as opposed to the term superstructure, which denotes structures
built above the ground. Even though foundation structures include the floors
built below the ground, they can be designed using the principles discussed in
the earlier chapters. Hence, we will consider only the footings and pile caps
in this chapter. The function of a footing or a foundation is to safely and
effectively transmit the load from the columns and walls to the underlying
soil. Reinforced concrete (RC) is admirably suitable for footings and RC
footings in turn are used in RC, structural steel, or wooden buildings, bridges,
towers, and other structures.
The permissible pressure on the soil beneath a footing, called the safe
bearing capacity (SBC), will be considerably less than the compressive stresses
in walls and columns. Hence, it is necessary, in general, to spread these loads
over sufficient soil area to ensure that the loads are safely carried by the soil.
In addition to providing foundations that will carry the loads without exces-
sive or uneven settlements and rotations, it is also necessary to check whether
they provide sufficient resistance to sliding and overturning or pull-out in case
of tensile loads.
Foundation structures may be categorized as (a) shallow foundations, (b)

348
deep foundations, and (c) special foundations (built for transmission line or
microwave towers, cooling towers, and chimneys). The choice of a suitable
type of foundation depends on the depth at which the bearing strata lies,
the soil condition, the type of superstructure, and the magnitude and type
of reaction at the base of the superstructure. The type of soil available at
the site, the depth at which the foundation can be laid, and the safe load the
soil can carry have to be determined by a geotechnical consultant. Normally,
this information is available in a soil report. The geotechnical design of
foundations (e.g., calculation of SBC of soil and piles) is usually found in
books on soil mechanics and foundation engineering. Here, we are mainly
concerned with the structural design of commonly used foundations.
SP 24-1983 states that the recommendations in Clause 34 of IS 456 are
confined to the design of footings that support isolated columns or walls
and rest directly on soil or on a group of pile. Accordingly, the design of
these simple types of footings (including combined footings supporting two
columns) alone is covered in this chapter. These simple types of footings are
the most common and are widely used; they are also more economical than
the other types of foundations.

7.1.2 TYPES OF FOOTINGS

Various types of RC foundations are available. They are mainly classified
as shallow foundations and deep foundations. In general, this classification
is based on the value of Df /B, where Df is the depth of foundation and B
is the width of base of foundation. The value of Df /B commonly ranges
between 0.25 and 1 for shallow foundations and between 5 and 20 for deep
foundations.
There are fi ve types of shallow foundations, namely (a) strip or con-
tinuous wall footings, (b) isolated or spread footings, (pad and sloped), (c)
combined footings, (d) raft or mat foundations, and (e) floating rafts. The
first three types are more common. Strip or continuous wall footings behave
as cantilevers on each side of the wall and spread the wall load over a large
soil area. Isolated or spread footings may be of uniform thickness; stepped or
sloped; or have pedestals to save materials (see Fig.7.1). Depending on the
shape of the column, isolated footings may be square, rectangular, or circular
in shape. When the length to breadth ratio of rectangular footing is more
than 2.5, a central longitudinal beam may be provided to make the footing
more rigid and have more uniform soil pressure (this will also help reduce
Figure 7.1: Types of isolated footings (a) Strip or wall footing (b) Spread
footing (c) Stepped footing (d) Sloped footing

the depth of slab in the footing and achieve economy). Combined footings
transmit load from two or more columns to the soil and may have rectangu-
lar, trapezoidal, or other shapes (see Fig.7.2). Such combined footings are
used when one column is near the property line. When the distance between
the columns is large, it may be economical to connect two isolated footings
by a strap beam (see Fig.7.2 d). The strap beam will not transfer any load
to the soil. A mat or raft foundation transfers loads from all the columns in
the building to the soil beneath; it is used in soils of low bearing capacity or
where the areas of individual footings overlap (Fig.7.2 a). Mat foundations
may also be used to reduce differential settlements when the loads in adja-
cent columns vary considerably or when there are variable soils within the
same building. Piles and caissons are the common types of deep foundations
and transmit loads from columns through the upper layers of poor soil to a
strong soil layer at some depth below the surface. Deep foundations are also
employed when it is necessary to provide resistance to uplift or when there
is a possibility of erosion due to flowing water as in bridge piers. Piles are
small diameter shafts driven or cast in bored holes in the ground and are
usually provided in groups connected by a pile cap (see Fig. 7.3b). A pile
Figure 7.2: Combined footings for two columns (a) Combined rectangular
(b) Combined trapezoidal (c) Combined T-shaped (d) Combined strap

cap transmits the column load to a series of piles, which, in turn, transmits
the load to the soil. Concrete piles are classified into (a) driven cast in situ
piles, (b) bored cast in situ piles, (c) driven precast piles, (d) precast piles in
prebored holes (IS 2911, Part 1, Sections 1 to 4), and (e) under-reamed piles
(IS 2911, Part 3). They may have enlarged (belled) bottom to transmit the
load to a large area.
Caissons, also called well foundations, are about 0.6-1.5 m in diameter
and are sometimes used instead of piles, especially in bridges (Saran 2006).
Three types of caissons are used- open, box or pneumatic (see Figs 7.4 a-
c). A floating raft foundation is a special type of foundation that is used
where deep deposits of compressible cohesive soils exist. The foundation is so
designed that the net foundation pressure is zero. This condition is achieved
by excavating the soil to such a depth that the weight of soil removed is
equal to the weight of the building including that of the substructure (see
Fig. 7.4d). In addition, a combination of piles and raft called the piled raft
foundation has also been employed.
The choice of foundation for a particular site is usually selected based on the
geotechnical report. The factors to be considered are the type and properties
of soil, variability of the soil over the area and with increasing depth, position
of water table, type of structure along with loadings, and susceptibility of the
structure to settlement and tilt. McCarthy (2006) has suggested guidelines
for selecting an appropriate foundation type based on soil conditions.
Figure 7.3: Mat and pile foundation (a) Mat foundation (b) Pile foundation

Figure 7.4: Caissons and fl oating raft (a) Open caisson (b) Box caisson (c)
Pneumatic caisson (d) Floating raft

7.1.3 SOIL PRESSURE UNDER FOOTINGS

The distribution of soil pressure under a footing is a function of the type of
soil and the relative rigidity of the soil and the footing. When the load is
applied at the centre of gravity (C.G.) of the footing, the actual soil pressure
distribution under the base resting on cohesionless soil (e.g., sand) and cohe-
sive soil (e.g., clay) will be as shown in Figs 7.5(a) and (b). When the footing
is loaded, the sand near the edges of the footing will try to displace laterally,
causing a decrease in soil pressure near the edges, as shown in Fig. 7.5(a).
On the other hand, when the footing is loaded, the clayey soil under the
footing deflects in the shape of a bowl, relieving the pressure near the middle
of footing, as shown in Fig. 7.5(b). The design of footings considering such
a non-uniform soil pressure is complex. Hence, an idealized uniform pressure
distribution as shown in Fig. 7.5(c) is commonly adopted in the structural
design. Tabsh and Al-Shawa (2005) developed the following equation for the

Figure 7.5: Pressure distribution under footings (a) Cohesionless soil (b)
Cohesive soil (c) Assumed uniform pressure
0
relative stiffness factor, Kr , to determine whether a shallow footing can be
considered rigid for the purposes of structural design:
0 Es D 3
Kr = (7.1)
ks (1 − Vs2 )(B − c1 )2 (L − c2 )2
where Es is the Young’s modulus of concrete, D is the average thickness of
foundation, ks is the modulus of subgrade reaction of soil (N/mm3 ), B and L
are the breadth and length of footing, respectively, c1 and c2 are the column
dimensions along the breadth and length of footing, respectively, and Vs is
0
the Poisson’s ratio of soil. They have shown that Kr = 1 is the limit between
0
a flexible and rigid footing. When the value of Kr is greater than or equal
to 1, the footing can be safely assumed as rigid.

Soil Pressure under Footings Subjected to Lateral Moments

Walls and columns often transfer moments along with axial force to their
footings. These moments may be due to wind, earthquake, or lateral earth
pressure. The effect of these moments will produce uniformly varying soil
pressure as shown in Fig.7.6(a). The soil pressure q at any point can be
determined as
P (P ex )x P Mx
q= ± = ± (7.2)
A Iy A Iy
where P is the vertical load (positive in compression),A is the area of contact
surface between the soil and footing, Iy is the moment of inertia of this area
Figure 7.6: Non-uniform soil pressure under the base of footing (a) Resultant
load within the kern (b) Plan view showing kern dimensions (c) Eccentricity
ex = L/6 (d) Resultant load outside the kern (ex > L/6)

= BL3 /12, M is the moment about the y-axis (= P ex ), ex is the eccentricity

of the axial load from the centroid of the footing along the x-axis, and x is the
distance from the centroidal axis to the point where the pressure is calculated.
The maximum and minimum values of soil pressure at the extreme edges of
the footing will be
P 6P ex P 6P ex
qmax = + ; q min − (7.3)
LB BL2 LB BL2
In the case of wall footings, unit length of the wall is considered and hence
the value of B becomes unity and the load P corresponds to the load acting
on unit length of the wall.
The moment M can be expressed as P ex , where ex is the eccentricity of
the load P relative to the centroidal axis of the area A. The maximum
eccentricity is one that causes q = 0 at one end of footing (see Fig. 7.6c).
Eccentricities larger than this will result in the footing lifting off the soil,
as the soil-footing interface cannot resist tension. For rectangular footing
as shown in Fig. 7.6, emax = L/6 or B/6. This distance is called the
kern distance. Loads applied within the kern (the area shown as shaded in
Fig.7.6b) will cause compression over the entire area of footing, and hence
Eq. 7.4 can be used to compute q, which should be less than the SBC. It
should be noted that when ex = L/6, qmin = 0 and qmax will be twice the
average pressure, as shown in Fig. 7.6(c). When the eccentricity of load is
greater than emax , the resultant upward load may be located by using the fact
that this upward load must be equal and opposite of the resultant downward
load, as shown in Fig. 7.6(d). In general, such a situation is not advisable; it
makes inefficient use of the footing concrete since part of the base in not in
contact with the soil, and may also cause differential settlement in soils like
clays and may cause the structure to tilt. In Fig. 7.6(d), it is assumed that
the distance of the resultant upward load from the right edge of the footing is
m. Then, the soil pressure will spread over a distance of 3m. Now,equating
the total upward soil pressure to the downward load, we get

(1/2)(3mB)(qmax ) = P

Hence,
2P 2P
qmax = = (7.4)
3mB 3B(0.5L − ex )
where B is the width of footing. The determination of the required area of
footing subjected to load and lateral moment is a trial and error process. We
assume a size, calculate the maximum soil pressure, and compare it with the
allowable pressure; if it is greater than the allowable pressure, we need to
assume another size, and so on. Once the area is fixed, the remaining design
will be similar to that of other footings.
When a footing is subjected to eccentricities about both the axes, the result-
ing soil pressures at any point (x, y) is given by

P (P ex )x (P ey )y
q= ± ± (7.5)
A Iy Ix

where ex and ey are the eccentricities of the load from the centroid of the
footing along the x− and y−axes, respectively, Ix and Iy are the moments
of inertia of the section about the x− andy−axes, respectively, and x and y
are the distances of the point from the x- and y-axes, respectively.
Safe Bearing Capacity
Terzaghi (1943) identified three modes of failure of footings as shown in Fig.
7.7. The ultimate bearing capacity of soils corresponding to general shear
failure may be obtained by using the following formula developed by Terzaghi
(1943):

Figure 7.7: Shear failure of soil due to bearing (a) General shear (large
heave?dense sand) (b) Local shear (small heave) (c) Punching shear (no
heave) (d) Load settlement curves for (a), (b), and (c) (e) Allowable pressure
qa taken as the lesser of qu/FS or q25

qu = cNc + γ0 DNq + 0.5Bγ1 Nγ (7.6)

where N c, N q, and N g are known as bearing capacity factors, γ0 is the unit
weight of the surcharge with depth D, γ1 is the unit weight of soil below
the foundation, and B is the width of footing. From this equation, the net
ultimate bearing capacity can be obtained by deducting γ0 D from qu as
qu = cNc + γ0 D(Nq − 1) + 0.5Bγ1 Nγ (7.7)
The values of bearing capacity factors N c, N q, and N g are functions of the
effective friction angle of the soil, φ, and were derived by Terzaghi (1943)
and later modified by Meyerhof (1951, 1953), Hansen (1961), and Vesic
(1973,1975) as
 
π tan φ 1 + sin φ
Nq = e with φ −→ 0, Nq −→ 1 (7.8a)
1 − sin φ
 Nc = (Nq − 1) cot φ with φ −→ 0, Nc −→ π + 2 (7.8b)
Nγ = 2(Nq + 1) tan φ with φ −→ 0, Nγ −→ 0 (7.8c)
The SBC, qa , is obtained by applying a factor of safety, F S, as follows
qn
qa = + γ0 D (7.9)
FS
It has to be noted that no factor of safety is applied to the surcharge; the
usual factor of safety adopted for soil is 3.0.
Equation (8) has been adopted in IS 6403:1981. The ultimate net bearing
capacity for strip footing as given in Eq. (8) has to be modified to take into
account the shape of the footing, inclination of loading, depth of embedment,
and effect of water table. Equations that take into account these factors are
given in IS 6403:1981.
Typical SBCs for soft clays range from 50 kN/m2 to 100 kN/m2 , for medium
stiff clays from 200 kN/m2 to 250 kN/m2 , for very stiff clays from 200 kN/m2
to 450 kN/m2 , and for soft rocks from 450 kN/m2 to 900 kN/m2 .

7.1.4 Depth of Foundation

The depth of foundation is fixed based on the following (IS 1904:1986):
1. The depth is usually based on the availability of soil of adequate bear-
ing capacity. Strata of varying thickness, even at appreciable depth,
may increase differential settlement. Hence, Clause 12.1 IS 1904:1986
stipulates that necessary calculations should be made to estimate set-
tlement from different thicknesses of strata and the structure should be
designed accordingly. Usually, it is necessary to check the value of the
bearing capacity up to a depth of 2B from the base of footing, where
B is the width of footing. The least value of SBC within this distance
has to be considered for design.
2. Due to seasonal changes of alternate wetting and drying, clayey soils
will undergo shrinkage and swelling, resulting in appreciable move-
ments. Hence, in the case of swelling soils like black cotton soils, it
is better to keep the base of footing below a depth of 2.5-4 m.
3. In regions where the temperature goes down below freezing point, the
base of the footing should be kept at a depth that is not affected by
frost action, especially in fine sand and silt.
Figure 7.8: Footing depth in sloping ground or when they are at different
levels (a) Footing on sloping ground (b) Footing in granular or clayey soil (c)
Footing at two levels

4. When the ground surface slopes downwards adjacent to a footing, the

sloping surface shall not intersect a frustum of bearing material under
the footing, having sides that make an angle of 300 with the horizontal
for soil. Footing on the sloping ground should have adequate edge dis-
tance from the sloping ground for protection against erosion, as shown
in Fig. 7.8(a); the horizontal distance from the lower edge of the foot-
ing to the sloping surface should be at least 600 mm for rock and 900
mm for soil.

5. In the case of footings in granular soil, a line drawn between the lower
adjacent edges of adjacent footings should not have a steeper slope than
one vertical to two horizontal (see Fig. 7.8b). In the case of footing on
clayey soils, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edge of the upper
footing and the upper adjacent edge of lower footing shall not have a
steeper slope than one vertical to two horizontal.

6. The adjacent excavation or foundation that is very close to the current

foundation should be carefully evaluated. If the new foundation is
deeper and closer to the existing one, the damage will be greater. As per
Clause 14.1 of IS 1904:1986, the minimum horizontal spacing between
the existing and new footings should be equal to the width of the wider
one (see also Fig.7.8c).

7. Depth of ground water table plays an important role in the depth of

foundation.
The approximate depth of foundation Df may be determined using the fol-
lowing Rankine’s formula:
 2
qa 1 − sin φ
Df = > 500 mm (7.10)
γs 1 + sin φ

where qa is the SBC of soil, γs is the unit weight of soil, and φ is the angle
of repose of soil.
All foundations shall extend to a depth of at least 500 mm below natural
ground level (N.G.L.) to allow removal of top soil and variations in ground
level (Clause 7.2 of IS 1904:1986). Clause 15.7 of ACI 318 stipulates that the
minimum depth of footing above bottom reinforcement is 150 mm for footings
on soil and 300 mm for footings on piles. Hence, the best-recommended depth
of foundation is from 1 m to 1.5 m from original ground level.

7.1.5 Gross and Net Soil Pressures

The soil pressure may be expressed in terms of gross or net pressure at the
foundation level. The gross soil pressure is the total soil pressure produced
by all loads above the foundation level. Thus, it consists of (a) the column
load, (b) the weight of the footing, and (c) the weight of the soil from the
foundation level to the ground level. On the other hand, the net soil pressure
does not include either the weight of the soil above the base of the footing
or the weight of the footing. For example, let us consider a 600 mm thick
isolated pad-type footing of size 3m × 3m, supporting a concentrically loaded
column with its top surface located 2 m below the ground level, as shown
in Fig. 7.9(a). Let us assume that there is no column load. Hence, the
total downward load from the weights of soil and foundation is 51 kN/m2
(assuming the weight of soil as 18 kN/m3 and that of concrete as 25 kN/m3 ).
This will be balanced by an equal and opposite soil pressure. As a result,
the net effect on the concrete footing is zero. When the column load of
1125 kN is added, the pressure under the footing increases by qnet = P/A =
1125/9 = 125 kN/m2 , as shown in Fig. 7.9(b). The total soil pressure
is 176 kN/m2 . This is referred to as the gross soil pressure and should
not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil qa . However, when
the bending moments and shear in the concrete footing are calculated, the
upward and downward pressures of 51 kN/m2 cancel out, leaving only the
net soil pressure, qn , to cause internal forces in the footing, as shown in Fig.
Figure 7.9: Gross and net bearing pressure (a) Self-weight and soil weight
(b) Gross soil pressure (c) Net soil pressure

7.9(c).
In design, the area of footing is selected based on the criteria of gross soil
pressure not exceeding the SBC of soil. However, the flexural reinforcement
is calculated and the shear strength of footing is checked based on the net
soil pressure. This area of footing is selected as

DL(structure, footing, and surcharge) + LL(on column or wall)

Area =
qa
(7.11a)
It should be noted that for service load combinations including wind or earth-
quake, most codes allow a 33 per cent increase in qa ; for such load combina-
tions, the required area is

DL(structure, footing, and surcharge) + LL + W L(on column or wall)

Area =
1.33qa
(7.11b)
However, it should not be less than the value given by Eq. 7.11a. The loads
used in Eq. 7.11a and 7.11b are the unfactored service loads. Algin (2007)
developed a comprehensive formula for dimensioning rectangular footings.
Once the area of footing is determined, all other calculations are done based
on the soil pressure due to factored loads. The load combinations prescribed
in Table 18 of IS 456 should be used in the foundation design.
The factored net soil pressure used to design the footing is
Factored loads
qnu = (7.12)
Area of footing
It has to be noted that the factored net soil pressure qnu will exceed the value
of SBC. It is acceptable, because the factored loads are 1.5 times the service
loads, whereas the factor of safety considered in determining SBC will be
about 2.5 to 3. Hence, even the factored net soil pressure will be less than
the pressure that will cause failure of the soil.

7.1.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following are the ultimate limit states that apply to the structural design:

1. Flexural failure of the footing

2. One-way or two-way (punching) shear failure of the footing

3. Inadequate anchorage of the fl exural reinforcement in the footing

4. Bearing failure at column-footing interface

7.1.7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF INDIVIDUAL FOOT-

INGS
Design of foundations with variable types of foundation structures will be
different, but the following steps are typical to any design:

1. Calculate loads from structure due to various loading cases and sur-
charge.

2. Obtain soil properties from soil report provided by a geotechnical ex-

pert.

3. Based on the soil report, determine the footing location and depth;
shallow footings are less expensive, but usually the geotechnical report
will determine the type of footing to be adopted.
 4. Determine footing size based on Eq. 7.11a and 7.11b.

5. Calculate contact pressure and check stability if required.

6. Estimate settlements.

7. Design the footing based on limit state design.

Foundations are not easily accessible for periodic inspection and maintenance
and hence durability considerations should be considered with care. While
deflection control may be neglected (as footings are buried under the soil
and are not visible), control of crack width is an important serviceability
consideration, especially for footing subjected to aggressive environments.
The following are the requirements as per IS 456:

1. As per Clause 26.4.2.2, the minimum cover to reinforcement is 50 mm

under normal exposure and the corresponding minimum grade of con-
crete is M20; under extreme exposure conditions, it is 75 mm (Table
16) and M25 concrete. However, it is a better practice to adopt 75 mm
cover under all exposure conditions.

2. Clause 8.2.2.4 and Table 4 give guidance regarding the type of cement,
minimum free water to cement ratio, and minimum cement content for
situations in which chlorides are encountered along with sulphates in
soil or ground water.

3. Footings are considered to be in moderate category of exposure as they

are buried in soil, and hence it is sufficient to restrict the crack width
to 0.3 mm (SP 24:1980). However, for severe and above categories, the
assessed surface crack width should not exceed 0.004 times the nominal
cover to main steel, as per SP 24:1980 (for a cover of 75 mm, it once
again works out to 0.3 mm). Hence, for a majority of footings, the
general detailing rules given in Clause 26.3 will be sufficient for crack
control, except for footings exposed to aggressive chemicals in soils.

4. Minimum reinforcement and spacing should be as per the requirement

of solid slabs, as per Clause 34.5.1. Hence, minimum percentage in
each direction is 0.12 per cent of the total cross-sectional area for high-
strength deformed bars or welded wire fabric and 0.15 per cent for
Fe 250 grade steel. Moreover, spacing of main bars should not exceed
 three times the effective depth or 300 mm, whichever is smaller (Clause
26.3.3b). Further, Clause 34.5.2 stipulates a nominal reinforcement of
360 mm2 per metre length in each direction on each face for thick
foundations with thickness greater than 1 m.

5. As per Clause 34.1.2, in reinforced or plain concrete footings, the thick-

ness at the edge should be greater than 150 mm (and 300 mm in the
case of pile caps). This ensures that the footing will have enough rigid-
ity to support the bearing pressures acting on them.

6. Usually, a levelling course of lean cement concrete (1:5:10 or 1:4:8 pro-

portion) of thickness 80-100 mm is provided below the footing base,
which serves as a separating layer between the natural soil and the
footing so that any harmful chemical present in the soil will not react
with the footing concrete.

The design of a footing must consider bending, development length of rein-

forcement, one-way shear and punching shear, and the transfer of load from
the column or wall to the footing. In general, shear considerations predom-
inate and hence thickness is governed by one-way or punching shear rather
than bending. As a result, foundations are always underreinforced.

7.1.8 Shear Design Considerations

In many cases, the thickness of footing will be governed by the requirements
of shear rather than by flexure. Hence, in footings, the design for shear is
considered before the design for flexure. The shear capacity of footings has
to be checked in one-way bending action as well as in two-way (punching)
shear as per Clause 34.2.4.1 of IS 456. The requirements as per one-way and
two-way shears are discussed here.

One-way shear
One-way shear in footing is considered similar to that of slabs. Considering
the footing as a wide beam, the critical section is taken along a vertical plane
extending the full width of the footing, located at a distance equal to the
effective depth of footing (i.e., considering a dispersion angle of 450 ) from the
face of the column, pedestal, or wall, as shown in Fig. 7.10(a). In one-way
shear, the shear force to be resisted, Vu1 , is the sum of the upward forces in
Figure 7.10: Critical sections for shear (a) One-way shear (b) Two-way
punching shear

the footing from the critical section to the edge of footing. The consequent
shear stress is given by
Vu1
τv1 = (7.13)
Bd
where B is the breadth and d is the effective depth of footing. This value of
τv1 should not exceed the design shear strength of concrete τc as per Table
19 of IS 456.
As Table 19 of IS 456 for the determination of shear strength of concrete
requires the percentage of reinforcement (in footing design, the area of steel
as per flexure is determined only after the determination of depth based on
shear considerations), it may be assumed that the footing is provided with
0.25 - 0.50 per cent of tension steel and the corresponding value of design
shear stress, τc , is taken as per Table 19 of IS 456. It has to be noted that
while calculating the steel as per bending moment (B.M.) requirements, it
is necessary to check whether the assumed steel as per shear requirements is
provided.

Two-way shear
The behaviour of footing in two-way (punching) shear is identical to that of
two-way flat slabs supported on columns. However, punching shear in footing
is not as critical as in flat slabs, since the footing is supported by the soil
below. Hence, it is desirable to check the tendency of the column punching
through the footing, along the surface of a truncated pyramid around the
column, called the critical perimeter. Thus, the critical section for the two-
way shear is taken at a distance d/2 from the periphery of the column, as
shown in Fig. 7.10(b).
It has to be noted that in wall footings (Fig.7.1a) and combined footings
provided with a central beam (Fig.7.2d), the footing slab is subjected only
to one-way bending; hence, they need to be checked for one-way shear alone.
When shear reinforcement is not provided, the calculated punching shear
stress at the critical section,τv2 , should not exceed ks τcp , where
Vu2
τv2 = (7.14a)
b0 d
ks = (0.5 + βc ) ≤ 1 (7.14b)
p
τcp = 0.25 fck (7.14c)
Here, βc is the ratio of the short side to the long side of the column, fck
is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete, Vu2 is the punching
shear force, which is the total upward reaction from the area bounded by the
critical perimeter and edge of the footing (see Fig. 7.10b), bo is the length of
critical perimeter = 2(c1 + c2 + 2d), c1 and c2 are the short and long sides of
the column, respectively, and d is the effective depth of footing.
For the purposes of computing stresses in footings that support a round or
octagonal column or pedestal, Clause 34.2.2 of IS 456 recommends the use
of an equivalent inscribed square column, as shown in Fig. 7.11, which will
result in conservative design.
It has to be noted that the depth of footing will be chosen in such a way that
shear reinforcement is avoided in footing slabs.

Bending Moment Considerations

The bending moment at any section of a footing is determined by considering
a vertical plane at this section, which extends completely across the footing,
and then computing the moment due to soil pressure acting over the entire
area of the footing on one side of this plane (Clause 34.2.3.1 of IS 456). The
maximum bending moment to be used in the design of an isolated footing
that supports a column, pedestal, or wall occurs at the following locations,
as per Clause 34.2.3.2 of IS 456:
Figure 7.11: Equivalent square column (a) For round column (b) For octag-
onal column

1. For footings supporting a wall, column, or pedestal, the maximum

bending moment occurs at the face of the wall, column, or pedestal, as
shown in Figs 7.12(a) and (b).

2. Since brick walls are generally less rigid than concrete walls, the max-
imum bending moment location is assumed at halfway between the
centre line and the edge of the wall for footings supporting masonry
walls, as shown in Fig. 7.12(c).

3. For footings supporting steel columns, the critical section is taken at

halfway between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the
base plate, as shown in Fig. 7.12(d).

The total tensile reinforcement, calculated to resist the maximum bending

moment, has to be distributed as follows, as per Clause 34.3 of IS 456:
In one-way reinforced footing The total reinforcement is distributed
evenly across the full width of the footing.
In two-way square footing The calculated reinforcement is distributed
evenly across the width in both directions.
In two-way rectangular footing The calculated reinforcement in the long
direction is distributed evenly across the full width of the footing, whereas
in the short span direction, it is distributed in different proportions in the
central zone and the edge zones (see Fig. 7.13). The amount of reinforcement
in the central zone is given by
Figure 7.12: Critical section for moment (a) Concrete column or wall (b)
Pedestal footing (b) Masonry wall (c) Column with steel base plate

2AsL
As1 = (7.15)
1 + L/B

where As1 is the area of reinforcement in central zone, AsL is the total area
of reinforcement in the shorter direction, B is the length of the shorter side,
and L is the length of the longer side. The reminder of the reinforcement is
evenly distributed in the two outer zones of the footing.
 Figure 7.13: Zones for reinforcement in a rectangular footing

Providing Development Length

The design bond strength and development length in footing is the same as
that in beams and slabs (as per Clause 26.2.1 of IS 456). Clause 34.2.4.3
of the code stipulates that the critical section for checking the development
length in footing should be the same planes where the maximum bending
moment occurs. In addition, it should be checked at all other vertical planes
where abrupt changes of sections occur. In locations where the reinforcement
is curtailed, anchorage requirements must be satisfied as in the case of beams.

Transfer of Load at Base of Column

The axial load, moments, and shear acting at the base of a column or pedestal
are transferred to the footing by any one of the following means:

1. Compressive forces by bearing on concrete surface as well as by rein-

forcement

2. Tensile forces due to moment by reinforcement bars, which are properly

anchored into column as well as footing, with adequate development
length

3. Lateral forces by shear friction or shear keys

Though all these types of forces are to be transferred from column to foot-
ing, the code recommendations (Clause 34.4 of IS 456) are confined only to
compressive forces.
Compressive forces are transferred through direct bearing, and bearing stresses
are checked both at the column-footing interface and at the bottom of foot-
ing. Under factored load, the permissible bearing stress, fbr , is limited by
Clause 34.4 of IS 456 as

Figure 7.14: Bearing area in a stepped or sloped footing

 r !
A1
fbr = 0.45fck ≤ 0.9fck (7.16)
A2

where A1 is the area of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar

to and concentric with the loaded area, A2 is the actual bearing area at the
column base, and fck is the compressive strength of concrete.
In sloped or stepped footings, area A1 may be taken as the area of the lower
base of a frustum of a pyramid or cone contained wholly within the footing,
with its upper area equal to the actual bearing area (A2 ) and having sides
extending at two horizontal to one vertical, until they first reach the edge of
the footing, as shown in Fig. 7.14. The 2:1 rule used to define A1 does not
imply that the load spreads at this rate.
As shown in Eq. p(7.16), the basic bearing stress of (0.45fck ) may be increased
by the factor A1/A2 , taking advantage of confinement of bearing area
(which is subjected to triaxial state of compressive stress), in pthe immediate
vicinity of the loaded area of footing. However,
p as this factor A1/A2 cannot
be increased infinitely, an upper limit of A1/A2 = 2 is imposed in the code
(SP 24:1983).
If the permissible bearing stress is exceeded either in the base of the column or
in the footing, reinforcement must be provided for developing the excess force.
The reinforcement may be provided either by extending the longitudinal bars
of column into the footing or by providing dowels as follows (Clauses 34.4.2
- 34.4.4 of IS 456):

1. Minimum area of extended longitudinal bars or dowels must be 0.5 per

cent of the cross-sectional area of the supported column or pedestal.

2. A minimum of four bars must be provided.

3. If dowels are used, their diameter should not exceed the diameter of
the column bars by more than 3 mm.

4. Enough development length should be provided to transfer the com-

pression or tension to the supporting member.

5. Only column bars of diameter larger than 36 mm in compression can

be doweled into the footings with bars of smaller diameter of necessary
area. The dowel must extend into the column a distance equal to the
development length, Ldc, of the column bar. At the same time, the
 dowel must extend vertically into the footing up to a distance equal to
the development length (Ldc or Ldt , depending on whether the column
is subjected to compression or tension) as shown in Fig. 7.15. (for the
sake of clarity, footing bars are not shown in the figure)

7.1.9 Design of Square Column Footings

The various steps involved in the design of footings and the expressions in-
volved are given in this section. Let P be the service load on the column
footing from the column and qa be the SBC of soil. Let P1 be the self-weight
of footing (it can generally be taken as 10-20% of P).
1. Determine the plan size of footing.
P + P1
A= (7.17)
qa
Provide this area in a form depending upon the type of footing as
follows:
√
(a) Square footing: B = A
(b) Rectangular footing: B × L = A
πD2
(c) Circular footing: =A
4
2. Calculate upward soil pressure. After deciding the dimensions of the
footing, the upward soil pressure acting on the base of footing is deter-
mined as
Factored load γf P
qu = = (7.18)
Area of footing provided Area
where γf is the load factor.
Let us now consider the required equations for a square footing of
uniform depth as shown in Fig. 7.16.
3. Determine the depth of footing based on one-way shear considerations.
By considering one-way shear, the depth is obtained from a section at
d from the face of the column (see Fig. 7.16).
Shear force,
 
B − c1 qu B
Vu1 = qu B −d = (B − c1 − 2d) (7.19)
2 2
Figure 7.15: Reinforcement Detailing in Isolated Footing
 Figure 7.16: Design of square footing

If τc is the design shear strength,

τc Bd = Vu1 (7.20)

Equating these two equations and assuming a value of τc from Table

19 of IS 456 for 100As /Bd = 0.15 − 0.50 per cent (for example τc =
0.36 N/mm2 for M20 concrete for pt = 0.25%), we may obtain the
required depth of footing.

4. Check for punching shear.

Critical perimeter, b0 = 4(c1 + d) (7.21a)

Punching shear force,

Vu2 = qu B 2 − (c1 + d)2

 
(7.21b)
 Punching shear resistance (Clause 31.6.3.1 of IS 456)
Vn2 = ks τc [b0 d] (7.21c)
√
where ks = (0.5 + βc ) ≤ 1 and τc = 0.25 fck ; for square column,
βc = 1 and hence ks = 1, b0 is the critical shear perimeter = 4(c1 + d).
Vn2 should be greater than Vu2 .
5. Calculate the area of steel. Taking moments at the face of the column,
we get  2
q u B B − c1 qu B
Mu = = [B − c21 ] (7.22)
2 2 8
The value of d required from bending moment consideration may be
found by using s
Mu
d= (7.23)
k2 fck B
where the value of k2 may be obtained from Table 1 .

Table 7.1: Value of k2

Sr. No. Type of steel k2
1. Fe250 0.149
2. Fe415 0.138
3. Fe500 0.133

We need to adopt the largest of the three depths calculated from bend-
ing, one-way shear, and punching shear considerations. Usually, the
depth based on bending considerations will not govern. The area of
steel may be determined by using
" s #
05fck 4.6Mu
Ast = 1− 1− Bd (7.24)
fy fck Bd2

Check for minimum percentage of steel and bar spacing for crack control
as per Clauses 34.5.1, 34.5.2, and 26.3.3b of IS 456.
6. Check for development length. Select the bar size whose development
length is less than [0.5(B − c1 ) − cover]. If it is not possible to get the
required development length, provide 900 bends at the end.
 7. Check for transfer of force at the base of column.

8. Check for development length of column bars. It has to be noted that

the column bars should project into the footing for a length equal to
the development length in compression, Ldc (see Fig.7.15). Bars sub-
jected to tension should be provided with a length of Ldt but the extra
length (Ldt − Ldc ) may be provided by bending the bars as shown in
Fig. 7.15. If pedestals are not provided, this requirement (Ldc ) alone
will govern the footing depth. Pedestals may be provided to reduce the
depth, based on development length requirement. Typical reinforce-
ment detailing for isolated square footing is shown in Fig. 7.15.

7.1.10 Design of Rectangular Footing

The expressions are derived in this section for a rectangular pad-type footing
as shown in Fig. 7.17. Let MXX be the moment at the face of the column
at section X-X normal to the shorter span, B, and MY Y be the moment at
the face of the column at section Y-Y normal to the larger span, L, due to
the soil pressure qu . Thus we get,

  
B − c1 B − c1 qu L Pu
MXX = qu L = (B − c1 )2 with qu = (7.25a)
2 4 8 LB

Similarly,
qu B
MY Y = (L − c2 )2 (7.25b)
8
The design procedure is similar to that of square footings, except that the re-
inforcements are calculated in two directions and the check for one-way shear
is to be made in both directions at a distance d from the face of the footing.
All other checks are similar. In addition, the distribution of reinforcement
should be made as discussed in Section Bending Moment Considerations and
Fig. 7.13.

7.1.11 Design of Sloped Footings

In India, sloped footings are used when the thickness of footing exceeds about
300?350 mm and they have a sloped top surface as shown in Fig. 7.18. This
type of footing may require more depth but lesser reinforcement than uniform
Figure 7.17: Design of rectangular footing (a) Plan and elevation (b) Critical
sections for bending moment

pad-type footing and hence may be economical. Moreover, the projection of

the footing beyond the column face bends as a cantilever, and hence, the
required flexibility is obtained by reducing the depth towards the free end,
as is usually done in cantilever beams or slabs. As mentioned earlier, the
edge thickness should be greater than 150 mm as per IS 456. Clause 34.1.1
of IS 456 states that in sloped or stepped footings, the effective cross sec-
tion in compression should be limited by the area above the neutral plane,
and the angle of slope or depth and location of steps should be such that
the design requirements are satisfied at every section. Hence, there is no
specific recommendation regarding the maximum slope. It is recommended
that the slope should not exceed one in three for construction considerations
(α = 18.40 ). Practically, when the slope exceeds 200 , it will be difficult to
vibrate the concrete and top forms need to be provided, which will increase
the cost of construction. As the strength of the footing depends on the com-
pressive strength of the concrete in the sloped portion, special care should
be taken during placement, compaction, and curing such that concrete qual-
Figure 7.18: Sloped rectangular footing (a) Sloped footing (b) Critical sec-
tions for bending (c) Trapezoidal section

ity is maintained in this portion as well. There are three approaches to the
calculation of bending moment and determination of depth of sloped footing.
1. Determine the bending moment and corresponding depth.
(a) In the first method, it is assumed that the bending moment is the
same as in uniform pad-type footing. Thus, Eq. (7.25a and 7.25b)
can be used to calculate MXX and MY Y .
(b) A less conservative method assumes that the failure plane will
be along the diagonals and the moment to be resisted is due to
the loads in the trapezoidal area alone. Accordingly, the bending
moments based on the trapezoidal area are derived as (see Fig.
7.18a)
      
L + c2 B − c1 2L + c2 1 B − c1
MXX = qu
2 2 L + c2 3 2
qu
= (2L + c2 )(B − c1 )2
24
(7.26a)
 qu
MY Y = (2B + c1 )(L − c2 )2 (7.26b)
24
The bending moment capacity, Mn , of the trapezoidal footing, as
shown in Fig. 7.18(c), and the lever arm, j, can be derived, and is
given here
Mn = Kb1 d2 fck + K2 (B − b1 )d2 fck (7.27)
(K − K2 )b1 + K2 B
j= (7.28)
0.36ku b1 + 0.204(B − b1 )ku2
Equating Eq. (7.27) with MXX and MY Y , the required effective

Table 7.2: Design moment and neutral axis coefficients

Steel Grade K K2 ku
Fe415 0.138 0.025 0.48
Fe500 0.133 0.023 0.46

depth in the two directions can be determined and the maximum

value adopted. Also by using Eq.7.24, we may determine the re-
quired steel (using appropriate effective depth) in both directions.
(c) When adopting method (a), the width of the column (or the di-
mension at the column base) is usually considered as the effective
width to obtain the depth of footing, which is very conservative.
However, some designers assume that the moment is resisted by
an effective width larger than the dimension at column base. One
such approximation assumed is to use the formula

(B − c1 ) (L − c2 )
bef f = c1 + and bef f 1 = c2 + (7.29)
8 8
It has been found that method (b) yields a saving of 8.5 per cent
in concrete and about 20 per cent in steel

2. Check for one-way shear.

As discussed for uniform thickness (pad-type) footing, one-way shear
has to be checked at a distance equal to the effective depth, d, from the
face of the column (not from the edge of top of the footing). The shear
force Vu1 to be resisted is taken as that acting in the corresponding
quadrant of footing. The area of concrete resisting the shear is taken
 as the breadth of the quadrant b2 at the section, multiplied by the
depth of the section d1 (see Fig. 7.18a). The values of b2 and d1 can
be determined from the geometry of the quadrant.
At critical section in the YY axis,
  
L − c2 B + b2
Shear force, Vu1 = qu −d (7.30a)
2 2
If tc is the design shear strength, the capacity of the section for one-way
shear
Vn1 = τc b2 d1 (7.30b)
where τc is the design shear strength of concrete obtained from Table
19 of IS 456.
Vn1 should be greater than Vu1 ; else the depth has to be increased.
Similar checks have to be done at critical sections along the XX axis
at a distance d from the face of the column.

3. Check for two-way shear. As in the case of pad type footing, the depth
of the footing has to be checked at a distance of d/2 from the face of
the column for two-way shear. The lengths b3 and b4 as well as the
depth d2 at this section have to be calculated (see Fig. 7.18a). The
punching shear force is given by

Vu2 = qu (LB − b3 b4 ) (7.31a)

Punching shear resistance (Clause 31.6.3.1 of IS 456) is calculated as

Vn2 = ks τc [b0 d2 ] = ks τc [2(b3 + b4 )d2 ] (7.31b)

Vn2 should be greater than Vu2 ; else the depth has to be increased. The
other checks for development length (in both directions), transfer of
force at the base of column, and development length of column bars
have to be done.

7.2 Solved Examples on Isolated Footings

Example-1: Design an isolated footing for a square column of size 400mm×
400mm, supporting a service load of 2200kN. Assume SBC of soil as 250kN/m2
at a depth of 1.5m below the ground. Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel for
the footing and M30 concrete and Fe 415 steel for the column. Assume that
the column is reinforced with eight 25mm bars.
Solution:
Given P = 2200kN and qa = 250kN/m2 at 1.5m below ground level.
Step-1: Determine the size of footing.
Assuming the weight of footing and backfill as 10 per cent of column load,
1.1P 1.1 × 2200
Required area of footing = = = 9.68m2
√ q a 250
Size of square footing = 9.68 = 3.11m
Provide a square footing of side 3.2m.
P γf 2200 × 1.5
Factored net soil pressure ya − 2 − = 322.3kN/m2 = 0.322N/mm2
B 3.2 × 3.2
Step-2: Check for shear (determine the depth).
The critical section for one-way shear is at a distance d from the face of col-
umn (see Fig. 7.19).
Factored shear force
qu B
Vul = (B − c1 − 2d)
2
0.322 × 3200
= (3200 − 400 2d)N = 1, 442, 560 − 1030.4d
2
Assuming pt = 0.25%, from Table 19 of IS 456 for M20 concrete, τc =

Figure 7.19: Details of square footing of Example 2 (a) Plan (b) Section

0.36MPa
One-way shear resistance Vn = τc Bd = 0.36 × 3200 × d = 1152d
since Vn > Vu1 , we get 1152d ≥ 1, 442, 560 − 1030.4d or d ≥ 661mm
Adopt d = 667mm.
Assuming 16mm bars and 75mm
clear cover,
D = 667 + 75 + 16/2 = 750mm
Step-3: Check thickness for two-way shear.
The critical section for two-way shear is at d/2mm from the periphery of the
column (see Fig. 7.19 )

Factored shear force = Vu2 = qu B 2 − (c1 + d)2

 

= 0.322 × [32002 − (400 + 667)2 ] × 10−3 = 2930.7kN

As per Clause 31.6 .3 .1 of IS 456, two-way shear resistance

Vn2 = ks τc [4 × (c1 + d) d] , ks = [0.5 + βc ] ≤ 1

As βc = 1 for square column, ks = 1.0.

p √
τc = 0.25 fck = 0.25 20 = 1.118MPa
Hence Vn2 = 1.0 × 1.118 × 4 × 667(400 + 667) × 10−3
= 3182.8kN > 2930.7kN

Step 4: Check for qa with the actual size of footing. With the weight of
concrete and soil as 24kN/m3 and 18kN/m3 , respectively, the actual pressure
below the footing is

q = 2200/(3.2 × 3.2) + (24 × 0.75) + (18 × 0.75)

= 214.84 + 18 + 13.5 = 246.34kN/m3 < 250kN/m2

(SBC of soil)
Step-5: Design the flexural reinforcement. Factored moment at the face of
column (in either direction) (see Fig. 7.19 )
qu 0.322
Mu = B (B − c1 )2 = × 3200 × (3200 − 400)2 × 10−6
8 8
= 1009.8kNm

Mu 1009.8 × 106
= = 0.7093
Bd2 3200 × 6672
From table 2 of SP 16 with fck = 20N/mm2 and fy = 415N/mm2
pt = 0.2050%
As this steel percentage is less than the percentage assumed for calculating
shear strength, that is, 0.25 per cent in Step 2, shear strength requirement
governs the design.
Hence, Required Ast = 0.25 × 3200 × 667/100 = 5336mm2
Using 16mm bars, required number of bars = 5336/201 = 27 bars.
Step-6: Check for development length.
For M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel, required development length for 16mm
bar from Table 6.5 of SP16 is 752mm.
Length available = 1400 − 75 = 1325mm > 752mm.
Step-7: Calculate transfer of force at the base of column.
Factored compressive force at base of column = 1.5 × 2200 = 3300kN
As per Clause 30.6 of IS 456, limiting bearing stress
r
A1
fbr,max = 0.45fck
A2
(a) At column face,
A1 = A2 = 400 × 400mm2 and fck = 30MPa; hence,

fbr = 0.45 × 30 × 1 = 13.5MPa

(b) At footing face,

fck = 20MPa, A1 = 32002 mm2 , and A2 = 4002 mm2
r
A1 3200
= = 8 > 2.
A2 400
Hence, adopt a value of 2.0

fbr = 0.45 × 20 × 2 = 18MPa

The critical face is the column face.

Limiting bearing resistance
= 13.5 × 4002 × 10−3 = 2160kN < Pu = 3300kN
The excess force of 3300 − 2160 = 1140kN may be resisted by providing
dowels or by continuing the column bars into the footing.
Step-8: Check for development length of column bars.
For fully stressed 25mm bars in compression (M20 and Fe415),
development length from Table 65 of SP16 is 1175mm.
Required Ld = 1175 × 1140/3300 = 406mm
Available vertical embedment length in footing, d = 667mm > 406mm
The column bars are bent (with 90° standard bend) into the footing and rest
on top of bottom mesh of footing reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 7.19(b).
Note: The effective depth of 667 mm is required only near the face of the
column (due to shear considerations). As per IS 456, only a minimum depth
of 150 mm needs to be provided at the edge. Hence, keep the edge depth as
250 mm and provide the shape as shown in Fig. 7.19(b).
Example-2: Design the footing for the column of column of size 400mm ×
400mm, supporting a service load of 2200 kN. Assume SBC of soil as 200 kN/m2
at a depth of 1.5 m below the ground. Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel
for the footing and M30 concrete and Fe 415 steel for the column. Assume
that the column is reinforced with eight 25 mm bars. assuming that there is
a spatial restriction of 2.8 m on one of the plan dimensions of the footing.

1. Determine the size of footing.

Required area of footing = 9.68 m2
Since width B is restricted to 2.8 m,
Length L = 9.68/2.8 = 3.46 m
Provide a rectangular footing of size 2.8m × 3.5m.
2200 × 1.5
Net factored soil pressure, qu =
2.8 × 3.5
= 336.7 kN/m2
= 0.337 N/mm2

2. Determine the thickness of footing based on one-way shear.

For maximum Vu1, take section along the breadth of footing at a dis-
tance d from the column.
 
L − c2 − 2d
vu1 = qu B
2
 
3.5 − 0.4 − 2d
= 0.337 × 2.8
2
= 0.4718(3.1 − 2d)

As we know that this value should be equal to τc Bd.

Assuming pt = 0.25% from Table 19 of IS 456, for M20 concrete τc =
 0.36 N/mm2 .
Hence, 0.4718(3.1 − 2d) = 0.36 × 2.8 × d
Solving, d = 0.75 m = 750 mm

3. Check depth for two-way shear.√

Punching shear strength = 0.25 f ck = 1.118 N/mm2
Taking a section at d/2 around the column, we get

Vu2 = qu [LB − (c1 + d)(c2 + d)]

= 0.337 2800 × 3500 − (400 + 750)2
 

= 2857 × 103 N
Vu2
τv2 =
2 [(c1 + d)(c2 + d)] d
2857 × 103
=
4(400 + 750) × 750
= 0.828 N/mm2 < 1.118 N/mm2

Hence, it is safe in two-way shear.

4. Design the fl exural reinforcement in the long direction. Bending mo-

ment in long direction (section x-x in Fig.7.20)

Figure 7.20: Rectangular footing of Example 2 (a) Plan (b) Section

 (L − c2 )2
Mux = qu B
8
0.337 × 2800(3500 − 400)2
=
8
= 1133.5 × 106 N mm
" s #
50fck 4.6Mux
pt = 1− 1−
fy fck Bd2
 s 
6
50 × 20  4.6 × 1133.5 × 10 
= 1− 1−
415 20 × 2800 × 7502

= 0.20845%
This is less than pt = 0.25% assumed for one-way shear.
Hence, required Ast = 0.25 × 2800 × 750/100 = 5250 mm2
Provide seventeen 20 mm bars (Ast = 5340 mm2 ) at uniform spacing
in the long direction.
Check for development length
Required development length for M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel
φσs
Ld =
4τbd
20 × 0.87 × 415
=
4 × 1.6 × 1.2
= 940 mm
(L − c2 )
Available length = − Cover
2
(3500 − 400)
= − 75
2
= 1475 mm > 940 mm
5. Design the reinforcement in the short direction. Bending moment in
the short direction
 2
B − c1
Muy = qu L
8
0.337 × 3500 × (2800 − 400)2
=
8
6
= 849.3 × 10 N mm
Assuming 16 mm bars dy = 750 − 20/2 − 16/2 = 732 mm
" s #
50fck 4.6Mux
pt = 1− 1−
fy fck Bd2
 s 
6
50 × 20  4.6 × 849.3 × 10 
= 1− 1−
415 20 × 3500 × 7322

= 0.1289%
Check for pt for one-way shear
One-way shear in the short direction
 
B − c1 2dy
Vu1 = qu L
2
 
2800 − 400 − 2 × 732
= 0.337 × 3500
2
3
= 552 × 10 N
Vu1 552 × 103
τv1 = =
L × dy 3500 × 732
= 0.215 N/mm2
From Table 19 of IS 456, for M20 concrete and for minimum pt ≤ 0.15%,
τc = 028.
Hence,
Required Ast = 0.129 × 3500 × 750/100 = 3386 mm2
Required overall depth = 750 + 10 + 75 = 835 mm
Provide an overall depth of 850 mm.
Minimum Ast = 0.12 × 3500 × 850/100 = 3570 mm2 > 3386 mm2
Provide eighteen 16 mm bars (Ast = 3619 mm2 ).
According to Clause 34.3.1(c) of IS 456, area of steel to be provided
within the central band width B = 2800 mm
2 2
= 3570 × = 3570 ×   = 3173 mm2
β+1 3.5
+1
2.8
Number of required 16 mm bars = 3173/201 = 16 bars
Hence, provide sixteen 16 mm bars at uniform spacing within the cen-
tral band of 2.8 m at a spacing of 2800/(16 - 1) = 187 mm c/c.
 In addition, provide one bar each at the end of the two other segments
making a total of 18 bars; width of end segment = (3500 - 2800)/2 =
350 mm.
Spacing of bar = 350 - end cover = 350 - 75 = 275 mm (see Fig. 7.20).
Check for spacing
Maximum spacing= 275 mm < 300 or 3d
Hence, it is adequate.
Check for development length
φσs
Ld =
4τbd
16 × 0.87 × 415
=
4 × 1.6 × 1.2
= 752 mm

(B − c1 )
Available length = − Cover
2
(2800 − 400)
= − 75
2
= 1125 mm > 752 mm
Hence, it is safe.

6. Check for the transfer of force at column base. Factored compressive

force at base of column= 1.5 × 2200 = 3300 kN
As per Clause 30.6 of IS 456, limiting bearing stress
r
A1
fbr,max = 0.45fck
A2

(a) At column face, A1 = A2 = 400 × 400 mm2 and f ck = 30 M P a;

hence,
fbr = 0.45 × 30 × 1 = 13.5M P a
(b) At footing face, fck = 20 M P a, A1 = 2800 × 3500 mm2 , and A2 =
4002 mm2
r r
A1 2800 × 3500
= = 7.826 > 2
A2 400 × 400
 Hence, adopt a value of 2.0.

fbr = 0.45 × 20 × 2 = 18 M P a

Limiting bearing resistance

= 13.5 × 4002 × 10−3 = 2160kN < Pu = 3300 kN

The excess force of 3300−2160 = 1140 kN may be resisted by providing

dowels or by continuing the column bars into the footing.
Example-3: Design a sloped square footing for a circular column of size
500mm diameter and subjected to an unfactored load of 1200kN. Assume
SBC of 200kN/m2 and use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution:
Step-1: Determine the size of footing.
Required area of footing√= 1.1 × 1200/200 = 6.6m2
Hence size of footing = 6.6 = 2.57m
Adopt 2.6m × 2.6m footing.
Step 2: Determine the size of equivalent square column.
As per Clause 34.2 .2 of IS 456
500
c1 = c2 = √ = 354mm
2
Let us provide a square ledge of size 700mm × 700mm around the column
and proceed with the calculations with a column size of 354mm × 354mm.
Step-3: Calculate the soil pressure on footing.
Factored load = 1.5 × 1200 = 1800kN
1800 × 103
Upward soil pressure = = 0.266N/mm2
2600 × 2600
Step-4 Calculate the depth of footing. Depth of footing based on moment
considerations
P 1800 × 103
Mx = (B − c1 )2 = (2600 − 354)2 × 10−6
8L 8 × 2600
= 436.54kNm

Note that the breadth resisting the moment can be taken as 700mm

Mn = 0.138b1 d2 fck + 0.025 (B − b1 ) d2 fck

= [0.138 × 700 + 0.025(2600 − 700)]20d2 = 2882d2
 r
436.54 × 106
Equating the external moment, we get d = = 389mm
2882
As the depth will be governed by shear consideration, let us adopt an effective
depth of 600mm at the face of column and edge depth of 250mm.
Let us adopt a clear cover of 75mm. With 20mm rods, effective cover =
85mm.
Step-5: Check depth for one-way shear.
The critical section is at a distance d = 600mm from the face of column.
Distance
 of this
 section from the edge of footings =
2600 − 354
− 600 = 523mm
2
Breadth of footing at this section with 45◦ diagonal (refer to Fig7.21)
b2 = 2600 − 2 × 523 = 1554mm
 
2600 + 1554
Shear at this section = × 523 × 0.266 × 10−3 = 289kN
2
Effective depth at this section,
(700 − 250) × 523
d1 = (250 − 85) + = 412mm
(2600 − 700)/2
289 × 1000
Shear stress, τv = = 0.451N/mm2
412 × 1554
From Table 19 of IS 456, τc for M20 concrete with pt = 0.50% = 0.48N/mm2
Hence, the footing is safe in one-way shear with pt = 0.50%
Step-6: Check depth for two-way shear.
Two-way shear has to be checked at a distance of d/2 = 600/2 = 300mm
from the face of column.
Distance of this section from the edge of footing =
 
2600 − 354
− 300 = 823mm
2
Width of footing at this section (refer to Fig. 7.21 ) b3 = 2600 −2 × 823 =
954mm
(700 − 250) × 823
Depth of footing at this section d2 = (250 − 85)+ =
950
555mm
Punching shear at this section
Vs = 26002 − 9542 × 0.266 × 10−3 = 1556kN


Punching shear stress (Clause 31.6 .2 .1 of IS 456)
1556 × 103
τvp = = 0.735N/mm2
(4 × 954) × 555
Permissible shear stress (Clause 31.6 .3 of IS 456)
√
= ks τc where ks = 0.5 + βc < 1.0 and τc = 0.25 fck
354
βc = = 1.0; ks = 1.0
354
√
Hence, permissible shear stress = 1×0.25 20 = 1.118N/mm2 > 0.735N/mm2
Footing is safe in two-way shear.

Figure 7.21: Details of Sloped footing of Example 3 (a) Plan (b) Section

Step-7: Calculate the area of steel. The lever arm of the trapezium section
is given by
(K − K2 ) b1 + K2 b2
j=
0.36ku b1 + 0.204 (B − b1 ) ku2
(0.138 − 0.025)0.7 + 0.025 × 2.6
=
0.36 × 0.479 × 0.7 + 0.204(2.6 − 0.7) × 0.4792
0.1855
= = 0.885
0.2096
Mu 436.54 × 106
Ast − − = 2277mm2
0.87fy jd 0.87 × 415 × 0.885 × 600
If we consider only the rectangular portion
Mu 436.54 × 106
= = 1.732
bd2 700 × 6002
From Table 2 of SP16, for Fe415 steel and M20 concrete pt = 0.541% > pt
required for shear in Step-5 = 0.50%
0.541
Ast = × 700 × 600 = 2272mm2
100
Thus, there is not much difference in Ast if we ignore the triangular portion
of the trapezium in this case.

From Table 95 of SP16, provide twelve 16mm bars (Ast = 2412mm2 )

Spacing = (2600 − 2 × 75)/11 = 220mm

It has to be noted that a more economical solution will be obtained if the

soil pressure is assumed to act on the trapezoids of the footing.
qu
MX = (2L + c2 ) (B − c1 )2
24
0.266
= (2 × 2600 + 354)
24
(2600 − 354)2 × 10−6

= 310.52kNm (as compared to 436.54kNm)

Mu 310.52 × 106
Now 2 = = 1.232
bd 700 × 6002
Mu 310.52 × 106
Now 2 = = 1.232
bd 700 × 6002
From Table 2 of SP 16, for Fe 415 steel and M20 concrete pt = 0.37% How-
ever, we need to provide 0.5 per cent steel as per shear consideration.
Hence Ast = 0.5/100 × 700 × 600 = 2100mm2
From Table 95 of SP 16, provide eleven 16mm bars both ways
(Ast = 2211mm2 )
Spacing = (2600 − (2 × 75) − 16)/10 = 243mm
Spacing is less than 300mm or 3d (Clause 34.5 of IS 456 ). Hence it is ade-
quate.
 Step-8: Check for development length.
Length available = (2600 − 700)/2 = 950mm
Ld of 16mm bar for M20 concrete (Table 65 of SP16) = 752mm < 950mm
Hence, it is adequate.
Step-9: Check for transfer of force at the base of column.
Factored compressive force at the base of column = 1.5× 1200 = 1800kN
Assuming the column to be M25 at column face
r !
A1
fbr = 0.45 × 25 × 1 as = 1 = 11.25MPa
A2
s
p 26002
At the footing face, A1 /A2 = = 5.86 > 2; fbr = 0.45 × 20 ×
π × 5002 /4
2 = 18MPa
Limiting bearing resistance = 11.25 × π × 5002 /4 × 10−3 = 2209kN > 1800kN
Hence, it is safe. However, extend the column bars into the footing.
Step-10: Calculate the overall dimensions of the footing.
Required overall depth = 600 + 12 + 12/2 + 75 = 693mm
Provide 700mm depth at centre and 250mm depth at edges and adopt 2600mm2
footing with eleven 16mm bars, as shown in Fig. 7.21
Example-4: Design the footing for the column subjected to axial load of
Pu = 1400kN and a moment of Mu = 90kNm. Assume SBC of soil as
200kN/m2 at 1.5m depth and use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel for the foot-
ing. Note that the moment is reversible.
Solution:
Step-1: Determine the size of footing.
Since the given moment is reversible, we need to have a footing that is sym-
metric with respect to the column. Assume the weight of footing as 10 per

cent of the column load.

90 × 106
Letusassume e < L/6, with e = = 58.44mm
(1400 × 103 ) × 1.1
Hence L > 6 × 58.44 = 350.6mm
For determination of footing size we need working loads and moments.
Assuming that the load factor is 1.5,
P = 1400/1.5 = 933.3kN and
M = 90/1.5 = 60kNm.
Hence
P M 933.3 × 1.1 60 × 6
+ ≤ SBC or + < 200
BL BL2 /6 BL BL2

From this, we get 200BL2 − 1026.6L − 360 = 0

Assuming L = 1.2 times B and simplifying, we get
L3 − 6.16L − 2.16 = 0

Solving we get L = 2.6415m

The economical footing is one that has equal projections beyond the face of
column in both directions, that is, when (L − c2 ) /2 = (B − c1 ) /2.
Hence, adopt 2.65m × 2.55m
Step-2: Calculate the net pressure below foundation.
Pu 6Mu
Factored net soil pressure, qu,max = +
BL BL2
1400 90 × 6
q1 = qu,max = +
2.55 × 2.65 2.55 × 2.652
= 207.17 + 30.16 = 237.3kN/m2
q2 = qu,min − 207.17 − 30.16 − 177kN/m2

Step-3: Determine the depth of footing.

Figure 7.22: Rectangular footing with axial force and moment for Example
4 (a) Plan (b) Section
Even though the depth has to be fixed based on one-way shear, to simplify
the calculation let us first determine the depth due to bending considerations.
(L − c2 ) (2650 − 400)
Cantilever span Lc = = = 1125 mm
2 2
Then soil pressure at the face of column (see Fig. 7.22)

(q1 − q2 ) Lc
q3 = q 1 −
L
(237.3 − 177) × 1.125
= 237.3 − = 211.7kN/m2
2.65
= 0.2117N/mm2
The maximum bending moment at the face of column (taking rectangular
and triangular distribution of pressure diagram separately)
q3 BL2c (q3 − q1 )
Mc = − BL2c (2/3)
2 2
(0.2373 − 0.2117)
Mc = (0.2117 × 2550 × 11252 /2) +
2
2 2
×2550 × 1125 ×
3 6
= (341.61 + 27.54) × 10r = 369.15 × 106 Nmm
369.15 × 106
r
Mc
d= = = 229mm
0.138 × fck B 0.138 × 20 × 2550
As the thickness will be governed by shear stress considerations,
assume d = 415mm, with 20mm bars and clear cover of 75mm.
Hence, overall depth = 500mm.
Step-4: Check for one-way shear.
The critical section is at a distance d = 415mm from the face of the column.
Shear span Ls = (L − c2 ) /2 − d = 1125 − 415 = 710mm
The soil pressure at this location
(q1 − q2 ) Ls (237.3 − 177)0.71
q4 = q1 − = 237.3 −
L 2.65
2
= 221.1kN/mm = 0.2211MPa
The factored shear force at this plane is
(q1 + q4 ) (0.2373 + 0.2211)
Vu = BLs = × 2550 × 710 × 10−3
2 2
= 415kN
 Vu 415 × 103
Nominal shear stress τv = = = 0.392N/mm2
Bd 2550 × 415
From Table 19 of IS 456, for M20 concrete, τc = 0.408N/mm2 for pt = 0.35%.
Hence, we need to provide 0.35 per cent reinforcement.
Step-5: Check for punching shear.
The critical section is at a distance d/2 = 415/2 = 207.5mm from the face
of the footing.
Lps = 1125 − 207.5 = 917.5mm
The soil pressure at this location
(q1 − q2 ) (237.3 − 177)
q5 = q1 − × Lps = 237.3 − × 0.9175
L 2.65
= 216.4kN/m2

Average pressure = (237.3 + 216.4)/2 = 226.9kN/m2

Punching shear force Vu2 = q [LB − (c1 + d) (c2 + d)]

Punching shear force Vu2 = q [LB − (c1 + d) (c2 + d)]

= 0.2269[2550 × 2650 − (400 + 415)(300 + 415)] = 1401 × 103 N

Vu2
Nominal shear stress τv2 =
bo d

bo = 2 × [(400 + 415) + (300 + 415)] = 3060mm

1401 × 103
τv2 = = 1.103N/mm2
3060 × 415
√

Limiting shear stress τc = ks 0.25 fck

ks = 0.5 + c1 /c2 < 1

= 0.5 + 300/400 = 1.25; hence, ks = 1.0.

√
τc = 1.0 × 0.25 20 = 1.118N/mm2 > 1.103N/mm2
Hence, it is safe in punching shear.
Step-6: Design the flexural reinforcement. Mc = 369.15 × 106 Nmm from
Step 3
Mu 360.15 × 106
R− − = 0.84
Bd2x 2550 × 4152
From Table 2 of SP 16, pt = 0.245% < pt = 0.35% required for one-way
shear.
Hence, provide 0.35 × 2550 × 415/100 = 3704mm2
Using 20mm bars, required number = 3704/314 = 12
Corresponding spacing = (2550 − 2 × 75 − 20)/11 = 216mm
Provide twelve 20mm bars in the long direction at a spacing of 216mmc/c
Check for development length
Required development length for 20mm bars (for M20 with Fe415 ) = 940mm
Available length = Lc − cover = 1125 − 75 = 1050mm > 940mm
Hence, it is safe.
Step-7: Design the reinforcement in the short direction.
The projection on both sides of the column in the short direction is the same
as that in the long direction. However, dy = 415 − 20 = 395mm. since
the percentage reinforcement is governed by one-way shear considerations,
provide the same reinforcement in this direction as well. In addition, the
difference in dimensions between the two sides (B = 2550mm and L =
2650mm ) is not significant. Hence, provide the bars at uniform spacing as
in the long direction.
Step-8: Check for the transfer of forces at column base.
In this case, some bars are in tension due to the bending moment. Hence, no
transfer of the tensile force is possible through bearing at the column-footing
interface. Hence, the column bars should be extended into the footing.
Required development length of 22mm column bars in tension 47 × 22 =
1034mm
Length available (including 90◦ bend on top of the upper layer of footing
reinforcement, with equivalent anchorage length for bend = 8 × db ) = (500−
75 − 20 − 20 − 22/2) + 8 × 22 = 550mm The balance of 1034 − 550 = 484mm
should be made up by extending these bars into the footing beyond the bend.
As the moment in the column is reversible, all bars should be provided with
this extension.
Note: Alternatively, a pedestal of size 450mm × 550mm may be provided
with small diameter bars to reduce the development length requirement.

7.3 Combined Footings

Very frequently we find that a column may have to be provided near the edge
of some property and it may not be possible to extend the footing beyond a
certain limit. In such a case the load on the footing will be eccentric, and
will result in uneven distribution of load to the supporting soil. Hence, an
alternative design would be to provide a common footing to the edge column
and to an interior column close to it. The column footing provided to the
two columns is called a combined footing. The shape of the combined footing
in plan shall be such that the line of action of the two column loads should
pass through the centroid of the foundation plan. With such a planning, the
loads of the two columns will be evenly distributed to the soil.
Combined footings are either rectangular or trapezoidal. A rectangular com-
bined footing is provided in the following circumstances.
(i) The width of the footing is restricted
(ii) The projection of the footing parallel to the length of the footing is re-
stricted on one side.
A trapezoidal combined footing is provided when the projections parallel
to the length of the footing is restricted on both the sides, i.e., the trape-
zoidal combined footing is provided when the length of the footing itself is
restricted.
Rectangular combined footing.
Let A and B represent two columns carrying loads Wa and Wb respectively.
Let the left column A be the exterior column and let B be the interior column.
Let the columns be l apart between centres. Due to boundary limitations,
let the offset on the left side of the exterior column A be restricted to xa .
Now the plan dimensions of the footing can be fixed as follows:
X 
Total column load = Wa + Wb = W
P
Weight of the foundation (this may be taken equal to 10% of W approxi-
mately).
= Wf
Total load transmitted to the soil
= (ΣW ) + Wf
∴ Area of foundation
P
( W ) + Wf
= Af =
safe bearing capacity of soil
Distance of centre of gravity of column loads from the axis of column A
Wb × 1
= x̄ =
(ΣW )
∴ Distance of C.G. of column loads from the left edge of the footing
= xa + x̄
In order the intensity of the soil reaction on the footing may be uniform, the

Figure 7.23: Combined footing

condition to be satisfied is that the C.G. of column loads (in plan) and the
C.G. of the foundation plan must coincide. To satisfy this condition, Length
of the footing
= L = 2 (xa + x̄)
After determining the length L of the footing the offset xb on the right side
of the column B can be easily determined.
L
xb = − (l − x̄)
2
since the area of the foundation is already calculated, we can determine the
area of the foundation
width b of the footing b = Thus, the plan dimensions
L
of the footing and the exact positions of the columns on the footing are
established. Net upward pressure on the footing
P
Total column load ( W)
=p= =
Area of footing Af
Thickness of the footing.
This is determined from punching shear and bending moment considerations.
Punching shear consideration under column A
If D = Overall depth of the footing
Puncting load under the column A
= Load on column A− Soil reaction on the area of column A
= Wa − p× area of column A
Factored punching load = 1.5× actual punching load
Ultimate punching shear resistance = Perimetre of column A × D× design
punching shear strength.
Equating the ultimate punching shear resistance to the factored punching
load,
(Perimeter of column A) × D × ( design punching shear strength)
= 1.5 [Wa − soil reaction on area of column A].
We can find D
Punching shear consideration under the column B
As in the previous case, we have the relation
(Perimeter of column B) × D × ( design punching shear strength)
= 1.5 [Wb − soil reaction on area of column B]
We can find D.
Generally we find the depth of footing required will be greater. from B.M.
consideration. B.M. Consideration
Let Wua = 1.5Wa and Wub = 1.5Wb be the factored column loads.
Uniform upward pressure intensity.
Wua + Wub
pu =
Af
Net upward reaction per unit length of the footing = ψ = pu b
wx2
B.M. under the column A = Mua = + a
2
wx2b
B.M. under the column B = Mub = +
2
Maximum hogging moment will occur at a section between the columns,
where the shear force is zero at a distance x from the left edge.
Equating the S.F. to zero, we get,
∴ wx = Wua
Wua
x=
w
∴ Max. hogging B.M. where,
wx2
= Mn0 max = − Wua (x − xa )
2
Wua
x=
w
This B.M. will be generally the greatest B.M. for the footing.
Mu, lim
Using M 20 concrete φ Fe 415 steel
Equating Mu, lim to Mu max

0.138fck bd2 = Mumax

s
Mu,max
d=
0.138fck
Assuming suitable diameter of bars and providing a clear cover of 60mm we
can find the overall depth.
The overall depth so determined may be increased a by 30% to 40% to limit
the shear stresses, and to reduce the steel area for economy consideration.
Reinforcement from B.M. Consideration. For the bending moments Mu,max , Mua
and Mub the reinforcements required are determined.
The moment Mua and sometimes the moment Mub may be so small, that
the reinforcements required may work out to be very small. In such cases a
minimum of 0.12% of gross sectional area may be provided when Fe415 steel
is used and 0.15% of gross sectional area may be provided when Fe250 steel
is used.
Shear Analysis.
Now we should determine the shear forces at all critical sections. S.F. at

Figure 7.24: Critical section for shear

the left edge = 0

S.F.just on L.H.S. of column A = S4 = +wxa
S.F.just on R.H.S. of column A = S2 = +wxa − Wua
S.F. just on R.H.S. of column B = S3 = −wxb
S.F.just on L.H.S. of column B = S1 = −wxb + Wub
These shear forces are named as S1 , S2 , S3 and S4 in the order of their mag-
nitude.
Nominal shear stresses due to the above shear forces are given by
S1 S2 S3 S4
τ1 = , τ2 = , τ3 = and τ4 =
bd bd bd bd
Critical section for shear In the cantilevering parts, the critical section for
shear should be considered at a distance of effective depth from the face of
the column.
In the part of the footing between the two columns the critical section for
shear is at a distance of effective depth from the column face or at the point
of contra-flexure whichever is closer to the column.
Let τc = permissible nominal shear stress.
In the zones where the nominal shear stress is less than τc nominal eight-
legged stirrups will be provided at a nominal spacing of 300mm centres.
Where the nominal shear stresses are greater than τc , 10 or 12 -legged stirrups
may be provided.
Sufficient longitudinal steel shall also be provided to support the stirrups.
To support eight-legged stirrups at least five longitudinal bars are needed at
the top and at the bottom. See Fig. 7.25 ( a )

Figure 7.25: The multi-legged stirrups

To support 12 -legged stirrups at least 7 longitudinal bars are needed at

the top and the bottom. See Fig. 7.25(b)
Disposition of top and bottom longitudinal bars.
The following points may be noted while deciding the provision and dispo-
 Figure 7.26: Bottom steel

sition of the longitudinal reinforcement.

Disposition of top bars
The top bars which have been determined for the maximum hogging bending
moment may be provided bwtween outer face of one column to outer face of
the other column. Beyond this region as much longitudinal steel as may be
needed to support the stirrups may be provided.(See figure 7.26(a))
Bottom bars under the column A
The bottom bars under the column A shall be extended into the interior of
the footing to the greater of the following distances:
(i) 30 φ from the outer face of column for M.S. bars and 47 φ from the outer
face of the column for tor steel.
(ii) Upto the point of contra-flexure
Bottom bars under the column B
The bottom bars under the column B shall be extended into the interior of
the footing for the greater of the following distances:
(i) 30 φ from the outer face of the column for M.S. bars and 47 φ from the
outer face of the column for tor steel.
(ii) Upto the point of contra-flexure.
(See figure 7.26(b))

Transverse bending.
The footing has also a tendency to bend in a transverse direction. However,
such bending is likely to occur for a certain region in the neighbourhood of
each column. For design purposes it may be assumed that such transverse
 Figure 7.27: Disposition of top bars

bending will occur for a distance equal to the effective depth measured from
the face of the column.
Consider a strip of unit width bending in a transverse direction.
Maximum transverse bending moment per unit width

pu f 2
=M =
2
where pu upward pressure intensity and = f = Maximum transverse projec-
tion.

Now we can calculate the transverse steel required for this bending mo-
ment.
The transverse steel is placed over the bottom longitudinal bars in the zone
of transverse bending.
 Figure 7.28: Region of Transverse Bending

Solved Examples : Combined footing

Example- : Design a reinforced concrete combined rectangular footing for
two columns A and B located 3.60 metres apart. The sizes of the columns
are 400mm×400mm and 600mm×600mm and the loads on them are 1000kN
and 1500 kN respectively. The projection of the footing parallel to the length
of the footing beyond the axis of the column A is limited to 590mm. The
safe bearing capacity of the soil is 280kN/m2 . Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415
steel.

Solution.
Total load on the two columns = 1000 + 1500 = 2500kN
Approximate weight of foundation (10% of column load ) = 250kN
Total load transmitted to the soil = 2750 kN
 Figure 7.29: Arrangement of reinforcement

Safe bearing capacity of the soil = 280kN/m2

2750
∴ Area of the foundation = = 9.821m2
280
Distance of the resultant column load from the axis of column
1500 × 3.60
A= = 2.16m
2500
Distance of the resultant column load from the left edge of the footing =
0.59 + 2.16 = 2.75m For the condition that the resultant of the column loads
must pass through the centroid of the foundation plan, length of the footing
9.821
= L = 2 × 2.75 = 5.50m ∴ Width of the footing = B = = 1.79m
5.50
say 1.80m Fig. 7.30 shows the position of the two columns on the foundation
plan. Net upward pressure intensity on the footing.
1000 + 1500
=p= = 252.52kN/m2
5.5 × 1.8
 Figure 7.30: Example-1

Depth of the footing

(i) Punching shear consideration under the column A
Punching load = Column load − Reaction of soil on column area
= 1000 − 252.52 × 0.402 = 959.60kN = 959600N
Factored punching load = 1.5 × 959600 = 1439400N
ing shear stress = 1.80N/mm2
Design punching shear stress
Equating punching shear resistance to the factored punching load
4 × 400 × D × 1.80 = 1439400 ∴ D = 499.8mm
(ii) Punching shear consideration under the column B
Punching load = 1500 − 252.52 × 0.602 = 1409kN
Factored punching load = 1.5 × 1409 = 2113.5kN = 2113500N
Equating punching shear resistance to the factored punching load
4 × 600 × D × 1.80 = 2113500 ∴ D = 489.2mm
(iii) B.M.Consideration
Factored load on column A = 1.5 × 1000 = 1500kN
Factored load on column B = 1.5 × 1500 = 2250kN
Reaction of soil on the footing per metre run
1500 + 2250
= = 681.818kN/m
5.50
0.592
B.M. under the coloumn A = Ma = +681.818 × = +118.67kNm
2
 Figure 7.31: Example-1-BMD

1.312
B.M. under the column B = Mb = +681.818 × = +585.03kNm
2
The maximum hogging moment occurs at a section where the shear force is
zero.
Let this section be x metres from the left end.
Equating the shear force to zero,
681.818x − 1500 = 0
∴ x = 2.20m
2.202
∴ Mmax = 681.818 × − 1500(2.20 − 0.59) = −765kNm
2
Points of Contraflexure
Equating the general expression for bending moment to zero,
x2
681.818 − 1500(x − 0.59) = 0
2
2
or x − 4.4x + 2.596 = 0
Solving we get, x = 0.70m and 3.70m from the left end.
Equating Mu,lim to Mmax
 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 × 20 × 1800d2 = 765 × 106
∴ d = 392.4mm

Providing 16mmφ bars at a clear cover of 60mm

Effective cover to the centre of steel = 60 + 8 = 68mm
Overall depth = 392.4 + 68 = 452.4mm
For economic use of steel increase the depth by 40%
∴ Overall depth = 1.40 × 452 − 4 = 634mm
Provide an overall depth of 650mm
Actual effective depth = d = 650 − 68 = 582mm
Reinforcement from B.M. Consideration
Top steel for maximum hogging moment of 765 kNm

Mmax 765 × 106

= = 1.255
bd2 1800 × 5822
Percentage of steel required
Provide 20 bars of 16mmφ (4020mm2 )
Bottom steel under the column A for a sagginlg moment of 118.67kNm

Ma 118.67 × 106
= = 0.195
bd2 1800 × 5822
Percentage of steel required
Minimum percentage of steel
 r 
4.6
1 − 1−
20
× 0.195 
pt = 50   = 0.05%
 415 
20
= 0.12%

0.12
∴ Ast = (1800 × 582) = 1258mm2
100
Provide 7 bars of 16mmφ (1407mm2 )
Bottom steel under the column B for a sagging moment of 585.03kNm

Mb 585.03 × 106
= = 0.96
bd2 1800 × 5822
Percentage of steel required
 r 
4.6
1 − 1−
20
× 0.96 
pt = 50   = 0.283%
 415 
20
0.283
Ast = (1800 × 582) = 2965mm2
100
Provide 15 bars of 16mmφ (3015mm2 )
Shear analysis

Figure 7.32: Example-1-SFD

S.F. on LHS of column A = +681.818 × 0.59 = +402.27kN

S.F. on RHS of column A = +402.27 − 1500 = −1097.73kN
S.F.on RHS of column B = −681.818 × 1.31 = −893.18kN
S.F. on LHS of column B = −893.18 + 2250 = +1356.82kN
Cantilevering Parts.
The critical section for shear is taken at a distance equal to the effective
depth from the face of the column.
Cantilevering part on the left side of column A
Cantilever projection beyond the column face = 0.59 − 0.20 = 0.39m =
390mm But, effective depth = 582mm
Hence provide nominal 8 legged 10 mm φ stirrups @300mmc/c
Cantilevering part on the right side of column B
Cantilever projection beyond the column face
= 1.31 − 0.30 = 1.01m = 1010mm
Critical section is taken at a distance of effective depth i.e. 58fmm from the
column face.
Distance of the critical section from the axis of column B
= 300 + 582 = 882mm or 0.882m
1.31 − 0.882
S.F. at the critical section = × 893.18 = 291.82kN
1.31
291.82 × 1000
Nominal shear stress τv = = 0.28N/mm2
1800 × 582
3015
Percentage of steel provided = × 100 = 0.29%
1800 × 582
τc = Design shear strength corresponding to 0.29% steel = 0.38N/mm2

τv < τc

Provide nominal 8 legged 10 mm φ stirrups @ 300 mm c/c.

Footing between the two columns
Footing on the right side of column A
The critical section should be considered at the lesser of the following dis-
tances from the axis of column A
(i) Half column size + effective depth = 200 + 582 = 782mm = 0.782m
(ii) Distance up to the point of contraflexure = 0.11m Hence, the critical
section is taken at 0.11m from the axis of column A
S.F. at this critical section
1.61 − 0.11
= × 1097.73 = 1022.73kN
1.61
Nominal shear stress
1022.73 × 1000
= τv = = 0.98N/mm2
1800 × 582
Percentage of steel provided
4020
= × 100 = 0.39%
1800 × 582
Design shear strength for 0.39% steel = τc = 0.43N/mm2 Shear resistance
of concrete
= τc bd = 0.43 × 1800 × 582
= 450468N = 450.468N
450.468
This S.F. occurs at a distance of × 1.61 = 0.66m from the section of
1097.73
zero shear.
or 1.61 − 0.66 = 0.95m = 950mm from the axis of column A
Net shear for which shear reinforcement is required

Vs = 1022.73 × 1000 − 450468 = 572262N

Spacing of 10 legged 12mmφ stirrups

0.87 × 415(10 × 113)582

= = 414mm
572262
Provide 10 legged 12 mm φ stirrups @300mm c/c.
Footing on the left side of column B
The critical section should be considered at the lesser of the following dis-
tances from the axis of column B.
(i) Half column size + effective depth = 300 + 582 = 882mm
(ii) Distance up to the point of contraflexure = 490mm = 0.49m
Hence, the critical section is taken at 0.49m from the axis of column B.
1.99 − 0.49
S.F. at this critical section = × 1356, 82 = 1022.73kN
1.99
1022.73 × 103
Nominal shear stress τv = = 0.98N/mm2
1800 × 582
This is the same as the nominal shear stress at the other critical section on
the right’side of column A
Hence here also Provide 10 legged 12 mmφ stirrups @ 300 mm c/c.
We know τc = 0.43N/mm2
Shear resistance of concrete = τc bd = 0.43 × 1800 × 582 = 450468N =
450.468N
450.468
This shear force occurs at a distance of × 1.99 = 0.66m from the
1356.82
 Figure 7.33: Disposition of bars under the columns- Example-1

section of zero shear.

Or 1.99 − 0.66 = 1.33m = 1330mm from the axis of column B.

Disposition of longitudinal reinforcement.

Top bars. Twenty bars of 16mm φ have been provided for the maximum
hogging moment. All these twenty bars are provided between the outer
face of the column A to the outer face of the column B. Beyond this, we
will provide as many longitudinal bars as may be necessary to support the
stirrups. Bottom bars under the column A. 7 bars of 16mmφ have been
provided. These bars are extended into the interior of the footing for the
greater of the following distances
(i) Up to the point of contra-flexure = 110mm from the axis of column A.
(ii)47 φ diameters from the outer face of the column A = 47 × 16 = 752mm
from the outer face of the column A = 752 − 200 = 552mm from the axis of
the column A
Further beyond provide as many longitudinal bars as may be necessary to
support the stirrups.
Transverse reinforcement.
1.80 − 0.40
Maximum transverse projection = = 0.70m
2
Net upward pressur intensity = 252.52N/m2
For a 1m wide strip,
0.702
maximum transverse bending moment = 252.52 × = 61.867kNm
2
 Figure 7.34: Detailing of reinforcement Example-1

Factored moment Mu = 61.867 × 1.5 = 92.80kNm

Providing 10mmφ bars,
effective depth to the centre of transverse bars = 582 − 8 − 5 = 569mm
Percentage of steel required
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 0.287 
pt = 50   = 0.08%
 415 
20
Minimum percentage of steel = 0.12%

Mu 92.80 × 106
= = 0.287
bd2 1000 × 5692
0.12
∴ Ast = (1000 × 569) = 683mm2
100
79 × 1000
Spacing of 10mmφ bars = = 115mm
683
Provide 10mmφ@110mmc/c
This reinforcement is provided for a distance of effective depth of the footing,
i.e., 582mm beyond each face of the columns.
Example- : Design a rectangular combined footing for two columns A and
B located 4.50 m apart. The sizes of the columns are 400mm × 400mm and
600mm × 600mm respectively the loads on them are 1200kN and 1800kN
respectively. The projection of the footing parallel to the length of the footing
beyond the axis of the column A is restricted to 0.75 m. Safe bearing capacity
of the soil = 275kN/m2 . Use M 20 concrete and Fe 250 steel.
Solution.
Total load on the two columns = 3000kN
Approximate weight of footing = 300kN
Total = 3300kN
Safe bearing capacity of the soil = 275kN/m2
A Area required from the footing
3300
= = 12m2
275
Distance of the resultant column load from the axis of column A
1800 × 4.50
= = 2.70m
3000
∴ Distance of the resultant column load from the left edge of the footing

= 0.75 + 2.70 = 3.45m

For the condition that the resultant column load should act at the centroid
of the foundation plan, the length of the footing = 2 × 3.45 = 6.90m
Width of the footing
12
=B= = 1.74m
6.90
Provide a width of 1.75m. Fig. 28.46 shows the position of the columns on
the footing.
Projection of the footing on the right side of the column B

= 3.45 − 1.80 = 1.65m

Net upward pressure intensity on the footing

3000
p= = 248.45kN/m2
6.90 × 1.75
Depth of the footing

Figure 7.35: Example-2

(i) Punching shear consideration under the column A

Punching load = Column load - Reaction of soil on column area Factored
punching load

= 1200 − 248.45 × 0.402 = 1160.248kN

= 1.50 × 1160.248 = 1740.372kN
Design punching shear stress for M20 concrete = 1.80N/mm2 Equating punch-
ing shear resistance to the factored punching load,

4 × 400 × D × 1.80 = 1740.372 × 103

D = 604mm

(ii) Punching shear consideration under the column B

Punching load = 1800 − 248.45 × 0.602 = 1710.558kN
Factored punching load = 1.50 × 1710.558 = 2565.837kN

Equating punching shear resistance to the factored punching load,

4 × 600 × D × 1.80 = 2565.837 × 103 ∴ D = 594mm

(iii) B. M. Consideration
Factored load on column A = 1.50 × 1200 = 1800kN
Factored load on column B = 1.50 × 1800 = 2700, kN
Reaction on the footing per metre run
1800 + 2700
= = 652.174kN/m
6.90

B.M. under the column A

0.752,1
= +652.174 × = +183.42kNm
2!
B.M. under the column
1.652
B = +652.174 × = +887.77kNm
2
The maximum hogging moment occurs at a section where the shear force is
zero.
Let this section be x metres from the left end.
Equating the shear force fo zero,

652.174x − 1800 = 0 ∴ x = 2.76m

∴ Maximum hogging moment

2.762
= 652.174 × − 1800(2.76 − 0.75) = −1134kN m
2
 Figure 7.36: BMD-Example-2

Poins of contra-flexure Let the B.M. be zero at a distance of x metres from

the left end.
x2
∴ 652.174 − 1800(x − 0.75) = 0
2
∴ x2 − 5.52x + 4.14 = 0
Solving we get x = 0.90m and 4.63m from the left end.
Equating Mu, lint to Mu,max

0.149fch bd2 = 0.149 × 20 × 1750d2 = 1134 × 106

∴ d = 467mm

Providing 20mmφ bars at a clear cover of 60mm

Effective cover to centre of steel = 60 + 10 = 70mm ∴
Overall depth = 467 + 70 = 537mm
For economic use of steel, increase the overall depth by about 50%.
∴ Overall depth required = 1.50 × 537 = 805.5mm
Provide an overall depth of 800 mm
Actual effective depth d = 800 − 70 = 730mm
Reinforcement from B.M. Consideration
Top steel for maximum hogging moment

Mmax 1134 × 106

= = 1.216
bd2 1750 × 7302
  r 
4.6
1 − 1−
20
× 1.216 
Percentage of steel required pt = 50 ·   = 0.605%
 250 
20
0.605
Ast = × 1750 × 730 = 7729mm2
100
Provide 25 bars of 20mmφ (7850mm2 )
Bottom steel under the column A
for a sagging moment of 183.42kN/m

Mu 183.42 × 106
= = 0.197
bd2 1750 × 7302
Percentage of steel required pt
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 0.197 
= 50   0.09%
 250 
20

Minimum percentage of steel

= 0.12%
∴
0.12
Ast = × 1750 × 730 = 1533mm2
100
Provide 5 bars of 20mmφ (1570mm2 )
Bottom steel under the column B for a sagging moment of 887.77
kNm
Mu 887.77 × 106
= = 0.952
bd2 1750 × 7302
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 0.952 
Percentage of steel required pt = 50   0.465%
 250 
20
0.465
Ast = × 1750 × 730 = 5941mm2
100
Provide 19 bars of 20mmφ (5966mm2 )
Shear Analysis
S.F. on LHS of column A = +652.174 × 0.75 = +489.13kN
S.F. on RHS of column A = +489.13 − 1800 = −1310.87kN
S.F. on RHS of column B = −652.174 × 1.65 = −1076.09kN
S.F. on LHS of column B = −1076.09 + 2700 = +1623.91kN
Cantilevering parts.

Figure 7.37: CF-Example-2-SFD

The critical section for shear is taken at a distance equal to the effective
depth from the face of the column.
Cantilevering part on the left side of column A
Cantilevering projection beyond the column face

= 0.75 − 0.20 = 0.55m = 550mm

But, effective depth φ730mm

Hence provide nominal 8 leggel 10 mm φ stirrups @ 300 mm c/c
Cantilevering part on the right side of column B
Cantilevering projection heyond the column face

= 1.65 − 0.30 = 1.35m = 1350mm

Critical section is taken at a distance of effective depth i.e., 730mm from the
column face.
Distance of the critical section from the axis of column B

= 300 + 730 = 1030mm = 1.03m

S.F. at this critical section

1.65 − 1.03
= × 1076.09 = 404.35kN
1.65
404.35 × 103
τv = = 0.32N/mm2
1750 × 730
Nominal shear stress
Percentage of steel provided
5966
= × 100 = 0.47%
1750 × 730
For 0.47% steel τc = 0.47N/mm2
τv < τc
Provide nominal 8 legged 10 mm φ stirrups @300 mm c/c
Footing between the two columns
Footing on the right side of column A
The critical section should be considered at the lesser of the following dis-
tances from the axis of the column A,

1. Half the column size + effective depth = 200 + 730 = 930mm

2. Distance upto the point of contra-flexure = 150mm

Hence the critical section is taken at 0.15m from the axis of the column A.
S.F. at this critical section
2.01 − 0.15
= × 1310.87 = 1213.04kN
2.01
1213.04 × 103
Nominal shear stress = τv = = 0.95N/mm2
1750 × 730
7850
Percentage of steel provided = × 100 = 0.61%
1750 × 730
For 0.61% steel, τc = 0.51N/mm2
Shear resistance of concrete

= τc bd = 0.51 × 1750 × 730 = 651525m = 651.525kN

This S.F. occurs at a distance of

651.525
= × 2.01 = 1.00m from the point of zero shear
1310.87
Or, 2.01 − 1.00 = 1.01m from the axis of column A
Net shear force for which shear reinforcement is required

= Vs = 1213.04 − 651.525 = 561.515kN

Spacing of 10 legged 12mmφ stirrups

0.87 × 250(10 × 113)730
= = 319mm
561.515 × 103
Provide 10 legged 12mmφ stirrups @ 300mmc/c
Footing on the left side of column B̄
The critical section should be considered at the lesser of the following dis-
tances from the axis of the column B,
1. Half the column size + effective depth = 300 + 730 = 1030mm

2. Distance up to the point of contra-flexure = 0.62m = 620mm

Hence, the critical section is taken at 0.62m from the axis of the column B.
S.F. at this critical section
2.49 − 0.62
= × 1623.91 = 1219.56kN
2.49
Nominal shear stress
1219.56 × 103
τv = = 0.95N/mm2
1750 × 730
This is the same as the nominal shear stress at the other critical section on
the right side of column A.
Hence here also provide 10 legged 12 mm φ strirrups @300mmc/c
Shear resistance of concrete
= τc bd = 0.51 × 1750 × 730 = 651525N = 651.525kN
This shear force occurs at a distance of
651.525
× 2.44 = 1m from the section of zero shear
1623.91
Or 2.49 − 1.00 = 1.49m from the axis of the column B.
Disposition of longitudinal reinforcement
Top bars. 25 bars of 20mm φ have been provided for the maximum hogging
moment. All these 25 bars are provided between the outer face of the column
A to the outer face of the column B.
Beyond this, we will provide only as many longitudinal bars as may be nec-
essary to support the stirrups.
Bottom bars under the column A.

Figure 7.38: Disposition of Top bars Ex-2

5 bars of 16mm, have been provided. But just on RHS of column A 12 legged
stirrups are needed. Hence we will provide 7 bars instead of 5 bars. Beyond
a distance of 1010mm from the axis of column A 8 legged stirrups are pro-
vided and hence only 5 longitudinal bars are required to support the stirrups
beyond 1010mm from the axis of column A.
Disposition of bottom bars under the column B.
19 bars of 16mmφ have been provided. These 19 bars will be extended into
the interior of the footing for the greater of the following distances.
 1. Up to the point of contra-flexure = 620mm from the axis up the column
B
2. 30 diameters = 30 × 16 = 480mm from the outer face of column B or
480 − 300 = 180mm from the axis of the column B.
Transverse reinforcement
1.75 − 0.40
Maximun transverse projection = = 0.675m
2
Maximum transverse bending moment per metre width
0.6752
= M = 248.45 × = 56.60kNm
2
Factored moment Mu = 1.50 × 56.60 = 84.9kNm

Figure 7.39: Disposition of bottom bars Ex-2

Providing 10mmφ transverse bars, effective depth to the centre of transverse-

bars = d = 730 − 8 − 5 = 717mm
Mu 84.90 × 106
= = 0.165
bd2 1000 × 7172
Percentage of steel required
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 0.165 
pt = 50   = 0.077%
 250 
20 i

Minimum percentage of steel = 0.12%

0.12
∴ Ast = × 1000 × 717 = 860.4mm2
100
113p1000
Spacing of 12mmφ bars = = 131mm Provide 12 mm φ bars
860.40
@130mm. c/c This reinforcement is provided for a distance equal to the
effective depth of the footing i.e.730mm beyond each face of the column.
Example-3: Two columns A and B 5 metres apart between centres carry
loads 840 kN and 1200kN. Design a 2m wide combined rectangular footing
for the columns. The footing shall consist of a central longitudinal beem
with cantilevering slabs on either side. Each column is 400mm × 400mm.
The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 150kN/m2 . Use M 20 concrete and
Fe 415 steel.
Solution.
Total load on the two columns = 840 + 1200 = 2040kN
Approximate weight of foundation (10% of column loads) = 204kN
Total load transmitted to soil = 2244kN

Safe bearing capacity of the soil = 150kN/m2

2244
∴ Area of foundation = Af = = 14.96m2 , Say 15m2
150
Width of the footing = B = 2m
15
∴ Length of the footing = L = = 7.50m
2
Distance of the resultant column load from the axis of column A
1200 × 5
= = 2.941m
2040
For the condition of uniform distribution of load to the soil, the line of action
of the resultant column load must pass through the centroid of the foundation
plan.
For this condition, cantilever projection on left side of column A = 3.75
−2.941 = 0.809m.
Cantilever projection on right side of column B = 3.75 − 2.059 = 1.691m
Fig. 28.64 shows the position of the two columns and the foundation plan.
Net upward pressure intensity on the footing.
840 + 1200
=p= = 136kN/m2
2 × 7.50
Design of the footing slab
Transverse projection of the footing slab
2 − 0.40
= = 0.80m
2
Figure 7.40: Reinforcement details Example-2
 Figure 7.41: The position of the two columns and the foundation plan

Consider a 1m wide strip of the footing slab.

136 × 0.802
B.M. per metre width = = 43.52kNm
2
Factored moment Mu = 1.5 × 43.52 = 65.28kNm
Equating Mu,lim to Mu0
0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 65.28 × 106
∴ d = 154mm
Providing 12mm φ bars at a clear cover of 60mm,
Effective cover = 60 + 6 = 66mm
Overall depth = 154 + 66 = 220mm
The depth may be increased by 30% to 40% to bring economy in steel and
to limit shear stresses.
Provide on overall depth of 300mm
Actual effective depth d = 300 − 66 = 234mm

Mu 65.28 × 106
= = 1.192
bd2 1000 × 2342
Percentage of steel required
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 1.192 
pt = 50   = 0.357%
 415 
20
0.357
Ast = × 1000 × 234 = 836mm2
100
113 × 1000
Spacing of 12mmφ bars = = 135mm
836
Provide 12 mm φ bars @130mm c/c.
113 × 1000
Actual area of steel provided = Ast = = 869mm2
130
869
Actual percentage of steel provided = × 100 = 0.37%
1000 × 234
Design shear strength for 0.37% steel = 0.43 N/mm 2
Critical section for shear is taken at a distance equal to effective depth from
the face of the beam.
Let the width of he longitudinal beam be 400mm.
Shear force at the critical section = 136(0.80 − 0.234) = 76.976kN
76.976 × 108
Nominal shear stress = τv = = 0.33N/mm2
1000 × 234
τv < τc

Distribution Steel Distribution steel required per metre width

0.12
= × 1000 × 300 = 360mm2
100
50 × 1000
Spacing of 8mmφ bars = = 138mm
360
Provide 8mm φ bars @ 130mm c/c.
Design of the longitudinal beam
Factored load on column A = 1.5 × 840 = 1260kN
Factored load on column B = 1.5 × 1200 = 1800kN
1260 + 1800
Reaction on the beam per metre run = = 408kN/m
7.50
2
0.809
B.M. under the column A = +408 × = +133.514kNm
2
 1.6912
B.M. under the column B = +408 × = +583.333kNm
2
Maximum hogging moment will occur at a section where the shear force is
zero.
Let this section be x metres from the left end.
Equating the shear force to zero,

408 × −1260 = 0
∴ x = 3.088m
408 × 3.0882
∴ Mmax = − 1260(3.088 − 0.809) = −926.248kN m
2
Points of contra-flexure

Figure 7.42: BMD-Example-3

Let the B.M. be zero at a distance of x metres from the left end.
Equating the B.M. to zero.
x2
408 − 1260(x − 0.809) = 0
2
x2 − 6.176x + 4.997 = 0
Solving we get x = 0.958m and x = 5.218m

There are two points of contra-flexure O1 and O2 one near the column A and
the other near the column B.
Distance of O1 from the axis of column A = 0.958 − 0.809 = 0.149m
Distance of O2 from the axis of column B = 5.809 − 5.218 = 0.591m
Depth of beam
B.M. Consideration Note that in the cantilevering portions the beam acts as
a rectangular section, while in the region of hogging moment the beam acts
as a T-beam section.
Cantilever on RHS of Column B Maximum positive bending moment for
rectangular section = Mu = 583.333kNm
Equating Mu,lim to Mu

0.138fch bd2 = 0.138 × 20 × 400 × d2 = 583.333 × 106

∴ d = 727mm
Providing 20mmφ bars at a clear cover of 60mm
Effective cover = 60 + 10 = 70mm
Overall depth = 727 + 70 = 797mm
The depth may be increased by about 25% to economize the steel requirement
Provide an overall depth of 1000mm
Actual effective depth d = 1000 − 70 = 930mm
Ultimate moment at the face of the column
(1.691 − 0.200)2
= Mu = 408 × = 453.509kNm
2
Mu 453.509 × 106
= = 1.31
bd2 400 × 9302
Percentage of steel required
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 1.31 
pt = 50   = 0.395%
 415 
20
0.395
Ast = × 400 × 930 = 1469.4mm2
100
Provide 5 bars of 20mmφ (1570mm2 )
Cantilever on LHS of Column A Maximum Positive moment
(0.809 − 0.200)2
Mu = 408 = 75.66kNm
2
Mu 75.66 × 106
= = 0.219
bd2 400 × 9302
Percentage of steel required Percentage of steel required
 r 
4.6
 1 − 1 − 20 × 0.219 
pt = 50   = 0.06%
 415 
20
85 85
Minimum percentage of steel = = = 0.20%
fy 415

0.20
∴ Ast = × 400 × 930 = 744mm2
100
Provide 4 bars of 16mmφ (804mm2 )
Top steel for maximum hogging moment of 926.248 kNm
In this portion of the beam i.e., in the region between the points of contra-
flexure the beam acts as an isolated T− beam.
Flange width of this isolated T −beam
l0
B= + br
l0
+4
b
where lo = distance between the points of contra-flexure

= 5 − 0.149 − 0.591 = 4.26m = 4260mm

b = Actual width of the flange = 2000mm
br = breadth of the web = 400mm
4260
∴ B= + 400 = 1095mm (less than b)
4260
+4
2000
For xu = Flange thickness = 250mm