Origin of the Earth: (Geomorphology) Geography

Optional UPSC
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By LotusArise September 17, 2019

Today you’re going to learn various theories of the origin of the earth. First of all, You
should know that all the concepts, hypotheses and theories propounded for the
origin of the solar system are also applicable to the origin of the earth.

In this article, we will read a total of 8 theories of the origin of the universe.

1. Gaseous hypothesis of Kant

2. Nebular hypothesis of Laplace
3. Planetesimal hypothesis of Chamberlin
4. Jean and Jeffery’s tidal theory
5. Russel’s binary Star Hypothesis
6. Hoyle’s supernova hypothesis
7. Schmidt’s interstellar hypothesis
8. Big bang theory

1. Gaseous hypothesis of Kant

Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher, presented his treatise entitled ‘The
General Natural History and Theory of the Heaven or the Essay on the Working and
Mechanical Origin of the Entire Universe on the Basis of Newtonian Laws’ in 1755.
Kant claimed that his ‘gaseous hypothesis’ of the origin of the earth was based on
the sound principles of Newton’s laws of gravitation and rotatory motion.
In the beginning his hypothesis acclaimed world-wide appreciation but later
on it was disproved as it was based on erroneous concepts and wrong
application of Newtonian laws of gravitation.
Inspite of severe criticism the hypothesis was considered a great step forward in the
field of cosmogony and ‘he almost reverberated the mid-18th century with his
words…Give me matter and I will build a world out of it.’
Kant postulated his gaseous hypothesis of the origin of the earth on the basis of a
few assumptions. He assumed that supernaturally created primordial hard
matter was scattered in the universe.

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In fact, according to Kant there was a primeval, slowly rotating cloud of gas
(now called a nebula) and matter comprised of very cold, solid and motionless
particles.
Nebula – It is a primordial (primitive) amorphous (without shape) mass of
cloud of gas and dust.
In terms of modern scientific language it can be said (but not described by
Kant) that the temperature of primordial matter was near about -273 °C or
absolute zero or 0 K. This was the reason that cold matter was initially
motionless (according to the molecular theory of matter).
He further assumed that the particles began to collide against each other under
their mutual gravitational attractions. This mutual attraction and collision
between the particles generated random motion in the primordial matter. Collision
of the particles also generated friction which generated heat, with the result the
temperature of the primordial matter started rising.
He further argued that the random motion of the particles also generated
rotatory motion in the primordial matter. Thus, the original cold and motionless
cloud of matter became in due course a vast hot nebula and started spinning
(rotating) around its axis.
According to Kant with the increase in temperature, the random motion as well
as the rate of collision among the particles also increased. This gave extra
impetus of the rate of rotatory motion (spinning) of the primordial matter. The
rise in temperature also changed the state of primordial matter from solid to
gaseous particles. Thus, the initial primordial matter gradually changed in hot
rotating nebula. With continuous rise in temperature and rate of rotatory motion the
nebula started expanding in size.
According to Immanuel Kant as the heat increased, the size of nebula increased
and as the size of nebula increased, the angular velocity or rotatory speed
further increased. Due to continuous increase in the size of nebula the rotatory
speed became so fast that the centrifugal force (away from the centre) exceeded
the attractional or centripetal force (directed towards the centre).
The nebula started spinning so rapidly that an irregular ring was separated
from the middle part of the nebula and was ultimately thrown off due to
centrifugal force. By the repetition of the same process a system of concentric
rings (nine) were separated from the nebula. The residual central mass of the
nebula remained as the sun.
The irregularity of the rings caused the development of the cores (knots) for
the formation of the corresponding planets. In other words, all the matters of
each ring were aggregated at a point to form a core or a knot which ultimately grew
as a planet in due course of time. Thus, it is apparent that according to Kant the
earth was formed due to aggregation of all the matter of the ring which was
separated from the nebula due to centrifugal force.

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By the repetition of same process rings were separated from the newly
formed planets and the materials of each ring were condensed to form
satellites of the concerned planets. Thus, the whole solar system comprised
of the sun (residual part of the rotating nebula), nine planets and their
satellites were formed.

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Evaluation
Though Immanuel Kant based his gaseous hypothesis on scientific principles (Newton’s
law of gravitation) to solve the problem of the origin of the solar system and the earth but
his hypothesis has been rendered baseless because it is based on several
erroneous facts of science. In fact, Kant’s hypothesis was declared dynamically
unsound:

1. It was one of the basic assumptions of Kant’s hypothesis that there was primordial
matter in the universe but he never explained the source of the origin of the
primordial matter.

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 2. Kant did not explain the source of energy to cause random motion of the
particles of the primordial matter which were cold and motionless in the initial
stage.
According to Newton’s first law of motion ‘a body remains at rest, or if in
motion it remains in uniform motion with constant speed, unless or until
an external force is applied on it.’ The particles of the primordial matter, as
assumed by Kant, were at rest and no external force was applied on them,
then what was the cause for the random motion among the particles of
primordial matter?
3. The collision among the particles of the primordial matter can never generate
rotatory motion in it. It is an erroneous statement of mechanism.
It means that if anybody is rotating, the total amount of its angular
momentum will always remain constant unless an external force is
applied on the rotating body.
This statement is erroneous as it is against the law of conservation of angular
momentum.

Thus, the very foundation, on which Kant’s hypothesis was based, is proved
unsound and wrong. However, the importance of Kant’s hypothesis lies in the fact that it
was first scientific attempt for the explanation of the origin of the earth. In fact, Kant’s
hypothesis paved the way for the postulation of nebular hypothesis by Laplace.

2. Nebular hypothesis of Laplace

Laplace, a French scholar, proposed the “Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace,”
which is one of the earliest theories on the origin of the earth. Laplace attempted
to revise Kant’s Gaseous Hypothesis.
In terms of the assumption of primordial matter, Laplace’s nebular hypothesis
differs from Kant’s. Kant considered that primordial substance was composed
of a cloud or nebula of cold static matter. Nebulae, according to Laplace, are
made out of hot primordial matter. Pierre Simon de Laplace suggested the Nebular
Hypothesis in 1796.

Assumptions

He assumed that there was a huge and hot gaseous nebula in the space.
From the very beginning huge and hot nebula was rotating on its axis.
The nebula was continuously cooling due to loss of heat from its outer surface
through the process of radiation and thus it was continuously reduced in size due to
contraction on cooling.

According to Laplace

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 Based on the above mentioned assumptions Laplace believed that the nebula was
formed of gases rather than solids, and that everything, including the sun, stars,
plants, and asteroids, was formed from the nebula cloud.
Initially, there was a nebula cloud composed of Helium, Hydrogen, and dust
particles, with a size similar to that of the present-day solar system.
Since, Nebula was continuously reduced in size due to gradual loss of heat from the
outer surface of the nebula through radiation.
Thus, Reduction in the size and volume of the nebula increased the circular velocity
(rotatory motion) of the nebula.
Due to the increase in velocity, nebula started spinning at very fast speed and
consequently the centrifugal force becomes so great that it exceeded the centripetal
force.
Consequently, the Outer surface was condensed due to excessive cooling and so it
could not rotate with the still cooling and contracting the central nucleus of the
nebula.
And, Thus the outer ring was separated from the remaining part of the nebula.
And this separated ring started moving around the nebula.
Laplace further maintained that the original ring was divided into nine rings and
each ring moved away from the outer ring.
Thus, nine planets were formed from the nine rings and the remaining central
nucleus of the nebula become the Sun.

Evaluations

He did not describe the source of the origin of the nebula.

He did not explain that, why did only 9 rings come out from irregular ring detached
from the nebula?
If the sun is the remaining nucleus of the nebula as claimed Laplace, it should have
a small bulge around its middle part which would point out the probable separation
of the irregular ring from the sun but there is no such bulge in the middle part of the
sun.
According to the nebular hypothesis all satellites should revolve in the direction of
father planets but few satellites of Saturn and Jupiter revolve in the opposite
direction of their father planets.
The nebular hypothesis is unable to explain the peculiar distribution of present-day
angular momentum in our solar system.

Outcome: The merit of the theory lies in the fact that it is the most acceptable
explanation in explaining the layered structure of the earth’s interior.

3. The planetesimal hypothesis of Chamberlin (1905)

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The conroversy of peculiar redistribution of angular momentum in our solar system
from the original angular momentum of Laplace’s nebula shattered the very basis of
mono-parental or monistic concepts of the origin of the earth (and the planets). That
is why , the idea of biparental or dualistic concept of the origin of the earth started
gaining currency and respect among the scientists of the 1st quarter of the 20th
century. Planetesimal hypothesis propounded jointly by Chamberlin and
Moulton belongs to the dualistic concepts of the origin of the earth.
Planetesimal hypothesis not only explains the origin of the earth but also throws
light on the structure of the earth, the origin of its atmosphere and continents and
ocean basins.
Unlike monistic concept (e.g. gaseous hypothesis of Immanuel Kant and nebular
hypothesis of Laplace) the planetesimal hypothesis envisaged the origin of the
solar system (and the earth) with the help of two heavenly bodies.
According to Chamberlin initially there were two heavenly bodies (stars) in the
universe –
Proto-Sun
and its Companion Star or Intruding star
The behavior and properties of proto-sun were not like other stars, It was formed of
very small particles which were cold and solid. Thus, the proto-sun, unlike
Laplace’s nebula, was not hot and gaseous rather it was formed of solid particles
and was cold and circular in shape. There was another star, termed as ‘intruding
star’ or ‘companion star which was destined to pass very close the proto-sun.
When the intruding star came very close to the the Proto-Sun infinite number of
small particles were detached from the outer surface of proto-sun due to
massive gravitational pull exerted by the giant intruding star. This matter which is
dust, gases, rock fragments eventually accrete forming planets & other
celestial bodies that revolve around the proto sun.
Initially, the detached particles or planetesimals were just like dust particles. The
planetesimals were not of uniform size rather a few planetesimals around the
proto-sun were of fairly big size. These larger planetesimals became nuclei for
the formation of future possible planets. Gradually, large planetesimals started
attracting small planetesimals.
Thus, numerous small planetesimals were accreted (added) to the nuclei of large
planetesimals and ultimately these large planetesimals grew in the form of planets
due to continuous accretion of infinite number of planetsimals. With the passage of
time, the remaining proto-sun changed into the present-day sun. The satellites
of the planets were created due to the repetition of the same processes and
mechanisms.

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4. Jean and Jeffery’s tidal theory
This theory is somewhat similar to Chamberlin’s theory that an intruding star ejects
matter from the proto sun. Chamberlin, in his theory, had assumed the proto
sun to be initially as a cold body whereas the Tidal theory assumes the proto
sun to be hot and incandescent.
According to Tidal theory, the matter ejected are not randomly thrown dust, gases,
planetesimal.

The ejected matter was in the shape of a cigar and was called Filament from
which the planets & other celestial bodies accrete.
This theory is the best interpretation in explaining the sizes of the planets as
they have arranged themselves away from the sun.

5. Russel’s binary Star Hypothesis

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 There is a binary star system (two stars coupled together and rotating around a
fixed center of mass).
The intruding star comes close to the binary stars & eject matter from one of
the stars. (It doesn’t explain what happened to the intruding star and the remainant
of the star from which matter got ejected.)
The ejected matter circulates into planets and revolves around the proto sun.
This theory is convenient to explain why the composition of planets is
different from the sun.

6. Hoyle’s supernova hypothesis

According to Hoyle initially there were two stars in the universe –
Primitive Sun and
Companion star
The companion star was giant and later on became supernova due to nuclear
reaction.
Over time, all of the hydrogen nuclei of companion star were consumed in the
process of nuclear reaction and it collapsed and violently exploded
The Violent explosion of companion star resulted in the spread of enormous
mass of dust which started revolving around the primitive sun in the form of a
circular disc
The matter of this disc became building material for the formation of the future of
planets.
Thus, the planets of our solar system were formed due to condensation of the
matter of the disc.

7. Schmidt’s interstellar hypothesis

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 According to this theory, the initial universe comprised of stars & randomly
distributed matter filling up the space in between.
According to Schimidt, this dark matter, started to revolve around the primitive
rotating sun and gradually the dark matter stars accreting & condensing & thus
forming the solar system.
Though Schimidt did not explain the mode of origin of these dark matters. These
dark matters were called ‘inter-stellar dusts’ by Schimidt.
This theory may be considered as explaining the processes that preceded the
Nebular accretionary process of Laplace & Kant.

8. BIG BANG THEORY

Big Bang theory’s idea was first given by George Le Naitre in the 1920s & was gradually
contributed by many scientists. But an important role was played by Gamenov (1970’s).

According to this theory, Everything in the universe has emerged from a point known
as the singularity, 15 billion years ago.

The galaxies moved apart from one another as the empty space between them
expanded.

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Watch Video At: https://youtu.be/HdPzOWlLrbE

Theory:

The universe expanded from a very high density & high-temperature state.

There was a major cosmic explosion 13-15 bn yrs ago from which all the matter of the
universe was thrown out which eventually accreted to form stars, solar system and
celestial bodies.

Watch Video At: https://youtu.be/pivS9HzattI

Evidence in support:

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1. Red Shift: As an object (light) moves away from us, its wavelength increases &
shift to the Red end of the spectrum (Called Red Shift).
2. CBMR: Electromagnetic Radiation which was present shortly after the big bang, is
now observed as background microwave radiation.

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