Food Analysis-6

RHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF FOODS

• Rheology is a field of physical material sciences. Invented by Professor Bingham
who wrote that rheology is “the study of the deformation and flow of matter”
• The word “rheology” came from the Greek “Reo” that means flow. It is the study of
the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as "soft solids" or solids
under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming
elastically in response to an applied force.
• Rheology evaluates the connections between the forces acting on a material and the
deformations of material what the forces cause.
• Food rheology is the study of the rheological properties of food, that is, the
consistency and flow of food under tightly specified conditions.
• The consistency, degree of fluidity, and other mechanical properties are important
in understanding how long food can be stored, how stable it will remain, and in
determining food texture.
• The acceptability of food products to the consumer is often determined by food
texture, such as how spreadable and creamy a food product is. Food rheology is
important in quality control during food manufacture and processing.
Classification of the rheological systems
• ELASTIC DEFORMATION: Elastic deformation is a change in shape of a
material at low stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed.
• FLOW DEFORMATION: Flow is a change in deformation that continues
as long as the force is applied. When the deformation remains after the
termination of stress ,the deformation is irreversible.
• VISCOELASTIC DEFORMATION: Viscoelasticity is the property of
materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when
undergoing deformation. Viscous materials, like honey, resist shear flow
and strain linearly with time when a stress is applied. Elastic materials
strain when stretched and quickly return to their original state once the
stress is removed.
• PLASTIC DEFORMATION: A permanent deformation or change in shape
of a solid body without fracture under the action of a sustained force.
When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is called
plastic deformation.
 PRINCIPLES OF RHEOMETRY
• A rheometer is a laboratory device used to measure the way in which a liquid,
suspension or slurry flows in response to applied forces. It is used for those fluids
which cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more
parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. It measures the
rheology of the fluid.
• It is the measurement of rheological parameters of the materials, i. e., chewability of a
chewing gum or jelly, the crunchiness of potato chips or a biscuit or the tenderness of a
roast meat can be characterized, quantified and compared to other products and
technologies.
• There are two different types of rheometers.
a. Rheometers that control the applied shear stress or shear strain are called rotational
rheometers.
b. Rheometers that apply extensional stress or extensional strain are extensional
rheometers.
 VISCOMETERY
• Instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid is called viscometer. Viscometers only
measure under one flow condition.
❖PRINCIPLE: Viscometers usually work by comparing a stationary object and a fluid flow, or
vice versa. Hence, a viscometer could be placed in a fluid flow or moved through a stationary
fluid. The flow must have a Reynolds number in the laminar region in order to record
accurate values. The measure of the resistance is taken by measuring the drag resistance
during relative motion through the fluid. There are several types of viscometers
• Falling ball viscometers: Falling ball viscometers work in a similar fashion to falling piston
viscometers. With this type of viscometer, a ball is dropped into a sample of the fluid being
measured. The dimensions of the ball are already known, so viscosity is determined by timing
how long it takes the ball (again, using time-of-fall seconds) to fall through the fluid via
gravity.
• Falling Sphere Viscometer: These viscometers use a falling sphere to measure viscosity. The
time taken for the falling sphere, whose density and radius are known, to move between two
markings is measured, and then users can calculate viscosity. This model is also typically used
in the lab. They work on principles derived from Stokes' Law, which gives drag force on a
sphere.
 VISCOMETERY
• U-Tube Viscometers: These viscometers are often used in laboratory settings.
Users can obtain the dynamic viscosity by measuring how long it takes the fluid to
flow between two points of a capillary of known radius; it is necessary to know the
fluid's density to calculate viscosity in this manner.
• Vibrational viscometers: Vibrational viscometers use a powered vibrating rod to
measure viscosity. Different fluids are more or less resistant to vibrations depending
on how viscous they are. Therefore, by measuring the dampening of the vibration, or
by measuring how quickly the vibration of the viscometer degrades, viscosity can be
determined.
• Rotational viscometers: Rotational viscometers measure viscosity by immersing a
rotating spindle in the fluid to be tested. The amount of power (torque) required to
turn the spindle indicates the viscosity of the fluid, and because rotational
viscometers do not use gravity to function, their measurements are based on the
fluid's internal shear stress.
 OSCILLATORY
❖Oscillatory rheology: it is possible to quantify both the viscous-
like and the elastic-like properties of a material at different time
scales; it is thus a valuable tool for understanding the structural and
dynamic properties of the systems.
❖PRINCIPLE: It is to induce a soidal shear deformation in the
sample and measure the resultant stress response, the time scale
probed is determined by the frequency of oscillation, of the shear
deformation.
• Sample is placed between two plates, as shown in figure. While the
top plate remains stationary, a motor rotates the bottom plate,
thereby imposing a time dependent strain on the sample.
• Simultaneously, the time dependent stress is quantified by
measuring the torque that the sample imposes on the top plate.
• Measuring this time dependent stress response at a single
frequency immediately reveals key differences between materials.
 TEXTURE
• Texture of food products is defined as all the rheological, mechanical and structural
attributes of the product perceptible by means of mechanical, tactile, visual as well as
auditory receptors.
• Texture is an important aspect of food quality, sometimes even more important than flavor
and color.
• Textural characteristics are perceived in three stages of ingestion representing initial,
masticatory and residual;
a. INITIAL: Hardness, brittleness and viscosity.
b. MASTICATORY: Gumminess, chewiness, adhesiveness, hardness, brittleness and
viscosity.
c. RESIDUAL: Rate of breakdown and general mouthfeel.
• The tongue and palate evaluate feeling of meatiness and grittiness in butter and sandy defect
in ice cream and sweetened condensed milk. The pressure between the teeth and jaws
determine the hardness, chewiness and gumminess. The fingertips and ball of the thumb
help in determining other textural attributes, notably stickiness, elasticity/ sponginess and
brittleness. Creamy has a mouthfeel characteristic possessing the textural property
producing the sensation of the presence of a miscible, thick, smooth liquid in the oral cavity.
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD

The physical or the mechanical textural characteristics of foods are

related to the reaction of the food to stress and can be divided into:

1. Primary parameters of hardness: cohesiveness, viscosity, elasticity,

and adhesiveness.

2. Secondary ( derived) parameters of brittleness: chewiness and

gumminess.
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD
• HARDNESS: Force required to compress a substance between the molar teeth( solid foods) or between the
tongue and palate ( semi solid) to a given deformation or penetration and designated as soft, firm or hard.
• COHESIVENESS: It is the extent to which a material can be deformed before it ruptures and is dependent
upon the strength of internal bonds.
• TENDERNESS, CHEWINESS OR TOUGHNESS: These characteristics are defined as the energy required
to masticate a solid food product to a state ready for swallowing and involves compressing, shearing etc.
• BRITTLENESS, CRUNCHINESS AND CRUMBLINESS: These three characteristics are due to the high
degree of hardness and low degree of cohesiveness.
• ELASTICITY: It is the rate at which the deformed material regains its original condition after the removal of
the deforming force.
• ADHESIVENES: It is the force necessary to remove the material that adheres to the mouth during eating and
is described as sticky, tacky or gooey.
• VISCOSITY: It is the force required to draw a liquid from a spoon over the tongue and described as thin,
watery or thick.
• GUMMINESS: It is the energy required to disintegrate a semi-solid food. It is characteristic of products with
a low degree of hardness and a high degree of cohesiveness.
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD
• Characterization of food texture commonly falls into two main groups
a. Sensory analysis: Sensory evaluation of food texture by touch includes the use of
fingers, lips, tongue, palate and teeth.
b. Instrumental methods of analysis:
➢Can be carried out under more strictly defined and controlled conditions.
➢Analysis gives consistent results, if analyzed in constant conditions.
➢More sensitive than subjective sensory equivalents.

MEASURING TEXTURE: Food texture can be reduced to measurements of

resistance to force i.e. compression, tensile strength etc. There are instruments to
measure each kind of force. Instruments are used to measure how a food feels when
we eat it performs during processing or handling.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS cereals
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS flour
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS flour
Farinograph:
• The farinograph determines dough and gluten properties of a flour sample by
measuring the resistance of a dough against the mixing action of paddles (blades).
• Farinograph results include absorption, arrival time, stability time, peak time,
departure time, and mixing tolerance index.
• The farinograph test is one of the most commonly used flour quality tests in the
world. The results are used as parameters in formulation to estimate the amount of
water required to make a dough, to evaluate the effects of ingredients on mixing
properties, to evaluate flour blending requirements, and to check flour uniformity,
to predict processing effects, including mixing requirements for dough
development, tolerance to over-mixing, and dough consistency during production.
• Farinograph results are also useful for predicting finished product texture
characteristics. For example, strong dough mixing properties are related to firm
product texture.
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS flour
Extensiograph:
• The extensigraph determines the resistance and extensibility of a dough by measuring the force
required to stretch the dough with a hook until it breaks. Extensiograph results include resistance to
extension, extensibility, and area under the curve.
• Resistance to extension is a measure of dough strength. A higher resistance to extension requires
more force to stretch the dough. Resistance to Extension is the R value and is indicated by the
maximum height of the curve.
• It is expressed in centimeters (cc), Brabender units (BU), or Extensiograph units (EU). Extensibility
indicates the amount of elasticity in the dough and its ability to stretch without breaking.
Alveograph:
• The alveograph determines the gluten strength of a dough by measuring the force required to blow
and break a bubble of dough.
• The alveograph test provides results that are common specifications used by flour millers and
processors to ensure a more consistent process and product.
• The alveograph is well suited for measuring the dough characteristics of weak gluten wheats. Weak
gluten flour with low P value (strength of gluten) and long L value (extensibility) is preferred for
cakes and other confectionery products. Strong gluten flour will have high P values and is preferred
for breads.
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS flour
Mixograph:

• The mixograph test quickly analyzes small quantities of flour for dough gluten strength.
Wheat breeders use mixograph results to screen early generation lines for dough gluten
strength. Flour water absorption measured by the mixograph often serves as bake
absorption in bread baking tests.

Gluten percentage:

• Gluten is responsible for the elasticity and extensibility characteristics of flour dough. Wet
gluten reflects protein content and is a common flour specification required by end-users in
the food industry. The wet gluten test provides information on the quantity and estimates the
quality of gluten in wheat or flour samples.
 COOKING QUALITY OF GRAINS
• Cooking quality is an important aspect of grain quality. The hydration capacity, hydration
index, swelling capacity, swelling index, time taken for cooking, the increase in weight
and volume after cooking, solid loss etc. are the parameters that determine the cooking
properties.
Cooking time:
• The known weight of grains was transferred to a beaker containing boiling water. Note the
time and continue boiling till done. Check the grain for doneness by pressing the grain
between two glass slides until the chalky white color disappears. Note the final time. The
difference indicates the time taken for cooking.
Solid loss:
• Sample was cooked in excess water in a beaker. Twenty five ml sample of cooked water
was placed in a pre-weighed flask and air dried in an oven at 1050 C for one hour. After
that, the sample was fully dried at the same temperature until a constant weight in the
presence of P2O5 desiccant. The amount of solids leached was calculated as gram of solids
per gram of dry grain.
 Sensory Evaluation
• When the quality of a food product is assessed by means of human sensory organs, the
evaluation is said to be sensory or subjective or organoleptic.

• Evaluation of the sample is done using 9 points hedonic rating test. The product will be
evaluated for appearance, color, flavor, texture, taste, overall acceptability etc.

• Ratings:

9 - like extremely 8 - like very much

7 - like moderately 6 - like slightly

5 - Neither like nor dislike 4 - Dislike slightly

3 – Dislike moderately 2 – Dislike very much

1 – Dislike extremely
 TEXTURE ATTRIBUTE
• Instrumental method of texture measurement may be classified into three groups:
1. FUNDAMENTAL: Measure rheological properties like viscosity and elasticity.
2. EMPIRICAL: Measures parameters which are often poorly defined, but appear to relate to
textural quality as in the case of measurement of texture using penetrometers and shearing
instruments.
3. IMITATIVE: Stimulates the conditions to which materials are subjected in practice.

• SUCCULOMETER: an instrument for measuring the moisture content of a fresh or processed

vegetable product (such as an ear of corn) uses compression to squeeze juice out of food as a
measure of succulence.
• PENETROMETER: an instrument for determining the consistency or hardness of a substance by
measuring the depth or rate of penetration of a rod or needle driven into it by a known force.
Measure the force required to move a plunger a fixed distance through a food material.
• TENDEROMETER: A device for determining the maturity and tenderness of samples of fruits and
vegetables applies compression and shear to measure the tenderness of foods.
 TEXTURAL PROFILE ANALYZER
• Is a popular double compression test for determining the textural properties of foods. It is
occasionally used in other industries, such as pharmaceuticals, gels, and personal care.
• Samples are compressed twice using a texture analyzer to provide insight into how samples
behave when chewed. Test was often called the "two bite test" because the texture analyzer
mimics the mouth's biting action.
• The textural identity of any food is rarely a simple matter of understanding a singular
attribute such as hardness or cohesiveness.
• Texture analyzers, or textrometers, are instruments used to apply scientific methods to the
measurement and analysis of product texture. Such equipment is used to evaluate and
control the factors affecting quality, processing, handling and shelf-life, enabling the
producer to understand consumer habits and acceptance criteria. Food texture, through
touch, is very important factor for the end customer, in addition to taste and smell.
• Cosmetics and pharmaceutical products are also sensory-dependent and benefit greatly from
a texture analysis capability.
Texture ANALYZER
Texture ANALYZER
 TEXTURAL PROFILE ANALYZER
❖APPLICATION:
• Its used in various fields like Pharmaceuticals , Personal Care Products, Paints , Inks , Grease, Oil Drilling
Fluids, Adhesives and Sealants, Construction Materials, Slurries to check the flow of materials.
• Its used in cosmetics companies for testing products texture and flow of lotions.
• The acceptability of food products to the consumer is often determined by food texture, such as how
spreadable and creamy a food product is.
• Food rheology is important in quality control during food manufacture and processing.
• Is important in quality control during food manufacture and processing.
• Stability and appearance of foods often depends on the rheological characteristics of their components, e.g.,
emulsions, spreads and pastes.
• Flow of foods through pipes or the ease at which they can be packed into containers is largely determined by
their rheology.
• Essential for food scientists to have analytical techniques to measure these properties.
• To optimize the ingredients and processing conditions needed to produce high quality and reliable products.
• Important in the manufacture and processing of food products, such as cheese Chewiness = Gumminess *
Springiness.
TEXTURAL PROFILE ANALYZER
Thanks