LESSON 1

Rheology

Rheology of processed food, properties of fluid foods, Rheological method,

Measurement of rheological parameters

Objectives:

 To study about Rheological properties and its importance

 To study Rheological model and its measurements

Glossary :

Rheology : Rheology is the Science which deals with the deformation and flow of the
material under action of applied forces

Stress: Stress is force per unit of area

Strain/ Deformation: The unit change, due to force, in the size or shape or volume of a
body referred to its original size or shape. Strain is a non dimensional quantity, but it is
frequently expressed centimetres per centimetre, m/m, mm/mm etc.

Viscosity: Resistance to flow indicated by coefficient of viscosity.

Creep : Deformation with time when the material is suddenly subjected to a dead
load-constant stress.
Retardation time : The rate at which the retarded elastic deformation takes place in a
material creeping under dead load. It is the time required for the Kelvin model,
representing creep behavior, to deform to (1-(1/e)) or about 63 percent of its total
deformation
Stress relaxation : Decay of stress. with time when the material is suddenly deformed
to a given deformation-constant strain.
Relaxation time : The rate of stress decay in- a material subjected to a sudden strain.
It is the time required for the stress in the Maxwell model, representing stress relaxation
behavior, to decay to 1/e approximately 37 percent of its original value.
Hausner ratio:Hausner ratio is defined as the ratio between the tapped bulk density and
the loose bulk density.

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1.1 RHEOLOGY OF PROCESSED FOOD

Rheology is the Science which deals with the deformation and flow of the material under action
of applied forces. It is the study of the manner in which materials respond to applied stress or
strain. The term rheology was coined by Professor Eugene C. Bingham and Professor Markus
Reine in 1920. The term comes from Greek ‘rheos’ meaning to flow. Time is an important
parameter during application of load to the body. So, in rheology three important parameters
such as force, deformation and time are used for expressing the behavior of the material.

The knowledge of rheological properties is useful in designing mechanical handling systems of

food products where deformation and flow of the material occur. In liquid foods, the knowledge
of rheological properties are essential for the proper design and operation of various machines
and also for understanding the pertinent transport process in the operation.

Sensory evaluation as a scientific discipline represents a very unique technique that harnesses
human behavioral instincts of perception, learning, cognition, psychophysics and psychometric
for the evaluation of foods. The textural properties of a food are that group of physical
characteristics that are sensed by the feeling of touch, are related to the deformation,
disintegration and flow of food under application of force. Textural characteristics are an
important factor in the overall quality of many food products. Unless these quality attributes
meet the standards which the consumer expects, the product will be rejected regardless of its
nutritional value.

1.1.1 Terminologies

Stress

• The intensity of a point in a body of the internal forces or components of force that act on
a given plane through the point.

• Stress is expressed in force per unit of area (kilograms-force per square millimeter).

Shear stress : The stress component tangential to the plane on which the forces act.

Viscoelasticity : A combined solid-like and liquid-like behavior in which the stress-strain

relationship is time dependent. (chocolate)

Viscosity: Resistance to flow indicated by coefficient of viscosity.

Viscosty coefficficient: The ratio of shearing stress to shearing rate in Newtonian fluids.
(dynes-sec)/cm = poise or (lb-sec)/ft2
2

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Kninematic viscosity: Coefficient of viscosity divided by the mass density (ft 2/sec)

Newtonian liquid : An ideal fluid in which the relationship between shear stress and shear rate
is a straight line passing through the origin

Non-Newtonian liquid: A liquid in which the relationship between shear stress and shear
rate is non-linear.

1.1.2 Importance of Rheology

Study of rheological properties is important in food science due to its utility in food processing
operations and sensory characteristics. It gives information about the microstructure of a food.
Rheology properties are manifestation of the rate and nature of the deformation that occurs when
a material is stressed. These parameters can be used to predict how the fluid will behave in a
process and in determining the energy requirement for transporting the fluid from one point to
another in processing plant. Rheological parameters are also useful in defining the quality
attribute of food products.

1.1.2.1 APPLICATION OF RHEOLOGICAL STUDY IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

1. Mixing:Two or more material are blended manually or mechanically.

2. Flow Control-Flowablity of material varies from very thin to highly viscous.

3. Dispensing- Material comes out easily or with difficulty.

4. Settling/ Floating – Material with different specific gravity either settle or float depending
on viscosity of the material.

5. Pumping- Liquids or semi-solids are forced through the pipe

6. Coating- Spreading of one material as thin layer over other.

7. Cleaning – Soil removal from the surface of the equipments and pipeline.

8. Control of processing parameters- velocity, magnitude of pressure drop, piping design,

pumping requirement for fluid transport system, power requirement of agitation, power
requirement of mixing and blending, amount of heat generated during extrusion etc.

9. Influence on unit operations – Heat transfer, Mass transfer,mixing, grinding, sedimentation,

separation, filtration, evaporation and drying etc.

10. Study of rheology helps to select proper method of harvesting and sorting of raw materials

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11. Study of rheology helps to select proper technology/equipment to manufacture processed
foods with desirable sensory and rheological properties.

12. Study of rheology helps in newer product development (e.g. dietetic ice cream, paneer, low
fat mozzarella cheese etc.)

13. Study of rheology helps in designing processing equipment, packaging machines,

transportation system etc.

14. Study of rheology helps to improve sensory quality of the products

15. Study of rheology helps in marketing the products.

16. Study of rheology helps to select proper ingredients to manufacture processed foods.

1.1.2.2 Importance of Rheology in processed food

Rheology of process food is very important in the dairy products as it controls the body and
texture of typical dairy products like cream, plastic cream, processed cheeses, traditional Indian
dairy products (peda, burfi, halwasan, thabadi, sandesh, chhana podo etc.). Control of rheological
properties is very much required in the development of new functional and health dairy products
like low fat and low sugar ice cream, fat mimic products to avoid defects related to body and
texture. Study of rheology is also important in the other food processing industries, like meat
industries, fruits and vegetables processing, snack foods, bakery and confectionaries.

Meat products : To evaluate type of breed; its growth rate (tenderness); to evaluate effect of
pickling, chilling, aging, preservation, etc. on rheological property of meat; for measurement of
toughness and compactness of meat and meat products; establishment of quality grade for
marketing and export.

Fruits and vegetables : To evaluate variety of crop; for predicting the effect of storage and
ripening period on process; prediction of storage and ripening period; in prediction of stage of
harvesting and stage of maturing; used for sorting; measurement of\ textural variation, gives us
an idea about growing practice; method of harvesting.

Jams and jellies : helps to decide variety of blending ingredients, esp. pectin; deciding jelling
quality of pectin as well as integrity of gel structure, helps in deciding ingredients.

Snack foods : To evaluate formula for dough making and paste, particularly for extrusion; for
measurement and adjustment of solids content; helps in predicting shelf-life of product under
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given storage conditions and history of product (method of harvesting, storage conditions, pre-
treatments and processing unit operations).

Confectioneries : To evaluate the quality of raw material; to optimize the processing

parameters; to decide the ingredient varieties to be used; for measuring properties like thickness
of coating, chewiness, elasticity, brittleness and shelf life of product.

Paste : (Tomato paste, spreads, relishes, puddings, gels, jams, jellies, etc.) – used to evaluate
consistency of mixture used for measured viscometric parameters at different stages of
processing; deciding the pectin retention and prediction of consistency of final products.

Bakery : To evaluate dough consistency; to estimate floor time and rise time; effect of additives;
prediction of shelf life.

Dairy products : To evaluate the effect of ingredients i.e. creaming in fat-free dairy products, fat
mimic products by using micro-fluidization of whey protein concentrate, desired quality of
mozzarella.

1.1.3 Importance of rheological studies in dairy industry

Rheological studies of dairy products are important at a juncture when the need for modernizing
the manufacturing and marketing of Traditional Indian Dairy Products (TIDP) is being
emphasized in India. It helps to evaluate ingredient for potential contribution to creaminess in
fat-free dairy products. Rheological studies also helps to evaluate quality of cheese and
applicability of cheese for various applications like suitability for pizza topping. Further, the
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is actively considering the views of describing the food
products based on their structure and rheology. Most fluid foods including dairy fluids like
cream, ice cream mix, stirred yoghurt and liquid infant foods shows complex flow behavior at
different stages of processing and it requires study of its flow behaviour for better control over
the processing parameters. Viscoelastic characteristics of foods are of great importance to the
manufacturer, the trade and the consumers as these properties affect 'eating quality', usage
properties such as ease of cutting, spreading and melting characteristic as well as handling and
packaging characteristics. Recent developments in rheological instruments hold out a definite
scope for generating valuable informations on the basic rheological parameters of these products.
In the context of Indian dairy industry, texture and rheology of certain solid and semi-solid dairy
products such as paneer, khoa, chhana and milk sweets have been recognized to play an
important role in their acceptance which has a great bearing on the success of their production in
modern dairy plants.

1.2 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID FOODS

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It is necessary to study properties of fluid food products for designing and lay-outing of transport
system (piping and pumping layout). For the fluid food products, the design of transport system
mainly depends on the type and description of flow characteristics of the product. Some of the
properties are interdependent and some are dependent on the fluid food composition and
therefore it is necessary to measure dependant properties and we can predict its rheological
properties.

Most important dependant fluid food property is viscosity i.e. resistance against flow, generally
indicated by μ. In food industry μ is broadly used to describe a single parameter known as
‘consistency’. But this approach may lead to confusion in many cases due to non-Newtonian
behaviour of many fluid food products. The rheological classification of food is given in Fig-1.1.
The stress and rate of shear diagram indicate varieties of food products classified under different
categories, which is considered to be non-Newtonian.

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 Fig 1.1 Rheological classification of Foods

Classification

The fluids can be classified into following categories depending on the response to the applied
shear force.
 Newtonian liquid
 Non-Newtonian liquid

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1.2.1 Newtonian fluids

Newtonian fluids are fluids which exhibit a linear increase in the shear stress with the rate of
shear. These fluids exhibit a linear relationship between the shear stress and the rate of shear.
The slope ' µ ' is constant therefore, the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is independent of the rate
of shear. These fluids exhibit a pure viscous flow i.e. the product begins to flow with the slightest
force and the rate of flow is proportional to the magnitude of force applied. The examples of
Newtonian fluids are milk, clear fruit juices, sucrose solution, most types of honey, corn syrup
etc. The equation for characterizing Newtonian fluid is

Τ = µ (-dv/dx) (1)

Where, Τ = shear stress, µ = dynamic viscosity (η = µ/ρ) , -dv/dx = velocity gradient

1.2.2 Non-newtonian fluids

A liquid in which the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is non-linear (not constant).
When the shear rate is varied, the shear stress doesn't vary in the same proportion. These fluids
exibit either shear thinning or shear thickening behaviour and some exhibit a yield stress. The
two most commonly used equations for characterizing non-Newtonian fluids are the power law
model (Eq-2) and Herschel-Bulkley model (Eq-3) for fluids.

Τ = K ( γ )n (2)

Τ = Τ 0 + K ( γ )n (3)

Where, Τ = shear stress, K = consistency constant, γ = shear rate, n = flow behaviour index,

Τ0 = yield stress

There are several types of non-Newtonian flow behaviour, characterized by the way a fluid
viscosity changes in response to variation in shear rate (Fig 1.2 and 1.3). The most common non-
Newtonian fluids are:

1.2.2.1 Time-independent flow of non-Newtonian foods

The fluid foods whose viscosity is not influenced by the shearing time at a constant shear rate
show two distinct patterns of stress – shear rate relationship i.e shear-thinning and shear-
thickening. If the flow curve is concave to the shear stress axis, the flow is called dilatants
(S.Thickening). If the flow curve is convex to the shear stress axis, the flow is called
pseudoplastic (S.Thinning).

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Pseudoplastic/shear-thinning fluids

This type of fluids will display a decreasing consistency with an increasing shear rate. Probably
the most common of the non-Newtonian fluids, psedo-plastic include emulsions and dispersions
of many types. This type of flow behaviour is some times called shear-thinning. The shear stress
('Τ' or 'σ') versus shear rate (γ) curve is convex toward the stress axis. The shear thinning
behaviour of a fluid or semi-solid food is expressed by the power law model or de Waele's
model:

Τ = K ( γ )+n (4)

Where, Τ = shear stress, K = consistency constant (Pa s)n, γ = shear rate, n = flow behaviour
index ( 'n' has a positive value between zero and unity)

Viscosity decrease with force (chewing, spreading, kneading).Protein concentrates, skim milk
concentrate, milk ultrafiltration retentates, concentrated fruit juices such as unpectinized apple
juice (50-65o Brix), orange juice (50-65o Brix) etc., melted chocolates, thawed frozen egg, fruit
and vegetable purees and gum solutions are the examples of psedo-plastic fluid food products.

Dilatant /shear-thickening flow behaviour

This type of fluid will display an increasing viscosity with increase in shear rate. Dilatancy is
frequently observed in fluids containing high level of deflocculated solids, such as candy
compounds, cooked corn starch paste, certain types of honey etc. Dilatancy is also referred to as
shear-thickening flow behaviour. If the stress shear rate curve is concave toward the shear stress
axis , the flow is dilatants (Shear Thickening). The value of 'n' in the power law (Eq-4) is
negative.

1.2.2.2 Time-dependent flow of non-Newtonian foods

Certain non-Newtonian fluids show a time-dependent stress-shear relationship which can be one
of the following types:

Thixotropy:- When at a constant shear rate, the stress decreases over a period of time due to
structure breakdown until eventually it reaches a steady value, the product is said to be
thixotropic. Those fluids which show a decrease in shear stress with time of shear at a given
shear rate is called Thixotropic fluids. Aged condensed milk, cream and ice cream mix, egg
white etc. are examples of thixotropy.

Rheopectic:- This essentially the opposite of thixotropic behaviour, in which the fluids viscosity
increases with time as it is sheared at a constant rate. Those fluids which show an increase in
shear stress with time of shear at a given shear rate.
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Rheopectic fluids are rarely encountered. Both thixotropic and rheopectic may occur in
combination with any of the previously discussed flow behaviour, or only at certain shear rates.

Plastic:- This type of fluid will behave as a solid under static conditions. A certain amount of
force must be applied to the fluid before any flow is induced, this force is called yield value.
Tomato ketchup is a good example of this type fluid, its yield value will often make it refuse to
pour from the bottle until the bottle is shaken or struck, allowing the catchup to flow freely. Once
the yield value is exceeded and flow begins, plastic fluids may display Newtonian, pseudoplastic,
or dilatant flow characteristics.

Fig 1.2 Stress-shear rate relationship in Fig 1.3 Shear stress as a function of shear rate
different rheological kinds of fluids for sevral kinds of fluid

1.3. RHEOLOGICAL METHODS

Generally rheological properties are judged by sensory panel, it has its advantages and
disadvantages depending on the person selected for judging the products. To have unbiased
scores as well as reproducibility of the values of rheological attributes, it is necessary to go for
instrumental measurement. There are many instrumental methods are developed based on
fundamental principle as well as experimental data. There are certain mathematical models
developed by different scientist based on empirical methods, which are widely used for
measurement of rheological properties of most of the food products.
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1.3.1 Tests for Measurement of Rheological Properties

Instrumental methods for measurement of rheological properties are classified into two broad
categories as follow:

 Fundamental tests which measure the properties that are inherent to the material and
do not depend on geometry and shape of the sample, conditions of loading or type of
apparatus used, e.g. relaxation time, Poisson’s ratio, shear modulus and bulk modulus;

 Empirical tests (because data are based on comparison with sensory) or imitative
tests (because these imitate the chewing in mouth). e.g. properties like puncture force,
extrusion energy, cutting force required, pressing/compression force required for juice
extraction, etc. – where mass of sample, geometry and speed of test will decide the
magnitude of parameter estimated.

Generally fundamental tests are applied on solid foods and these are further classified into quasi-
static and dynamic tests

The tests conducted under conditions of static/quasi-static loading are known as quasi-
static tests while those conducted under dynamic loading conditions are called dynamic tests.

The use of Instron in determining the modulus of elasticity under compression is an example of
quasi-static test while if the determination is done using a vibrating device of certain frequency
(generally 200 Hertz), then the test is dynamic. You can say that rate of loading can be used to
determine whether test is dynamic/quasistatic.

1.3.2 Quasi-Static Testing of Solid Food Products

Two types of behaviour can be studied– elastic behaviour of solid and another is pure viscous
flow in case of liquids. Pure elastic behaviour is defined such that when force is applied to the
material, it will instantaneously and finitely deform and when the force is released, the material
will instantaneously come to the original form. Such materials are called ‘Hooken solids’ i.e.
which follow Hook’s law. The amount of deformation is proportional to the magnitude of the
force. Rheological representation of this type of solids is a spring. The material of this nature can
be given a rheological constant modulus of elasticity is ratio of stress/strain, where stress =
force/area, and strain = deformation due to force applied/original dimension. There are 3 types of
moduli depending on type of force applied.

 If force is applied perpendicular to area defined by stress and it is calculated as –

modulus of elasticity(E)

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  If modulus is calculated by applying force parallel to area defined by stress i.e. a
shearing stress, then it is called a shear modulus or modulus of rigidity(G or n) and

 If force is applied from all directions (isotropic force) then change in volume over
original volume is obtained that can be calculated by bulk modulus(B or K)

Creep: In an experiment if a constant stress is applied to sample and corresponding strain is

followed as a function of time and results are expressed in terms of a parameter of compliance
(strain/stress). The change in the strain of material can be measured, when stress is removed it
known as creep curve. In short we can say that creep curve shows strain as a function of time at
constant stress. Visco-elastic materials can often be characterized by a modulus and relaxation
time, which can be determined by an analysis of strain curve with time.

Relaxation curve (stress relaxation) – It is the curve obtained when stress is applied as a function
of time at a constant strain. That means that instead of applying constant force and measuring the
change in strain with time, it is also possible to apply a constant strain and measure change in
stress with time. This type of experiment is called relaxation stress and the curve is known as
relaxation curve.

These relaxation and creep experiments are known as Transient experiments in which a constant
force is applied to the material and resulting strain is measured as a function of time and vice-
versa.

1.4. MEASUREMENT OF TEXTURAL PARAMETERS

The instrumental methods that have been used to evaluate the rheological properties of food may
be empirical one or fundamental ones. Empirical methods include imitative ones, the Texture
Profile Analysis (TPA) method employing the Texturometer as described by Friedman. The TPA
has also been performed by many workers using Instron Universal Testing Machine. In these
methods, mostly food samples are compressed between two plates using an Instron testing
machine or a comparable apparatus and the force is recorded as a function of the compression.
Until now no standardization of these tests has been made and many different executions of that
have been described. Examples of differences are: shape and size of the test piece, treatments of
the plates to increase or decrease the friction between the plates and the test piece, compression
rate and temperature. One or more of the following parameters are usually derived from these
tests:
 Force (or stress) at a given compression
 Force at the first maximum in the force-compression curve (often designated as fracture
force)
 Initial slope (or modulus) of the force-compression curve
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  Compression at the first maximum in the force-compression curve (often designated as
fracture compression)
 Work done until a given compression
 Height recovered after deformation
 Adhesive force during ascending motion after compression

1.4.1 Important Properties

Bounce: The resilience rate at which the sample returns to its original shape after partial
compression.

Chewiness: It is the number of chews (@1 chew/sec.) needed to masticate the sample to a state
ready for swallowing.

Coarseness: Degree to which mass feels coarse in the mouth.

Cohesiveness: Degree to which the sample deforms before rupturing during biting.

Denseness: It is a compactness of cross-section of the sample after complete biting.

Dryness: Degree to which the sample feels dry in the mouth.

Fracturability: Force with which the sample shatters/breaks. It encompasses crispiness,

crumbliness, crunchiness and brittleness.

Graininess: Degree to which a sample contains small grainy particles.

Gumminess: Energy required to disintegrate a semisolid food to a state ready to swallow.

Hardness: Force required to deform the product to a given distortion. Generally the distortion is
between tongue and palate.

Heaviness: Weight of product perceived when first placed on the tongue.

Moisture absorption (related to sensory): Amount of saliva absorbed by the product in the
mouth.

Moisture released: Amount of wetness and juiciness from the product.

Mouth coating: Type and degree of coating in the mouth after mastication.

Roughness: It is the degree of abrasiveness of product surface which is perceived by the tongue.
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Slipperiness: It is the degree to which the product slides over the tongue.

Smoothness: It represents the absence of any particle, lumps, etc. in the product.

Springiness/sponginess: Degree to which the product returns to its original position i.e. shape
and size after partial compression (without failure). Here compression is between the palette and
teeth.

Uniformity: Degree to which the sample is even throughout.

Uniformity of bite : Evenness of force applied on the product while biting.

Uniformity of chew : The degree to which the chewy characteristics of the product are even
throughout the mastication

Wetness : Amount of moisture perceived on the product surface.

1.4.2 Textural Profile from Instron

The textural characteristics of the food samples can be interpreted from their respective force-
distance compression curve obtained. A generalized texture profile curve obtained from the
Instron Universal Testing Machine is shown in Fig: 1.4 and the following textural parameters
can be interpreted form the Instron Curve:

Fig. 1.4 Generalized textural profile curve obtained from instron universal machine
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(i) Hardness (Kgf): The force necessary to attain a given deformation, i.e. the highest point of
peak in the first bite curve
Hardness= H1 , Kgf

(ii) Brittleness (Kgf): Force with which the sample crumbles, crackes or shatters
Brittleness (or Fracturability) = H2, Kgf

(iii) Adhesiveness: It is the work necessary to overcome the attractive forces between the
surfaces of the sample and the other materials with which sample comes in contact. It is negative
force area for the first bite curve (Fig-1)
Adhesiveness = A3

(iv) Cohesiveness: The extent to which a material can be deformed before it ruptures
Cohesiveness = A2/A1

A1 = Area under the first bite curve before reversal of compression

A2 = Area under the second bite curve before reversal of compression

(v) Springiness (mm): The height of sample recovers between the first and second compression,
on removal of the deformation force
Springiness = S, mm

(vi) Gumminess (Kgf): It is the energy required to masticate a sample to a state ready for
swallowing a product of hardness and cohesiveness
Gumminess = Hardness x Cohesiveness x 100

(vii) Chewiness (kg-mm): It is the energy required to masticate a sample to a state ready for
swallowing. It is a product of hardness, cohesiveness and springiness.
Chewiness = Hardness x Cohesiveness x Springiness

Sensory evaluation as a scientific discipline represents a very unique technique that harnesses
human behavioral instincts of perception, learning, cognition, psychophysics and psychometric
for the evaluation of foods. The textural properties of a food are that group of physical
characteristics that are sensed by the feeling of touch, are related to the deformation,
disintegration and flow of food under application of force. Textural characteristics are an
important factor in the overall quality of many food products. Unless these quality attributes
meet the standards which the consumer expects, the product will be rejected regardless of its
nutritional value.

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1.4.3 Texture and structure of heat and acid coagulated indigenous milk products

Characterization of various food products on the basis of their rheology and microstructure forms
the backbone of the scientific approach to product process development and of quality assurance
in modern industrial practices.

The current trends round the globe favour such studies to facilitate product
description/specification for promoting process control and for international trade. Furthermore,
the interest of researchers and manufacturers in the texture and structure of various milk products
has been growing, as it is recognized that there are definite correlationship between the structure
and other physical properties of the products. The physical manifestation of food materials is due
to its chemical make-up and a micro structural study may yield the true insight into their textual
attributes. Evaluations of geometrical properties of foods are important for their characterization;
these properties refer to the arrangement of constituents of food including the size, shape and
orientation of the particles. Electron microscopy is useful to study surface topology and to
develop correlation between the structure of various food material and then physico –chemical
properties.

At a juncture when the need for modernizing the manufacturing and marketing of traditional
milk products is being emphasized in India, such rheological and electron microscopic studies
would be sine qua non to obtain much needed information for product/process development.
Further, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is actively considering the views of
defining/describing the food products based on their structure. It is worthwhile to mention here
that BIS has already made a headway in this direction in respect of some of the food products
such as roasted chicory and coffee powder. In the past few years, some work has been directed to
study the rheology of selected indigenous dairy products such as paneer, khoa, rasogoIla and
sandesh. However, the area encompassing the micro structural studies has not received much
scientific inputs so far in our country. Since rheology is determined by micro structure studies,
study of rheological parameters would help us later to establish the relationship between
microstructure and rheological properties. Keeping this in view, an attempt is made in this
lecture to put forth the textural and structural aspects of some of the heat and acid coagulated
indigenous milk products such as paneer, chhana and rasogolla.

1.4.3.1 Textural Properties of Paneer

Paneer is widely used in all vegetable dishes as well as for preparation of special foods, which
requires to have rheological properties. The control of processing parameters during manufacture
of paneer like temperature, pressure of press, control of pH, chilling and freezing during storage
etc. are critical parameters, which requires study of its effect on the textural properties of paneer.
The data on the objective textural properties of raw and fried and cooked paneers made from cow
and buffalo milks has been shown in Table 1.1 It is evident from the table that primary
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parameters such as hardness and springiness differed significantly between cow and buffalo milk
paneers. Cohesiveness, on the other hand, did not differ much between these two paneers. Since
secondary parameters such as gumminess and chewiness are dependent on primary parameters,
buffalo milk paneer revealed considerably higher values for gumminess and chewiness compared
to those recorded for cow milk paneer.

Table- 1.1: Instron texture profile analysis of paneer made from cow and buffalo milks
Attributes Cow milk panner Buffalo milk panner
Fried&
Raw Fried& cooked Raw Raw
cooked
Hardness, mN 25.59 8.66 40.72 9.31
Cohesiveness 0.67 0.70 0.64 0.70
Springiness, mm 7.50 9.38 7.70 9.59
Gumminess, mN 17.04 6.12 25.19 6.46
Chewiness, mN.Mm 131.27 54.27 206.36 63.32

Microstructure of Paneer

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) reveals that in the raw state, both cow, and buffalo paneers
possessed uniformly aggregated protein particles and fat globules are evenly distributed in the
protein net work.

Transmission Electron microscopy: (TEM) confirmed the existence of granular structure in

paneer and also exhibited the internal structure of the protein particles. Raw cow milk paneer has
uniformly packed small protein particles and resembled cottage cheese, while in raw buffalo
milk paneer protein particles were more densely packed and fused. Core-andlining structure,
which is characteristic of curds obtained by coagulation of hot milk at pH 5.5 is well developed
in both the paneers. The development of core-and-lining structure is influenced by the
temperature and pH of coagulation.

Frying of paneer in oil severely changed its structure, resulting into compaction suppressing the
smooth granularity of the protein matrix in cow milk paneer. The granularity totally vanished in
the buffalo milk paneer. The compaction is more clearly evident in TEM ultragraphs. The
compaction also caused the fat globules to acquire sharp and pointed outlines unlike their
globular shape in raw paneer. Cooking of fried paneer in salt water restored both the granular
structure and core-and- lining structure of the protein bodies. This restoration was more in case
of cow milk paneer as compared to buffalo milk paneer.

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1.4.3.2 Textural Properties of Chhana

Instron textural attributes of chhana made from cow and buffalo milks are given in table1.2. It is
evident that all the textural values were less for cow milk chhana compared to that of buffalo
milk chhana. The secondary parameters such as gumminess and chewiness for buffalo milk
chhana were more than two times to those values for cow milk chhana. However there was not
much difference between cow milk and buffalo milk chhana as for as the adhesiveness was
concerned.

Table-1.2: Instron Texture Profile Properties of Chhana

Attributes Cowmilkchhana Buffalomilkchhana
Hardness,mN 11.60 19.50
Cohesiveness 0.59 0.67
Springiness,mm 3.60 5.00
Gumminess,mN 6.48 13.06
Chewiness,mN.mm 24.64 65.32
AdhesivenessmN 0.35 0.38

Microstructure of Chhana

SEM of a defatted cow milk chhana reveals conglomerated and compact protein material (casein
and whey protein complexes with numerous small uniformly distributed pores of irregular shape.
The protein particles coalesced and fused densely during coagulation and lost their natural
identity of subunit' sizes as seen in milk. The coalesced, smooth protein bodies were joined with
thick bridges. SEM of defatted buffalo milk chhana also shows a similar compact, coalesced
protein net work with numerous globular and irregular voids throughout the matrix, but slightly
more uneven as compared to cow milk chhana. The globular void spaces indicate that the casein-
whey protein complexes are closely interspersed with numerous fat globules due to the usage of
whole milk. Cow and buffalo milk chhana has been shown to contain fat globules embedded in
coalesced casein micelles with some whey-filled spaces at the edge. The agglomerated large
protein particles form continuous thick strands joined together forming somewhat uneven matrix
with numerous void spaces in between. The fat globules are strongly cemented in these thick
protein strands. The overall structure is more or less similar to that of cream cheese, in which the
fat globules are found cemented together with the coalesced protein particles as seen in chhana.

1.4.3.3 Textural Properties of Rasogolla

Instron textural attributes of rasogolla are shown in Table 1.3. It is clear from the table that cow
milk rasogolla has significantly lower hardness, springiness, gumminess and chewiness than that
18
of buffalo milk rasogolla. The hardness of buffalo milk rasogolla in 2-3 times higher than that of
cow milk rasogolla. Springiness of buffalo milk rasogolla (6.4 mm) is markedly higher than that
of cow milk rasogolla (4.8 mm). Cohesiveness varied from 0.61 (cow milk rasogolla) - 0.70
(buffalo milk rasogolla). As the consequence of higher hardness and springiness in buffalo milk
rasogolla, their gumminess and chewiness values also increased remarkably than that of cow
milk rasogollas. No adhesive force, however, has been recorded for either of the rasogollas.

Table- 1.3: Instron texture profile properties of rasogolla

Attributes Cowmilkrasogolla Buffalomilkrasogolla
Hardness, mN 5.85 16.82
Cohesiveness 0.61 0.70
Springiness,mm 4.80 6.40
Gumminess,mN 3.57 12.17
Chewiness,mN. mm 17.15 77.88

Microstructure of Rasogolla

Cooking of chhana in sugar syrup (for 15 min.) severely altered the structure of both the fat and
the protein phases. The microstructure of rasogolla exhibits a distinctly different protein net work
from, chhana at low magnification, a ragged and cracked protein matrix can be seen obscured
with fat and several void spaces interspersed throughout. Higher magnification revealed that the
fat globules are shrunken and ruptured, finally coalescing to a large mass and losing their natural
identity as globular with a smooth surface as is found in chhana.

A defatted rasogolla sample showed a ragged porous, loose protein matrix with a folded thread-
like structure. The clumped protein particles formed a corrugated edge around the void space.
Higher magnification showed that the folded protein particles were interlinked with thick protein
bridges forming a core type structure with numerous voids.

Similarly, the fat globule structure in buffalo milk rasogolla revealed drastic shrinkage of the fat
globule membrane and globules partly detached from the protein bodies. The defatted protein
matrix in buffalo milk rasogolla was more compact and ragged with lesser voids as compared to
cow milk rasogolla.

1.4.3.4 Interrelationships between texture and microstructure of Chhana and Rasogolla

The denser protein network present in chhana reduced the mean free path of the coalesced casein
micelles which reduced the capacity of the fat and protein phases to move in relation to each
other. Where as in rasogolla the large voids between the coalesced protein gave the free access of
the protein bodies to move freely during the instron testing, resulting its lower hardness but

19
higher springiness. This higher springiness in rasogollas may be attributed to its loose, porous
and ragged protein matrix.

Properties of granular food and powders, Properties of solids foods,

Viscoelastic models, Measurement of food texture

2.1. Introduction

Dry food products are handled in various ways in different parts of processing plants. The design
of handling system for dry products requires knowledge of the properties of the product being
handled.

2.2 Properties of Granular Foods and Powders

Dry food products make up a considerable portion of the total amount of food products available.
Like fluid food products they are handled in various ways in different parts of processing plant
.The design of handling system for dried products requires knowledge of the flow properties of
the product being handled and transported or conveyed. The manner in which granular foods or
powder may flow into or out of container is of particular concern in processing plants. In
addition to the density and particle size parameters, there are specific parameters which describe
the flow properties of these types of food products. Two common parameters used for this
purpose are the angle of response and the angle of slide. Both of these parameters lack
theoretical considerations but do serve as a means of comparing different food powders. The
angle of slide is a rather simply defined parameter in which the powder is placed on a horizontal
plate and the angle of the plate is changed until the powder slides from the plate. The angle from
the horizontal which is required for the powder to lose its position on the plate is measured and
this angle will be a function of the type of surface on which the powder is placed.

Dry food products are handled in various ways in different parts of processing plants. The design
of handling system for dry products requires knowledge of the properties of the product being
handled.

2.2.1 Particle Size

An important property of a granular food or powder is particle size. This property has direct
impact on the magnitude of the bulk density, as well as the porosity. Particle sizes are measured
by using several different techniques, including a sieve, a microscope, or a lightscattering
instrument . The results of such measurements reveal that a range of particle sizes exists within
the typical food powder or granular material. These observations emphasize the importance of
using at least two parameters to describe the particle size properties; a mean diameter and a
standard deviation.
20
Mugele and Evans (1951) suggested a systematic approach to description of particle sizes for
granular materials. The approach suggests the following model:

Where d is the particle diameter, N is the number of particles with a given diameter, and q and p
are parameters defined in Table 1.1 .

Table 1.1 Notations of Mean particle size

Name of Mean Diameter p q Order
Linear (Arithmetic) 0 1 1
Surface 0 2 2
Volume 0 3 3
Mass 0 3 3
Surface-diameter 1 2 3
Volume-diameter 1 3 4
Volume-surface 2 3 5
Mass-Surface 0 4 7
For example, the arithmetic or linear mean diameter would become:

where the value is the straight forward mean of particle diameters within the distribution.
Another commonly used expression is referred to as the Sauter mean diameter or volume/surface
area and expresses the mean diameter as a function of the ratio of particle volume to particle
surface area.

Most often, the distribution of particle sizes in a granular food or powder is described by log-
normal density function. The parameters include the arithmetic log-geometric mean:

21
and the geometric standard deviation, as follows:

These parameters are estimated from measurement of particle size, and the number of particles in
sizes ranges over the range of sizes in the granular food or powder.

Example 1: Compute the arithmetic, surface diameter and volume - surface mean diameter for
particles in a dry food product with the following distribution of sizes.

Numbers 1 4 25 20 10 4

sizes (microns) 40 30 20 15 10 5

Solution:
Arithmetic mean diameter = Σ (dN) / N

= (40 X 1 + 30 X 4 + 20 X 25 + 15 X 20 + 10 X 10 + 5 X 4)/(1 + 4 + 25 + 20+10+4)

= 16.9 μ

Surface diameter = Σ (d2 N) / Σ ( d1 N)

= (402 X 1 + 30 2 X 4 + 20 2 X 25 + 15 2 X 20 + 102 X 10 +52 X 4) /
(40 X 1 + 30 X 4 + 20 X 25 +15 X 20 + 10 X 10 + 5 X 4)
= 19.26 μ

Volume surface diameter = Σ (d 3 N)/Σ (d 2 N)

=( 403 X 1 + 30 3 X 4 + 20 3 X 25 + 15 3 X 20 + 10 3 X 10 + 5 3 X 4) /
(40 2 X 1 + 30 2 X 4 + 20 2 X 25 + 15 2 X 20 + 10 2 X 10 + 5 2 X 4)
= 21.6 μ

22
Example : T he particle size distribution of a sample dry coffee product has been measured,
and the results are as follows:

Portion (%) 2 8 50 40 10

Particle size (microns) 40 30 20 15 10

Estimate the mean particle size based on the ratio of volume to surface area.

Given Equation

The volume/surface area or Sauter mean particle size diameter d vs =22 μ

2.2.2 Particle size distribution

Particles in a powder usually do not have the same particle size, consequently there is a need to
describe the distribution in particle size. There are three different descriptions of particle size
distributions that are commonly used:
i. by number
ii. by surface area
iii. by mass (or volume)

These distributions can be graphically presented as histograms where number fraction or mass
fraction or volume fraction or surface area fraction is plotted against discrete increments of
particle size, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. These are easy to construct but are commonly not used
because the shape of the histogram depends on the size of the size increments used.

23
 Fig2.1. A number fraction particle size distribution represented as a histogram

2.2.3 Particle shape

All particles are not exactly of spherical shape; how far it is deviated from spherical shape is
expressed by the term sphericity. The term sphericity Φ S which is independent of particle size is
used to express shape of the particle.

Where ϕsSpericity
Dp equivalent diameter of particle
Sp surface area of one particle
Vp volume of one particle
For a regular particle ΦS =1
For many crushed material ΦS =0.6 to 0.7

2.2.4 Density
Density is one of the basic properties of any material but in the case of granular food products,
various types of densities have been defined:
The bulk density is an important quality criterion during the packaging of powder products and
transportation from one place to another. The bulk density also gives information about whether
the end product is milled to the desired dimensions or dried to the desired moisture content.

24
Therefore, determining the bulk density of particles means estimation of cost of storage,
transportation, product standardization and process success ability in view of the industry.
The overall mass of the material (m) divided by the volume occupied by the material (V) is bulk
density. The bulk density can be defined as follows:

The bulk density of powder is measured as aerated, poured, and tap density considering product
type and particle properties.
The poured density (loose bulk density), the apparent density is the poured density in view of
others
Aerated density is remained the bulk density after the aerated the powder. However, aerated
density can be defined as “the particles are separated from each other by a film of air and not
being in direct contact with each other”.
Poured density is widely used and means to “determine the mass–volume ratio of a powder
sample by weighing a container of known volume without the sample and then with the freely
poured powder.”
The tap bulk density (ρt)is “the bulk density of a powder that has been settled into closer packing
than existed in the poured state by tapping, jolting, or vibrating the measuring vessel.” Tapped
density is determined by compression of the sample filled in the graduated cylinder. Although
tapping can be performed as manual or using the mechanical tapping device.

2.2.5 Porosity ( Ψ) is the ratio of the air volume (volume of space not occupied by particles) to
total volume occupied by the product powder. The relationship of porosity to bulk density
becomes:

Where, -Prososity, ρb – Bulk density, ρt–tapped bulk density

The reconstitution phenomenon involves wetting, sinking, dispersing and dissolving the food
powder. Wettability is the capacity of the powder particles to absorb water. Sinkability is the
sinking of powder particles below the liquid surface. Dispersibility is the dispersion of particles
with little stirring and solubility is dissolving of the soluble particles in the liquid. These
properties are closely related to the particle size, density, porosity, surface area and morphology
of the particles in the final powder
2.2.6 Flowability

25
To evaluate the powder flow properties, parameters such as, compressibility index or Carr’s
index, Hausner ratio, and the angle of repose are generally employed.

Carr index (CI) was calculated from the bulk and tapped densities of the powder with the given
formula

The Hausner ratio is defined as the ratio between the tapped bulk density and the loose bulk
density. Hausner ratio is a useful measure of cohesion reflecting particle friction.

The interpretation and relation to flowability of carr index and hausner ratio is given in Table
1.2
Angle of repose
The angle of repose is the angle between the base and the slope of the cone formed on a free
vertical fall of the granular material to a horizontal plane.classification of powder flowability
based on angle of repose is given in Table 1.3

Table 1.2 Relationship between flowability and Carr index and Hausner ratio

Flowability Carr Index Hausner Ratio

Excellent/ Very free flow <10 1.00-1.11
Good/Free flow 11-15 1.12-1.18
Fair 16-20 1.19-1.25
Passable 21-25 1.26-1.34
Poor flow/ Cohesive 26-31 1.35-1.45
Very Poor flow/ Very Cohesive 32-37 1.46-1.59
No Flow >38 >1.60

Table 1.3 Relationship between flowability and angle of repose

Description Angle of repose (o)

26
 Very free flow 25-30

Free flow 30-38

Fair to flow 38-45

Cohesive 45-55

Very Cohesive >55

2.3. Rheological properties of solids foods

Solid foods are generally characterized in terms of stress - strain relationship. The stress may be
of tensile, compressive, tangential (shear) or torsional (acting on a transverse cross section). The
classification of solid foods is even hazier than that of fluid foods. There are two major groups:
elastic and non elastic. Visco - elastic foods, mostly of semi-solid and solid nature, form an
important group of non-elastic foods.

2.3.1 Rheological behavior properties

The three basic properties which describe the rheological behavior of the material are elasticity,
plasticity and viscosity. These properties are generally represented by here classical ideal bodies
known as Hooken body, St. Venant body and Newtonoian liquid. The behavior of none of the
real material is perfectly elastic or plastic; therefore these ideal bodies are used to serev as
standards of comparison for analyzing the behavior of any real material.

2.3.1.1 ELASTIC SOLIDS

Hookean or linear elasticity (Ideal elastic behavior or Hookean body)

The Hooke’s law states that stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit. This
behavior of the material is referred to as Hookean behavior and it may hold true for small strains
generally less than 0.1% in some of the solids. But any real material, perfect elasticity may not
be obtained .also in elasticity , the complete recovery of strain takes place upon removal of
stress.

Elasticity is defined as the tendency of the product to recover upon unloading the shape and
dimensions it had before loading. If there is no permanent deformation after unloading, the
elasticity is said to be complete elasticity. Ideal or Hookean elasticity is characterized by a linear
relationship between force (or stress) and deformation (or strain) starting at the origin (Fig. 7.1a)
The body instantaneously returns to its initial form with no residual strain upon unloading.

27
Further, the Linear relationship is retraced when the sample is unloaded. The ratio of tensile
stress to strain for these so-called Hookean bodies is termed Young’s modulus (E) or elongation
modulus. The ratio between shear stress to shear strain in an ideal linear elastic solid is called
shear modulus (G) or rigidity.

Non-Hookean or non-linearelasticity

In reality, most elastic solids exhibit a non-linear or non-Hookean elasticity, in which case the
stress is not proportional to strain, and the linear dependence of stress on strain exists only at the
lowest strain ‘levels. In general, at higher strain levels the loading-and-unloading cycle yields
two separate traces describing a hysteresis loop (Fig.1.2). Since the stress-strain relationship is
curvilinear, the modulus of elasticity is frequently given as the tangent modulus, which is the
slope of the stress-strain curve at any specified stress or strain.

(a) (b)

Fig 2.2 Stress-strain relationship (a) Linear ; (b) Nonlinear elasticity

Non-Elastic or In Elastic Solids

A material may show elasticity, linear or non-linear, if the applied stresses and
corresponding strains are small. Elasticity, linear or non-linear does not exist in biological
material (fruits, vegetable, grains) even for very small strains (Fig 1.3).the curve shows
the residual deformation upon unloading. Similar nature of curve is obtained for most of
the food material. Non-elastic or inelastic products may exhibit failure when stress
exceeds the strength of the body.
28
 Fig 2.3 In elasticity in grains
Failure
Failure may be seen as fracture or rupture.

(i) Fracture : Cracking of hard materials such as hard cheese at low temperature ultimately
resulting in two or more separate pieces is termed fracture. Elastic fracture is fracture
without or with a very limited amount of flow (only in the region just around the crack) of
the material, as in unripe fruit flesh, tubers etc., whereas plastic fracture is fracture
accompanied by flow of material as may be seen in certain soft or semi-hard cheeses.

(ii) Rupture :This term refers to tearing (in pieces)of soft materials. Rupture point is
sometimes defined as a point on the stress-strain or force-deformation curve at which the
axially loaded specimen ruptures. The failure in rupturing materials such as certain cheese
gels, cooked egg white etc. is characterized by a multitude of failure planes.

2.3.1.2 PLASTICSOLIDS

Ideal plastic behavior or St.Venant body

Certain non-elastic products may show yield value and tend to flow when the stress exceeds this
point. Plasticity is found more frequently in semi-solid and soft products such as butter, spreads
etc. rather than hard solids.

The St.Venant body or pure plastic behavior of the material can be represented by a mechanical
model consists of a friction block. The model indicates that there is no movement between the
block and surface over which it rests due to the static friction. If the pulling force is slightly
increased than the static friction, the block will start moving. The pulling force is required to
overcome only the kinetic friction to maintain the movement. In the model the displacement
gradient (cm/cm) is similar to the shearing strain in pure plastic material. The flow of the
material does not start until a limiting value of shearing stress also called ‘yield stress’ is

29
reached. The material cannot sustain greater than this strain and flow occurs indefinitely under
this stress till the distortion is restricted by some other factor.

Fig 2.4 Ideal plastic behavior

2.3.1.3 VISCOELASTIC FOODS

Failure resulting in rupture, fracture or plastic flow usually involves relatively large stresses and
large deformation in solid foods. On the other hand, small deformation in most solids and semi-
solid products may reveal what is known as viscoelasticity. Certain, shear-thinning fluids such as
age thickened sweetened condensed milk also exhibits viscoelasticity.

The reaction of a viscoelastic body to stress (or strain) consists partly of a viscous component
and partly an elastic one. Since stress and strain are time-dependent, the response of the material
is rate dependent.

Attempts have been made to classify food products on the basis of their rheological behaviour.
However, the rheological phenomena in various foods are so complex that it is not simple to
categorize them into distinct groups or classes. Yet the classification of foods based on the stress-
strain rate relationship for fluid and semi-solid products, and stress-strain relationship for solids
would greatly facilitate comprehending the rheological behavior of various dairy and food
products and relating it to their processing, handling and texture attributes.

2.3.2 Important properties

Nominal stress: The stress at a point calculated on the net cross section by simple elastic theory
without taking into account the effect on the stress produced by geometric discontinuities such
as holes , grooves, fillets,etc.,

30
Normal stress: The stress component perpendicular to a plane on which the forces act.Normal
stress may be either :

1 Tensile stress: Normal stress due to forces directed away from the plane on which they
act, or

2 Compressive stress: Normal stress due to forces directed towards the plane on which
they act.

Fracture stress: The true normal stress on the minimum cross sectional area at the beginning of
fracture.

Strain/ Deformation

• The unit change, due to force, in the size or shape or volume of a body referred to its
original size or shape. Strain is a non dimensional quantity, but it is frequently expressed
centimetres per centimetre, m/m, mm/mm etc.

• The change of volume is caused by isotropic stress such as hydrostatic pressure.

• The change of shape is brought about by shear stresses.

• Material can be deformed by uniaxial compression, uniaxial tension, shear, and bulk
compression

Fig 2.5 Components of stress and strain required for specification

a. Linear (tensile or compressive) strain/Cauchy/Engineering strain: The change per unit

length due to force in an original linear dimension.

b. Axial strain: Linear strain in a plane parallel to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.

31
c. Transverse strain: Linear strain in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the specimen.

d. Shear strain (angular strain): The tangent of the angular change, due to force, between two
lines originally perpendicular to each other through a point in a body.

Compressive strength : The maximum compressive stress which a material is capable of

sustaining. Compressive strength is calculated from the maximum load during a compression test
and the original cross sectional area of the specimen.

Elastic Limit : The maximum stress which a material is capable of sustaining without any
permanent strain remaining upon complete release of the stress.
Modulus of elasticity
• The ratio of stress to corresponding strain below the proportional limit.
– Initial tangent modulus: The slope of the stress-strain curve at the origin.
– Tangent modulus : The slope of the stress-strain curve at any specified stress or
strain.
– Secant modulus : The slope of the secant drawn from the origin to any specified
point on the stress-strain curve.
– Chord modulus: The slope of the chord drawn between any two specified points
on the stress - strain curve.

Fig 2.6 Methods for defining the modulus in non-linear stress-strain diagrams

32
Poisson's ratio-lateral strain/linear strain

– The absolute value of the ratio of transverse strain to the corresponding axial
strain resulting from uniformly distributed axial stress below the proportional
limit of the material.

Proportional Limit

• The greatest stress which a material is capable of sustaining without any deviation from
proportionality of stress to strain (Hooker’s law).

Shear strength

• The maximum shear stress that a material is capable of sustaining. Shear strength is
calculated from the maximum load during a shear or torsion test and is based on the
original dimensions of the cross section of the specimen.

Tensile strength: The maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of sustaining.
Tensile strength is calculated from the maximum load during a tension test carried "to rupture
and the original cross sectional area of the specimen.

Yield point : The first stress in a material, less than the maximum attainable stress, at
which an increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress.

Yield strength: The stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from
the proportionality of stress to strain. The deviation is expressed in terms of strain.

Pressure: A measure of the mean normal stress on a point of body (kg / cm2)

Bioyield point

• On the stress-strain or force-deformation curve at which there occurs an increase in

deformation with a decrease or no change of force.

• In some agricultural products, the presence of this bioyield point is an indication of initial cell
rupture in the cellular structure of the material.

• The term bioyield point is proposed for biological materials to differentiate this phenomenon
from the yield point in engineering materials.

33
• The bioyield point may occur at any point beyond the point LL, where the curve deviates from
the initial straight line portion.

Fig 2.7 Force –Deformation curve for an agricultural product LL- Linear limit; y-Bio
yield point; R-Rupture point

Rupture point

• A point on the stress-strain or force-deformation curve at which the axially loaded

specimen ruptures under a load.

• In biological materials, rupture may cause puncture of shell or skin, cracking, or fracture
planes. It may be stated that a “bioyield point" in these materials corresponds to a failure
in the microstructure while a "rupture point" corresponds to a failure in the
macrostructure of the specimen.

• In a force-deformation curve, the point of rupture of the specimen may occur at any-point
on the curve beyond the bioyield point.

• In a "brittle" material, rupture may occur in the early portion of the curve. In a "tough"
material, rupture may take place after considerable plastic flow at such point as R.

Stiffness

• Stiffness or rigidity is indicated by the slope of the initial straight line portion of the
curve.

• The ratio of stress to strain in this more or less elastic region of the curve may be referred
to as the "modulus of elasticity" or "Young's modulus" (kg/cm2).

34
 • In the case of nonlinear stress-strain behavior, stiffness or "apparent modulus" can be
defined in terms of initial tangent modulus, secant modulus, or tangent modulus, as
illustrated in Figure .

• Initial tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the curve at the origin.

• Secant modulus is the slope of the line connecting the origin and a selected point
A on the curve.

• Tangent modulus is the slope of the tangent line to a selected point B on the
curve.

Fig 2.8 Degree of elasticity from a loading –unloading curve. (De-elastic or recoverable
deformation; Dp-plastic or residual deformation; De/(De+Dp)- degree of elasticity)

Elasticity : The capacity of a material for taking elastic or recoverable deformation. In those
portions of the curve in Figure before the point LL is reached, elongations are, in large part at
least, recoverable, and are a measure of elastic deformation.

Plasticity : The capacity of a material for taking plastic or permanent deformation. Since
deformations from the bioyield point to the point of rupture are not all recoverable, the
unrecoverable part can be taken as a measure of plastic deformation

Degree of elasticity : The ratio of elastic deformation to the sum of elastic and plastic
deformation when a material is loaded to a certain load and then unloaded to zero load

Strength : The resistance to applied force (kg/cm).

Ultimate strength : The stress corresponding to the rupture point (kg/cm2).

Bio yield strength: The stress corresponding to the bioyield point

35
Stressed object : An object under a "balanced" set of forces, tending to change its shape or
size, or both.

Strained object : An object subjected to a change of shape or size, or both as a result of

application of a "balanced" set of forces.

Rigidity or shear modulus : Rigidity or shear modulus is the ratio between shearing
stress and the elastic shearing strain (kg/cm2).

Deviatoric stress component : The stress which is responsible for change in shape.

Isotropic stress component : The stress which is responsible for change in volume.

Linear viscoelasticity : A viscoelastic behavior in which the ratio of stress to strain is a

function of time alone and not of the stress magnitude.

Stress relaxation : Decay of stress. with time when the material is suddenly deformed to a
given deformation-constant strain.

Relaxation time : The rate of stress decay in- a material subjected to a sudden strain. It is the
time required for the stress in the Maxwell model, representing stress relaxation behavior, to
decay to 1/e approximately 37 percent of its original value.

Creep : Deformation with time when the material is suddenly subjected to a dead load-
constant stress.

Retardation time : The rate at which the retarded elastic deformation takes place in a material
creeping under dead load. It is the time required for the Kelvin model, representing creep
behavior, to deform to (1-(1/e)) or about 63 percent of its total deformation.

2.4. VISCOELASTIC MODELS

The fluids can be classified into following categories depending on the response to the applied
shear force. Viscoelastic models are developed by different scientist considering different
elements like dashpot and spring in series, in parallel and in combination. Widely used
rheological models are Kelvin model, Maxwell Model and Burgers Models, which are described
here.

Visco elastic -Mechanical models consisting of springs (Elastic) and dash pots (Viscus) are used
to explain and interpret the rheological behavior of linear viscoelastic materials

36
2.4.1 Rheological Models

Several models have been developed to describe the viscoelastic behaviour of materials. There
are two basic viscoelastic models viz Kelvin and Maxwell. Other complex viscoelastic behaviors
are described by using combinations of these basic models (Fig-8.1 & Fig-8.2).

To derive the rheological equations for the basic Maxwell and Kelvin models, we assume the
newtoninan law of viscosity for the dashpots and the Hook’s law for the springs.
σ - Stress
ε - Strain
t -time
E -stiffness or modulus of spring representing the ideal elastic body
Eo -instantaneous modulus or modulus at zero time
Ee -equlibrium modulus or modulus after infinite time
Ed- E0-Ee- decay odulus
Η -viscosity coefficient of the liquid in the dashpot
S, v -subscript denoting repscetively, spring and viscus element in the Maxwell model
for the spring

2.4.1.1 Maxwell model

The Maxwell model employs a spring and dashpot in series. In this model the deformation is
composed of two parts, one purely viscous and the other purely elastic, When a constant load is
applied to Maxwell body, instantaneous elastic deformation will take place followed by
continuing viscous flow, which will continue indefinitely as it is not limited by the spring
component. When load is removed, the Maxwell body recover instantly but completely. The
Maxwell body shows stress relaxation but Kelvin body does not.

Fig 2.9 Maxwell model

37
 (8)

The strain s being additive in the Maxwell model, the total strain,

ε = ε s + εv (9)

(10)

Stress

Where, σ (t) is stress at any time t,

σd is the decay stress,

σe is the stress at equilibrium

In terms of time dependent modulus E(t) can be written as

(11)

Sometimes, the equation for a simple Maxwell model is show as

(12)

(13)

In real materials, even after long periods of time, stresses do not vanish completely. Therefore
Eqns 12 and 13 appear to represent the actual behavior more realisticlally.

Eqns 12 and 13shows that the Maxwell model is not sufficiently general to describe the behavior
of a linear viscoelastic material. For example, is a constant stress is applied to a Maxwell model,
the mode exhibits only Newtonian flow and not a retarded elastic deformation which is
experimentally observed in a creep or constant stress test to avoid this problem, an infinite
38
number of Maxwell models are used in parallel and the resulting model is called a generalized
Maxwell model.

2.4.1.2 Generallized Maxwell model

A generalised Maxwell model is composed of n Maxwell elements with a spring in parallel with
nth element as given in Fig. The elastic modulus E e of last spring corresponds to the equilibrium
modulus in the stress relaxation test.

Fig 2.10 Generalized Max well model representation

The generalised Maxwell model is usually used to represent stress relaxation. If the model is
subjected to constant strain εo at time t=0, the total stress in the model

σ=σ1+ σ2+ σ3+ ……….....+ σn+ σe (14)

The total stress decreases with time and stress strain time relationship is given by :

(15)

Where T1,T2,T3,……Tn are the relaxation times, Trel corresponding to various elements in the
model. Relaxation time is the time required for the stress to decay to 1/e times its original value
or to 36.8 percent of its original value. In other words, at constant strain, a Maxwell elememt
relaxes its stress exponentially at a rate determined by T rel.

2.4.1.3 Kelvin model

The Kelvin model employs the spring (elastic component) and dashpot (viscous component) in
parallel. In this stress is the sum of two components of which one is proportional to the strain and

39
the other is proportional to the rate of shear. Since the elements are in parallel they are forced to
move together at constant rate(the strain developed will be equal).

Fig 2.11 Kelvin Model

In the Kelvi model, the tota stress is divided between the spring and the dashpot

σ= σs+σv (16)

the dashpot is forced to takeup the same deformation as the spring such that

εv= εs= ε (17)

When a constant load is applied to Kelvin model, initially a retarded deformation is obtained
followed by a final steady state deformation. When the load is removed the Kelvin model
recovers completely but not instantaneously. The model is expressed mathematically as:

(18)

If the initial strain is zero, substituting εo=0, the creep under constant load rom above eqn.,

(19)

Where

σo is the constant stress and εo is the initial strain at t=0

For t=0, ε=εo=o

40
 t=∞, ε=

t=Tret,

As shown above, the retardation elastic strain reaches the constant value of only after

infinite time. The time of retardation, Tret, in the case of creep is or about 63 percent of
the time for total strain.

If the constant load is removed from the strained body, it will not revert to the unstrained state
until after infinite time.

σo=0

As in the case of Maxwell model, eqn19 is not sufficiently general to predict the behavior of a
viscoelastic material under all conditions of loading. if the model is subjected to a a constant
strain, the observed stress relaxation cannot be predicted from the Kelvin model. Because σo
remains a constant stress and not a decreasing stress. To correct this situation, a more general
model called a 4-element ( Burger) model has been proposed

2.4.1.4 4-Element Model or Burgers Model

This 4-element model is one of the best known rheological model which has been used to predict
the creep behaviour in a number of materials. The model is composed of spring and dashpot in
series with another spring and dashpot in parallel. When a burger's body is subjected to constant
load, there is instantaneous deformation (E0) is followed by retarded flow. When the load is
removed there is instantaneous recovery followed by incomplete and slow recovery.

Fig 2.124-Element Model or Burgers Model

The stress-strain time relationship can be given as:

41
 (20)

In terms of compliance function D(t) which is reciprocal of a tensile or compressive or Young’s

modulus E(t) or the ratio of strain to stress, the above equation can be given as:

(21)

Where,

Do- - initial compliance

Dr- - retarded compliance

2.4.1.5 Generalized Kelvin model

Experimental data on may viscoelastic materials including biological materials have shown more
than one relaxation time or retardation time. For these materials, complete behaviour cannot be
represented by a singly Maxwell or single Kelvin model or elements model. Each or these
models have only one time constant. To represent viscoelastic behaviour more realistically a
chain of Kelvin models, each with its own time retardation is assumed and the model is called a
generalized Kelvin model. It consists of Kelvin elements connected in series with an initial
spring and final viscous element as shown in Fig 1.15

42
 Fig 2.13 Generalized Kelvin model representation

The equation for generalised kelvin model is:

(22)

Where T1, T2,T3,……Tn……………….. Tn are retardation times, Tret .,corresponding to various

elements in the model.

2.4.1.6 Plasto - visco - elastic or Bingham model

43
A more common type of body is the plasto-visco-elastic or Bingham body. When the stress is
applied which is below the yield stress the Bingham body reacts as an elastic body. At stress
values beyond the yield stress there are two components. One is constant and is represented by
the friction element and the other is proportional to the shear rate and represents the viscous flow
element. In a creep, experiment with stress not exceeding yield value, the creep curve would be
similar to the one for a elastic body. When the shear stress is greater than the yield stress, the
strain increases with time similar to the behavior of a Maxwell body. Upon removal of stress at
time the strain decreases instantaneously and remains constant thereafter. The decrease
represents the elastic components and the plastic deformation is permanent.

2.4.1.7 Psychorheological Models:

Psycho rheological models consist of a mathematical expression relating sensory rheological

data to the corresponding mechanical data. These two sets of data are usually considered as
output and input respectively. Associations between subjective and objective texture
measurement may be expressed by graphically or mathematic / statistical terms. Various con-
elation coefficients quantify the relation between variables.

Using regression analysis, one can ascertain the relation it seIf beyond developing a measure of
relatedness of two variables with the assumption of unilateral casuality. Regression analysis
helps the experimenter to : (a) select a variables, and (b) to estimate the parameters of that
equation by statistical analysis.

2.4.2 Viscoelastic Characterization of Materials

There are a number of tests which may be used to study viscoelastic materials and determine the
relation among stress-strain-time for a given type of deformation and a given type of loading
pattern. The most important tests include stress relaxation, creep and dynamic tests.

(i) Creep measurement

In this (Fig 1.16) test the stress (load) is suddenly applied and held constant, and strain
(deformation) is measured as a function of time. For a viscoelastic material the slope gives an
apparent Viscoelasticity. The deformation is a measure of the elastic part. The results are
expressed in terms of time dependent parameters e (t) or is compliance d(t) in tension or
compression creep, in terms of G(t) or J (t) in shear creep, and in terms of K(t) or B(t) in bulk
creep. The rheological model to represent the creep behaviour is the Kelvin model and 4
elements Burgers model. Creep measurement are very useful for studying stand up properties of
foods.

44
 Fig 2.14 Typical creep and recovery curve in a viscoelastic material exhibiting instantaneous
elasticity, retared elasticity and viscus flow.

(ii) Stress relaxation

In stress relaxation test the specimen is suddenly brought to a given deformation (strain), and the
stress required to hold the deformation constant is measured as a function of time. The results are
expressed in terms of time dependent modulus Et in tension or compression, Gt in shear or Kt in
bulk compression. The rheological models representing stress relaxation are Maxwell model and
generalised Maxwell model. One of the most important viscoelastic parameters which can be
obtained from stress relaxation test is the relaxation time. It is the time at which the stress in the
body resembling a Maxwell model decay to 1/e of initial stress. It is the measure of the rate at
which a material dissipates stress after receiving a sudden force. There are a number of methods
for treating experimental data on stress relaxation and finding the relaxation time.

(iii) Dynamic Measurement

Despite the simplicity of creep and stress relaxation experiments, there are two disadvantage in
these tests. The first disadvantage is that in order to obtain complete, information about
viscoelastic behavior of the material, it is necessary to take measurements over many decades of
time scales. This in addition to prolonging the experiment may cause chemical and physiological
changes in the specimen which will affect the physical behavior of the material. The second
disadvantage is the impossibility of having a truely instantaneous application of load or
deformation at the beginning of the experiment. These disadvantages can be overcome by
dynamic tests in which the specimen in deformed by stress which varies sinusoidally with time.

2.5. MEASUREMENT OF FOOD TEXTURE

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Texture is one of the major criteria which consumers use to judge the quality and freshness of
many foods. When a food produces a physical sensation in the mouth (hard, soft, crisp, moist,
dry), the consumer has a basis for determining the food's quality (fresh, stale, tender, ripe). The
crispiness of a potato chip, the crunchiness of a pickle, the freshness of bread, cookies and
crackers, the firmness of jam and preserve, the spreadability of butter, margarine and cheese and
creaminess of puddings are just a few examples of texture and mouthfeel characteristics that
make food appealing and satisfying to consumers.

In formulations of new foods, or modification of the existing products while maintaining the
desirable sensory characteristics sensory evaluation plays a pivotal role. For instance arriving of
minimum sensory standards in nutrient fortified foods for domestic as well as for export
purposes, and the development of substitutes for consumers on special diets such as low-calorie,
low-sodium, low-cholesterol or lactose-free foods. Sensory evaluation techniques have been used
to assess the progress of the product development in the food industry. Many consumers
purchase a product on the bases of the sensory experience which it delivers. Food technologist in
general, and sensory analyst in particular, recognize the need to focus attention on measuring the
perception of these characteristics. In similar manner, the textural measuring devices are helpful
in evaluating the product quality.

2.5.1Texture Terms Used In Sensory Texture Profiling

Sensory Techniques for Evaluating Mechanical Texture Characteristics

A major challenge facing food developers is how to accurately and objectively measure texture
and mouthfeel. To develop new product or to modify existing product to have better sensory and
rheological attributes developer should understand different texture terms used in sensory texture
profiling. The different texture terms used in sensory texture profiling are listed below:

(i) Adhesiveness: Place sample on tongue, press it against the palate .Force required to remove
the material that adhere to a specific surface (e.g. lips, palate, teeth) Place sample on tongue,
press it against the palate.

(ii) Hardness: Place sample between molar teeth and bite down evenly .evaluating the force
required to compress the food.

(iii) Cohesiveness: Place sample between molar teeth, compress and evaluate the amount of
deformation before rupture

(iv) Springiness: Place sample either between molar teeth (if it is solid) or between the tongue
and the palate (if it is a semi-solid) and compress partially, remove force and evaluate the degree
and quickness of

46
(v) Fracturability: Place sample between molar teeth and bite down evenly until the food
crumbles, cracks or shatters, evaluating the force with which the food moved away from the
teeth.

(vi) Chewiness: Place sample in the mouth and masticate at one chew per second , evaluating the
number of chews required to reduce the sample to a state ready for swallowing.

(vii) Guminess: Place sample in the mouth and manipulate with the tongue against the palate,
evaluating the amount of manipulation (Energy) necessary before the food disintegrates a semi-
solid food to a state.

(viii) Bounce: The resilience rate at which the sample returns to the original shape after partial
compression.

(ix) Coarseness: Degree to which the mass feels coarse during product mastication.

(x) Denseness: Compactness of cross section of the sample after biting completely through with
the molars.

(xi) Dryness: Degree to which the sample feels dry in the mouth.

(xii) Graininess: Degree to which a sample contains small grainy particles.

(xiii) Heaviness: Weight of product perceived when first placed on tongue.

(xiv) Moisture absorption: Amount of saliva absorbed by product.

(xv) Mouth release: Amount of wetness/juiciness released from sample.

(xvi) Mouth coating: Type and degree of coating in the mouth after mastication (for example
fat/oil).

(xvii) Roughness: degree of abrasiveness of product's surface perceived by the tongue.

(xviii) Slipperiness: Degree to which the product slides over the tongue.

(xix) Smoothness: Absence of any particles, lumps, bumps, etc. in the product.

(xx) Uniformity: Degree to which the sample is even throughout.

(xxi) Uniformity of chew: Degree to which the chewing characteristics of the product are even
throughout mastication.

(xxii) Uniformity of bite: Evenness of force through bite.

47
(xxiii) Viscosity: Place spoon with sample directly in front of mouth and draw liquid from spoon
over tongue by slurping, evaluating the force required to draw liquid over tongue at a steady rate.

xxiv) Wetness: Amount of moisture perceived on product's surface.

Table 1.3 Definition of textural characteristics

Properties Physical Sensory
Primary
Force necessary to attain a Force required to compress a
Hardness
given deformation substance between teeth
Degree to which a substance is
Extent to which a material can
Cohesiveness compressed between the teeth
be deformed before rupture
before it breaks
Rate at which a material
Degree to which a product returns
Springiness returns to its original
to its original size
condition
Secondary
Force with which a material Force with which a sample
Fracturability/Brittleness
fractures crumbles
Energy required to masticate Time required to masticate the
Chewiness a food to a state ready for sample to a state ready for
swallowing swallowing
Energy required to
disintegrate a semisolid food Denseness that persists
Gumminess
to a state ready for throughout mastication.
swallowing
Sensory texture profile is defined as the organoleptic analysis of the texture complex of a food in
terms of its mechanical, geometrical, fat and moisture characteristics, the degree of each present,
and the order in which they appear from first bite through complete mastication. The data on
these parameters is generally collected using either interval or ratio scales.

2.5.2 Instruments for Measuring Texture Properties

There are diverse range of instruments for measuring texture properties of food products. The
Instron universal testing machine is an instrument for measuring texture through tension and
compression testing and it is a versatile instrument for applications in research, development of
new products and quality control laboratories. It comprises of a standard load frame and drive
unit, a load weighing system and a microprocessor based control system. A beam carrying a load
cell (moving cross heads) is located between the base unit and the fixed crosshead at the top of
the frame. The cross head moving in vertical direction at a selected speed is supported and driven
48
by two lead screws. It contains a force sensing and recording system which measures the force
during the test and transmits them to a strip chart recorder. The Instron can be programmed for
automatic return, cycling and relaxation test etc. Fig.1.7 shows response of Instron in the form
of Instron curve, based on which major textural parameters are calculated, as follows:

There are diverse range of instruments for measuring texture properties of dairy and food
products. Some of the equipments are described as below:

(i) Wire Cutting Devices:

A wire driven at a Constant speed to cut the sample is used for certain daily products. An
advantage is that the sample area in Contact with the wire is constant throughout the test which
minimizes the effect of friction and adhesion between the product and the test cell surfaces.

(ii) Circular cutting devices

The Cherry- Burrel Curd tension meter is used in the dairy industry to determine curd tension of
milk and firmness of cottage cheese. A circular blade is driven at a constant speed of 2.54 cm per
7.5 sec. to cut the curd

(iii) Cone Penetrometer of varying dimensions

It consists of a cone of varying dimensions which is allowed to penetrate chhana, paneer,khoa or
any other soft dairy product. The hardness values are read out on a mechanical linked graduated
scale in terms of mm penetration.

(iv) PeaTenderometer
It consists of a grid of shearing blades (test cell) rotated at constant speed through a second grid
suspended, so that the force on the second, grid is counter balanced by a pendulum which is
displayed by a pointer on a graduated scale. It is widely used by the pea industry.

(v) The Warner – BratzlerShaler Test

A cylindrical sample usually 2.5 cm. in ilia.is placed ill a triangular hole in a thin blade of 0.25
cm thickness cut by pulling the blade through a slot and the sheer force indicated by a spring
scale. It is widely used for meat products.

(vi) Kramer shear press

It consists of a hydraulic press where the ram speed can be selected to complete its down stroke
in 15 to 100 seconds. The ram operated by a hydraulic pump drives the moving components of
the texture test cell into stationary component supported by the press frame. It is based on the
principle of a multi- blade shear compression cell. Because of limitation of control by ram speed,
the instrument does not give precise and accurate reading of force exerted.

(vii) Instron Machine

49
The Instron universal machine is an instrument for measuring texture through tension and
compression testing within the force range of <1N to 5kN. It is a versatile instrument for
application in research, development and quality control laboratories. It comprises of a standard
load frame and drive unit, a load weighing system and a microprocessor based control system. A
beam carrying a load cell (moving cross head) is located between the base unit and the fixed
crosshead at the top of the frame. The crosshead moving in vertical direction at a selected speed

is supported and driven by two lead screws. It contains a force sensing and recording system
which measures the force during the test and transmits them to a strip chart recorder. The Instron
can be programmed for automatic return, cycling and relaxation test etc.

(viii) The Ottawa Texture Measuring System

This machine is similar to the Instron Machine in design and operation except that it uses a
single screw as drive instead of twin screws. The Ottawa cell consists of a rectangular metal box
containing 8 or 9 thin stainless steel rods. The sample is compressed by a plunger and sheared
and extruded through a wire-grid. If offers operational flexibility for research and quality control
laboratories. It uses modern electronic system to record force, deformation and time precisely.

(ix) General Foods Texturometer

This instrument imitates the chewing action of the mouth for mastication of foods. The chewing
forces are detected by strain gauges with the help of a position transducer and displayed on an
oscilloscope. This helps ascertain the force required for teeth penetration into the food, thus
reflecting the food texture.

(x) Other Instruments

The curd tension, curd firmness, consistency of cheese etc. can be determined by various
techniques especially milk curcio-meter, containing a star shaped knife attached to a balance.
Other texture measuring device employed for milk products include ball and needle
penetrometers, extenders, gelographs.

2.6 Rheological and Textural Properties of Solid Dairy Products

Solid dairy products such as butter and cheese are valued for their textural characteristics.
Admittedly, the texture of other products, solid, semi-solid or fluid, is an equally important
determinant of their overall sensory acceptance, but probably because of their solid nature and its
variability. Several empirical methods have been developed in attempts to best describe the
product's rheology in relation to their textural properties. Considerable efforts have also been
devoted to obtain information on the fundamental rheological properties of cheese and butter.
However, owing to the complexities of the product texture, progress made in this regard is rather
50
limited. Nevertheless, recent developments in rheological instruments hold out a definite scope
for generating valuable information on the basic rheological parameters of these products. In the
context of Indian dairy industry, texture and rheology of certain solid and semi-solid products
such as paneer, khoa, chhana and milk sweets have been recognized to play an important role-in
their acceptance which, in turn has a great bearing on the success of their production in modern
dairy plants.

2.6.1 Cheese

Ever since the early report pertaining to the Davis's plastometer devised to measure deformations
in cheese, butter etc. under compression several different rheometers have been developed.
These include Devis's apparatus for measuring the crushing strength of cheese, a spherical
compression device of Scott Blair and Coppen (employing a 3.8 cm sphere for compression of
cylindrical cheese samples), Caffyn's ball compressor and sectilometer ( a write cutting
apparatus), and several penetrometers. Some of those principles were incorporated into certain
commercial instruments for routine analysis. Hoepplerconsistometer was one such instrument
also used for deriving certain fundamental measurements e.g. viscosity and elastic modulus of
hard and semi – hard cheese varieties. Studies to correlate measurements obtain with instruments
and sensory texture properties of cheese yielded varying results, the correlations generally being
high for hardness but low for springiness and other attributes. During the late fifties and sixties,
considerable interest was witnessed in employing rheological measurements for process control
(in terms of raw cheese ingredients etc.) in the manufacture of processed cheese. This interest
has been subsequently maintained to a great extent primarily because of increasing process
variables and sustained and growing demand for this product .

With the advent of the new generation rheological instruments such as the Instron machine,
Ottawa texture measuring system, Bohlin'srheometers and several texture analyses (e.g.
Steuren's, Micro stable etc.), rheological measurements of cheese has undergone a dramatic
change. Instruments providing non - destructive dynamic measurements have been used for
viscoelastic characterizations of cheese offering better understanding of cheese texture.

In spite of the impressive advances registered regarding the rheological measuring systems there
is a long way to go before rheological measurements become a substitute for sensory texture.
More specific in relation to cheese is its no homogeneity arising primarily from its constituents
and the manufacturing process. A recent IDF publication provides an extensive review of various
aspects of the rheology and fracture properties of different varieties of cheese, where the
arisotropic nature of cheese resulting from pressing of curd, considered a major factor
contributing non-homogeneity.

51
Hard and semi - hard cheese varieties have been subjected to rheological measurements most
frequently by uniaxial compression and to a lesser extent by deformation in tension or shear
between two parallel plates. Sometimes three points bending of a cylindrical cheese sample has
been employed to imitate the deformation seen while grading a cheese plug. The quantitative
characterization of cheese can be achieved' in terms various moduli especially the compression
modulus as well as the relative deformation at fracture and fracture stress in a compression test.
Toughness or the energy of fracture (the energy required from the onset of compression till the
cheese sample fractures ) is also a useful parameter.

Texture profile analysis (TPA) using compression between parallel plates has been extensively
used for cheese texture characterization but the TPA parameters have been stated to be of only a
limited value in cheese texture characterization.

Biaxial extensional viscosity determined by using compression between parallel discs has been
found to be particularly applicable to process cheese. The so-called lubricated squeezing flow
technique for the determination of extensional or elongation viscosity has been used to measure
the melting properties of processed cheese as also of mozzarella cheese. To a limited extent
oscillation measurement have been made of Gouda and other cheese to obtain dynamic moduli
reflecting the viscoelastic character of the product.

Factors affecting cheese rheology

Cheese is a composite material. Its major constituents para-casein, fat and the aqueous phase,
contribute each in a specific way to the structure and hence to the rheology of cheese. The para
casein matrix imparts the product solidity though formation of 3-dimension structure. Thus
composition is among the most important factors influencing cheese rheology. The moisture, fat
and protein contents are major compositional variables in cheese. Fat is a key contributor of the
temperature-caused variation in the rheological properties of cheese. The pH of Gouda cheese
has been observed to affect the stress-strain curve. These rheological parameters of ripened
cheese such as Gouda also vary with the period of ripening.

Regarding the rheological methodology for cheese the following are among the salient
recommendation made by IDF.

a. A method that yields real and unequivocal rheological or fracture parameters should be used
so that the results do not vary with test-piece size or with small variation in test conditions.

b. The sample preparation should be such that it docs not subsequently alter the product
properties.

52
c. The type, extent and time scale, of deformation should be in accordance with the conditions
during the actual use of the cheese (e.g. eating, cutting or storage).

d. Different mechanical methods may be used for the purpose of comparison and visible changes
during deformation should also be observed.

2.6.2. Butter

Rheology measurements of butter are important from two main points of view : first, spread
ability of butter as a functional texture attribute, and second, its pump ability or handling
convenience. The most relevant factor in this connection is the high temperature coefficient for
the consistency of this 'plastic' product, which necessarily needs to be stored under refrigeration
in plants or in homes. Several empirical instruments viz. cone penetrometer, sectilometer,
extrusion devices such as FIRA- NIRD extruder etc. have been used for 'obtaining the subjective
measurements that would correlate with the sensory assessment of spread ability of butter. The
most common parameter that is sought to be measured by those methods is hardness of the
product. Other less important texture measurements made on butter include its stickiness,
oiliness and brittleness but nor all instruments give this information. Most popular the
sectilometer is now available as a highly sophisticated microprocessor controlled instrument
(Buttomat). The cone penetromer has frequently been used for routine purposes in New Zealand,
Australia and UK. extruder thrust (From the NIRD instrument) has been found to correlate very
well with sensory and spreadability of butter. Recently the Instron back extension test has been
employed to compare the consistency of commercial butter made by different processes. Beside
temperature, compositional and other related factors such as moisture SNF, salting, ripening etc.
have been found to influence the rheological behaviour of butter. The solid fat content seems to
be the major determinant of butter rheology as also the state of fat crystals. Work softening,
referring to the softening effect of working is important to butter handling. Rheological
measurements such as yield stress have been used to study this phenomenon.

The processing parameters in conjunction with the physical properties or milk fat in butter
govern the structure of butter (believed to be a dispersion of fat glubules and aqueous phase in a
continuous phase of liquid fat) which is responsible for the typical rheological behaviour of the
product.

2.6.3 Traditional Milk Products

Industrial production of traditional milk products is yet to come of age in this country. Although
studies have been conducted on several technological and quality aspects of these products
during the past four decades, their rheological behaviour has aroused little research interest in the
past. Occasionally, certain empirical instruments such as cone penetrometer or similar
contraptions for compression studies have been used. Process development studies in respect of
53
rasogolla have benefitted by the use of cone penetrometer for determining the product's firmness.
The penetrometer has been used for certain khoa - and chhana based sweet such as burfi, s
andesh etc. In the first ever attempt to study the viscoelastic behavior of a traditional product like
paneer at PAU, Ludhiana. The relaxation times have been worked out employing compression in
an Instron machine. A mechanical model has also been proposed to describe the viscoelastic
behaviour of paneer. Khoa may be a solid or semi - solid product depending on its type and / or
moisture content. However, at high temperature such as those encountered during its
manufacture this product is essentially a pseudoplastic fluid, the relevant power law parameters
being a function of total solids.

The viscosity of khoa at 30oC as measured in Hoepplerconsistomer has been found to range from
2.Ox103 to 7.6 x103 poise with the product TS ranging from 56 to 72 %. Texture profile
parameters of khoa determined as a function of composition have been studied and Texture
Profile Analysis (TPA) hardness has been found to exhibit a significant correlation with the
corresponding sensory attribute of the product.

In recent times investigations have been carried out at different Institutition with a view to
generating the information on rheology of various indigenous products other than khoa viz.,
chhana and chhana-based sweets such as rasogolla, and sandesh, paneer, and khoa - based sweets
such as kalakand, gulabjamun etc. Temperature and test conditions during parallel plate
compression for 'TPA of these products are major factore affecting the measurements. Further, in
most cases, the TPA hardness has been observed to be the single most important parameter.

References:

 Paul Singh, R and Dennies R. Heldman. (1993).Introduction to Food Engineering. Fourth

Edition. Academic Press. Chapter 8

 Sahay K.M and Singh K.M. (2001).Unit operations of Agricultural Processing, Second
revised Edition. Vikas publishing house Pvt,Ltd.,Noida.

 Carr, Jr. R. L., “Evaluating flow properties of solids,” Journal of Chemical Engineering.,
72 (3), pp. 163–168, 1965.

 Mohsenin. N.1986. Physical properties of Plant and Animal materials. Gordon and
Breach, Science Publishers, New York.

 https://powderprocess.net/Powder_Flow/Carr_Index_Hausner_Ratio.html

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