E-Books Electrical Machines by Mr. S. K. Sahdev-27-103

Electro Magnetic Circuits 1
CHAPTER

Chapter Objectives
After the completion of this unit, students/readers will be able to understand:
What is magnetic field and its significance?
What is a magnetic circuit?
What are the important terms related to magnetism and magnetic circuits?
What are the similarities and dissimilarities between magnetic and electric circuits?
How series and parallel magnetic circuits are treated?
What is leakage flux and how it affects magnetic circuits?
What is magnetic hysteresis and hysteresis loss?
What is electromagnetic induction phenomenon?
What are Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction?
What are self- and mutual inductances and what is their significance?
What is the effective value of inductances when these are connected in series–parallel combination?
What are electromechanical energy conversion devices?
How does torque develop by the alignment of two fields?
What are the factors on which torque depends?
How to determine the direction of torque or induced emf in rotating machines?
Introduction
It is always advantageous to utilise electrical energy since it is cheaper, can be easily transmitted,
easy to control and more efficient. The electrical energy is generally generated from natural resources
such as water, coal, diesel, wind, atomic energy, etc. From these sources, first mechanical energy is
produced by one way or the other and then that mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy
by suitable machines. For the utilisation of electrical energy, it is again converted into other forms
of energy such as mechanical, heat, light etc. It is a well-known fact that the electric drives have
been universally adopted by the industry due to their inherent advantages. The energy conversion
devices are always required at both ends of a typical electrical system. The devices or machines
which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice-versa are called electro–mechanical
energy conversion devices.
2 Electrical Machines
The operation of all the electrical machines such as DC machines, transformers, synchronous
machines, induction motors, etc., rely upon their magnetic circuits. The closed path followed by the
magnetic lines of force is called a magnetic circuit. The operation of all the electrical devices (e.g.,
transformers, generators, motors, etc.) depends upon the magnetism produced by their magnetic
circuits. Therefore, to obtain the required characteristics of these devices, their magnetic circuits
have to be designed carefully.
In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the basic fundamentals of magnetic circuits and
their applications as electromechanical energy conversion devices.
1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance

The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or repulsion is called
magnetic field.
The existence of the magnetic field at a point around the magnet can also be determined by placing
a magnetic needle at that point as shown in Fig. 1.1. Although magnetic lines of force have no real
existence and are purely imaginary, yet their concept is very useful to understand various magnetic
effects. It is assumed (because of their effects) that the magnetic lines of force possess the following
important properties:
(i) The direction of magnetic lines of force is from N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet. But
inside the magnet their direction is from S-pole to N-pole.
(ii) They form a closed loop.
(iii) Their tendency is to follow the least reluctance path.
(iv) They act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves.
(v) They never intersect each other.
(vi) They repel each other when they are parallel and are in the same direction.
(vii) They remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials.
Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field around a bar magnet

1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis

The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
A magnetic circuit usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability (e.g., iron,
soft steel, etc.). In this circuit, magnetic flux starts from a point and finishes at the same point after
completing its path.
Figure 1.2 shows a solenoid having N turns wound on an iron
core (ring). When current I ampere is passed through the solenoid,
magnetic flux I Wb is set-up in the core.
Let l = mean length of magnetic circuit in m;
a = area of cross-section of core in m2;
μr = relative permeability of core material.
f
Flux density in the core material, B = Wb/m2
a
Magnetising force in the core material. Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit
f
H= B = AT/m
m 0 mr a m 0 mr
According to work law, the work done in moving a unit pole once round the magnetic circuit (or
path) is equal to the ampere-turns enclosed by the magnetic circuit.
f NI
i.e., Hl = NI or ¥ l = NI or I= Wb
a m 0 mr ( l / a m 0 mr )
The above expression reveals that the amount of flux set-up in the core is
(i) directly proportional to N and I i.e., NI, called magnetomotive force (mmf). It shows that the
flux increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa.
(ii) inversely proportional to l/a μ0 μr called reluctance of the magnetic path. In fact, reluctance is
the opposition offered to the magnetic flux by the magnetic path. The lower is the reluctance,
the higher will be the flux and vice-versa.
Thus, Flux = m.m.f

reluctance
It may be noted that the above expression has a strong resemblance to Ohm’s law for electric
current (I = emf/resistance). The mmf is analogous to emf in electric circuit, reluctance is analogous
to resistance and flux is analogous to current. Because of this similarity, the above expression is
sometimes referred to as Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits.
1.3 Important Terms

While studying magnetic circuits, generally, we come across the following terms:
1. Magnetic field: The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or
repulsion is called magnetic field.
2. Magnetic flux (I): The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous to electric current I in electric circuit.
3. The magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to the flux at that
point.
It is, generally, represented by letter ‘B’. Its unit is Wb/m2 or Tesla, i.e.,
f
B= Wb / m 2 or T (1 Wb/m2 = 1 × 104 Wb/cm2)
A
4. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through it is called
the permeability of that material.
It is generally represented by μ (mu, a Greek letter). The greater the permeability of a material,
the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa. The permeability
of air or vacuum is the poorest and is represented as μ 0 (where μ 0 = 4S × 10 –7 H/m).
Relative permeability: The absolute (or actual) permeability μ of a magnetic material is much
greater than absolute permeability of air μ 0. The relative permeability of a magnetic material
is given in comparison with air or vacuum.
Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material μ to the permeability of air or vacuum μ 0 is
called the relative permeability μr of the material.
m
i.e., μr = or μ = μ 0 μr
m0
Obviously, the relative permeability of air would be μ 0/μ 0 = 1. The value of relative permeability
of all the non-magnetic materials is also 1. However, its value is as high as 8000 for soft iron,
whereas, its value for mumetal (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as high as 1,20,000.
5. Magnetic field intensity: The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when placed at a point
in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity of the field at that point. It is denoted by H.
In magnetic circuits, it is defined as mmf per unit length of the magnetic path. It is denoted by
H, mathematically,
H= m.m.f = NI AT / m
length of magnetic path l
6. Magnetomotive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to set-up magnetic
flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As per work law it may be defined as
under:
The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force. In general
mmf = NI ampere-turns (or AT)
It is analogous to emf in an electric circuit.
7. Reluctance (S): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit is called its
reluctance.
It depends upon length (l), area of cross-section (a) and permeability (μ = μ0 μr) of the material
that makes up the magnetic circuit. It is measured in AT/Wb.
Reluctance, S = l
a m 0 mr
It is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
8. Permeance: It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the material. It is just
reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in Wb/AT or henry.
1 a m 0 mr
Permeance = = Wb/AT or H
reluctance l
It is analogous to conductance in an electric circuit.
9. Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric circuit.
1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Although magnetic and electric circuits have many points of similarity but still they are not analogous
in all respects. A comparison of the two circuits is given below:
Magnetic Circuits Electrical Circuits
Fig. 1.3 Magnetic circuit Fig. 1.4 Electric circuit

Similarities
1. The closed path for magnetic flux is called 1. The closed path for electric current is called
magnetic circuit. electric circuit.
2. Flux = mmf/reluctance 2. Current = emf/resistance
3. Flux, I in Wb 3. Current, I in ampere
4. mmf in AT 4. emf in V
5. Reluctance, S = l = l AT/Wb 5. Resistance, R = r l W or R = 1 l Ω
a m a m0 mr a s a
6. Permeance = 1/reluctance 6. Conductance = 1/resistance
7. Permeability, μ 7. Conductivity, V = 1/U
8. Reluctivity 8. Resistivity
9. Flux density, B =
f
Wb/m2 9. Current density, J = I A / m2
a a
10. Magnetic intensity, H = NI/l 10. Electric intensity, E = V/d
Dissimilarities
1. In fact, the magnetic flux does not flow but it sets- 1. The electric current (electrons) actually flows in
up in the magnetic circuit (basically molecular an electric circuit.
poles are aligned).
2. For magnetic flux, there is no perfect insulator. It 2. For electric current, there are large number of
can be set-up even in the non-magnetic materials perfect insulators like glass, air, rubber, etc.,
like air, rubber, glass etc. with reasonable mmf which do not allow it to follow through them under
3. The reluctance (S) of a magnetic circuit is not normal conditions.
constant rather it varies with the value of B. It 3. The resistance (R) of an electric circuit is almost
is because the value of μr changes considerably constant as its value depends upon the value of
with the change in B. U which is almost constant. However, the value of
U and R may vary slightly if temperature changes.
4. Once the magnetic flux is set-up in a magnetic 4. Energy is expanded continuously, so long as the
circuit, no energy is expanded. However, a small current flows through an electric circuit. This
amount of energy is required at the start to create energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
flux in the circuit.
1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations

In a magnetic circuit, flux produced,
I= m.m.f. = NI
reluctance l / a m 0 mr
fl
or AT required, NI = = B l = Hl
a m 0 mr m 0 mr
1.6 Series Magnetic Circuits

A magnetic circuit that has a number of parts of different dimensions and materials carrying the
same magnetic field is called a series magnetic circuit. Such as series magnetic circuit (composite
circuit) is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Series magnetic circuit

Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

S = S1 + S2 + S3 + Sg
l1 l2 l3 lg
= + + +
a1 m0 mr1 a2 m0 mr 2 a3 m0 mr 3 ag m 0
Total mmf = I S
Ê l1 l2 l3 lg ˆ
= fÁ + + + ˜
m
Ë 1 0 r1
a m a m m
2 0 r2 a m m
3 0 r3 a g m0 ¯
B1l1 B2 l2 B3l3 Bg lg
= + + +
m 0 mr1 m 0 mr 2 m 0 mr 3 m0
= H1 l1 + H2 l2 + H3 l3 + Hg lg
1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits

A magnetic circuit which has two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is called a parallel
magnetic circuit. Its behaviour can be just compared to a parallel electric circuit.
Figure 1.6 shows a parallel magnetic circuit. A current carrying coil is wound on the central limb
AB. This coil sets-up a magnetic flux I1 in the central limb which is further divided into two paths
i.e., (i) path ADCB which carries flux I2 and (ii) path AFEB which carries flux I3.
Fig. 1.6 Parallel magnetic circuit
It is clear that I1 = I2 + I3
The two magnetic paths ADCB and AFEB are in parallel. The ATs required for this parallel circuit
is equal to the ATs required for any one of the paths.
If S1 = reluctance of path BA i.e., l1/a1 μ0 μr1
S2 = reluctance of path ADCB i.e., l2/a2 μ0 μr2
S3 = reluctance of path AFEB i.e., l3/a3 μ0 μr3
? Total mmf required = mmf required for path BA + mmf required path ADCB or path AFEB.
i.e., Total mmf or AT = I1 S1 + I2 S2 = I1 S1 + I3 S3
1.8 Leakage Flux

The magnetic flux which does not follow the intended path
in a magnetic circuit is called leakage flux.
When some current is passed through a solenoid, as
shown in Fig. 1.7, magnetic flux is produced by it. Most of
this flux is set-up in the magnetic core and passes through
the air gap (an intended path). This flux is known as useful
flux Iu. However, some of the flux is just set-up around the
coil and is not utilised for any work. This flux is called
leakage flux Il.
Total flux produced by the solenoid.
I = Iu + Il
Leakage co-efficient or leakage factor: The ratio of
total flux (I) produced by the solenoid to the useful flux Fig. 1.7 Leakage flux
(Iu) set-up in the air gap is known as leakage co-efficient.
It is generally represented by letter ‘O’.
f
? Leakage co-efficient, O =
fu
Fringing: It may be seen in Fig. 1.7 that the useful flux when sets-up in the air gap, it tends to
bulge outwards at b and bc since the magnetic lines set-up in the same direction repel each other.
This increases the effective area in the air gap and decreases the flux density. This effect is known
as fringing. The fringing is directly proportional to the length of the air gap.
Example 1.1
An iron ring of 400 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross-section 20 cm2. Its
permeability is 500. If it is wound with 400 turns, what current would be required to produce a flux
of 0·001 Wb?
Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Mean length of magnetic path, lm = 400 cm = 4 m
Area of X-section of iron ring, a = 20 × 10 –4 m2
Absolute permeability, μ0 = 4π × 10 –7
Now mmf = flux × reluctance
lm
NI = I ×
a m 0 mr Fig. 1.8 Magnetic circuit
400 × I = 0·001 × 4
-4
20 ¥ 10 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 500
? Current, I = 0.001 ¥ 4 = 7·958 (Ans.)

20 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 500 ¥ 400
Example 1.2
An electromagnet has an air gap of 4 mm and flux density in the gap is 1·3 Wb/m2. Determine the
ampere-turns for the gap.
Solution:
Here, lg = 4mm = 0·4 cm = 4 × 10 –3 m; Bg = 1·3 Wb/m2
Ampere-turns required for the gap
= Hg × Ig =
Bg
¥ lg = 1◊ 3 ¥ 4 ¥ 10 –3 = 4136·83 AT (Ans.)
m0 4p ¥ 10 –7
Example 1.3
A coil of insulated wire of 500 turns and of
resistance 4 : is closely wound on iron ring. The
ring has a mean diameter of 0·25 m and a uniform
cross-sectional area of 700 mm2. Calculate the
total flux in the ring when a DC supply of 6V is
applied to the ends of the winding. Assume a relative
permeability of 550.
Solution:
Mean length of iron ring, l = S D = S × 0·25 = 0·25
Sm Fig. 1.9 Magnetic circuit
Area of cross-section, D = 700 mm2 = 700 × 10 –6 m2
Current flowing through the coil,
Voltage applied across coil
I=
Resistance of coil
= 6 = 1 ◊ 5A
5
NI N I ¥ a m 0 mr
Total flux in the ring, I= =
l / a m 0 mr l
500 ¥ 1 ◊ 5 ¥ 700 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 550

= = 0·462 mWb (Ans.)
0 ◊ 25 p
Example 1.4
What are the similarities between electrical circuits and magnetic circuits? An iron ring of mean
length 50 cm and relative permeability 300 has an air gap of 1 mm. If the ring is provided with winding
of 200 turns and a current of 1 A is allowed to flow through, find the flux density across the airgap.
Solution:
Here, li = 50 cm = 0·5 m; μr = 300; lg = 1mm = 0·001 m; N = 200 turns; I = 1 A
Ampere-turns required for air gap = B lg

m0
Ampere-turns required for iron ring = B l

m 0 mr i
or Total ampere-turns required = B lg + B li ...(i)

m0 m 0 mr
Ampere-turns provided by the coil = N I = 200 × 1 = 200 ...(ii)
Equating eqn. (i) and (ii), we get,
or
Ê
m0 Ë
l ˆ
mr ¯ m0 (
200 = B Á lg + i ˜ = B 0.01 + 0.5
300 )
= B ( 0 ◊ 001 + 0 ◊ 00167 ) = B ¥ 0 ◊ 00267
m0 m0
200 ¥ m0
= 200 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 = 0·09425 T (Ans.)
–7
or Flux density, B =
0 ◊ 00267 0 ◊ 00267
Example 1.5
A coil of 1000 turns is wound on a laminated core of steel having a cross-section of 5 cm2. The
core has an air gap of 2 mm cut at right angle. What value of current is required to have an air gap
flux density of 0·5 T? Permeability of steel may be taken as infinity. Determine the coil inductance.
Solution:
Here, N = 1000 turns; a= 5 cm2 = 5 × 10 –4 m2;
lg = 2 mm = 2 × 10 –3 m; B = 0·5 T; μr = f
Total ampere-turns required,
AT = B lg + B li = 0◊5 ¥ 2 ¥ 10 -3 + 0 = 796
m0 m 0 mr 4p ¥ 10 -7
Ê B ˆ
ÁË As mr = •; m m ¥ li = 0 ˜¯
0 r
Current required, I = AT = 796 = 0·796 A (Ans.)

I 1000
-4
= N ¥ B ¥ a = 1000 ¥ 0 ◊ 5 ¥ 5 ¥ 10
Nf
Inductance of coil, L=
I I 0.796
= 0·314 H (Ans.)
Example 1.6
A flux density of 1·2 Wb/m2 is required in 2 mm air gap of an electro-magnet having an iron path
1 metre long. Calculate the magnetising force and current required if the electro magnet has 1273
turns. Assume relative permeability of iron to be 1500.
Solution:
Flux density, B = 1·2 Wb/m2
Relative permeability of iron, μr = 1500

No. of turns, N = 1273
Length of iron path, li = 1m
Length of air gap, lg = 2mm = 0·002 m
Magnetising force for iron Hi = B = 1◊ 2 = 636·6 AT/m

m 0 mr 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1500
Magnetising force for air gap, Hg = B = 1◊ 2 = 954900 AT/m

m0 4p ¥ 10 -7
ATs required for iron path = Hili = 636·6 × 1 = 636·6
ATs required for air gap = Hglg = 954900 × 0·002 = 1909·8
Total ampere-turns = 636·6 + 1909·8 = 2546·4
Current required, I = Total ATs = 2546 ◊ 4 = 2A (Ans.)
N 1273
Example 1.7
Estimate the number of ampere-turns necessary to produce a flux of 100000 lines round an iron
ring of 6 cm2 cross section and 20 cm mean diameter having an air gap 2 mm wide across it
Permeability of the iron may be taken 1200. Neglect the leakage flux outside the 2 mm air gap.
Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.10
Area of cross section of the ring, a = 6 cm2 = 6 × 10 –4 m2
Mean diameter of the ring, Dm = 20 cm = 0·2 m
Length of air gap, lg = 2 mm = 2 × 10 –3 m
Flux set up in the ring, I = 100,000 lines
= 100,000 × 10 –8
= 0·001 Wb
Fig. 1.10 Magnetic circuit
Mean length of ring, lm = πD = π × 0·2
= 0·6283 m
Length of air gap, lg = 0·002 m
Length of iron path, li = 0·6283 – 0·002
= 0·6263 m
Now, mmf = flux × reluctance
Ampere-turns required for iron path,
ATi = f ¥
li
= 0 ◊ 001 ¥ 0 ◊ 6263
a m 0 mr 6 ¥ 10 –4 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 –7 ¥ 1200
= 692·21 AT
Ampere-turns required for air gap,

lg 0 ◊ 002
ATg = f ¥ = 0 ◊ 001 ¥ = 2652·58 AT
a m0 6 ¥ 10 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7
-4
Total ampere-turns required to produce the given flux

= ATi + ATg = 692·21 + 2652·58 = 3344·79 AT (Ans.)
Example 1.8
A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a circular shape as given in Fig.
0.11. It is then wound with 500 turns of wire. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0·5
mWb in magnetic circuit with an air gap of 1 mm; ur (iron) = 4000 (assume constant).
Solution:
Here, Ii = 30 cm = 0·3 m;
Diameter, d = 2 cm
p (2)
2
? Area, a = p d 2 = ¥ 10 –4 m2
4 4
= π × 10 –4 m2
I = 0·5 mWb = 0·5 × 10 –3 Wb

N = 500 turns
f È li lg ˘
Í +
m0 ˙˚
NI=
a Î m 0 mr
0 ◊ 5 ¥ 10 - 3 È 0◊3 ˘
I= Í + 0 ◊ 001-7 ˙ = 4·433 A (Ans.)
500 ¥ p ¥ 10 -4 -7
Î 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 400 4p ¥ 10 ˚
Example 1.9
A circular ring 20 cm in diameter has an air gap 1 mm wide cut in it. The area of a cross-section
of the ring is 3·6 cm2. Calculate the value of direct current needed in a coil of 1000 turns uniformly
wound round the ring to create a flux of 0·5 mWb in the air gap. Neglect fringing and assume relative
permeability for the iron as 650.
Solution:
Here, Area of cross-section of the ring, a = 3·6 cm2 = 3·6 × 10 –4 m2
No. of turns of the coil, N = 1000
Flux set-up, I = 0·5 m Wb = 0·5 × 10 –3 Wb
Length of air gap, lg = 1 mm = 1 × 10 –3 m

Mean diameter of ring = 20 cm = 20 × 10 –2 m
? Length of iron path li = SD = S × 20 × 10 –2 m = 62·83 × 10 –4 m
li
Reluctance of iron path =
m 0 mr a
62 ◊ 83 ¥ 10 -2
= = 213669 AT/Wb.
4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 650 ¥ 3 ◊ 6 ¥ 10 -4
? AT required for iron path = 0·5 × 10 –3 × 213669 = 1068·3 AT
lg 1 ¥ 10 - 3
Reluctance of air gap = = = 2210485 AT/Wb
m0 a 4p ¥ 10 - 7 ¥ 3 ◊ 6 ¥ 10 - 4
? AT required for air gap = 0·5 × 10 –3 × 2210485 = 1105·2 AT
? Total AT = (AT)i + (AT)gap = 1068·3 + 1105·2 = 2173·5 AT
? Current I = Total AT = 2173 ◊ 5 = 2·1735 A (Ans.)

N 1000
Example 1.10
A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative permeability 900 having a
mean diameter of 20 cm. The steel ring is made of bar having circular cross-section of diameter
2 cm. If the coil has a resistance of 50 ohm and is connected to 250 V DC supply, calculate (i) the
mmf of the coil, (ii) the field intensity in the ring, (iii) reluctance of the magnetic path, (iv) total flux
and (v) permeance of the ring.
Solution:
Current through the coil, I = V = 250 = 5 A

R 50
(i) mmf of the coil = NI = 300 × 5 = 1500 AT (Ans.)
(ii) Field intensity H = NI
l
where, l = π D = 0·2 S metre
? + = 1500 = 2387·3 AT/m (Ans.)

0 ◊ 2p
1 Fig. 1.12 Magnetic circuit
(iii) Reluctance of the magnetic path, S =
a m 0 mr
where, a = p d 2 = p ¥ ( 0 ◊ 02 ) = π × 10 –4 m2; μr = 900

2
4 4
? S = 0·2π/π × 10 –4 × 4π × 10 –7 × 900
= 17·684 × 105 AT/Wb (Ans.)

(iv) Total flux,
I = m.m.f. = 1500 = 0·848 m Wb (Ans.)

S 17 ◊ 684 ¥ 105
(v) Permeance = 1/S = 1/17·684 × 105 = 5·655 × 10 –7 Wb/AT (Ans.)
Example 1.11
Calculate the relative permeability of an iron ring when the exciting current taken by the 600 turn
coil is 1.2 A and the total flux produced is 1 m Wb. The mean circumference of the ring is 0·5 m and
the area of cross-section is 10 cm2.
Solution:
f¥l
NI =
a m 0 mr
f ¥l
? μr =
a m0 NI
where N = 600 turns; I = 1·2 A; I = 1 m Wb = 1 × 10 –3 Wb; l = 0·5 m; a = 10 cm2 = 10 × 10 –4 m2
1 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 0 ◊ 5
? μr = -4
= 552·6 (Ans.)
10 ¥ 10 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 600 ¥ 1 ◊ 2
Example 1.12
An iron ring of mean length 1 m has an air gap of 1 mm and a winding of 200 turns. If the relative
permeability of iron is 500 when a current of 1 A flows through the coil, find the flux density.
Solution:
Now, mmf = flux × reluctance
Ê li lg ˆ
i.e., NI = f Á +
Ë a m m
0 r a m0 ˜¯
Ê l lg ˆ
or NI = B Á i + ˜
m m
Ë 0 r m 0¯
where N = 200 turns; I = 1 A; μr = 500

lg = 1 mm = 0·001 m;
li = (1 – 0·001) = 0·999 m
Ê 0 ◊ 999 ˆ
? 200 × 1 = B Á + 0 ◊ 001
Ë 4p ¥ 10 –7 ¥ 500 4p ¥ 10 –7 ˜¯
or B= 200 = 0·0838 Wb/m2 (Ans.)

2385 ◊ 73
Example 1.13
A rectangular magnetic core shown in Fig. 1.14 (a). has square cross-section of area 16 cm2. An
air-gap of 2 mm is cut across one of its limbs. Find the exciting current needed in the coil having
1000 turns wound on the core to create an air-gap flux of 4 m Wb. The relative permeability of the
core is 2000.
Solution:
Here, Area of x-section, a = 16 cm2 = 16 × 10 –4 m2; lg = 2 mm = 2 × 10 –3 m
No. of turns, N = 1000; Flux, I = 4 m Wb = 4 × 10 –3 Wb; μr = 2000
f 4 ¥ 10 -3
Flux density required, B = = = 2·5 T
a 16 ¥ 10 - 4
Each side of the cross-section = 16 = 4 cm
( )
Length of iron-path, li = 25 - 2 ¥ 4 + 20 - 2 ¥ 4 ¥ 2 - 0 ◊ 2
2 2
= 73·8 cm = 0·738 m
Total ampere-turns required = B lg + B li

m0 m 0 mr
-3
= 2 ◊ 5 ¥ 2 ¥ -10
7
+ 2 ◊ 5 ¥-70 ◊ 738
4p ¥ 10 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 2000
= 3979 + 734 = 4713
Total ampere - turns 4713
Exciting current required, I = = = 4·713 A (Ans.)
N 1000
Example 1.14
An iron ring of 10 cm2 area has a mean circumference of 100 cm. If has a saw cut of 0·2 cm wide.
A flux of one mWb is required in the air gap. The leakage factor is 1.2. The flux density of iron for
relative permeability 400 is 1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required.
Solution:
fg -3
Flux density in air gap, Bg = = 1 ¥ 10 -4 = 1 Wb/m2
a 10 ¥ 10
Flux in iron ring, Ii = O × Ig (where O is leakage factor)
= 1.2 × 1 × 10 –3 = 1.2 × 10 –3 Wb
f 1 ◊ 2 ¥ 10 -3
Flux density in iron ring, B = = = 1·2 Wb/m2
a 10 ¥ 10 -4
Bg Bi
Total ampere-turn required = Hg lg + Hi li = l + l
m 0 g m 0 mr i
= 1 ¥ 0 ◊ 2 ¥ 10 -2 + 1◊ 2 ¥1
-7
4p ¥ 10 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 400
= 3978·87 (Ans.)
Example 1.15
A steel ring 10 cm mean radius and of circular cross-section 1 cm in radius has an air gap of 1
mm length. It is wound uniformly with 500 turns of wire carrying current of 3 A. Neglect magnetic
leakage. The air gap takes 60% of the total mmf Find the total reluctance.
Solution:
Total mmf = NI = 500 × 3 = 1500 ATs
Mmf for air gap = 60% of total mmf = 0·6 × 1500 = 900 ATs
lg
Reluctance of air gap, Sg =
a m0
where, lg = 1 mm = 1 × 10 –3 m; a = π × (0·01)2 = π × 10 –4 m2;
1 ¥ 10 -3 8
? Sg = -4 -7
= 10 2 ATs/Wb
p ¥ 10 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 4p
M.M.F. of iron 900
Flux in the air gap, Ig = = 8 ¥ 4p 2 = 36p 2 ¥ 10 -6 Wb
reluctance 10
Mmf for iron = Total mmf – air mmf = 1500 – 900 = 600 ATs
Flux in the iron ring, Ii = Ig = 36 S2 × 10 –6 Wb
(since there is no magnetic leakage)
Reluctance of iron ring, Si =

M.M.F. of iron
= 600 = 108 AT / Wb
fi 36 p 2 ¥ 10 -6 6p2
( )
8 8 8
Total reluctance, S = Sg + Si = 10 2 + 10 2 = 102 1 + 1
4p 6p p 4 6
= 4·22 × 106 ATs/Wb (Ans.)
Example 1.16
Determine magnetomotive force, magnetic flux, reluctance and flux density in case of a steel ring
30 cm mean diameter and a circular cross-section 2 cm in diameter has an air gap 1 mm long. It
is wound uniformly with 600 turns of wire carrying a current of 2.5 A. Neglect magnetic leakage.
The iron path takes 40% of the total magnetomotive force.
Solution:
Mmf of the magnetic circuit = NI = 600 × 2·5 = 1500 ATs (Ans.)
As iron path takes 40% of the total mmf, the reluctance of iron in 40% and the rest of the reluctance
(60%) is of air path.
Sa
? = 60 = 3 = 1·5
Si 40 2
la
Reluctance of air path, Sa =
a m0
where la = 1 × 10 –3 m; a = p (2)2 × 10 –4 = π × 10 –4 m2;

4
? Sa = 1 ¥ 10 -4 = 2·533 × 106 ATs/Wb

p ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7
6
= 2 ◊ 533 ¥ 10 = 1·688 × 106 ATs/Wb
Sa
Reluctance of iron path, Si =
1◊ 5 1◊ 5
Total reluctance = Sa + Si = (2·533 + 1·688) × 106 ATs/Wb
= 4·221 × 106 ATs/Wb (Ans.)
Magnetic flux, I = m.m.f. = 1500 = 0·3554 m Wb (Ans.)

reluctance 4 ◊ 221 ¥ 106
-3
= 0 ◊ 3554 ¥-10
f
Flux density, B = 4
= 1·131 Wb/m2 (Ans.)
a p ¥ 10
Example 1.17
An iron ring is made up of three parts; l1 = 10 cm, a1 = 5 cm2; l2 = 8 cm, a2 = 3 cm2; l3 = 6 cm, a3 =
2·5 cm2. It is wound with a 250 turns coil. Calculate current required to produce flux of 0·4 mWb.
P1 = 2670, P2 = 1050, P3 = 600.
Solution:
f 0 ◊ 4 ¥ 10 - 3
Flux density B1 = =
a1 5 ¥ 10 - 4
= 0·8 Wb/m2
f 0 ◊ 4 ¥ 10 - 3
B2 = =
a2 3 ¥ 10 - 4
= 1·33 Wb/m2
f 0 ◊ 4 ¥ 10 - 3
B3 = =
a3 2 ◊ 5 ¥ 10 - 4
= 1·6 Wb/m2 Fig. 1.15 Series magnetic circuit as per data
Total Ampere-turns required
B1 B2 B3
AT = l + l + l
m0 m1 1 m0 m2 2 m0 m3 3
= 1 È 0 ◊ 8 ¥ 0 ◊ 10 + 1 ◊ 33 ¥ 0 ◊ 08 + 1 ◊ 6 ¥ 0 ◊ 06 ˘
4p ¥ 10 Í 2670
-7 Î 1050 600 ˚˙
= 231·92
Current required to produce given flux,
I = AT = 231 ◊ 92 = 0·928 A (Ans.)

N 250
Example 1.18
The ring shaped core shown in Fig. 1.16 is made of a material having a relative permeability of
1000. The flux density in the smallest area of cross-section is 2 T. If the current through the coil is
not to exceed 1·5 A, compute the number of turns of the coil.
Fig. 1.16 Series magnetic circuit as per data

Solution:
Flux in the core, I = B × A = 2 × 2 × 10 –4 = 4 × 10 –4 Wb
Total reluctance of the magnetic path,
S = S1 + S2 + S3
l1 l2 l3
= + +
a1 m0 mr a2 m0 mr a3 m0 mr
= 1 Ê l1 + l2 + l3 ˆ
m0 mr ÁË a1 a2 a3 ˜¯
Ê 0 ◊1 ˆ
= 1
ÁË + 0 ◊ 15-4 + 0 ◊ 2-4 ˜
4p ¥ 10 -7
¥ 1000 4 ¥ 10 -4
3 ¥ 10 2 ¥ 10 ¯
= 13·926 × 105 AT/Wb
Total mmf required, NI = I S
or N × 1·5 = 4 × 10 –4 × 13·926 × 105
? No. of turns, N = 371·36 (Ans.)
Example 1.19
The magnetic frame shown in Fig. 1.17 is built-up
of iron of square cross-section, 3 cm side. Each air
gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the coil is wound with
1000 turns and the exciting current is 1·0 A. The
relative permeability of part A and part B may be
taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively.
Calculate, (i) reluctance of part A; (ii) reluctance
of part B; (iii) reluctance of two air gaps; (iv) total
reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit; (v) mmf
produced and (vi) flux set-up in the circuit. Fig. 1.17 Series magnetic circuit
Solution:
lA
(i) Reluctance of path A, SA =
a m0 mrA
where, lA = 20 – (1·5 + 1·5) + (1·5 + 1·5) = 20 cm = 0·2 m
a= 3 × 3 = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10 –4 m2; μrA = 1000;
? SA = 0◊2 = 176839 AT/Wb (Ans.)

9 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1000
lB
(ii) Reluctance of path B, SB =
a m0 mrB
where, lB = (20 – 1·5 – 1·5) + 2 (10 – 1·5) = 34 cm = 0·34 m; μrB = 1200
SB = 0 ◊ 34 = 250521 AT/Wb (Ans.)

9 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1200
lg
(iii) Reluctance of two air gaps, Sg =
a m0
where, lg= 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 4 × 10 –3 m
? Sg = 4 × 10 –3/9 × 10 –4 × 4π × 10 –7 = 3536776 AT/Wb (Ans.)
(iv) Total reluctance of the composite magnetic circuit,
S = SA + SB + Sg = 176839 + 250521 + 3536776
= 3964136 AT/Wb (Ans.)
(v) Total mmf = NI = (2 × 1000) × 1 = 2000 AT (Ans.)
(vi) Flux set-up in the circuit, I = m.m.f. = 2000 = 0·5045 m Wb (Ans.)

reluctance 3964136
Example 1.20
A magnetic core made of annealed sheet steel has the dimensions as shown in Fig. 1.18. The cross-
section everywhere is 25 cm2. The flux in branches A and B is 3500 m Wb, but that in the branch
C is zero. Find the required ampere-turns for coil A and for coil C. Relative permeability of sheet
steel is 1000.
Fig. 1.18 Given parallel magnetic circuit Fig. 1.19 Flux distribution in the parallel magnetic circuit
Solution:
The given magnetic circuit is a parallel circuit. To determine the ATs for coil ‘A’, the flux distribution
is shown in Fig. 1.19.
Since path ‘B’ and ‘C’ are in parallel with each other w.r.t. path ‘A’,
? mmf for path ‘B’ = mmf for path C,
i.e., I1 S1 = I2 S2
i.e., 3500 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 30 ¥ 10 -2 = f ¥ 80 ¥ 10 -2
2
a m 0 mr a m 0 mr
? I2 = 1312·5 × 10 –6 Wb
Total flux in the path ‘A’, I = I1 + I2
= (3500 + 1312·5) × 10 –6 = 4812·5 × 10 –6 Wb
Actual (resultant) flux in path ‘A’ = I – I2 = 3500 × 10 –6 Wb
? ATs required for coil ‘A’ = ATs for path ‘A’ + ATs for path ‘B’ or ‘C’
3500 ¥ 10 -6
= ( 0 ◊ 8 + 0 ◊ 3)
4p ¥ 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 -4
-7
= 1225·5 (Ans.)
To neutralise the flux in section ‘C’, the coil produces flux of 1312·5 μ Wb in opposite direction.
? ATs required for coil ‘C’ = ATs for path ‘C’ only
1312 ◊ 5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 0 ◊ 8
= = 334·22 (Ans.)
4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1000 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 -4
1.9 Magnetisation or B-H Curve

The graph plotted between flux density B and magnetising force H of a material is called the
magnetisation or B–H Curve of that material.
The general shape of the B–H Curve of a magnetic material is shown in Fig. 1.20. The shape
of the curve is non-linear This indicates that the relative permeability (μr = B/μ0 H) of a magnetic
material is not constant but it varies. The value of μr largely depends upon the value of flux density.
Its shape is shown in Fig. 1.21 (for cast steel).
Fig. 1.20 B-H curve of a magnetic material Fig. 1.21 μr-B curve
The B–H curves of some of the common magnetic materials are shown in Fig. 1.22. The B–H
curve for a non-magnetic material is shown in Fig. 1.23. It is a straight line curve since B = P0 H
or B v H as the value of P0 is constant.
Fig. 1.22 B-H curve for different magnetic materials Fig. 1.23 B-H curve for a non-magnetic materials
1.10 Magnetic Hysteresis

When a magnetic material is magnetised first in one direction and then in the other (i.e., one cycle
of magnetisation), it is found that flux density B in the material lags behind the applied magnetising
force H. This phenomenon is known as magnetic hysteresis.
Hence, the phenomenon of flux density B lagging behind the magnetising force H in a magnetic
material is called magnetic hysteresis.
‘Hysteresis’ is the term derived from the Greek word hysterein meaning to lag behind. To
understand the complete phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis, consider a ring of magnetic material
on which a solenoid is wound uniformly as shown in Fig. 1.24. The solenoid in connected to a DC
source through a double pole double throw reversible switch (position ‘1’).
Fig. 1.24 Circuit to trace hysteresis loop Fig. 1.25 Hysteresis loop
When the field intensity H is increased gradually by increasing current in the solenoid (by
decreasing the value of R), the flux density B also increases until saturation point a is reached and
curve so obtained is oa. If now the magnetising force is gradually reduced to zero by decreasing
current in the solenoid to zero. The flux density does not become zero and the curve so obtained
is ab as shown in Fig. 1.25. When magnetising force H is zero, the flux density still has value ob.
Residual Magnetism and Retentivity

This value of flux density ‘ob’ retained by the magnetic material is called residual magnetism and
the power of retaining this residual magnetism is called retentivity of the material.
To demagnetise the magnetic ring, the magnetising force H is reversed by reversing the direction
of flow of current in the solenoid. This is achieved by changing the position of double pole, double
throw switch (i.e., position ‘2’). When H is increased in reverse direction, the flux density starts
decreasing and becomes zero and curve follows the path bc. Thus residual magnetism of the magnetic
material is wiped off by applying magnetising force oc in opposite direction.
Coercive Force
This value of magnetising force oc required to wipe off the residual magnetism is called coercive force.
To complete the loop, the magnetising force H is increased further in reverse direction till
saturation reaches (point ‘d’) and the curve follows the path cd. Again H is reduced to zero and the
curve follows the path de. Where oe represents the residual magnetism. Then H is increased in the
positive direction by changing the position of reversible switch to position ‘1’ and increasing the flow
of current in the solenoid. The curve follows the path of efa and the loop is completed. Again of is
the magnetising force utilised to wipe off the residual magnetism oe.
Hence, cf is the total coercive force required in one cycle of magnetisation to wipe off the residual
magnetism.
Since the meaning of hysteresis is lagging behind, and in this case flux density B always lags
behind the magnetising force, H, therefore, loop (abcdefa) so obtained is called hysteresis loop.
1.11 Hysteresis Loss

When a magnetising force is applied, the magnetic material is magnetised and the molecular magnets
are lined up in a particular direction.
However, when the magnetising force in a magnetic material is reversed, the internal friction
of the molecular magnets opposes the reversal of magnetism, resulting in hysteresis. To overcome
this internal friction of the molecular magnets (or to wipe off the residual magnetism), a part of the
magnetising force is used. The work done by the magnetising force against this internal friction of
molecular magnets produces heat. This energy, which is wasted in the form of heat due to hysteresis,
is called hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss occurs in all the magnetic parts of electrical machines where there is reversal of
magnetisation. This loss results in wastage of energy in the form of heat. Consequently, it increases
the temperature of the machine which is undesirable. Therefore, a suitable magnetic material is
selected for the construction of such parts, e.g., silicon steel is most suitable in which hysteresis loss
is minimum.
1.12 Importance of Hysteresis Loop

The shape and size of hysteresis loop of a magnetic material largely depends upon its nature. For a
particular location, the choice of the magnetic material depends upon the shape and size (i.e., area)
of its hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loops of some of the common magnetic materials are shown
in Fig. 1.26.
(i) Hard steel: The hysteresis loop for hard steel is shown in Fig. 1.26 (a). This loop has larger area
which indicates that this material will have more hysteresis loss. Therefore, it is never used for
the construction of machine parts. However, its loop shows that the material has high retentivity
and coercivity. Therefore, it is more suitable for making permanent magnets.
Fig. 1.26 Hysteresis loop for different magnetic materials
(ii) Silicon steel: The hysteresis loop for silicon steel is shown in Fig. 1.26 (b). This loop has smallest
area which indicates that this material will have small hysteresis loss. Therefore, it is most suitable
for the construction of those parts of electrical machines in which reversal of magnetisation is
very quick e.g., armature of DC machines, transformer core, starter of induction motors etc.
(iii) Wrought iron: Figure 1.26 (c) shows the hysteresis loop for wrought iron. This loop shows that
this material has fairly good residual magnetism and coercivity. Therefore, it is best suited for
making cores of electromagnets.
Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. An iron ring has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2 and a mean diameter of 25 cm. It is wound with 500
turns. If the value of relative permeability is 500, find the total flux set-up in the ring. The coil resistance
is 400 Ω and the supply voltage is 200 V. (Ans. 0·08 m Wb)
2. An iron ring of mean diameter 22 cm and cross-section 10 cm2 has an air gap 1 mm wide. The ring is
wound uniformly with 200 turns of wire. The permeability of ring material is 1000. A flux of 0·16 mWb is
required in the gap. What current should be passed through the wire? (Ans. 1·076 A)
3. An iron ring has cross-section 3 cm2 and a mean diameter of 25 cm. An air gap of 0·4 mm has been made
by saw cut across the section. The ring is wound with 200 turns through which a current of 2 A is passed.
If the total flux is 21 × 10 –5 weber, find μ for iron assuming no leakage. (Ans. 2470)
4. An iron ring has a mean circumferential length of 60 cm with an air gap of 1 mm and a uniform winding
of 300 turns. When a current of 1 A flows through the coil, find the flux density. The relative permeability
of iron is 300. Assume μ0 = 4π × 10 –7 H/m. (Ans. 0·1256 T )
5. In the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.27, a coil of 500 turns is wound on the central limb. The magnetic
path from A to B by way of outer limbs have a mean length of 100 cm each and an effective cross-sectional
area of 2·5 cm2. The central limb is 25 cm long and 5 cm2 cross-sectional area. The air gap is 0·8 cm long.
Calculate the current flowing through the coil to produce a flux of 0·3 m Wb in the air gap. The relative
permeability of the core material is 800 (neglect leakage and fringing).
Fig. 1.27:
Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What is a magnet?
Ans. A substance that attracts pieces of iron is called a magnet.
Q.2. What are permanent and temporary magnets?

Ans. A magnet that retains magnetism permanently is called a permanent magnet. Whereas a magnet in
which magnetism remains temporarily is called a temporary magnet. A wire wound soft iron piece
becomes a temporary magnet when a DC is passed through the wire.
Q.3. What are magnetic poles?

Ans. The ends of a magnet from where the magnetic lines of force appear to emit or enter are called magnetic
poles, these are identified as north and south poles respectively.
Q.4. What do you understand by magnetic field?

Ans. The space occupied by the magnetic lines of force around a magnet is called the magnetic field.
Q.5. What do you mean by magnetic axis?

Ans. Magnetic axis is the imaginary line joining the two poles of a magnet. It is also called as the magnetic
equator.
Q.6. Define and explain a magnetic circuit.

Ans. A complete closed path followed by a group of magnetic lines force is called a magnetic circuit. In a
magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves from north pole, passes through the circuit and returns to
the north pole.
Q.7. Mention at least four properties of magnetic lines of force.

Ans. 1. Magnetic lines always emanate from north pole and terminate at south pole outside the magnet
whereas they are set-up from south to north pole inside the magnet.
2. The magnetic lines of force do not intersect each other.
3. The magnetic lines of force set-up in one direction have a repulsive force between them and therefore
do not intersect.
4. The magnetic lines of force always follow the least reluctance path.
Q.8. Explain the term MMF.

Ans. The force which drives the magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit is called the magnetomotive force.
It is produced by passing electric current through wire of number of turns. It is measured in ampere-
turns (AT ).
MMF in a magnetic circuit can be compared to EMF in an electric circuit. Both are pressure. MMF is
magnetic pressure and EMF is electric pressure.
Q.9. Define relative permeability.

Ans. The relative permeability (μr) of a material (or medium) is defined as the ratio of the flux density
produced in that material or medium to the flux density produced in vacuum by the same magnetising
force.
μr = B
B0
where, B – Flux density in the material or medium in tesla
B0 – Flux density in vacuum
Q.10. Define permeance of magnetic circuit.

Ans. Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance. It is the ease of the magnetic material with which magnetic
flux is set-up in it. It is equivalent to conductance in an electric circuit. Its unit is weber per ampere-
turn.
Permeance = 1
Reluctance
1 a m0 mr
= =
l / m0 mr l
where, l = length of the magnetic circuit

a – area of cross section of the magnetic circuit
P0 – absolute permeability of the magnetic circuit.
Pr – relative permeability
Q.11. Give similarities of electric and magnetic circuits.

Ans.
Se.
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit
No.
1. The closed path for magnetic flux is called The closed path for electric current is called
magnetic circuit. electric circuit.
2. Flux (I) = MMF Current (I) = emf

Reluctance Resistance
3. MMF (Ampere-turns) emf (volt)
4. Reluctance (S) = l Resistance (R) = r l

a m0 mr a
5. Reluctivity Resistivity
6. Permeance Conductance
f Current density (J) = I ampere/m2
7. Flux density B = Wb/m2
a a
8. Magnetic field intensity H = NI AT/m Electric field intensity E = V volt/m
l d
Q.12. What is a composite magnetic circuit?

Ans. A composite magnetic circuit consists of different magnetic materials. The magnetic materials have
different permeabilities and length it may also have an air gap. Each path will have its own reluctance.
Since the materials are in series, the total reluctance is given by the sum of individual reluctances.
Q.13. State ‘Ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit.

Ans. The ‘ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit is given by
Flux = MMF i.e., I = NI

Reluctance S
The above equation is similar to that of the ohm’s law in electric circuit. Flux is analogous to current,
MMF to EMF and reluctance to resistance in electric circuit.
Q.14. Define leakage factor.

Ans. Leakage factor is defined as the ratio of total flux to the useful flux.
Q.15. Why is it necessary to keep air gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible?
Ans. Usually, the ampere-turns (AT ) required for the airgap is much greater than that required for the magnetic
circuit. It is because the reluctance of air is very high as compared to that offered by iron. Therefore,
it is always preferred to keep air gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible.
Q.16. Why does leakage occur in a magnetic circuit?

Ans. In a parallel magnetic circuit, a large amount of flux follows the intended path. At the same time a small
amount of flux leaks through the surrounding air since air is not a magnetic insulator. Therefore, leakage
of flux takes place easily. The leakage flux is useless, it is harmful in an electrical machine.
Q.17. What is magnetic fringing?

Ans. While crossing an air gap the magnetic lines of force tend to bulge out. The reason is that the magnetic
lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material. This phenomenon is known
as fringing.
Q.18. What is hysteresis in a magnetic material?

Ans. The phenomenon due to which magnetic flux density (B) lags behind the magnetic field intensity (H)
in a magnetic material is called magnetic hysteresis.
Q.19. Give the units of MMF, reluctance, flux and give the relation between them.
Ans.
Quantity Unit
MMF Ampere-Turn
Flux Weber
Reluctance AT/weber
Reluctance = MMF
Flux
1.13 Electro Magnetic Induction

The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in a circuit (and hence current flows when the circuit
is closed) when magnetic flux linking with it changes is called electro-magnetic induction.
Fig. 1.28 Electromagnetic induction
For illustration, consider a coil having a large number of turns to which galvanometer is connected.
When a permanent bar magnet is taken nearer to the coil or away from the coil, as shown in Fig. 1.28
(a), a deflection occurs in the needle of the galvanometer. Although, the deflection in the needle is
opposite is two cases.
On the other hand, if the bar magnet is kept stationary and the coil is brought nearer to the magnet
or away from the magnet, as shown in Fig. 1.28 (b), again a deflection occurs in the needle of the
galvanometer. The deflection in the needle is opposite in the two cases.
However, if the magnet and the coil both are kept stationary, no matter how much flux is linking
with the coil, there is no deflection in the galvanometer needle.
The following points are worth noting:

(i) The deflection in the galvanometer needle shows that emf is induced in the coil. This condition
occurs only when flux linking with the circuit changes i.e., either magnet or coil is in motion.
(ii) The direction of induced emf in the coil depends upon the direction of magnetic field and the
direction of motion of coil.
1.14 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Michael Faraday summed up conclusions of his experiments regarding electro-magnetic induction
into two laws, known as Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
First Law: This law states that “Whenever a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the conductor.”
or
“Whenever the magnetic flux linking with any circuit (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.”
Figure 1.29 shows a conductor placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet to which a
galvanometer is connected. Whenever, the conductor is moved upward or downward i.e., across the
field, there is deflection in the galvanometer needle which indicates that an emf is induced in the
conductor. If the conductor is moved along (parallel) the field, there is no deflection in the needle
which indicates that no emf is induced in the conductor.
For the second statement, consider a coil placed near a bar magnet and a galvanometer connected
across the coil, as shown in Fig. 1.30. When the bar magnet (N-pole) is taken nearer to the coil [see
Fig. 1.30 (a)], there is deflection in the needle of the galvanometer. If now the bar magnet (N-pole) is
taken away from the coil [see Fig. 1.30 (b)], again there is deflection in the needle of galvanometer
but in opposite direction. The deflection in the needle of galvanometer indicates that emf is induced
in the coil.
Fig. 1.29 Conductor moving in the field Fig. 1.30 Coil is stationary but bar magnet
(field) is moving
Second Law: This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkages.
N (f2 - f1 )
Rate of change of flux linkages = Wb-turns/s
t
where, N = No. of turns of the coil; (I2 – I1) = change of flux in Wb
t = time in second for the change
? According to Faraday’s second law of electro-magnetic induction;
N (f2 - f1 )
Induced emf, ev
t
N (f2 - f1 )
e= (taking proportionality constant, as unity)
t
df
In differential form, e = N volt
dt
Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression which indicates that emf is
induced in such a direction which opposes the cause (i.e., change in flux) that produces it (according
to Lenz’s law).
df
e = -N volt
dt
1.15 Direction of Induced emf

The direction of induced emf and hence current in a conductor or coil can be determined by either
of the following two methods:
1. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: This rule is applied to determine the direction of induced emf
in a conductor moving across the field and is stated as under;
“Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand mutually perpendicular to
each other. If first finger indicates the direction of magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction
of motion of conductor then second finger will indicate the direction of induced emf in the
conductor.”
Its illustration is shown in Fig. 1.29.
2. Lenz’s Law: This law is more suitably applied to determine the direction of induced emf in a
coil or circuit when flux linking with it changes. It is stated as under:
“In effect, electro-magnetically induced emf and hence current flows in a coil or circuit in such
a direction that the magnetic field set up by it, always opposes the very cause which produces it.”
Explanation: When N-pole of a bar magnet is taken nearer to the coil as shown in Fig. 1.30, an emf
is induced in the coil and hence current flows through it in such a direction that side ‘B’ of the coil
attains North polarity which opposes the movement of the bar magnet. Whereas, when N-pole of
the bar magnet is taken away from the coil as shown in Fig. 1.30, the direction of emf induced in the
coil is reversed and side ‘B’ of the coil attains South polarity which again opposes the movement
of the bar magnet.
1.16 Induced emf

When flux linking with a conductor (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in it. This change in flux
linkages can be obtained in the following two ways:
(i) By either moving the conductor and keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving
the magnetic field system and keeping the conductor stationary, in such a way that conductor
cuts across the magnetic field (as in case of DC and AC generators). The emf induced in this
way is called dynamically induced emf
(ii) By changing the flux linking with the coil (or conductor) without moving either coil or field
system. However, the change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is obtained
by changing the current in the field system (solenoid), as in transformers. The emf induced in
this way is called statically induced emf
1.17 Dynamically Induced emf

By either moving the conductor keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving the field
system keeping the conductor stationary so that flux is cut by the conductor, the emf thus induced
in the conductor is called dynamically induced emf
Mathematical Expression
Considering a conductor of length l metre placed in the magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m2
is moving at right angle to the field at a velocity X metre/second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (a). Let the
conductor be moved through a small distance dx metre in time dt second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (b).
Fig. 1.31 Dynamically induced emf

Area swept by the conductor, A = l × dx

Flux cut by the conductor, I = B × A = B l dx
According to Faraday’s Law of electro-magnetic induction;
flux cut f B l dx
Induced emf, e = = = =BlX (since dx/dt = X (velocity))
time dt dt
Now, if the conductor is moved at an angle T with the direction of magnetic field at a velocity X
metre/second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (d). A small distance covered by the conductor in that direction
is dx in time dt second. Then the component of distance perpendicular to the magnetic field, which
produces emf, is dx sin T.
? Area swept by the conductor, A = l × dx sin T
Flux cut by the conductor, I = B × A = B l dx sin T
Bl dx sinq
Induced emf e = = B l X sin T
dt
Example 1.21
A coil of 500 turns in linked with a flux of 2 mWb. If this flux is reversed in 4 ms, calculate the
average emf induced in the coil.
Solution:
df
Average induced emf, e = N
dt
where, N = 500 turns; d I = 2 – (– 2) = 4 m Wb; dt = 4 × 103 s;
4 ¥ 10 -3
? e = 500 ¥ = 500 V (Ans.)
4 ¥ 10 -3
Example 1.22
A coil of 250 turns is wound on a magnetic circuit of reluctance 100000 AT/Wb. If a current of 2 A
flowing in the coil is reversed in 5 ms, find the average emf induced in the coil.
Solution:
I = mmf/reluctance i.e., I = NI/S
where, N = 250; I = 2A and S = 100000 AT/Wb.
250 ¥ 2
? I= = 5 m Wb
100000
df
Average induced emf e = N
dt
where, d I = 5 – (– 5) = 10 m Wb (since current is reversed)
-3
e = 250 ¥ 10 ¥ 10-3 = 500 V (Ans.)
5 ¥ 10
1.18 Statically Induced emf

When the coil and magnetic field system both are stationary but the magnetic field linking with the
coil changes (by changing the current producing the field), the emf thus induced in the coil is called
statically induced emf
The statically induced emf may be:
(i) Self induced emf (ii) Mutually induced emf
(i) Self induced emf: The emf induced in a coil due to the
change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns is
called self induced emf as shown in Fig. 1.32.
The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the
cause which produces it (Lenz’s law) i.e., change of current
in the coil.
Since the rate of change of flux linking with the coil depends
upon the rate of change of current in the coil. Therefore,
the magnitude of self induced emf is directly proportional
to the rate of change of current in the coil. Therefore, the
magnitude of self induced emf is directly proportional to Fig. 1.32 Flux produced by coil
the rate of change of current in the coil, i.e., linking with its own turns
dI dI
ev or e = L
dt dt
where L is a constant of proportionality and is called self inductance or co-efficient of self
inductance or inductance of the coil.
(ii) Mutually induced emf
The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another (neighbouring) coil,
linking with it is called mutually induced emf as shown in Fig. 1.33.
Fig. 1.33 Flux produced by coil-A linking with coil-B
Since the rate of change of flux linking with coil ‘B’ depends upon the rate of change of current
in coil ‘A’. Therefore, the magnitude of mutually induced emf is directly proportional to the rate
of change of current in coil ‘A’, i.e.,
d I1 dI
em v or em = M 1
dt dt
where M is a constant of proportionality and is called mutual inductance or co-efficient of
mutual inductance.
1.19 Self Inductance

The property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through itself is called
self inductance or inductance of the coil.
This property (i.e., inductance) is attained by a coil due to self-induced emf produced in the coil
itself by the changing current flowing through it. If the current in the coil is increasing (by the change
in circuit conditions), the self-induced emf is produced in the coil in such a direction so as to oppose
the rise of current i.e., the direction of self-induced emf is opposite to that of the applied voltage. On
the other hand, if the current in the coil is decreasing, the self-induced emf is produced in the coil
in such direction so as to oppose the fall of current i.e., the direction of self-induced emf is in the
same direction as that of the applied voltage. In fact, self-inductance does not prevent the change of
current but it delays the change of current flowing through a coil.
It may be noted that this property of the coil only opposes the changing current (i.e., alternating
current). However, it does not affect the steady (i.e., direct) current when flows through it. In other
words, the self-inductance of the coil (by virtue of its geometrical and magnetic properties) will
exhibit its presence to the alternating current but it will not exhibit its presence to the direct current.
Expressions for self inductance:
L= e
dI / dt (
since e = L d I
dt )
Nf Ê df ˆ N2 Ê ˆ
= Á since e = N = L dI ˜ = since f = NI
I Ë dt dt ¯ l / a m0 mr ÁË l / a m0 mr ˜¯
1.20 Mutual Inductance

The property of one coil due to which it opposes the change of current in the other (neighbouring)
coil is called mutual-inductance between the two coils.
This property (i.e., mutual-inductance) is attained by a coil due to mutually induced emf in the
coil while current in the neighbouring coil is changing.
Expression for mutual inductance:
em Ê dI ˆ
M= since em = M 1 ˜
dI1 / dt ÁË dt ¯
N 2f12 Ê df12 dI1 ˆ
=
I1 ÁË since em = N 2 d t = M dt ˜¯
N1 N 2 Ê N1I1 ˆ
=
l / a m 0 mr ÁË since f12 = l / a m m ˜¯
0 r
1.21 Co-efficient of Coupling

When current flows through one coil, it produces flux (I1). The whole of this flux may not be linking
with the other coil coupled to it as shown in Fig. 32. It may be reduced, because of leakage flux Il,
by a fraction k known as co-efficient of coupling.
Thus, the fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links with the other
is known as co-efficient of coupling (k) between the two coils.
If the flux produced by one coil completely links with the other, then the value of k is one and the
coils are said to be magnetically tightly coupled. Whereas, if the flux produced by one coil does not
link at all with the other, then the value of k is zero and the coils are said to be magnetically isolated.
Mathematical expression: Considering the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.34. When current I1
flows through coil-1;
N1f1 Nf N kf
L1 = and M = 2 12 = 2 1 ...(i) (∵ f12 = kf1 )
I1 I1 I1
Fig. 1.34 Flux produced by one coil linking with the other
Now considering coil-2 carrying current I2;

N 2f2 Nf N kf
L2 = and M = 1 21 = 1 2 ...(ii) (∵ f21 = kf2 )
I2 I2 I2
Multiplying equation (i) and (ii), we get,
N 2 k f1 N1k f2
M×M= ¥
I1 I2
N1 f1 N 2 f2
or M2 = k 2 ¥ = k2 L1 L2
I1 I2
or M = k L1L2 ...(iii)
The above expression gives a relation between mutual-inductance between the two coils and their
respective self inductances.
Expression (iii) can also be written as,
k= M
L1L2
1.22 Inductances in Series and Parallel

Consider two coils magnetically coupled having self-inductance of L1 and L2 respectively, and a
mutual-inductance of M henry. The two coils, in an electrical circuit, may be connected in different
ways giving different values of resultant inductance as given below:
Inductances in series: The two coils may be connected in series in the following two ways:
(i) When their fields (or mmfs.) are additive i.e., their fluxes are set-up in the same direction as
shown in Fig. 1.35 In this case, the inductance of each coil is increased by M i.e.,
Total inductance, LT = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M) = L1 + L2 + 2 M
(ii) When their fields (or mmfs.) are subtractive i.e., their fluxes are set-up in opposite direction as
shown in Fig. 1.36. In this case, the inductance of each coil is decreased by M, i.e.,
Total inductance, LT = (L1 – M) + (L2 – M) = L1 + L2 – 2 M
Note: It may be noted that direction of field produced by a coil is denoted by placing a Dot at the side
at which current enters (or flux enters the core), see Fig. 1.35 and 1.36.
Fig. 1.35 Inductances in series having field in Fig. 1.36 Inductances in series with field in
same direction opposite direction
Inductances in parallel: The two coils may be connected in parallel in the following two ways:
(i) When the fields (or mmfs.) produced by them are in the same direction as shown in Fig. 1.37.
L1 L2 - M 2
Total inductance, LT =
L1 + L2 - 2 M
Fig. 1.37 Inductances connected in parallel fields Fig. 1.38 Inductances in parallel fields are in
are in same direction opposite direction
(ii) When the fields (or mmfs.) produced by them are in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.38.
L1 L2 - M 2
Total inductance, LT =
L1 + L2 + 2 M
Example 1.23
A coil has 1500 turns. A current of 4 A causes a flux of 8 mWb to link the coil. Find the self inductance
of the coil.
Solution:
Nf
Inductance of the coil, L =
I
where N = 1500; I = 8 × 10 –3 Wb and I = 4 A.
-3
? L = 1500 ¥ 8 ¥ 10 = 3 H (Ans.)
4
Example 1.24
Calculate the value of emf induced in circuit having an inductance of 700 micro-henry if the current
flowing through it varies at a rate of 5000 A per second.
Solution:
Inductance of the coil, L = 700 × 10 –6 H
dI
Rate of change of current, = 5000 A/s
dt
? Magnitude of emf induced in the coil,
dI
e= L = 700 × 10 –6 × 5000 = 3·5 V (Ans.)
dt
Example 1.25
An air cored solenoid has 300 turns its length is 25 cm and its cross section is 3 cm2. Calculate the
self-inductance is henry.
Solution:
No. of turns of the solenoid, N = 300
Length of solenoid, l = 25 cm = 0·25 m
Area of cross section, a = 3 cm2 = 3 × 10 –4 m2
For air core, μr = 1
Inductance of the solenoid, L= N2 2

= N a m0
l / a m 0 mr l
300 ¥ 300
= ¥ 3 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7
0 ◊ 25
= 0·1375 mH (Ans.)
Example 1.26
Calculate the inductance of toroid, 25 cm mean diameter and 6.25 cm2 circular cross-section wound
uniformly with 1000 turns of wire. Hence calculate the emf induced when current in it increases at
the rate of 100 A/second.
Solution:
2
Inductance of the toroid, L = N ¥ a m0 mr
l
where, No. of turns, N = 1000 turns
Mean length l = S D = 0·25 S m;
Area of cross-section, a = 6·25 × 10 –4 m2 and
Relative permeability, Pr = 1
? L = (1000)2 × 6·25 × 10 –4 × 4 π × 10 –7 × 1/0·25 π
= 1 m H (Ans.)
dI
Induced emf, e = L = 1 × 10 –3 × 100 = 0·1 V (Ans.)
dt
Example 1.27
The iron core of a choke has mean length 25 cm with an air gap of 1 mm. The choke is designed for
an inductance of 15 H when operating at a flux density of 1 Wb/m2. The iron core has a relative
permeability of 3000 and 8 cm2 area of cross-section. Determine the required number of turns of
the coil.
Solution:
Inductance of the coil, L = N2/ST
where ST is the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit
li lg
ST = +
a m 0 mr a m 0
-3
0 ◊ 25 1 ¥ 10
= -4
+ = 1077612 AT/Wb
8 ¥ 10 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 3000 8 ¥ 10 ¥ 4 p ¥ 10 -7
-7 -4
Now N= LST = 15 ¥ 1077612 = 4020·5 turns (Ans.)
Example 1.28
Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0·6 H. If current in one coil is varied from 4 A to 1 A in 0·2
second, calculate (i) the average emf induced in the other coil and (ii) the change of flux linking the
later assuming that it is wound with 150 turns.
Solution:
d I1
Mutually induced emf, em = M
dt
where, M = 0·6 H; d I1 = 4 – 1 = 3 A and dt = 0·2 s
? em = 0·6 × 3/0·2 = 9 V (Ans.)
df12
Now, e m = N2
dt
em ¥ dt 9¥0 ◊ 2
? Change of flux with second coil, dI12 = = = 12 mWb (Ans.)
N2 150
Example 1.29
Two coils having 100 and 50 turns respectively are wound on a core with μ = 4000 μ0. Effective core
length = 60 cm and core area = 9 cm2. Find the mutual inductance between the coils.
Solution:
N1 N 2 m a
We know that, Mutual Inductance M=
l
where, N1 = 100; N2 = 50; μ = 4000 μ0; l = 60 cm = 60 × 10 –2 m; a = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10 – 4 m2
100 ¥ 50 ¥ 4000 m0 ¥ 9 ¥ 10 - 4
? M=
60 ¥ 10 - 2
100 ¥ 50 ¥ 4000 ¥ 4 m 0 ¥ 9 ¥ 10 -4
= = 37·7 mH (Ans.)
60 ¥ 10 -2
Example 1.30
A wooden ring has mean diameter of 150 mm and a cross-sectional area of 250 mm2. It is wound with
1500 turns of insulated wire. A second coil of 900 turns in wound on the top of the first. Assuming
that all flux produced by the first coil links with the second, calculate the mutual inductance.
Solution:
N1 N 2
Mutual-inductance, M= a m 0 mr
l
where, N1 = 1500; N2= 900; l = π D = 0·15 π m; a = 250 × 10 –6 m2; μr = 1
? M = 1500 ¥ 900 ¥ 250 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1 = 0·9 m H (Ans.)

0.15p
Example 1.31
Two coils A and B of 600 and 1000 turns respectively are connected in series on the same magnetic
circuit of reluctance 2 × 10 6 AT/Wb. Assuming that there is no flux leakage, calculate (i) self-
inductance of each coil; (ii) mutual inductance between the two coils.
What would be the mutual inductance if the co-efficient of coupling is 75%.
Solution:
Self inductance of coil A, L1 = N12 / S
where N1 = 600 and S = 2 × 106 AT/Wb.
? L1 = (600)2/2 × 106 = 0·18 H (Ans.)
Similarly, L2 = (1000)2/2 × 106 = 0·5 H (Ans.)
Mutual inductance, M= k L1L2
when k = 1; M = 1 0.18 ¥ 0.5 = 0·3 H (Ans.)
when k = 0·75; M = 0·75 0.18 ¥ 0.5 = 0·225 H (Ans.)
Example 1.32
Two air-cored coils are placed close to each other so that 80% of the flux of one coil links with the
other. Each coil has mean diameter of 2 cm and a mean length of 50 cm. If there are 1800 turns of
wire on one coil, calculate the number of turns on the other coil to give a mutual inductance of 15 mH.
Solution:
Reluctance, S= l = 0◊5 = 1·2665 × 109 AT/Wb

a m0 mr p ¥ (0 ◊ 02)2 ¥ 4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1
4
Now L1 = N12 / S and L2 = N 22 / S
? L1L2 = N1 N2/S
Also M = k L1L2 = k N1 N2/S
where M = 15 × 10 –3 H; N1 = 1800; k = 0·8;
? 15 × 10 –3 = 0·8 × 1800 × N2/1·2665 × 109
15 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 1 ◊ 2665 ¥ 109
or N2 = = 13193 turns (Ans.)
0 ◊ 8 ¥ 1800
Example 1.33
Two coils with negligible resistance and of self inductance of 0·2 H and 0·1 H respectively are
connected in series. If their mutual inductance is 0·1 H, determine the effective inductance of the
combination.
Solution:
Total inductance of the two coils when connected in series;
L = L1 + L2 + 2 M = 0·2 + 0·1 + 2 × 0·1 = 0·5 H or 0·1 H (Ans.)
Example 1.34
The combined inductance of two coils connected in series is 0·6 H and 0·1 H depending upon the
relative direction of currents in the coils. If one of the coils when isolated has a self inductances of
0·2 H, calculate the mutual inductance of the coils and the self inductance of the other coil.
Solution:
The combined inductance of the two coils when connected in series;
(a) having their field additive = L1 + L2 + 2M = 0·6 ...(i)
(b) having their fields subtractive = L1 + L2 – 2M = 0·1 ...(ii)
Subtracting equation (ii) from (i), we get,
4M = 0·5 or M = 0·125 H (Ans.)
From equation (ii); L1 + L2 – 2 × 0·125 = 0·1 or L1 + L2 = 0·35 H
Self inductance of one coil, L1 = 0·2 H
? Self inductance of second coil, L2 = 0·25 – 0·2 = 0·15 H (Ans.)
Example 1.35
Two coils of self inductance 120 mH and 250 mH and mutual inductance of 100 mH are connected in
parallel. Determine the equivalent inductance of combination if (i) mutual flux helps the individual
fluxes and (ii) mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes.
Solution:
(i) When mutual flux helps the individual fluxes;
L1 L2 - M 2 120 ¥ 250 - (100)2
LT = = = 117·65 m H (Ans.)
L1 + L2 - 2 M 120 + 250 - 2 ¥ 100
(ii) When mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes.
L1L2 - M 2 120 ¥ 250 - (100)2
LT = = = 35·088 m H (Ans.)
L1 + L2 + 2 M 120 + 250 + 2 ¥ 100
1.23 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

When some electrical energy is supplied to a coil, it is spent in two ways:
(i) A part of it is spent to meet I 2 R loss which is dissipated in the form of heat and cannot be
recovered.
(ii) The remaining part is used to create magnetic field around the coil and is stored in the magnetic
field. When this field collapses, the stored energy is released by the coil and is returned to the
circuit.
The energy stored in the magnetic field is given by the expression:
Energy stored in magnetic field = 1 L I 2
2
Example 1.36
A solenoid of 1 m in length and 10 cm in diameter has 5000 turns. Calculate the energy in the
magnetic field when a current of 2 A flows in the solenoid.
Solution:
2
Inductance of the solenoid, L = N ¥ a m 0 mr
l
where, N = 5000; a = π d2/4 = 25 π × 10 –4 m2; l = 1 m; μr = 1.
? L = (5000)2 × 25 π × 10 –4 × 4 π × 10 –7 × 1/1 = 0·2467 H
Energy stored = 1 LI 2 = 1 ¥ 0 ◊ 2467 ¥ (2)2 = 0·4934 J (Ans.)

2 2
1.24 AC Excitation in Magnetic Circuits

To magnetise the magnetic circuits of electrical devices such as transformers, AC machines,
electromagnetic relays, etc., AC supply is used. The magnetisation of magnetic circuits is called
their excitation.
The magnetic circuits are never excited by DC supply, because in case of DC excitation the steady-
state current is determined by the impressed voltage and resistance of the circuit. The inductance
of the coil comes into picture only during transient period i.e., when the current is building-up or
decaying during switching (ON or OFF) instants. The magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit adjusts
itself in accordance with this steady value of current so that the relationship imposed by magnetisation
(B-H) curve in satisfied. However, with AC excitation, inductance comes into picture even at steady-
state condition. As a result for most of the magnetic circuits (not for all) the flux is determined by the
impressed voltage and frequency. Then the magnetisation current adjusts itself in accordance with
this flux so that the relationship imposed by the magnetisation (B-H) curve is satisfied.
Usually, for economic reasons, the normal working flux density in a magnetic circuit is kept
beyond the linear portion of the magnetisation curve thus accurate analysis cannot be predicted for
determining self inductance. However, for all practical purposes the parameters of the magnetic
circuit are considered to be constant.
The reactive effect of the alternatively flux set-
up by the exciting current can readily be shown
as per Faraday’s laws i.e.,
df
e= N
dt
Consider a magnetic core which is excited
by a coil (winding) having N turns and carrying
a current of i ampere as shown in Fig. 1.39. A
magnetic flux I is set-up by the exciting current
i. Let the magnetic flux I varies sinusoidally with
respect to time t, then its instantaneous value is Fig. 1.39 Magnetic core excited by AC
given by the relation;
I = Im sin Zt = Im sin 2π ft ...(i)
where, Im = maximum value of alternating flux

f = frequency of supply impressed across the coil.
The induced emf in the coil
df
e= N = N d (fm sin 2p ft )
dt dt
(
= 2π fN Im cos 2πft = 2π fN Im sin 2p ft + p
2 ) ...(ii)
The value of induced emf will be maximum when cos 2π ft = 1, therefore

Em = 2πfN Im
Its effective or r.m.s. value,
Em 2p fNfm
Erms = = = 4·44 f N Im
2 2
Equation (i) and (ii) reveal that the induced emf leads the flux and hence the exciting current by
p radian or 90°. This induced emf and the coil resistance drop oppose the applied voltage. In case
2
of electrical machines, usually the drop in resistance in only a few percent of applied voltage and
therefore, neglected for close approximation. Thus, the induced emf E and applied voltage V may be
considered equal in magnitude.
Example 1.37
For the AC excited magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.40. Calculate the excitation current and induced
emf of the coil to produce a core flux of 0·6 sin 314 t mWb.
Fig. 1.40 Magnetic core excited by AC
Solution:
Here, I = Im sin Z t = 0·6 sin 314 t mWb
Maximum value of flux, Im = 0·6 mWb = 6 × 10 –4 Wb
Area of x-section, a = 3 × 3 = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10 –4 m2
-4
= 6 ¥ 10 -4 = 0.667T
fm
Flux density, Bm =
a 9 ¥ 10
Length of air gap, lg = 1·5 mm = 1·5 × 10 –3 m
( )
Length of iron path, li = 25 - 2 ¥ 3 + 35 - 2 ¥ 3 ¥ 2 - 0.15 = 107 ◊ 85cm
2 2
= 1·0785 m
Bm B
Total ampere-turns required, ATm = lg + m li
m0 m 0 mr
0 ◊ 667 ¥ 1 ◊ 5 ¥ 10 -3 0 ◊ 667 ¥ 1 ◊ 0785

= +
4 p ¥ 10 -7 4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 3775
= 796·3 + 151·7 = 948
Maximum value of excitation current required,
ATm 948
Im = = = 1·896 A
N 500
RMS value of excitation current,
= 1 ◊ 896 = 1·34 A (Ans.)

Im
Irms =
2 1 ◊ 414
RMS value of induced emf in the coil, Erms = 4·44 f N Im
= 4 ◊ 44 ¥ 314 ¥ 500 ¥ 0 ◊ 6 ¥ 10 -3 = 66·57 V (Ans.)

2p
1.25 Eddy Current Loss

When a magnetic material is subjected to a changing (or alternating) magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the magnetic material itself according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
Since the magnetic material is also a conducting material, these emfs. circulate currents within the
body of the magnetic material. These circulating currents are known as eddy currents. As these
currents are not used for doing any useful work, therefore, these currents produce a loss (i2 R loss)
in the magnetic material called eddy current loss. Like hysteresis loss, this loss also increases the
temperature of the magnetic material. The hysteresis and eddy current losses in a magnetic material
are called iron losses or core losses or magnetic losses.
A magnetic core subjected to a changing flux is shown in Fig. 1.41. For simplicity, a sectional
view of the core is shown. When changing flux links with the core itself, an emf is induced in the
core which sets-up circulating (eddy) currents (i) in the core as shown in Fig. 1.41 (a). These currents
produce eddy current loss (i2 R), where i is the value of eddy currents and R is resistance of eddy
current path. As the core is a continuous iron block of large cross-section, the magnitude of i will be
very large and hence greater eddy current loss will result.
To reduce the eddy current loss, the obvious method is to reduce magnitude of eddy currents. This
can be achieved by splitting the solid core into thin sheets (called laminations) in the planes parallel
to the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 1.41 (b). Each lamination is insulated from the other by a fine
layer of insulation (varnish or oxide film). This arrangement reduces the area of each section and
hence the induced emf It also increases the resistance of eddy currents path since the area through
which the currents can pass is smaller. This loss can further be reduced by using a magnetic material
having higher value of resistivity (like silicon steel).
Fig. 1.41 Production of eddy currents
Useful Applications of Eddy Currents

It has been seen that when the affects of eddy currents (production on heat) are not utilised, the
power or energy consumed by these currents is known as eddy current loss. However, there are the
places where eddy currents are used to do some useful work e.g., in case of Induction heating. In this
case, an iron shaft is placed as a core of an inductive coil. When high frequency current is passed
through the coil, a large amount of heat is produced at the outer most periphery of the shaft by eddy
currents. The amount of heat reduces considerably when we move towards the centre of the shaft.
This is because outer periphery of the shaft offers low resistance path to eddy currents. This process
is used for surface hardening of heavy shafts like axils of automobiles.
Eddy current effects are also used in electrical instrument e.g., providing damping torque in
permanent magnet moving coil instruments and braking torque in case of induction type energy meters.
Mathematical Expression for Eddy Current Loss

Although it is difficult to determine the eddy current power loss from the current and resistance
values. However, experiments reveal that the eddy current power loss in a magnetic material can be
expressed as:
Pe = K e Bm2 t 2 f 2 V watt
where, Ke = co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material;
Bm = maximum value of flux density in Wb/m2;
t = thickness of lamination in m;
f = frequency of reversal of magnetic field in Hz;
V = volume of magnetic material in m3.

Numerical Problems
1. A current of 8 A through a coil of 300 turns produces a flux of 4 m Wb. If this current is reduced to 2 A
in 0·1 second, calculate average emf induced in the coil, assuming flux to be proportional to current.
(Ans. 9 V )
2. Estimate the inductance of a solenoid of 2500 turns wound uniformly over a length of 0·5 m on a cylindrical
paper tube 4 cm in diameter. The medium is air. (Ans. 19·74 m H)
3. Calculate the inductance of a toroid 25 cm mean diameter and 6·25 cm2 circular cross-section wound
uniformly with 1000 turns of wire. Also determine the emf induced when a current increasing at the rate
of 200 A/s flows in the winding. (Ans. 1 m H; 0·2 V )
4. Two coils having turns 100 and 1000 respectively are wound side by side on a closed iron circuit of cross-
sectional area 8 cm2 and mean length 80 cm. The relative permeability of iron is 900. Calculate the mutual
inductance between the coils. What will be the induced emf in the second coil if current in the first coil is
increased uniformly from zero to 10 A in 0·2 second? (PTU.) (Ans. 0·113 H; 56·5 V )
5. Two identical coils, when connected in series have total inductance of 24 H and 8 H depending upon
their method or connection. Find (i) self-inductance of each coil and (ii) mutual inductance between the
coils. (Ans. 8H; 4 H)
6. Two coils of self inductance 100 mH and 150 mH and mutual inductance 80 mH are connected in parallel.
Determine the equivalent inductance of combination if (i) mutual flux helps the individual fluxes (ii) mutual
flux opposes the individual fluxes. (Ans. 95·56 mH; 20·97 mH)
7. A current of 20 A is passed through a coil of self-inductance 800 m H. Find the magnetic energy stored.
If the current is reduced to half, find the new value of energy stored and the energy released back to the
electrical circuit. (Ans. 160 J, 40 J, 120 J)

Q.1. What do you understand by electromagnetic induction?
Ans. The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in an electric circuit (or conductor) when it cuts across
the magnetic field or when magnetic field linking with it changes is called electro-magnetic inductions.
This phenomenon was discovered by Faraday.
Q.2. Define Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

Ans. I Law: Whenever the flux linking with a coil or circuit changes, an emf is induced in it
II Law: The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to rate of change of flux linkages.
df
i.e., e =– N
dt
where e – Induced emf in volt
N – Number of turns
df
– rate of change of flux.
dt
Minus sign due to Lenz’s law.
Q.3. State Fleming’s Right hand rule as well as Fleming’s Left hand rule.
Ans. Fleming’s Right hand rule: This law states that if one stretches the thumb, fore finger and middle finger
of the right hand at right angles to each other in such a way that the thumb points in the direction of
the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the direction of the flux (from north to south) then the
middle finger will indicate the direction of the induced emf in the conductor.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Stretch thumb, fore-finger and middle finger of your left hand at right angles
to each other such that the fore finger points the direction of magnetic field (from north to south) and the
middle finger gives the direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb will indicate the direction
in which the force will act on the conductor.
Q.4. State right hand cork screw rule.

Ans. Hold the cork and place the right handed screw over it, now rotate it in such a way that it advances
in the direction of flow of current. The direction in which the screw is rotated gives the direction of
magnetic lines of force around the current carrying conductor.
Q.5. What do you mean by dynamically induced emf?

Ans. Either the magnetic field is stationary and the conductor is moving or the conductor is stationary and
the flux is moving so that flux is cut by the conductor, an emf is induced in it. The emf induced in this
way is known as dynamically induced emf. (e.g., emf generated in a DC generator).
Q.6. Define self inductance and give its unit.

Ans. The property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through it is called self
inductance. It refers to the ability of the coil to induce emf when current through it changes. Its unit is
Henry.
Q.7. Distinguish between self induced and mutually induced emf.

Ans. The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns is called self
induced emf.
The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux produced by the neighbouring coil linking with it is
called mutually induced emf.
Q.8. Does inductance play any role in DC circuit?

Ans. The role of inductance is only during the opening and closing of a DC circuit. It delays the rise of current
during closing and delays the fall of current during opening. If in a DC circuit, the current reaches at
its steady value, the circuit does not exhibit any inductance.
Q.9. What is a closed circuit?

Ans. The complete path for the flow of current through the load is known as a closed circuit.
Q.10. What is a short circuit?

Ans. If the supply mains are connected directly by a piece of wire without any load, it is known as short
circuit. In these circuits, the value of the current is much greater than in the closed circuit. So the fuse
melts.
Q.11. What is the type of energy being stored in a capacitor?

Ans. When a capacitor is charged, an electro-static field is set-up in between the plates. Thus electrical
energy is stored in the electrostatic field set-up between the plates of the capacitor
1.26 Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion Devices

(Motors and Generators)
A device (machine) which makes possible the conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical
form or from mechanical to electrical form is called an Electromechanical energy conversion
device or Electromechanical transducer.
Depending upon the conversion of energy from one from to the other, the electro-mechanical
device can be named as motor or generator.
1. Motor: An electro-mechanical device (electrical machine) which converts electrical energy
or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (Z T) is called a motor.
Fig. 1.42 Motor
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines e.g., hammer presses, drilling machines,
lathes, shapers, blowers for furnaces etc., and domestic appliances e.g., refrigerators, fans, water
pumps, toys, mixers etc. The block diagram of energy conversion, when the electro-mechanical
device works as a motor, is shown in Fig. 1.42.
2. Generator: An electro-mechanical device (electrical machine) which converts mechanical
energy or power (Z T) into electrical energy or power (EI) is called generator.
Fig. 1.43 Generator
Generators are used in hydro-electric power plants, steam power plants, diesel power plants,
nuclear power plants and in automobiles. In the above said power plants various natural sources
of energy are first converted into mechanical energy and then it is converted into electrical
energy with the help of generators.
The block diagram of energy conversion, when the electro-mechanical device works as a
generator, is shown in Fig. 1.43.
The same electro-mechanical device is capable of operating either as a motor or generator
depending upon whether the input power is electrical or mechanical (see Fig. 1.44). Thus, the motoring
and generating action is reversible
Fig. 1.44 Same machine can work as a generator or motor
The conversion of energy either from electrical to mechanical or from mechanical to electrical
takes place through magnetic field. During conversion, whole of the energy in one form is not
converted in the other useful form. In fact, the input power is divided into the following three parts;
(i) Most of the input power is converted into useful output power.
(ii) Some of the input power is converted into heat losses (I2 R) which are due to the flow of current
in the conductors, magnetic losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) and friction losses.
(iii) A small portion of input power is stored in the magnetic field of electro-mechanical device.
1.27 Torque Development by the Alignment of Two Fields

To understand the process of torque development by the alignment of two fields, the following cases
may be considered:
(i) Soft iron piece placed in the magnetic field.
(ii) Permanent magnet placed in the magnetic field.
(iii) Electromagnet placed in the magnetic field.
1.27.1 Soft Iron Piece Placed in the Magnetic Field

Consider a soft iron piece, capable of free rotation, placed in the magnetic field of two permanent
magnets (see Fig. 1.45). The magnetic lines of force are set up in the soft iron piece as shown in Fig.
1.45. The molecular poles get aligned parallel to the magnetic field due to magnetic induction. The
soft iron piece obtains the polarities as marked in Fig. 1.45. This is the stable position of the soft iron
piece. Torque produce in this case is zero.
Fig. 1.45 Stable position of soft iron piece

Fig. 1.46 Torque development at various positions of soft iron piece placed in the magnetic field
If the soft iron piece is rotated through an angle T (T < 90°), then by magnetic induction ends A
and B become North and South poles respectively. A force of attraction acts on the two ends and
the soft iron piece will try to come in line with the main field i.e., the position of least reluctance
path. This anticlockwise torque tries to decrease the angle T and is considered as negative. [See
Fig. 1.46 (a)]. When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle T = 90°, an equal force of attraction
and repulsion acts on each end of short iron piece [see Fig. 1.46 (b)], therefore, torque produced is
zero. This is the unstable position of the soft iron piece, because a slight change in angle T in either
direction will create a torque in that direction. When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle T
(T > 90°), then by magnetic induction ends A and B become South and North poles respectively. A
force of attraction acts on the ends and soft iron piece will try to come in line with the main field.
This clockwise torque tries to increase the angle T and is considered as positive [See Fig. 1.46 (c)].
When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle T = 180°, then by magnetic induction ends A and
B will obtain South and North polarity respectively [see Fig. 1.46 (d)]. There is a force of attraction
at ends A as well as at B of soft iron piece which being equal and opposite cancel each other. In this
position, torque produced is zero. This is the stable position, because any change in angle T will
create a torque which will tend to restore it position.
Following the similar explanation, the torque produced in the soft iron piece for various positions
between 180° to 360° i.e., 180° < T < 360° can be determined.
When 270° > T > 180°, torque produce is negative (anticlockwise) as shown in Fig. 1.46 (e).
When T = 270°, torque produced is zero, and it is an unstable position as shown in Fig. 1.46 (f).
When360° > T > 270°, torque produced is positive (clockwise) as shown in Fig. 1.46 (g).
When T = 360°, torque produced is zero and it is a stable position.
In fact, when a soft iron piece is placed in the magnetic field, by magnetic induction iron piece
is magnetised. The magnetised iron piece produces its own field, the axis of that field is shown by
arrow head Fr. The axis of the main magnetic field is shown by the arrowhead Fm. The rotor field
Fr tries to come in line with Fm due to which torque develops. Hence, it can be said that torque is
developed by the alignment of two fields.
The angle between two magnetic fields on which torque depends is called torque angle. This
torque angle is measured with respect to the direction to the direction of rotation of soft iron piece.
Thus, it is concluded that the torque is a function of torque angle T. The variation of torque with
respect to angle T is shown in Fig. 1.47.
Fig. 1.47 Wave diagram of torque produced in soft iron piece
1.27.2 Permanent Magnet Placed in the Magnetic Field

Consider a permanent magnet capable of free rotation, placed in the magnetic field of two permanent
magnets as shown in Fig. 1.48 (a). There is a force of attraction on north and south pole of the rotating
magnet, which being equal and opposite cancel each other. In this position, torque produced is zero
because the field of rotating magnet Fr and the field of stationary permanent magnet Fm are in line
with each other.
When the rotating magnet in rotated through in angle T (T being less than 90°, equal to 90° more
than 90° but less than 180°), its north pole will be attracted towards the south pole and south pole
will be attracted towards the north pole of permanent stationary magnets [see Fig. 1.48 (b), (c) and
(d) respectively]. In other words, we can say that the rotor field Fr tries to come in line with main
field Fm and torque is developed. This anticlockwise torque is considered as negative, because it is
decreasing the torque angle T.
When the permanent rotating magnet is rotated through an angle T = 180°, the two field Fr and
Fm are in line with each other but acting in opposite direction [see Fig. 1.48 (e)], therefore, torque
developed is zero but this is the unstable position because slight change in angle T in either direction
will create a torque in that direction and the rotor will not regain its original position.
Fig. 1.48. Contd.

Fig. 1.48 Permanent magnet in magnetic field
When the permanent rotating magnet is rotated through an angle T more than 180°, but less than
360° (i.e., T is less than 270°, equal to 270°, more than 270°), its north and south poles will be attracted
towards the south and north poles of the permanent stationary magnets respectively [see Figs. 1.48
(f), (g) and (h) respectively]. In other words, Fr will try to come in line with Fm and thus torque is
developed. This clockwise torque is considered as positive, because it is increasing the torque angle T.
The maximum negative or positive torque is produced on the rotating permanent magnet when
angle T = 90° or T = 270° (–90°) respectively, because at these positions, there is maximum force of
attraction or repulsion acting on the rotating magnet.
When rotating, permanent magnet is rotated through an angle T = 360°, two field Fr and Fm are
in line with each other [see Fig. 1.48 (i)]. Therefore, the torque developed is zero. This is the stable
position because any change in angle T will develop a torque which tends to restore its original position.
Thus, it is concluded that the torque is produced due to the alignment of two fields.
The angle between the two magnetic fields on which torque depends is called Torque angle. This
torque angle is measured with respect to the direction of rotation of rotating magnet.
The torque produced in the rotating magnet is a function of torque angle T. The variation of torque
with respect angle T is shown graphically in Fig. 1.48 (j).
1.27.3 Electromagnet Placed in the Magnetic Field

Consider an electromagnet, free to rotate about its axis, is placed in the magnetic field of permanent
magnets. When the field produced by the electromagnet Fr is in the same direction as that of the main
field produced by the stationary permanent magnets Fm, the torque produced is zero [see Fig. 1.49 (a)].
When the electromagnet is rotated through an angle T = 90°, the axis of the rotor field Fr will
make an angle of T = 90° with the main field Fm. The rotor field Fr will try to come in line with the
main field Fm, and produces an anticlockwise torque [see Fig. 1.49 (b)]. This torque is considered as
negative because it reduces the torque angle T.
When the electromagnet is rotated through an angle T = 270°, the rotor field Fr will try to come
in line with the main magnetic field Fm, therefore, a clockwise torque will be produced [see Fig. 1.49
(c)], This torque is considered as positive because it increases the torque angle T.
Fig. 1.49 Electromagnet in the field of permanent magnets
When torque angle T is between zero and 180°, the torque produced is negative, whereas when
T is between 180° to 360°, the torque produced is positive. When torque angle T = 90° or T = 270°
(–90°), torque produced is maximum negative or maximum positive respectively.
Thus, it is conclude that the variation of torque with respect to torque angle T is similar to that
in the case of permanent rotating magnet placed in the magnetic field of permanent stationary
magnet[see Fig. 1.48 (j)].
The torque produced in this case is called an electromagnetic torque (Te).
1.28 Production of Torque

The torque produced by the alignment of two fields (i.e., rotor field and stationary main field) varies
in magnitude and direction depending upon the torque angle T. Let us see, the effect of torque angle
T on the torque produced in the following cases:
(i) In case of permanent magnet
(ii) In case of electromagnet.
1.28.1 In Case of Permanent Magnet

Consider a permanent magnet A, which is free to rotate about its axis. Let it be placed in the magnetic
field of another permanent magnet B as shown in Fig. 1.50. Let,
T = angle between the axis of two fields Fm and Fr.
l = length of magnet A.
r = radius of circle in which rotation takes place.
F = force acting on north and south pole of magnet A.
Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance.
In the right angled triangle ‘oab’, ab = oa sin T
Distance perpendicular to force, ab = r sin T
? Torque = 2F × r sin T
or T = 2F × l sin T [_ r = l / 2)
2
m1m2
or T = Fl sin T Where F is force of attraction, F =
4pm0 mr d 2
or T = K sin T {where K = F × l is constant}
or T D sin T
The maximum torque will be produced when T = 90° as said earlier.
Fig. 1.50 Torque developed at an instant when a permanent magnet is placed in the uniform magnetic field
1.28.2 In Case of Electromagnet

Consider an electromagnet, having only one coil carrying current. The axis of the field produced
by electromagnet Fr and axis of the main field produced by the permanent stationary magnet Fm
are shown in Fig. 1.51. The angle between the two fields is q. Due to alignment of two fields torque
is developed.
Fig. 1.51 Torque produced at an instant when an electromagnet is placed in a uniform magnetic field.
The production of torque can also be explained by the concept of electromagnetic force acting on
the current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field.
Let, F = Force acting on the two conductors.
r = radius of circle in which conductor rotates.
T = angle between the field Fm and Fr.
Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance.
In a right angle triangle, angle aob = T
Distance perpendicular to force, ab = oa sin T
= r sin T
Total torque acting on the two conductors, T = 2Fr sin T
Where B = Flux density of the main field.
l = Current flowing through the conductor.
l = Effective length of conductor.
? T = 2BIlr sin T
or T = Kl sin T [Where, Kl = 2BIlr is a constant]
or T v sin T.
The magnitude of torque depends upon angle T, it will be maximum when T = 90°. When T is
positive torque is produce in one direction (say anticlockwise), but when it is negative, the torque is
produced in the other direction (say, clockwise). In fact, the direction of torque depends upon B and
i. When either of the two is reversed the direction of torque is reversed but if both are reversed the
direction of torque remains the same.
The direction of force action on a current carrying conductor when placed in the magnetic field
can be determined by applying Fleming’s left hand rule.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Stretch first finger, second finger and thumb of left hand mutually
perpendicular to each other. If first finger indicates the direction of main magnetic field, second
finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor, then thumb will indicate the
direction of fore acting on the conductor.
1.29 Production of Unidirectional Torque

As discussed earlier that by the alignment of two fields torque develops but the torque produced is
not unidirectional. The unidirectional or continuous torque can be obtained by applying any one of
the following methods.
Fig. 1.52. Contd.

Fig. 1.52 Production of torque by the rotation of stator poles (or stator field)
1.29.1 By Rotating the Main Magnets

When the main magnets are rotated, they drag the other magnets free to rotate (or the armature,
electromagnet) along with it because of the tendency of the field of free rotating magnet or armature
to align with the field of main magnet.
Consider a permanent magnet or electromagnet, which is free to rotate and is placed in the magnetic
field of main magnet as shown in Fig. 1.52 (a and a’)]. Since the axis of the magnetic fields Fr and
Fm produced by the two magnets is not aligned, a torque develops. Thus, the free magnet rotates by
an angle T in clockwise direction and stays in that position as shown in Fig. 1.52 (b and bc).
Suppose that the main magnet is further rotated through an angle T in the clockwise direction [see
Fig. 1.52 (c and c’)]. Again torque will develop in the free magnet and rotor rotates through an angle
T to obtain the position shown in Fig. 1.52 (d and d’). The main magnet is again rotated through
some more angle T (see Fig. 1.52 (e and e’)]. The free magnet will further rotate to obtain the position
shown in Fig. (f and f’).
Thus, from the above facts it is concluded that if the main magnet is rotated in a particular direction
by some angle, the free magnet will also rotate in the same direction by same angle. In other words,
we can say that the free magnet is dragged by the main magnet. If the main magnet is rotated in
any direction at a particular speed the free magnet will also rotate at the same speed in the same
direction. This is the basic principle of synchronous machine.
1.29.2 By Changing the Direction of Flow of Current in the Conductors of

Electromagnet
By changing the direction of flow of current in the conductors of electromagnet (armature) in such
a manner that the conductors facing a particular main field pole, always have the same direction of
flow of current.
Consider an electromagnet (armature) placed in the magnetic field of main poles, as shown in
Fig. 1.53 (a). The current flowing through the armature conductors is such that the axis of the field
produced by armature Fr is 90° out of phase to that of main field Fm. Due to the alignment of two
fields, torque is developed in the armature and it obtains the position as shown in Fig. 1.53 (b). At
this position rotor (armature) will stop rotating.
Fig. 1.53 Produced of unidirectional torque by reversing the current in armature conductors
If the direction of flow of current in the armature conductors is reversed just when they cross the
Y-Y’ axis (magnetic neutral axis) displaced by an angle T = 90° to that of main field Fm. The torque
will always be exerted on the armature. Thus a continuous torque can be obtained. This is the basic
principle of DC machines. The direction of flow of current in the armature conductors is reversed
by providing commutator on DC machines.
Example 1.38
In Fig. 1.54 draw the magnetic lines of force produced by the stator. Mark the polarity of poles,
direction of stator and rotor field, torque angle and direction of the torque produced.
Fig. 1.54 Given figure Fig. 1.55 Position of the axis of stator and rotor field
Solution:
For solution, the following steps may be considered;
1. Stator magnetic field is drawn as shown in Fig. 1.55 by applying right hand thumb rule to stator
current carrying conductors.
2. We know that flux leaves the N-poles and enters the S-pole, accordingly polarity of the poles
is marked in Fig. 1.55.
3. The axis and direction of stator field and rotor field are marked by arrows Fm and Fr, respectively
(the axis of the rotor field lies perpendicular to the plane of coil or it lies in between the conductors
carrying current in opposite direction).
4. The angle between rotor field Fr and stator field Fm is torque angle represented by T.
5. Due to alignment of two fields, rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the stator field Fm. Thus
anticlockwise torque T is produced.
Example 1.39
Mark the polarity of poles, direction of torque produced and the torque angle in Fig. 1.56.
Fig. 1.56 Given figure Fig. 1.57 Position of the axis of stator and rotor field
Solution:
Look at Fig. 1.56, the various quantities are marked adopting the following steps:
1. Applying right hand thumb rule to stator current carrying conductors, the direction of magnetic
lines of force is marked, as shown in Fig. 1.57.
2. As flux leaves the north pole and enters and south pole, accordingly the polarity of the poles is
marked.
3. The axis of the stator field and its direction is marked by the arrow head Fm.
4. A clockwise field is set-up around the bunch of rotor conductor carrying current inward i.e.,
and anticlockwise field is set-up around the bunch of rotor conductors carrying current outward
i.e., . Hence axis of the rotor field lies in between the conductors carrying current in opposite
direction.
5. Accordingly rotor field axis and its direction is marked by the arrow head Fr.
6. The angle between rotor field and stator field is called torque angle and is marked as T.
7. The rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the stator field Fm due to which torque T develops
in clockwise direction as marked by the arrowhead.
Example 1.40
To obtain clockwise torque, mark the direction of flow of current in both the pole windings and on
the rotor conductors in Fig. 1.58.
Fig. 1.58 Given figure Fig. 1.59 Position of the axis of stator and rotor fields
Solution:
1. Let the direction of flow of current in pole windings be as marked in Fig. 1.59
2. Applying right hand thumb rule, mark the polarity of poles, the axis of stator field and its direction as
Fm.
3. Mark the axis of rotor field perpendicular to the plane of rotor coils (see Fig. 1.59).
4. To obtain clockwise torque mark the direction to rotor field Fr as shown in Fig. 1.59.
5. To obtain the said direction of rotor field, mark the direction of flow of current in rotor conductors
applying right hand thumb rule, as shown in Fig. 1.59.
Example 1.41
A hollow cylindrical stator contains a solid rotor. Both are
made of soft iron. One coil carrying current is placed on
the stator as shown in Fig. 1.60. Ignore the coil shown on
the rotor. Mark the poles developed on the stator. Draw
the lines of force. If another coil carrying current is placed
on the rotor as shown in Fig. 1.60. Will the arrangement
produce any torque? Give reasons. If the stator is made
to rotate at N rpm what will the rotor do?
Fig. 1.60 Given figure
Solution:
Ignoring the rotor coil and applying right hand thumb rule to the current carrying conductors of
stator the field produced by them is shown in Fig. 1.61. We know that magnetic lines of force leave
the north pole and enter the south pole, accordingly, the polarity of stator poles is marked in Fig. 1.61.
Accordingly the direction of stator field (main field) Fm is marked in Fig. 1.61 and 1.62.
If a current carrying coil is placed on the rotor as shown in Fig. 1.62, the rotor will also become an
electromagnet. Applying right hand thumb rule to the rotor current carrying conductors the direction
of rotor field Fr is also marked in Fig. 1.62.
The two fields Fr and Fm are in line with each other or torque angle T = 0, therefore, the torque
produced in the rotor by this arrangement will be zero.
Fig. 1.61 Position of stator fields Fig. 1.62 Position of rotor field
If the stator or main field is made to rotate at N rpm in any direction the rotor field will be dragged
by the main field. Thus, the rotor will also rotate in the same direction and at the same speed i.e., N rpm
Example 1.42
Fig. 1.63 shows a rotor carrying conductors placed inside a stator having four electro-magnetic poles.
Referring to this figure, answer the following questions by means of neat diagram.
(a) For the direction of current in the field coils as shown, mark the polarity of each pole.
(b) For the direction of current in the field coils as shown, mark the direction of current in the rotor
conductors for clockwise rotation of rotor.
Fig. 1.63 Given figure Fig. 1.64 Stator field and current in rotor conductors
Solution:
Applying right hand thumb rule to the stator current carrying conductors the direction of magnetic
lines of force is marked. Flux leaves the north pole and enters the south pole, accordingly, the polarity
of the poles is marked in Fig. 1.64
To obtain clockwise rotation the direction of force, which should act on the rotor conductors is
marked. By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, the direction of flow current in the rotor conductors is
marked. The direction of flow of current in rotor conductors which are under the influence of N-pole
is outward and which are under the influence of S-pole is inward (see Fig. 1.64).
1.30 emf Induced in a Rotating Coil Placed in a Magnetic Field

Consider a coil AB placed on the outer periphery of a soft iron solid cylindrical rotor. The stator poles
carry the exciting coils. When current flows through exciting coils flux is set up as shown in Fig.
1.65. The rotor is rotating in clockwise direction at constant angular velocity of Z radians/sec. The
direction of linear velocity (perpendicular to the plane of coil) acting on conductor A is shown in Fig.
1.66, which makes an angle T with the direction of field. The component of velocity perpendicular
to the field is vU = v sin T.
Fig. 1.65 Position of stator field Fig. 1.66 Motion of conductor with respect to field
The emf induced in conductor A, e = Blv sin T

Where, B = flux density in the rotor in Tesla
l = effective length of the conductor in metre
As the coil has two conductors only,
? emf induced in the coil at this instant,
e = 2 Blv sin T
If coil has N number of turns then,
emf induced in coil = 2NBlv sin T
If the angle between the plane of the coil and direction of magnetic field is D, then component of
velocity perpendicular to the field vU = v cos D (see Fig. 1.66).
? The emf induced in the coil, e = 2 N Blv cos D
The direction of induced emf in conductor A and B can be determined by applying Fleming’s
Right Hand Rule or Lenz’s Law.
By applying Fleming’s Right Hand Rule to conductor A, which is moving downward, the induced
emf is out of the plane of paper [ ], whereas conductor B is moving upward and the induced emf is
into the plane of paper [].
According to Lenz’s Law, we can say that when coil is rotating in clockwise direction the flux
linkages are decreasing [see Fig. 1.67 (a)]. Thus the emf induced in the coil would have the direction
such that the magnetic flux produced by its current tends to oppose the decreasing flux linkages i.e.,
the coil will set up the field which will increases the flux linking with the coil [see Fig. 1.67 (b)].
Fig. 1.67 Field produced by the rotor conductors
The magnitude of induced emf depends upon sine of angle T. The emf induced in the coil at
position (a), (e) and (i) in Fig. 1.68 is zero and at position (c) and (g) it is maximum. The variation of
emf with respect to angle T is shown graphically in Fig. 1.69.
Fig. 1.68 emf induced in a coil of various instants
Fig. 1.69 Wave diagram of induced emf

The above arguments regarding the magnitude and direction of the emf induced are equally
applicable if the main magnetic field is rotating and the coil is kept stationary.
Example 1.43
Mark the direction of emf in the conductor of the rotor of fig 1.70. when the rotor moves:
(i) in the clockwise direction;
(ii) in the anticlockwise direction
Fig. 1.70 Given figure
Solution:
Applying right hand thumb rule to the current carrying conductors of stator, the direction of magnetic
lines of force is shown in Fig. 1.71 and 1.72. Accordingly the polarity of the poles is marked.
(i) When rotor is rotating in clockwise direction see Fig. 1.71, the direction emf induced in the
rotor conductors is marked by applying Fleming’s right hand rule to the conductors directly
under the influence of north and south pole. The emf induced, in all the conductors under the
influence of north-pole is in one direction i.e., whereas, the emf induced in all the conductors
under the influence of south pole is in other direction i.e., .
Fig. 1.71 Induced emf in rotor Fig. 1.72 Induced emf in rotor conductor for
conductors for clockwise rotor anticlockwise rotor
(ii) Similarly, by applying Fleming’s right hand rule to the rotor conductors rotating in anticlockwise
direction, the direction of induced emf is marked in them as shown in Fig. 1.72.
The emf induced in the rotor conductors placed on the magnetic neutral axis (i.e., X-axis) is zero,
because at this position the conductor move parallel to the magnetic lines of force.
Example 1.44
A coil is rotating in clockwise direction in a two pole magnetic
field. With the help of a neat diagram show what will be the
direction of the induced emf in the coil? Show on the diagram
the polarity of the poles and the direction of rotating of the coil.
Solution:
A coil AB is placed in the magnetic field [see Fig. 1.73]. The
polarity of the poles, direction of magnetic field and direction
of rotation (clockwise) is marked in Fig. 1.73.
Applying Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of emf
induced in conductor A, which is under the influence of N-pole, is
into the plane of paper. Whereas, in conductor B, which is under
Fig. 1.73 Direction of main field
the influence of S-pole, is out of the plane of paper as marked in and direction of induced emf
Fig. 1.73.
Example 1.45
The rotors of Fig. 1.74 and 1.75 are each rotating in anti-clockwise direction, Mark in each case:
(i) The direction of emf induced in the stator coils.
(ii) The coils sides which belong to the same stator coils.
Fig. 1.74 Given figure Fig. 1.75 Given figure
Solution:
Applying right hand thumb rule to the rotor current carrying conductors of Fig. 1.74 the field produced
is shown in Fig. 1.76, accordingly the polarity of the poles is marked.
(i) The rotor is rotating in anticlockwise direction, therefore the relative motion of stator conductors
with respect to the field is clockwise. Applying Fleming’s right hand rule to the stator conductors
the direction of induced emf is marked (see Fig. 1.76 and 1.77). In all the conductors under the
influence of north pole, the induced emf is in one direction i.e., out of the plane of paper. Whereas
in the conductors which are under the influence of south pole the induced emf is in the other
direction i.e., into the plane of paper.
Fig. 1.76 Stator emf Fig. 1.77 Stator emf
(ii) Each coil has two coil sides. If one coil side is placed under north pole, the other side of the
same coil is placed under south pole, The position of the two sides must be the same under
the two poles (i.e., if one side is placed at the centre of N-pole then the other side must also be
placed at the centre of consecutive S-pole). The four coils in Fig. 1.76 and 1.77 are marked as
1-1c, 2-2c, 3-3c, and 4-4c.
Example 1.46
Fig 1.78 shows 6 coils placed in the slots of the stator. The rotor is
carrying the field winding. Mark the direction of the emf induced
in the conductors of stator.
(a) for a clockwise direction of rotation of the rotor.
(b) for an anticlockwise direction of rotation of the rotor.
Solution: Fig. 1.78 Given figure

Applying right hand thumb rule to the current carrying conductors of rotor, the field produced by it
is shown in Fig. 1.79 and 1.80. Accordingly, the polarity of rotor poles is marked.
Fig. 1.79 Direction of induced emf in Fig. 1.80 Direction of induced emf in stator
stator conductions for clockwise rotation conductions for anti-clockwise rotation
(i) When rotor (field) rotates in clockwise direction see Fig. 1.79) flux is cut by the stator conductors.
Applying Fleming’s right hand rule to the stator conductors the direction of induced emf is
marked.
Note: While applying Fleming’s right hand rule the direction of rotation of conductors with respect
to the field is considered. In the above case rotation of conductors is anticlockwise with respect
to the field.
(ii) When rotor (field) rotates in anticlockwise direction (see Fig. 1.80) flux is cut by the stator
conductors. Applying Fleming’s right hand rule to the stator conductors, the direction of induced
emf is marked.
(The emf induced in the conductors placed on the magnetic neutral axis (i.e., X-axis) will be zero
as they do not cut the magnetic field).
1.31 Elementary Concept of Electrical Machines

(Energy conversion in electrical machines)
By electrical machine, here we mean a generator or motor. We shall discuss the operation of machine
as a generator and motor.
1.31.1 Operation of Machine as a Generator (Conversion of Mechanical Energy into

Electric Energy)
A coil is placed in a constant stationary magnetic field. Let it be rotated in clockwise direction at an
angular velocity of Z radians per second by some outside driving mechanical torque Tm. The coil
sides cut the magnetic field (or the flux linking with coil changes) and emf (e) is induced in the coil.
The direction of induced emf can be determined by applying Fleming’s right hand rule or Lenz’s
Law and is marked in Fig. 1.81 (a). The coil is connected to an external load resistor R, therefore
current (i) flows through the coil and external load resistor. The direction of flow of current in the
coil is marked in Fig. 1.81 (a) and (b). When current flows through the coil conductors, they produce
their own magnetic field. The direction of this rotor field is marked by arrowhead Fr. The rotor field
Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm and an electromagnetic torque Te is produced in the
opposite direction to that of the rotation.
Fig. 1.81 Concept of generator

If the coil circuit is not closed, no current would flow through the coil and hence no electromagnetic
torque will be developed (i.e., Te = 0), under such a condition the opposition is only due to frictional
torque (neglecting iron losses). Therefore, the mechanical torque Tm applied must be sufficient to
overcome the frictional torque. It may be noted that frictional torque always acts in opposite direction
to the direction of rotation.
i.e., Tm = Tf (at no-load)
When the load resistance is connected, current flows and electromagnetic torque is produced in
opposite direction to that of mechanical torque. Under this condition the mechanical torque Tm must
be sufficient to overcome the electromagnetic torque and frictional torque (iron losses neglected).
Thus, Tm = Te + Tf ...(i)
or ZTm = ZTe + ZTf ...(ii)
or ZTe = ZTm – ZTf

where, ZTm = Mechanical input power.
ZTf = Power losses due to friction.
ZTe = Mechanical power developed in the rotor which is converted into electrical power.
When conductors move perpendicular to the magnetic field,
Induced emf in the coil, e = 2 B l v
or ei=2Bilv=2Fv [∵ F = B i l]
= 2 F ¥ radius of coil ¥ v
radius of coil
= Te × Z [∵ T = 2F × radius and Z = v ].
radius
ei = ZTe ...(iii)
If r is the internal resistance of the coil,
i= e or e = ir + iR
r+R
multiplying both sides by i, we get,
ei = i2r + i 2 R ...(iv)
ei – i2r = vi
where, ei = electrical power generated,
i2 r = power lost in the resistance of coil, called copper losses,
vi or i2 R = electrical power output to the load.
Thus, we conclude that out of the input power (Z Tm) only Z Te is the mechanical power which
is converted into electrical power (e i). After subtracting the copper losses (i2r), the electrical power
available at the load is only i2 R. This is how the conversion of power takes place in electrical machine
working as a generator. The power flow diagram (neglecting iron losses) for the generator is shown
in Fig. 1.82.
Mechanical power converted into electrical power.
Fig. 1.82 Power flow in generator action
1.31.2 Operation of Machine as a Motor

Now consider a coil placed in the constant stationary field. The coil is connected to a battery [see
Fig. 1.83 (a)]. The current i flows through the coil conductors in the direction shown in Fig. 1.83 (a)
and (b). Current carrying conductors produce axis of magnetic field Fr in the direction as marked.
The rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm. Thus, electromagnetic torque is
developed on the coil in anticlockwise direction. The coil is free to rotate, therefore, it starts rotating
in anticlockwise direction (say at w rad/sec).
Fig. 1.83 Concept of motor
When the coil rotates in anticlockwise direction, flux is cut by the conductors (coil sides), therefore,
an emf is induced in them in the direction marked in Fig. 1.83 (a), [direction is found by applying
Fleming’s right hand rule], which is opposite to the direction of flow of current or applied voltage V.20
If r is resistance of coil,
Applied voltage, V = e + ir
Multiplying both sides by i, we get
V i = ei + i2 r
or V i – i2 r = ei
where, Vi = electrical power input,

i2r = power lost in the resistance of the coil called copper losses,
ei = electrical power developed in the rotor which is converted into
mechanical power.
that is, ei = Z Te [from equation (iii)]
Thus, out of the input power (Vi), the copper losses (i2r) are subtracted and only power (e i) is
developed in the rotor which is converted into mechanical power.
Friction acts in opposite direction to that of rotation, therefore, the direction of frictional torque is
in clockwise direction as marked in Fig. 1.83 (b). When mechanical load is applied, the mechanical
torque Tm tries to reduce the speed of rotor, therefore, it is also acting in clockwise direction as
marked in the figure.
Thus, the electromagnetic torque must be sufficient to meet with the sum of frictional torque and
mechanical torque i.e.,
Te = Tm + Tf
or ZTe = ZTm + ZTf
or ZTe – ZTf = ZTm.

The actual output mechanical power is only ZTm, which is available at the shaft. This power is
obtained after subtracting mechanical losses (ZTf) from the power developed (ZTe) in the rotor. The
power flow diagram (neglecting iron losses) for the motor is shown in Fig. 1.84.
Electrical power converted into mechanical power.
Fig. 1.84 Power flow in motor action
Conclusion
From the above discussion, the following conclusions are drawn;
(i) In generating action, the induced emf produces the armature current, therefore, e and i both are
in same direction, whereas, in motoring action, the induced emf opposes the conduction and
current flows in opposite direction to induced emf
(ii) In motoring action, the electromagnetic torque produces the rotation, (Te and Z both are in same
direction), whereas, in generating operation, the electromagnetic torque opposes the rotation
(Te acts in opposite direction to Z).
(iii) In generating action the torque angle T is leading (Fr leads Fm by an angle T with respect to
direction of rotation), whereas in motoring action, the torque angle T is lagging (Fr lags behind
Fm by an angle T with respect to direction of rotation).
(iv) In generating action, the rotation is due to mechanical torque, therefore, Tm and Z are in same
direction, whereas in motoring action rotation is opposite to mechanical torque.
(v) In both generating and motoring action, electromagnetic torque always acts in opposite directions
to mechanical torque (i.e., Te always acts in opposite direction to Tm).
(vi) In both the cases, frictional torque acts in opposite direction to rotation (i.e., Tf always acts in
opposite direction to Z).
Generator action Motor action
1. In generator action, the rotation is due to 1. In motor action, the rotation is due to electro-
mechanical torque, therefore, Tm and Z are in magnetic torque, therefore, Te and Z are in the
the same direction. same direction.
2. The frictional torque Tf acts in opposite direction 2. The frictional torque Tf acts in opposite direction
to rotation Z. to rotation Z.
3. Electromagnetic torque Te acts in opposite 3. Mechanical torque Tm acts in opposite direction
direction to mechanical torque Tm so that ZTm to electromagnetic torque Te so that ZTe = ZTm
= ZTe + ZTf . + ZTf .
4. In generating action, and emf is induced in 4. In motoring action, current is impressed to the
the conductors which circulates current in the armature against the induced emf (e), therefore
armature, therefore e and i both are in the same current flows in opposite direction to that of
direction. induced emf.
5. In generator action, E > V 5. In motor action, E > V
6. In generating action, the torque angle T is 6. In motoring action, the torque angle T is legging.
leading.
7. In generating action, mechanical energy is 7. In motoring action, electrical energy is converted
converted into electrical energy. into mechanical energy.
Example 1.47
The cross-sectional view of a rectangular coil rotating in a magnetic field
is shown in Fig. 1.85. Determine;
(i) The direction of induced emf in the coil-sides for the direction of
rotation as shown in the figure.
(ii) The direction of the electromagnetic torque developed under the above
condition, and also show the torque angle.
(iii) The direction of the current in the coil-sides if the circuit is closed
through an external resistance.
(iv) The direction in which external mechanical torque is applied.
(v) Whether the device behaves as a motor or generator.
(vi) In which direction the frictional torque will act? Fig. 1.85 Given figure
Solution:
(i) The coil is rotating in anticlockwise direction in the magnetic field, applying Fleming’s right
hand rule, the direction of induced emf in the coil sides in marked in Fig. 1.86 and 1.87.
Fig. 1.86 Direction of induced emf and current Fig. 1.87 Different quantities marked
(ii) When current flows through the coil sides (rotor), field is set up around the conductors, the
direction of the rotor field is marked by arrow head Fr. Rotor field (Fr) tries to come in line with
main field Fm, thus electromagnetic torque Te is produced in clockwise direction as marked by
the arrow head in Fig. 1.87.
(iii) When the circuit is closed through an external resistance, the direction of flow of current in the
coil sides is shown in Fig. 1.87.
The angle between rotor field Fr and main field Fm is the torque angle T as marked in the figure.
(iv) For energy conversion the mechanical torque Tm always acts in opposite direction to that of
electro-magnetic torque Te. Therefore, the direction of external mechanical torque applied is
anticlockwise as marked in the figure.
(v) In the coil sides the direction of flow of current is same as that of the induced emf therefore,
the machine acts as a generator.
(vi) The friction always acts in opposite direction to the direction of rotation, therefore, the direction
of frictional torque is clockwise as marked by the arrow head in Fig. 1.87.
Example 1.48
The cross sectional view of a rectangular coil rotating in a magnetic field
in shown in Fig. 1.88. The direction of rotation and the direction of the
current in the coil sides is shown.
(i) Determine the direction of the induced emf in the coil.
(ii) Mark the direction of the electromagnetic torque developed.
(iii) Show the torque angle.
Solution:
(i) When coil rotates in the magnetic field, flux is cut by the conductors
and an emf is induced. The direction of induced emf is marked in Fig. Fig. 1.88 Given figure
1.89 which is determined by Fleming’s right hand rule.
(ii) The direction of axis of main magnetic field (Fm) is marked. Depending upon the direction of
flow of current in coil sides, the direction of axis of rotor field (Fr) is marked. Rotor field tries
to come in line with main field, thus a clockwise electromagnetic torque (Te), as marked in Fig.
1.90 is developed.
(iii) The angle between the axis of rotor field and main field (T) is called torque angle which is
marked in Fig. 1.90.
Fig. 1.89 Induced emf in the coil Fig. 1.90 Position of other quantities marked

Numerical Problems
1. A conductor of 0·4 metre length is moved at a uniform speed of 5 m s –1 at right angle to its length and to
a magnetic field. Calculate the density of the magnetic field if the emf generated in the conductor is 2V.
For the same density, what will be the induced emf, if the conductor is moved at an angle of 60° with the
magnetic field. (Ans: 1 Wb/m2, 1·732V )

Q.1. What do you mean by electromechanical energy conversion devices?
Ans. A device or machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice-versa is called an
electro-mechanical energy conversion device
Q.2. In case of DC motors, how alternating torque is converted into unidirectional continuous torque ?
Ans. In case of DC motors, the alternating torque is converted into unidirectional continuous torque by
reversing the direction of flow of current in the armature conductors when they pass through the
magnetic neutral axis (using a commentator)
We can differentiate generator and motor on the basis of following:
Review Questions
1. Define the terms mmf, magnetic flux and magnetic reluctance and establish the relation which holds
between these quantities for a magnetic circuit.
2. Explain the terms: permeability, reluctance and permeance.

3. Make comparison between magnetic and electric circuits.
4. What are the similarities between electrical circuits and magnetic circuits?
5. How is B-H curve of ferromagnetic material different from that of non-magnetic material? Name all the
salient regions of B-H curve of magnetic material.
6. Explain hysteresis loss.
7. State and explain Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
8. Write down the expression for dynamically induced emf developed in a conductor of length l metre moving
with a velocity of v metre per second in a uniform magnetic flux density of B Wb/m2.
9. Explain the term self and mutual inductance.
10. Define co-efficient of coupling and show that k = M / L1 L2 .
11. Derive the expression for the equivalent inductance when two coupled coils are connected in (a) series
(b) parallel.
12. Explain what you mean by eddy currents.
13. Mark the current in the conductors of the rotor in Fig. 1.91 and 1.92 to obtain an anticlockwise torque.
Fig. 1.91: Fig. 1.92:
14. Will the rotor in Fig. 1.93 tend to rotate? If yes show the torque angle and direction of rotation.
Fig. 1.93:
15. What do you mean by a motor and generator?

16. Fig. 1.94 shows a stator with 4 coils whereas, Fig. 1.95 shows a rotor with 6 coils eventually distributed
over the rotor periphery. Mark the direction of emf in these conductors for a clockwise rotation. Mark
also the coil sides which belong to the same coil.
Fig. 1.94: Fig. 1.95:
17. A cross-sectional view of a rectangular coil a b rotating in a magnetic field is shown

in Fig. 1.96. Determine:
(i) The direction of current in the coil sides, if the circuit is closed through an external
resistance, for the direction of rotation as shown in the figure, mark
(ii) The direction the electromagnetic torque.
(iii) Torque angle.
(iv) The direction in which external mechanical torque is applied.
(v) The direction in which the frictional torque will act. Fig. 1.96:
18. A coil placed inside a constant magnetic field is made to rotate in clockwise direction. Show by means
of a neat sketch the direction of rotation of the coil, the polarity of the field poles and the direction of the
induced emf in the two coil sides. If the coil circuit is completed so that a current flows through the coil,
show on the sketch the direction of the electromagnetic torque produced.
Multiple Choice Questions

1. The perfect magnetic insulator is
(a) copper (b) iron
(c) rubber (d) none of above.
2. The ampere-turns are
(a) the product of the number of turns and current of the coil
(b) the number of turns of a coil through which current is flowing
(c) the currents of all turns of the coil
(d) the turns of transformer winding.
3. What will be the current passing through the ring shaped air cored coil when number of turns is 800 and
ampere-turns are 3200.
(a) 0·25 (b) 2·5
(c) 4·0 (d) 0·4
4. The magnetic reluctance of a material
(a) increases with increasing cross-sectional area of material.
(b) does not vary with increasing the cross-sectional area of material.
(c) decreases with increasing cross-sectional area of material.

(d) decreases with increasing the length of material.
5. Mmf is analogous to
(a) electric current in electric circuit (b) current density in conductor
(c) electromotive force
6. The magnetic strength of an electromagnet can be increased by
(a) increasing current in the solenoid
(b) increasing the number of turns of the solenoid
(c) both a and b
(b) none of above.
7. Hysteresis loss in a magnetic material depends upon
(a) area of hysteresis loop (b) frequency of reversed of field
(c) volume of magnetic material (d) all a, b and c.
8. The Steinmetz expression to determine the hysteresis loss in the magnetic material is
1.6 1.6
(a) Ph = hBmax (b) Ph = hBmax f
1.6
(c) Ph = hBmax fV (d) all, a, b and c
9. The direction of electro-magnetically induced emf is determined by
(a) Flemings’ right hand rule (b) Lenz’s law
(c) Right hand thumb rule (d) both a and b.
10. The energy store in the magnetic field is
(a) given by the relation LI 2 /2
(b) directly proportional to the square of current flowing through the coil
(c) directly proportional to the inductance of the coil
(d) all a, b and c.
11. The self inductance of a solenoid of N-turns is proportional to
(a) N (b) N2
(c) 1/N (d) 1/N2.
12. To reduce eddy current loss in the core of magnetic material
(a) the core is laminated
(b) the magnetic material used should have high resistivity
(c) both a and b
(d) none of above.
13. If two coils having self-inductances L1 and L 2 and a mutual inductance M are connected in series with
opposite polarity, then the total inductance of the combination will be
(a) L1 + L 2 + 2M (b) L1 – L 2 – 2M
(c) L1 – L 2 + 2M (d) L1 + L 2 – 2M
14. An inductive coil of 10 H develops a counter voltage of 50 V. What should be the rate of change of current
in the coil
(a) 5 A/s (b) 0·2 A/s
(c) 1 A/s (d) 500 A/s
15. A machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is called
(a) electric generator (b) electric motor
(c) both a and b (d) none of these

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Electro Magnetic Circuits 1

Electro Magnetic Circuits 1

1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance

Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field around a bar magnet

1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis

Thus, Flux = m.m.f

1.3 Important Terms

1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Magnetic Circuits Electrical Circuits

Fig. 1.3 Magnetic circuit Fig. 1.4 Electric circuit

1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations

1.6 Series Magnetic Circuits

Fig. 1.5 Series magnetic circuit

Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits

Fig. 1.6 Parallel magnetic circuit

1.8 Leakage Flux

? Current, I = 0.001 ¥ 4 = 7·958 (Ans.)

500 ¥ 1 ◊ 5 ¥ 700 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 4 p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 550

Ampere-turns required for air gap = B lg

Ampere-turns required for iron ring = B l

or Total ampere-turns required = B lg + B li ...(i)

Total ampere-turns required,

Current required, I = AT = 796 = 0·796 A (Ans.)

Relative permeability of iron, μr = 1500

Magnetising force for iron Hi = B = 1◊ 2 = 636·6 AT/m

Magnetising force for air gap, Hg = B = 1◊ 2 = 954900 AT/m

Ampere-turns required for air gap,

Total ampere-turns required to produce the given flux

I = 0·5 mWb = 0·5 × 10 –3 Wb

No. of turns of the coil, N = 1000

Flux set-up, I = 0·5 m Wb = 0·5 × 10 –3 Wb

Relative permeability of iron, μr = 650

Length of air gap, lg = 1 mm = 1 × 10 –3 m

Mean diameter of ring = 20 cm = 20 × 10 –2 m

? Length of iron path li = SD = S × 20 × 10 –2 m = 62·83 × 10 –4 m

? Total AT = (AT)i + (AT)gap = 1068·3 + 1105·2 = 2173·5 AT

? Current I = Total AT = 2173 ◊ 5 = 2·1735 A (Ans.)

Current through the coil, I = V = 250 = 5 A

? + = 1500 = 2387·3 AT/m (Ans.)

where, a = p d 2 = p ¥ ( 0 ◊ 02 ) = π × 10 –4 m2; μr = 900

= 17·684 × 105 AT/Wb (Ans.)

(iv) Total flux,

I = m.m.f. = 1500 = 0·848 m Wb (Ans.)

where N = 200 turns; I = 1 A; μr = 500

or B= 200 = 0·0838 Wb/m2 (Ans.)

Fig. 1.14 Magnetic circuit

Total ampere-turns required = B lg + B li

Flux in the iron ring, Ii = Ig = 36 S2 × 10 –6 Wb

(since there is no magnetic leakage)

Reluctance of iron ring, Si =

where la = 1 × 10 –3 m; a = p (2)2 × 10 –4 = π × 10 –4 m2;

? Sa = 1 ¥ 10 -4 = 2·533 × 106 ATs/Wb

Total reluctance = Sa + Si = (2·533 + 1·688) × 106 ATs/Wb

= 4·221 × 106 ATs/Wb (Ans.)

Magnetic flux, I = m.m.f. = 1500 = 0·3554 m Wb (Ans.)

Total Ampere-turns required

Current required to produce given flux,

I = AT = 231 ◊ 92 = 0·928 A (Ans.)

Fig. 1.16 Series magnetic circuit as per data