EEE/ETI 1202

CIRCUITS & NETWORK THEORY I

LECTURE 6

1
 Magnetic Circuits
• The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole
experiences a force is called a magnetic field.
Properties of magnetic lines of force.
• (i) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e.
outside the magnet, the direction of a magnetic line of force is
from north pole to south pole and it continues through the
body of the magnet to form a closed loop.
• (ii) No two magnetic lines of force intersect each other.
• (iii) Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the
magnetic field is strong and where they are well spaced out,
the field is weak.
• (iv) Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and widen
laterally.
• (v) Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through
magnetic materials like iron in preference to pass through
non-magnetic materials like air.
2
Magnetic Flux (Φ)
• The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic source is
called magnetic flux. It is denoted by Greek letter Φ(phi)..

• Units are in Weber (Wb)

• The more the magnetic lines of force, the greater the magnetic flux and the
stronger the magnetic field.

• Magnetic Flux Density (B)

• The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing normally per
unit area i.e.

3
 Absolute and Relative Permeability
• Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic flux.
• The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for
magnetic flux and vice-versa.

• The absolute (or actual) permeability *μ0 = of air or vacuum is 4π × 10−7 H/m.
• μr = 1 for air or non-ferrous materials

4
Magneto-motive force (mmf) (Fs)

• This is the source of magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. E.g. Permanent magnet or
a current carrying conductor. Provided there is a coil of N turns with current (I)
passing through it, Fs = IN (AT).

• Magnetising Force (H)

• The magnetising force (H) produced by an electric current is defined as the m.m.f.
set up per unit length of the magnetic circuit

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 Relation Between B and H
• The flux density B produced in a material is directly proportional to the applied
magnetising force H.
• The greater the magnetising force, the greater is the flux density and vice-versa

• Hence relative permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of flux density

produced in that material to the flux density produced in air by the same
magnetising force.
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Reluctance

7
Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

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 Series Magnetic Circuits
• In a series magnetic circuit, the same flux (Φ) flows through each part of the
circuit.
• It can just be compared to a series electric circuit which carries the same current
throughout.

9
Practice Question

• Qn.: A circular ring 20 cm in diameter has an air gap 1 mm wide

cut in it. The area of a cross-section of the ring is 3·6 cm2. Calculate
the value of direct current needed in a coil of 1000 turns uniformly
wound round the ring to create a flux of 0·5 mWb in the air gap.
Neglect fringing and assume relative permeability for the iron as
650. [2·17 A]

• Qn.:An iron ring of mean length 1 m has an air gap of 1 mm and a

winding of 200 turns. If the relative permeability of iron is 500
when a current of 1 A flows through the coil, find the flux density.
[0·0838 T]
10
 Practice Question

• An iron ring of cross sectional area 6 cm2 is wound with a wire of 100 turns and
has a saw cut of 2 mm.

• Calculate the magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0·1 mWb if mean
length of magnetic path is 30 cm and relative permeability of iron is 470.

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Solution

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 Electromagnetic Induction
• The phenomenon of production of e.m.f. and hence current in a conductor or coil
when the magnetic flux linking the conductor or coil changes is called
electromagnetic induction.
• Flux Linkages
• The product of number of turns (N) of the coil and the magnetic flux (Φ) linking the
coil is called flux linkages i.e.
• Flux linkages = N Φ
• Experiments show that the magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. If N is the number of turns of
the coil and the magnetic flux linking the coil changes (say increases) from Φ1to
Φ2 in t seconds, then,

13
 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s First Law.

•When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an e .m.f. is induced in it.

•Any change in the magnetic field of a conducting coil causes an emf to be induced in the coil.

•If the conductor circuit is closed, the induced emf will cause current to circulate through the circuit and this
current is called induced current.

•The induction of emf requires a conductor, a magnetic field and linking or cutting of flux by the conductor. The
linking of magnetic field by the conductor can occur in three ways:

1. By moving a conductor in a stationary permanent magnet or dc electromagnet. This configuration is

used in all dynamos, generators and motors.

2. By moving an electromagnet with respect to a stationary conductor. This configuration is used in large
ac generators (especially synchronous generators)

3. Having a stationary conductor and a stationary electromagnet and variation of flux by feeding an
alternating current to the magnet. This is used in transformers.
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Faraday’s Second Law

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 How to increase emf induced in a coil

1. By increasing the number of turns in the coil i.e N-from the formulae derived
above it is easily seen that if number of turns of coil is increased, the induced emf
also increases.

2. By increasing magnetic field strength surrounding the coil. Mathematically if

magnetic field increases, flux increases and if flux increases emf induced will also
get increased.
– Theoretically, if the coil is passed through a stronger magnetic field, there will
be more lines of force for coil to cut and hence there will be more emf induced.

3. By increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet - If
the relative speed between the coil and magnet is increased from its previous
value, the coil will cut the lines of flux at a faster rate, so more induced emf would
be produced.
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 Lenz’s Law
• This law states that the electromagnetically induced current (due to Faraday’s law) always
flows in such direction that the action of the magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the
very cause which produces it.
• Usually, a negative sign is used in Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, to indicate
that the induced emf (e) and the change in magnetic flux (dΦ) have opposite signs.

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 Self & Mutual Inductance
• Inductance is the name given to the property of a circuit whereby there is an e.m.f.
induced into the circuit by the change of flux linkages produced by a current
change.

• Self inductance (L) is when the e.m.f. is induced in the same circuit as that in
which the current is changing.

• Mutual inductance (M) is when an e.m.f. is induced in a circuit by a change of flux

due to current changing in an adjacent circuit.

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 Coefficient of Coupling
• The coefficient of coupling (k) between two coils is defined as the fraction of
magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links the other.

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 Practice
• Qn. A solenoid with 900 turns has a total flux of 1.33 × 10–7 Wb through its air
core when the coil current is 100 mA. If the flux takes 75 ms to grow from zero to
its maximum level, calculate the inductance of the coil. Also, calculate the induced
e.m.f. in the coil during the flux growth.

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 Practice Question

• Coils A and B in a magnetic circuit have 600 and 500 turns respectively. A current
of 8 A in coil A produces a flux of 0·04 Wb. If the coefficient of coupling is 0·2,
calculate :

• (i) Self-inductance of coil A, with B open-circuited.

• (ii) Flux linking with coil B.

• (iii) The average e.m.f. induced in coil B when the flux with it changes from zero
to full value in 0·02 second.

• (iv) Mutual inductance.

• (v) Average e.m.f. in B when current in A changes from 0 to 8 A in 0·05 second.

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Solution

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 Practice Question

• An iron ring has a mean diameter of 15 cm, a cross-section of 20 cm2 and a

radial gap of 0·5 mm cut in it. It is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of
insulated wire and a magnetising current of 1 A produces a flux of 1 mWb.
Neglecting the effect of magnetic leakage and fringing, calculate

i. relative permeability of iron,

ii. reluctance of the magnetic circuit and

iii. inductance of the winding.

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 Practice Question

Qn. The mean diameter of a steel ring is 40cm and flux density

of 0.9T is produced by 3500AT/m. If the cross-section of the

ring is 15cm2 and number of turns is 440, calculate

i) The exciting current

ii) The self inductance

iii) Exciting current and inductance when air gap of 1cm is

cut in the ring. 24

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 Practice Question
Qn2. An iron ring of mean length 50cm has air gap of 1mm, an
area of 8cm2 and winding of 200 turns. If the relative permeability
of iron is 300, find the flux density when a current of 1A flows
through the coil.

Qn3. An air cored coil has 400 turns, a mean length of 20cm and
cross-sectional area of 6cm2. Calculate,

i. the inductance of the coil

ii. the average induced emf, if a current of 4A is reversed in 50ms. 27

 Practice Question

• Two air-cored coils are placed close to each other so that 80% of the flux of
one coil links with the other. Each coil has mean diameter of 2 cm and a
mean length of 50 cm. If there are 1800 turns of wire on one coil, calculate
the number of turns on the other coil to give a mutual inductance of
15mH.[13193 turn]

• Distinguish between self induced and mutually induced emf.

• Does inductance play any role in DC circuit?

•
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 Practice Question

• The total inductance of two coils, A and B, when connected in series, is 0.5 H or
0.2H, depending upon the relative direction of the currents in the coils. Coil A,
when isolated from coil B, has a self-inductance of 0.2 H. Calculate

• (i) the mutual inductance between the two coils,

• (ii) the self-inductance of coil B,

• (iii) the coupling factor between the coils, and

• (iv) the two possible values of the induced e.m.f. in coil A when the current is
decreasing at 1000 A/s in the series circuit.

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 Energy in an Inductor
 A component called an inductor is used when the property of inductance is required in a
circuit.
 The basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire.
 An inductor possesses an ability to store energy.
 The energy stored, W, in the magnetic field of an inductor is given by:

• Qn.(a) A coil of 100 turns is wound on a toroidal magnetic core having a

reluctance of 104 AT/Wb. When the coil current is 5A and is increasing at the rate
of 200 A/s, determine (i) energy stored in the magnetic circuit and (ii) voltage
applied across the coil. Assume coil resistance as zero.
• (b) How are your answers affected if the coil resistance is 2Ω ?
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Solution

31
 DC Transients
• When a d.c. voltage is applied to a capacitor C and resistor R connected in series, there

is a short period of time immediately after the voltage is connected, during which the

current flowing in the circuit and voltages across C and R are changing.

• Similarly, when a d.c. voltage is connected to a circuit having inductance L connected

in series with resistance R, there is a short period of time immediately after the voltage

is connected, during which the current flowing in the circuit and the voltages across L

and R are changing.

• These changing values are called transients.

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• Time domain analysis is associated with differential equations. The differential equations
resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of the first order and hence the circuits are
collectively known as First Order circuits.

• A first order circuit is characterized by a first order differential equation. Typical

application of RL & RC circuits include delay and relay circuits, photoflash unit and
automobile ignition circuit.

• The differential equations resulting from analyzing of RLC circuits are of the second order.

• There being two types of first-order circuits (RC and RL), there are two ways to excite the
circuits.

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• The first way is by initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits. In these so-
called source-free circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored in the capacitive or
inductive element. The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually
dissipated in the resistors. Although source free circuits are by definition free of
independent sources, they may have dependent sources.

• The second way of exciting first-order circuits is by independent sources. In section, the
independent sources to be considered are dc sources.

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 The Source-Free RC Circuit

• A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The energy
already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.

• Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor, as shown in

Fig. below.

• Our objective is to determine the circuit response, which, for academic reasons, we assume
to be the voltage v(t) across the capacitor.

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This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of the circuit
and not due to some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response of the
circuit. 37
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.

• The natural response is illustrated graphically in Fig. below. At t = 0, v =Vo which is the
correct initial conditions. As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero. The rapidity
with which the voltage decreases is expressed in terms of the time constant.
The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the
response to decay to a factor of 1/e or 36.8 % of its initial value.

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 The Source-Free RL Circuit

• Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Fig. below.

• The circuit response will be determined by assuming the current i(t) is through the inductor. The
inductor current is selected as a response so as to advantage of the fact the inductor current does
not change instantaneously. At t = 0, we assume the inductor has an initial current Io so that i(0)
= Io.

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41
Current growth in an L−R circuit

42
Current growth in an L−R circuit

43
 Time constant for an L−R circuit
• The time constant of a series connected L −R circuit is defined in the same way as
the time constant for a series connected C −R circuit. Its value is given by:

• Transient curves for an L−R circuit

• Each of the transient curves shown

in Fig. (previous slide) have
mathematical equations, and these
are:

44
 Practice Questions

• A circuit of resistance R Ohms and inductance L Henries has a

direct voltage of 230 V applied to it. 0.3 second after switching on,
the current in the circuit was found to be 5A. After the current had
reached its final steady value, the circuit was suddenly short-
circuited. The current was again found to be 5A at 0.3 second after
short-circuiting the coil. Find the values of R and L.

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Solution

46
 Practice Question

• Qn. The winding of an electromagnet has an inductance of 3H and a resistance of

15. When it is connected to a 120V, d.c. supply, calculate:

• (a) the steady state value of current flowing in the winding,

• (b) the time constant of the circuit,

• (c) the value of the induced e.m.f. after 0.1 s,

• (d) the time for the current to rise to 85 per cent of its final value, and

• (e) the value of the current after 0.3 s.

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Solution

48
 Practice Questions

• Qn. The steady current flowing in an inductor is 250 mA ; the current flowing 0.1
sec. after connecting the supply voltage is 120 mA. Calculate:

• (i) time constant of the circuit [0.15s]

• (ii) the time from closing the circuit at which circuit current has reached 200
mA.[0.25s]

• Qn. A constant voltage is applied to a series R – L circuit at t = 0 by closing a

switch. The voltage across L is 25 V at t = 0 and drops to 5 V at t = 0.025s. If L =
2H, what must be the value of R ? [129 Ω]

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