The impact of Deforestation in Zambia:

A Gradual Process towards Desertification

by

Mwelwa C. Musambachime

Cell phone 260-0966-643484

Landline 260-211-284964

Dedicated to the memory of Dr. E G, Chimbelu, the founding Dean of the

School of Forestry at the Copperbelt University, Kitwe.

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Mwelwa C.Musambachime
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Abstract
With increasing highly publicized illegal indiscriminate cutting of trees and the
reckless collection of fuel wood, charcoal burning, harvesting of timber in various parts of
the country, the clearing of large tracks of land for agricultural farms, urbanization and new
human settlements; and the increasing and rapidly increasing population numbers, Zambia
is facing a rapid depletion of its forest cover..The use of wood fuels and charcoal has been
increasing in line with the phenomenal population growth, so that the annual growth in
demand is extremely high. The high levels of deforestation have raised concerns among
environmentalists and those responsible for forest development. With the at a rate of
deforestation of 250,000 to 300,000 hectares per year, there is an urgent need for concerted
efforts to combat deforestation and conserve the forests.

Deforestation refers to the loss or destruction of naturally occurring forests,

Deforestation also comes from a variety of activities such as shifting cultivation, collection
of honey, herbs, edible fruits and caterpillars, harvesting wood for timber establishing new
settlements and farms. The issue of deforestation and land degradation have been issues of
concern to governments, politicians, the media, academics, the churches, administrators,
chiefs, ordinary citizens, Non Governmental Organizations, regional and international

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organizations such as the United Nations agencies. The Post Newspaper of 3 October 2012
published a hard-hitting editorial on deforestation and its consequences. The importance of
forests is crucial to the well being of humanity. Forests provide a lot of great services and
benefits to our ecosystems, birdlife, wildlife, insects and humanity. A large percentage of the
population relies on forests for their livelihood and subsistence farming for survival. They cut
the forests in order to expand their farming land to feed their growing families or earn more
money forth family,. collect firewood or make charcoal, timber for building their shelters,
storage bins and for furniture utensils and material culture; and herbal medicines for their
own health. This, when not properly controlled, results in .deforestation - a problem with
local, provincial, national regional and global consequences, It depletes forests and brings in
land degradation (Zambia Daily Mail, 4 January, 2013, 26 August 2013; Zambia National
Broadcasting Corporation evening broadcast, 3 January 2013)

One of the major causes of deforestation in Zambia and in Sub Saharan Africa is
clearing of the forests for agricultural uses. Growing populations need more agricultural land
or better farming practices to support them. The people do not have the means or funds for
better way of farming. they rely on quantity not quality. If they produce enough crops they
will still have enough food after losing the majority to pests and rodents.Deforestation and
desertification are issues that have attracted a lot of interest from Governments, Donors,
NGOs and Civic Organisations, Deforestation is a local issue with global consequences.
These organisations and actors are working together to combat the problem. While external
actors have a role to play in reducing population, they are more effective in a supporting role.
NGOs and Western countries help to provide knowledge about the problem of deforestation
and techniques of handling the problem. But the Zambian Government has the primary
responsibility because ultimately her people are most affected.This study, discusses the issue
of deforestation and it’s offshoot of desertification in Zambia, and how the two can be
tackled.

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Introduction

“Man has for long misused nature without being conscious of doing so
Because he has believed resource to be unlimited. He has exterminated
species……not realizing that in the process he was causing dangerous
disruptions to ecological balances.” Oliver Riverdin 1989.

“The deterioration of the environment as a result of human action has

reached such proportions that, should it continue with comparable rhythm
and scope, the future of the Earth will be endangered”.
Editorial, International Social Science Journal 12 August, 1989: 295.

“In looking at Africa, we see the relationship between people and

Environmental support systems changing rapidly with population growth
Playing a central part in this. We are beginning to see, for example, a
Series of ecological dominoes where hen one begins to fall others begin
To fall as well. First and most noticeable change that we see is a decline in
Tree cover. This occurs both as a result of land clearing for agricultural
Purposes and then eventually as the demand for firewood arises. What
Begins as a loss of tree cover then comes land degradation eventually
Altering the hydrological cycle itself”.
Lester Brown, 1988.1
Zambia is slowly becoming bare land, the first step of turning into a desert,
by losing thousands hectares of forest every year. If this situation
continues, environmental experts say, Zambians will one
day become "environmental refugees" searching for more fertile land

Joel Chipungu,”Deforestation on the Increase inZambia”, Unpublished paper, dated

17Januaruy,2000 .

Deforestation starts a vicious circle of drought and environmental decline. Burning

wood releases the carbon stored inside. And deforestation accounts for at least a fifth of
all carbon emissions globally. As tree cover vanishes, the land dries out and the soil
erodes and becomes barren — a major reason for periodic famines.
New York Times, 6 May 2012
“Imiti ikula, e mpanga- The young sapplings will grow to become forests”
A poular Bemba Proverb.

The six quotations highlight the continuous concerns of governments, chiefs, ordinary
citizens, politicians, administrators,Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), scientists,
ecologists, agronomistsall over the world; and the United Nations through its agencies such as the
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), United Nations Development Programme
(UNEP) and the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), sub regional
organizations such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African
Union (AU) over the rapidly dwindling forest resources, which, it has been argued, are
responsible for the prevailing unpredictable climate change and conditions. This issue has been
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one of the major ones addressed by the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) that took place in Rio de Janeiro in July 1992, reviewed at the
Conferences in Durban in 2003 and Rio de Janeiro in July 2012.. At these conferences, referred to
as the Earth Summit, the global community discussed and developed a Programme of Action
called Agenda 21 which focused on promoting both a healthy environment and a sustainable
exploitation of forestry resources in the development of the world economies and peoples.
Environmental issues such as climate change, conservation of forests and biodiversity were
discussed in depth under the umbrella of “sustained or sustainable development” (World Bank
1996, 2003, 2012).The purpose of sustainable development is to meet the needs today’s people
without jeopardizing the ability of the future generations to meet their needs (WCED, 1987). It
means protecting the environmental base on which life, including that of humans, depends
(French,1986:531;Hartman, 1981:41-53;Tinker,1984:54-59;Agyei,1998;Osei-Hwede,1996:57 -
72).. Environmental issues have slowly gained ground as more people become aware ofthe
effects of environmental degradation, the mismanagement of forestry resources, and the impact of
the newly introduced tax on carbon emissions on motor vehicles in Zambia.

In 2002, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2002) published a

report Africa Environment Outlook, Past, Present and Future Perspectives, published
observed the following:

Forests and woodlands have played a critical role in the survival of

human populations. They have been direct providers of shelter and
Food for people and their livestock, and of water, medicinal plants, building
materials and fuel. But forests also regulate the environment indirectly by
Slowing soil erosion, controlling run-off of rainwater and storing it, and
Regulating its release in the dam boos, rivers, swamps and lakes.Globally,
[forests and woodlands] help to regulate the climate and protect [river
banks and lakeshore as well as the] coastlines. Furthermore, forests and
woodlands sustain many of our cultural, spiritual and religious values
as well as playing an important role in the socio-economic development of
[developing and developed]. Countries and being a vital resource for the socio-
economic stability . . . Loss of the foresters and woodlands, therefore means loss
of a vital resource and disruption of the social-economic activities they support.
The emphasis in recent years on sustainable development meant that the use
of forests and woodlands has come under greater scrutiny in order to
preserve a healthy resource base and sustain social and economic benefits.

The issues raised by UNEP have been part of the growing concerns over Africa’s
environmental and biodiversity issues are not a new phenomenon. The Colonial Governments
introduced myriads of regulation and legislations to combat defotrestation andcutting of valuable
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hard woods and other tree species for charcoal;uncontrolled burning of forest areas,
increasing soil erosion and land degradation. . Some of the measures undertaken produced good
results in reducing or arresting land degradation and improving on the quality of the biodiversity;
many others did not. Cheikh Ibrahim Nianga (1990: 225) has observed that "for a long time,
Africa has remained outside the debate on the environment. It is now beginning to be involved
but only in a small way both because African environmental issues raise limited interest and
because little if Anything is known of how Africa proposes to respond”.

The United Nations General Assembly designated the year 2011 as the International Year
of Forests to raise awareness on sustainable management, conservation and. development of all
types of forests under n the theme “Forests for the People” highlighting the dynamic relationship
between theforests. And thepeople who depend on them (UNO, 2011). The United Nations Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO,2003) informs us that “Forests provided ”an unprecedented
opportunity to bring attention to the interconnectivity between people and forests”. During the
last few decades, the forest crisis has prompted many international, regional and national
preservation initiatives, yet many have had little success. There is general agreement that this is
due to the fact that these strategies were too focused on the immediate causes of deforestation
and neglected the underlying causes which are multiple and interrelated. In some cases they are
related to major international economic phenomena, such as macro-economic strategies which
provide a strong incentive for short-term profit-making instead of long-term sustain ability. Also
important are deep-rooted social structures, which result in inequalities in land tenure,
discrimination against indigenous peoples, subsistence farmers and poor people in general. In
other cases they include political factors such as the lack of participatory democracy, the
influence of the military and the exploitation of rural areas by urban elites. Overconsumption by
consumers in high-income countries constitutes another of the major underlying causes of
deforestation, while in some regions uncontrolled industrialization is at the heart of forest
degradation with widespread pollution resulting in acid rain.

The importance of forests cannot be over-emphasised; besides the ecological value of

providing wildlife habitat, preventing soil erosion and flooding, and being recharge areas for
water systems, forests are also of tremendous economic value through exploitation of timber
and other forest products. They are equally important for preventing climate change through
carbon sequestration, as they act as carbon sinks. By decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide

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in the atmosphere, forests may reduce the effects of global warming. Effective management
of forests is therefore crucial but desirable. In Zambia, government, chiefs, NGOs and the
media have publicly discussed the issues of deforestation, forest conservation and
regeneration This study is a contribution to this discussion and looks at the prevailing
situation in the forests and how these are being affected creating a gradual process of
desertification in a number of areas of the country(ZFAP, 1996).

The task of this study is to highlight the processes in which deforestation is taking
place in Zambia and the policies and measures being put in place to arrest or show down the
process. The cause for concern which will be raised in this paper is that the loss of forests and
free stock is being accompanied by readily visible (and largely avoidable) ecological and
environmental degradation and gradual desertification which has an impact on the soil
fertility and the carrying capacity of the land.

1. Location
Zambia (formerly the British colony of Northern Rhodesia) is a land locked country lying
between Latitudes 8 and 18 degrees south, and Longitudes 22 and 34 degrees East The country is
surrounded by eight countries namely Malawi. United Republic of Tanzania, Democratic
Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and
Mozambique. . It covers an area of 752,972 square kilometers (Km2) amounting to 770 million
hectares with a population around twelve million, giving a density of about ten people per square
kilometer. The topography of the country is The country has a relatively large land surface and lie
on the Central Africa high Plateau characterized by a gently undulating features lying between
900 and 1,500 metres above sea-level.. The altitude varies with highest parts in the northeast
(1,500m - 2,000mabove sea level), and the lowest parts in the south (350m – 600m above sea
level) which is at the confluence of the Zambezi and Luangwa Rivers in Luangwa District. The
eastern and southern parts of the country are characterised by deep rift valley systems, which
form part of the East African Rift Valley. The Rift valley formations in the eastern and southern
parts of the country have produced escarpment systems and valley troughs. The most famous of
the Escarpment systems isthe Muchinga Escarpment. The valley troughs are relatively flat but
have hilly escarpments. The rift valley system comprises the Luangwa and the middle Zambezi
valley. The predominant escarpment system is the Muchinga.There are also escarpments lying
between 900 and 1,250 metres above sea level. The only significant areas lying below 900
metres are the Luangwa and Zambezi valleys which fall to 339 metres at the confluence of the

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two rivers (Keddy, 2003;Hellen, 1968: 45-50)..About 60 percent of the land is under forest cover
and the forest provides a wide range of both wood and non-wood forest products utilized by the
local and urban communities. Current unsustainable levels of utilization have led to great losses
of forest cover, which rose to as high as 850 000 ha/annum between the years 1990 to 2000.
Some initiatives are being put in place to check the long term cover losses and degradation
(Keddy, 2003). The country is divided into ten provinces namely Central, Copperbelt, Luapula,
Lusaka, Muchinga, Northern, North Western, Southern and Western, broken into over 100
districts.
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The location and setting of Zambia within the sub-tropics bestows the country with
an environment that is somewhat harsh, fragile and susceptible to land degradation. This is in
terms of slopes particularly, in escarpments or hilly areas, soils, climate and water
availability. Climate is influenced by three main factors: the Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone which influences the rainfall patterns, occurrence of El Nino which is associated mostly
with dry spells and altitude, which in the case of Zambia, lies on a relatively high elevation
and bestows the country with moderately cool temperatures resulting into a sub-
tropicalclimate which would probably have been harsh. Due to relatively high temperatures,
the average annual potential evapo-transpiration in Zambia ranges from 1,394mm to
1,892mm while the country average is 1,574mm.Potential evapo-transpiration is larger than
precipitation in Zambia. This means that Zambia is in a hydrological condition of
precipitation deficit that amounts from 100mm per year to – 1,100mm per year. This situation
has implications on water availability and management in Zambia(Hellen, 1968: 45-50).

Zambia is well- endowed with water resources, both ground and surface water. The major
perennial rivers are the Zambezi, Kafue, Luangwa, Kabompo, Luapula, and Chambeshi.Other
sources of surface water include lakes, swamps and flood areas. The rainfall Zambia receives
replenishes these water bodies. Surface water constitutes 20 percent of the country’s area. Zambia
is endowed with both surface and groundwater resources, though some parts of the country
experience severe water shortages. This is due to human activities which have tended to induce
erosion and sedimentation, in combination with climate variability and variations in
hydrogeology from the northern part of the country to the southern and the valley regions. There
are remarkable differences between the regions in the water regimes of either underground or
streams and rivers. The northern plateau region, which is well watered, provides the headwaters
of most streams and rivers. These rivers are perennial. The streams that drain the southern and

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valley parts of the country are, however,(seasonal) ephemeral, as they only flow after a heavy
down pour. Seasonal flush floodingis a common phenomenon, which given the impermeable sub-
surface layers leads toflooding in the lower valley regions(Hellen, 1968: 45-50)
The climate is sub-tropical characterized by three distinct seasons: the cool dry, which
stretches from May to August, the hot dry from August to November, and the single rainy season
beginning from October//November and ending in April/May. The rainfall varies from 1,500mm
in the north and North West toaround 700mm in the south and southwest. This is followed by a
cold and dry period covering the months of May to August and a dry and hot period from
August/September to October/November. In most parts of the country, the soils are heavily
leached and have very little nutrients.(Hellen, 1968: 45-50)
1. 1.Composition of the Population
Zambia’s population has grown rapidly over the years. Zambia’s population
enumerated at 3.2 million at independence and 4.1 million in 1969, grew to 5.7 million in
1980 and 7.4 million in 1990,10.2 million and 14.00 million in 2012 . The estimated
population growth rate is 3.1 percent per annum which is one of the highest in the world. The
current population is expected to double in the next 23 years (UNDP, 2012).The factors that
have contributed to high population growth between 1960 and 1980 prior to the prevalence of
the HIV/AIDS pandemic, was high fertility and reduced mortality rates due to the provision
of better medical facilities .
1.2. Population Density

Table 1: Population Density by Province

Province Area sq. km Population density (per sq. km)

Central 94390 10.8
Copper belt 31330 58.2
Luapula 50540 13.9
Lusaka 21890 69.7
Eastern 69100 18.9
*Northern 147830 8.4
Southern 85270 14.9
Western 126400 6.0
North Western 125826 4.4

*Included the newly established Muchinga Provinc

Distribution of human Population and Forest area by Province

Province % of % of urban % of Forest % of Forest/%Forest potential

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 Population population of population
Central 9 30 10 1.11 Medium/Low
Copperbelt 23 90 6 0.26 High/Medium
Eastern 11 9 9 0.82 Low/medium
Luapula 7 16 12 1.71 Low/medium
Lusaka 14 86 2 0.14 Low
*Northern 11 14 8 0.73 High/Medium
Northwestern 5 12 12 5.00 High
Southern 12 20 7 0.58 Low
Western 8 8 22 2.75 Low
 Includes the recently created Muchinga Province,

Source: World Bank, 1988

Zambia’s population density was estimated at 13.5 persons per km2 in 1998. The density
varies considerably between areas and some locations have over 100 persons per km2.There
are a number of factors that have influenced population distribution and settlement Patterns.
These include availability of agricultural land. Kay (1971) points out that there isa close
relationship between population distribution and soil types. This means that thoseparts of the
country which have good agricultural soils, like Southern, Eastern and Central Provinces
have high population concentrations, as people particularly in rural areasdepend on
agriculture. Other factors include displacements, for example, construction of the Kariba
Dam, which resulted in the displacement of the Gwembe Tonga from the valley to Lusitu
area. This resulted in the concentration of people in areas like Lusitu (Siavonga) which are
nowheavily populated and severely degraded due to high population pressure andovergrazing
beyond the area’s carrying capacity. Availability of water is another factor, which affect
population distribution. People settle along perennial streams or major rivers, around
swamps, lakes or big dambos for water supply, agriculture (including livestock) and fishing.
The other factor is the distribution of the tsetse fly distribution. Areas infested with tsetse
flies are sparsely inhabited due to the prevalence of trypanosomiosis, which affect both the
keeping of livestock such as cattle and the settlement of humans in the infected
areas(Hellen, 1968: 45-50).

Migration from the rural areas and urbanisation influences population density or
distribution. In Zambia,most rural areas have inadequate employment opportunities and
social amenities. These aspects are closely associated with urban areas. Other benefits
associated with urban areas are that they serve as service centres, which all factors combined

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trigger rural to urban migration in Zambia. This makes Zambia one of the most urbanised
countries inSouthern Africa. The outstanding problem resulting from the rural-urban influx
has been the uncontrolled growth of squatter compounds in urban areas. The governments,
both past and present, have had difficulties in providing housing and social services in these
areas, especially given the economic decline Zambia is experiencing. These social economic
factors, coupled with increasing human population growth that exert demand on the declining
government revenue base, reinforce the many disadvantages that exist in the Zambian
Society. These have implications on land degradationIts worth noting that overcrowding in
some areas of Zambia poses a threat to theenvironment. The increasing population growth
rate and the existence of localised Pockets and islands of densely populated areas entail over-
exploitation of natural resources. This is evident from the standpoint of over- exploitation and
the rates ofdeforestation, which correlate very closely with population densities. The threat is
posed by wood-fuel demand (charcoal) and poor agricultural practices which contribute to
deforestation and the problem of solid waste disposal and pollution, which when combined
can result into land degradation and biodiversity loss.
Population growth, economic decline, and widespread poverty have led to
increased pressure on forest resources. About 34 percent of urban households live in poverty;
Approximately 80 percent of the rural population is poor; and 67 percent is extremely poor
(CSO 2006).The rapidly growing urban population has led to increased demand for charcoal
as a cooking fuel. Such developments resulted in escalating rates of deforestation and coupled
with the inadequacy of a good and effective Forest Policy, are some of the major
contributing factors to the degradation of the forest ecosystem (Chidumayo 2001).

. The poor social economic framework, coupled with high population growth rates
have had negative impacts on the status and management of Zambia’s natural resources. The
structure of the population is characterised by high proportion of youths being around 51
percent. This indicates high dependency ratio. Roughly, 68 percent of the population live
below the national poverty line, with poverty concentrated mostly in the rural areas and
affecting 81 percent of the rural population.Poverty and food insecurity in Zambia generally
stem from over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture, and associated effects of frequent
unfavorable climatic conditions, along with inadequate incomes, access to markets and
transportfacilities to enable the transfer or purchase of food,compounded by low economic
diversification into sectors such as fisheries that could supplement crop production.( GRZ,
2012).
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1.4 The Economy.
Zambia’s economic environment is characterised by heavy dependence on copper
mining. for the country’s export earnings, government revenue, source of employment and
Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Despite the potentials of other natural resources, the mining
Sector, continues to play a role of driving force in the economic development of the country.
This is unfortunately, dictated by fluctuations in the world copper. During the first and
second republics, Zambia implemented socialist policies. This situation led to the registration
of a cash stripped economy. As a result of this, the country resorted to heavy borrowing,
precipitating a high debt crisis. The poor performance of the economy had negative impacts
on the development of nearly all sectors, and the living standards of the people declined
considerably . Zambia today, is recorded as one of the countries with the lowest GDP per
capita of less than US$ 350. Poverty is widespread and intense in Zambia. More than 70
percent of the households live below the poverty datum line. The poverty situation in Zambia
intensifies resource over use and its degradation.
2. Vegetation types
Zambia is highly endowed with abundant water resources both ground and surface
water.Zambia has a rich endowment of water resources which provides thefoundations for
supporting significant economic growth anddevelopment. Water area, including rivers, lakes,
swamps, flood plains and streams accounts for approximately 145,194km2 (19 percent of
total territory. However, some of the areas in the country experience severe water shortage.
This is due to the climatic variations in the nature of hydrogeology, poor ground water
recharge due to siltation and sedimentation and over pumping through use of bore holes.In
some areas particularly in the valley areas, the underlying rock is saline such that thewater
quality from ground supply sources is no longer useful for both domestic and irrigation
purposes. Problems of availability of good quality water supply are criticalparticularly in the
dry months in some areas. These phenomena also affect the hydrological processes and water
regimes( GRZ, 2012; ) Musumaliet al, 2010)).
.
Forests and woodlands are defined as ecosystems with a minimum of tree crown cover of
ten percent generally associated with wild flora and fauna. Forests are one of the most valuable
eco-systems in the world, containing over 60 per cent of the world's biodiversity. This
biodiversity has multiple social and economic values, apart from its intrinsic value, varying from
the important ecological functions of forests in terms of soil and watershed protection to the
economic value of the numerous products which can be extracted from the forest. For many
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indigenous and other forest-dependent peoples, forests are their source of livelihood providing
them with edible and medicinal plants, bush meat, fruits, honey, shelter, firewood and many other
goods, as well as with cultural and spiritual values. On a global scale, all forests play a crucial
role in climate regulation and constitute one of the major carbon sinks on earth, their survival thus
preventing an increase in the greenhouse (Paulsen,1978: 5.).

In Zambia, forests are important in supporting life especially in the low-income

communities both in the rural and urban areas. A variety of wood and non-wood forest products
are utilized by rural and urban households in the various parts of the country. However, the
forests in the country have been made vulnerable to both man and the natural-induced disasters.
The rate at which forest cover is being lost has increasingly become high such that if this trend is
left unchecked, it may trigger the complete loss of biodiversity embodied in the Zambian forests
(Mackael,1971: 24-25 ).The causes of deforestation are many and varied, and it is impossible to
cover them all. However some examples can show how these causes are closely interrelated one
to each other. One area of primary concern to many African governments is deforestation. This
arises primarily from the clearance of large tracks of virgin forests to make available land for
settlement and agricultural purposes, to provide fuels, timber for furniture and building purposes
and to facilitate a shifting form of agriculture. These in themselves are sources of increasingly
large losses of valuable forests and woodlands resulting in, as Robert McNamara (1985;9 )
observed, in the lowering of water tables. The consequences of this are fragile soils exposed and
subjected to erosion by water and wind which if not attended to quickly leads to the degradation
of land poor crop yield.

In a number of countries, deforestation has been assisted by the rapid increases in

population. In Zambia’s case, growth averages around 3.7 percent per annum making it the third
highest in Africa after Kenya and Ivory Coast (GRZ, 1989). The net result has been a sharp
increase in food production, and for settlement and agricultural purposes fuels and timber which
individually and collectively lead to a decline in forests and tree stocks. Indeed what is
happening is not without value benefits such as those arising from the value of wood and timber
being harvested and form increased agricultural production (GRZ,1998;Alarjavi, 1998:9).
2.1.Forest and Woodlands
Zambia is one of the best forested countries in Southern Africa with forest cover. at 42 percent of her
total land area. \she is third only to Angola and Zimbabwe. Zambia accounts for only 6.7percent of the total
land area in Southern Africa but is home to 17.1 percent of the region’s forest cover area. Zambia does not do

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as well when it comes to forest plantations, ranking seventh in in Southern Africa. The high rate of depletion of
forest resources is a risk to future growth . In 2000, Zambia’s forests were being depleted at a rate of 2.4%, the
highest. According to the FAO, 66.5 percent or about 49,468,000 ha of Zambia is forested by
natural forests; , and had 62,000 ha of planted forest.
2.2. Change in forest Cover:
Between 1990 and 2010, Zambia lost an average of 166,600 ha or 0.32% per
year. In total, between 1990 and 2010, Zambia lost 6.3% of its forest cover, or around
3,332,000 ha.The Zambian flora belongs to the Zambezi phyto-region and has regional
significance in Central Southern Africa. The vegetation is classified in four main categories:
(i)closed forests covering only 3.5 percent of the country;, (2).woodlandsaccounting for
65.5percent of the total area; , (3).anthill vegetation and (iv). Grasslands covering about 27.5
percent which is likely to increasedue to deforestation . Termitaria (3.23 percent), have a
very different vegetation from the surrounding forest or woodland due to raised elevation,
higher clay and mineral content, high pH, higher moisture contents and greater biological
activity.Zambia is regarded as one of the highly forested countries with forests covering
around 60 percent of the country estimated at 64 million hectares most of which is
administered under customary law. About 80 percent of the country has low erosion hazard
but there are many localised areaswhere the problem of land degradation has been or could be
severe. Most of the soils of Zambia particularly those in the northern parts of the country are
highly weathered, leached and acidic. This is because of high rainfall in those parts of the
country. In the western part of Zambia, the soils are very strongly to strongly acid, coarse to
fine sandy soils with more than 90 percent quartz developed over Kalahari sands. The eastern
and south central plateau has moderately leached clayey to loamy soils with medium to
strong acidity. These areas are considered to be the best agricultural soils in the Country, The
broad types of soil found in Zambia are: i.Red sandveld soils cover most of the country, and
are generally not very fertile due to weathering and leaching; the top soil is sandy and is more
fertile where the top soil has higher clay content; ;ii. Grey dambo soils contain more nutrients
but are waterlogged in the rainy season and often very acidic, restricting the plants which can
grow there to sedges and wiry grasses tolerant of marshy conditions; iii. Black soils of
floodplains are fertile, grasses grow on them as soon as the annual flood recedes and provide
a rich resource for herbivores. If the annual flood is disrupted by dams, woody shrubs of
lower nutritional value tend to replace grasses and so reduce the number of herbivores and
biodiversity; and IV. Kalahari Sands in the south-west of the country are infertile and do not

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retain moisture, so are dominated mostly by deep-rooted trees with little growth in the
understorey. Grasslands both flooded and non-flooded also occur there.

In areas where soils are water logged for all or part of the year, or are very infertile, sandy
or acidic, they take over from climate as the predominant factor in determining the distribution of
plants and animals. Such communities are said to be edaphic, and are found on grey dambo soils,
black floodplain soils and Kalahari sands.

Zambia's forest area consists of Forest Reserves, Game Management Areas, National
Parks and Customary land. Forest reserves are gazetted areas directly under government
control. Forest Management in Zambia has not been planned for a long time now. The current
management plans are outdated. A national forest inventory has not been done since the
1960's. The only management tool used is the control of exploitation of timber resources
through licensing. The Forestry Department uses the "coupe" system in forest reserves. The
areas are demarcated prior to allocation to wood harvesters.It is in these areas that post
extraction secondary forests are found. Cultivated areas left to regenerate naturally through a
fallow system make up the Swidden secondary forests. The importance of these secondary
forests in Zambia cannot be overemphasized. They provide a wide range of benefits such as
building materials, fuel-wood and food. The forests also play an important role in watershed
and soil conservation. They protect the environment thus enhancing food production.

The poor socio-economic status in the country has caused pressure on forests leading
to environmental degradation. Deforestation and forest degradation have been major
problems. The government of Zambia has reviewed its national forestry policy and put in
place new legislation. The objective of the 1998 forestry policy was to ensure sustainable
forest management and utilization using participatory approaches involving all stakeholders.
It encourages collaborative forest management aimed at ensuring that local communities
benefit from the management of natural resources. The policy was being implemented and
was supported by new legislation, The Forests Act No. 7, of 1999. However, this Act has not
yet been operationalised.

In order to enhance sustainable forest management and utilization of secondary

forests, there is need to put in place management systems in light of the prevailing socio-
economic conditions. Forest inventories need to be carried out to provide information for
updating old management plans. Agriculture and tree planting should be integrated.

17
Furthermore, forest extension, and forest product and market research should also be
strengthened in order to achieve sustainable forest management and utilization.

Zambia falls within the subtropical region of southern Africa and is rich in flora and
fauna. Its vegetation can be divided broadly into forest or woodland and “grassland”. About 60
percent of the land is under forest cover. Gunnar, Paulson describes the forest or woodland as
being “any area in which trees either in closed stands or scattered more or less evenly, constitute a
conspicuous part of growing plant community – usually And Mackel describes the grassland as
areas encompassed with “scattered trees and/or shrubs and treeless plans.” 11 The country’s forest
resources cover over 42 percent of the total land area of the country. The forests are classified
into three main categories: closed forests in South-western Zambia; the dry woodlands of the
upper valleys; and the extensive Miombo woodlands dominated by the Brachystegia and
Isoberlinia on the plateaus throughout out the rest of the country..

Out of the total land area of Zambia, 752,614 km2 ( 44.6 million hectares) woodland
and forest cover is about 600,000 km2.(about 60 percent) of the land. Current unsustainable
levels of utilization have led to great losses of forest cover out of which 9.6 percent are
gazetted forests (Shakacite, 2000). There are 481 Protected Forest Areas; 181 National
Forests and 300 Local Forest Reserves in Zambia. Forest resource has however shown a
decrease in cover over the years such that current forest area would be in the range of 60% of
the total land area (about 450,000 Km2). Data available on forest resource estimate is
nonetheless scanty and varies from source to sourceThe forests and woodlands in Zambia
contain more than 200 tree species. The density of trees, composition and concentration of
tree species as well as their degree or maturity vary considerably from one area to another
reflecting: (a) activities of human beings and wild animals: (b) soil fertility; and (c) rainfall
distribution with areas in the north receiving between 900mm to 1,200 being occupied by
more denser woodlands in the order to 16.4m2/ha which is considered to be the maximum
attainable for Zambia. In terms of dry-weight tonnage, this value is considered to be between
50 and 60 tonnes per hectare. For the low rainfall areas largely in the south, except for the
Sesheke area where teak trees grow, the values are in the order of between 8 and 12.5m2/ha
which in terms of dry weight tonnage ranges between 30 and 50 tonnes per hectare. The
regeneration period for trees varies with rainfall distribution. In the high rainfall areas, it
takes between 20 and 30 years, while in the low rainfall areas, it ranges between 50 to 80

18
years. This gives a man average maturity of fifty years (Bushbacker,1990:253-
228;Shakacite, 2000; Simmons,1990: 141-142).
. The forests cover about 61.3 percent of the land mass. This comprises of 44.75
percent natural forests, 9.84 percent gazetted forest areas scattered all over Zambia and 6.71
percent covering game reserves and parks. The vegetation is predominantly savanna. (See
Tables 1 -4) .Zambia has a variety of ecosystems, which give rise to a rich biodiversity in
terms of wildlife, plant, bird and fish species. The country's vegetation is classified into four
major categories, namely, closed forests, open forests, termitaria and grasslands. Zambian
forests cover 60 percent of the Country. Zambia has a flora diversity of over 3,000 species
with 40% comprising shrubs and wood plants. Of these, 211 species are endemic to Zambia

Table 2: Extent of Ecosystem in Zambia

Biome Ecosystem ApproximateExtent

Km2 %
Forest Dry evergreen 15,835 2.10
Deciduous 6,735 0.90
Thickets 1,900 0.25
Montane 40 0.01
Swamp 1,530 0.20
Riparian 810 0.11
Woodland Chipya 15,560 2.07
Miombo 294,480 39.13
Kalahari sand 84,260 11.20
Mopane 37,010 4.92
Munga 30,595 4.06
Termitaria 24,260 3.22
Grassland Dambo 75,760 10.07
Floodplain/swamp 129,075 17.15
Aquatic Lakes and rivers 10,500 1.40
Anthropogenic Cropland and fallow, Forest plantations and 24,210 3.21
built-up areas
Total 752,578 100

Table 3: Vegetation Type by Area

Vegetation Type Area, 1000 ha Proportion %

Closed forest
Parinari 420 0.06
Marquasia 430 0.06
Lake basin 15,560 2.07
Cryptoseplum 15,210 2.0
Baikiae 6,830 0.91

19
 Itigi 1,900 0.25
Montana 40 0.01
Swamp 1,530 0.21
Riparian 810 0.11
Woodland (open forest)
Miombo 311,460 41.41
Kalahari 85,460 11.36
Mopane 38,700 5.15
Munga 32,600 4.34
Termitaria 24,260 3.23
Grassland 206,350 27.44
Open water 10,500 1.40
Total 752,060 100.0

Source GRZ 1998.

Table 4: Table showing forest standing volume and annual decrease factor(to wood
fuel) by province

Province Standing volume (million m3) Annual decrease factor (%)

Central 463.438 0.6
Copper belt 286.314 2.0
Eastern 401.619 0.5
Luapula 351.101 0.5
Lusaka 982.946 2.0
North-western 982.946 0.2
Southern 126.602 0.7
Western 304.913 0.2
Total 3,092.078 0.5

Source ECZ, 1994

Table 5: Zambia: Forest Cover,:

Total Land Area (ha) 74,339,000
Total Forest Area (ha): 42,452,000
Percent Forest Cover 57.11%
Other wooded land (ha) 3,161,000
Total forest cover
Forest 1990 (ha) 49,124,000
Forest 2000 (ha) 44,676,000

Plantations

20
Other 1990 (ha) 60,000
Other 2000 (ha) 75,000
Other 2005 (ha) 75,000
Annual Change 1990-2012 (ha | %) 1,500 2.50%
Annual Change 2000-2012 (ha | %) - 0.00%
Total Change 1990-2012 (ha | %) 15,000 25.00%
Change in rate (%) -100.00%

Totasl degradation
Forest area+Wooded Area-Plantations
Other 1990 (ha) 53,145,000
Other 2000 (ha) 48,069,000
Other 2005 (ha) 45,538,000
Annual Change 1990-2000 (ha | (507,600) -0.96%
Annual Change 2000-2005 (ha | %) (506,200) -1.05%
Total Change 1990-2005 (ha | %) (7,607,000) -14.31%
Change in rate (%) 10.25%

Source: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1994.

. The vegetation is divided into eight broad types: Livunda, Itigi Miombo, Mopane;
Chipya, Munga, Mutemwa and Kalahari or Lusese). Sometimes, these vegetation types are
distinctly differentiated from others. In most cases, vegetation types merge with others
across short, large and extensive areas(Fanshave, 1969: 1-67) Within each woodland and
forest type, are local grasses and scattered terminaria each with its characteristic plant overs.
(Mackael, 1971:24-25).
3.Types of forests
3.1. Livunga (or Mavunga) Forest covers parts of North west province in Mwinilunga and
Zambezi Districtsand covers 1521, 000 hectares. (or two percent of the forest cover). Itis
characterized by evergreen low forest in which Chryptosepalum pseudeotaxut (Luvunga) species
is dominant. It is usually laced with lianesFanshave,1974; Bingham,1980: 35-6;Hackabay,,
1988:. 91: Huckabay,1988:55-66;Jeans an. Boars,1991: 56-91
3.2. Itigi Forest
Also known as Itigi thicket closely related to the Itigi thicket of Central Tanzania covers.
It is two storey and very open and covers around 1, 9, 000, 000 hectares (or two percent of the
forested land) and is characterized by such species as Bassea masaiensic, Baphia Massainsis and

21
Combretum. It is confined to the low depressions between Lakes Tanganyika and Mweru-wa-
Ntipa where conditions vary annually from being wet to very dry (Fanshave,1974).
3.3. Miombo Woodland
Miombo is one of the most extensive woodland communities in Africa. It stretches
from the south-western shores of Lake Victoria in northern Tanzania, through western,
central and southern Tanzania to Mozambique; it covers the whole of Zambia, Malawi, and
extends as far south as central Zimbabwe; to the east it occurs in the Katanga province of
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and spreads across northern and central Angola.
(Campbell et al., 2008; Ranta, 1988; Luoga et al., 2000; Malimbwi et al., 2005). Miombo
forms a single storey, light canopy, deciduous woodland, usually growing to a height of 10-
15 m, dominated by leguminous trees of the genera Brachystegia and Julbernardia. It may
have a scattered shrub layer and has a ground cover of grasses and forbs that reach a height of
about one metre.Miombo woodland dwellers also depend on the woodland as a source of
agricultural land, firewood, charcoal and timber.
Miombo and the associated woodland communities are the habitat of the tsetse fly,
Glossina morsitans, the presence of which has a profound effect on the ecology and land-use
potential of the woodland. The tsetse fly is the vector of the fatal disease trypanosomiasis,
known in man as sleeping sickness and in cattle as Nagana. The tsetse isa blood-sucking
insect. Once it becomes infected with trypanosomes it will remain infected for the rest of its
life, which may be up to 6 months, and during this period it spreads the disease to some of the
animals on which it feeds. Wildlife carry the trypanosomes in their blood; although they are
immune to the disease, they act as a reservoir of infection. Where there is a large wildlife
population in Miombo tsetse fly will be present, often in large numbers. The combination
wildlife/Miombo/tsetse fly is a natural ecosystem, it is unfavourable to the alternative
ecosystem of human settlement/cultivation/pastoralism. If the mambo is cleared, wildlife and
the tsetse fly will retreat due to the destruction of their habitat and to disturbance. The land
can then be cultivated and used for grazing, provided the woodland is not allowed to
regenerate and so create a favourable habitat for the re-invasion of the tsetse fly. Many
examples of the dynamic relationships between the two ecosystems have been described by
Ford (1971)
All the Brachystegia species are deciduous, with the exception of B. taxifolia which is
evergreen. The leaves become senescent at the end of the rains but may remain on the
branches for much of the dry season, unless they are removed by strong winds, frost, or
destroyed by fire. As soon as the temperature rises from about mid-August the Brachystegia
22
and Julbernardia species, growing on deep soils, come into new leaf. The new flush is often
a shade of pink or brown. Within about three weeks the leaves will turn green. Trees growing
on shallow soils, particularly on steep escarpments, or in dry marginal mambo habitats, may
not come into new leaf until the first storms have occurred, but generally over most of the
mambo woodland, trees are in leaf at least two months before the start of the rains. It is
during this time that browse is important
Approximately 66 percent of Zambia is covered with woodlands and dry forests.
Miombo woodlands, widespread on the plateau, are by far the largest forest resource covering
35.5 million hectares. These woodlands are dominated by Brachystegia, Julbernardia and
Isoberlinia, which arepreferred nectar sources for bee.. The first two are of particular
importance to the beekeeping industry in Zambia, however, in some patches, they are
substituted by species of other genera. Table 2 lists some of the important tree species of the
Miombo belt. Miombo is a vernacular or local name for Branchystegia boehmii in centeral
and southern Tanzania and Zambia.1 The singular is Umuombo. The term is widely used to
characterize woodlands in Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Southern Zaire,
Zimbabwe and Angola dominated by the species of Brachystegia which apart from B.
boehmii includes B. Spici forms, B. longifolia and B. microphylla either alone or closely with
Jubelrmardia and Isoberlinia species such as J. Paniculata J. globiflora. Albizia
antunesiana, Burkea Africana erythropheum africananum paripari curatelifolia, Pericopsis
angolensis and Pterocarpus angolensis. These are also scattered patches – varying in density
concentration and area of Marquesia macroura (the evergreen forests) and Uapaca
kirkiana.The Miombo woodland is two-storeyed woodland with an open or lightly closed
canopy of semi-evergreen trees 15-21 m high.Miombo woodland is the most extensive
vegetation type in Zambia and is estimated to cover about 55percent of the total land area and
is dominated by tree species of Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Isoberlinia, which are very
good woodfuel species. Soils are generally poor, shallow and slightly acidic, having quartz
rubble or laterite underneath. The undergrowth consists of either a dense grass/suffrutex layer
0.6 m - 1.3 m high or a dense evergreen thicket 1.3 m - 3.6 m high. Suffrutices are a very
marked feature of Miombo woodland. Over time, numerous fires have modified the
vegetation, from inaccessible thick primary forest, to produce the current
woodlands.Pterocarpus angolensis are very important for timber for both medium and heavy
construction
According to various estimates Miombo woodlands covers, about 352 million hectares of
land which is between 48.2 and 58.2 percent of Zambia’s land mass.(Others give differing figures
23
of 311, 460,000 hectares covering around 41.41 percent of the forested area) It occurs across
plateaux and escarpment in all the provinces of Zambia with rainfall ranging from below 900 mm
(dry areas) to 1250mm (wet areas) annually: (see the map). The tree species grow in poor,
shallow and acidic soils, and vary between 9 and 15 metres in weight. They usually from a light
canopy of between three and 18 metres.
The Miombo woodlands are interspaced with Hyparrhenia and Tristacyatholloni grasses.
In Northern, Luapula and Copperbelt provinces, the woodlands are interspaced with patches or
evergreen or riparian (Mateshi; or Mushitu, sing. Mishyu, pl.) forests located along some rivers
and streams. The trees of the Mateshi are on the whole, thicker and taller than those of the
Miombo and Chipya.. Apart from the Pterocarpus angolensis and Uapaca most of the tree
species provide little or timber on the Copperbelt, most of the Miombo species were exploited for
wood used in the smelting of copper. The greatest part of the Miombo woodlands is its re-growth
in varying stages from the young to the mature trees. 17 The Miombo woodland is economically
important in heavily populated urban areas for the supply of timber, poles, firewood and charcoal.
It is also the source of many non-wood forest products such as honey, medicines, mushrooms,
caterpillars and other edible insects.
The fact that Miombo woodlands regenerate unchanged after clearing, considered that
Miombo woodland is mostly re-growth of variable ages as a result of fire, cultivation and
exploitation. Scattered through the Miombo contrast, Chipya forest, in which fire-tolerant
species dominate over a tall herbaceous layer, represents a regressive stage after destruction
of Dry Evergreen forest. Apparently, reversion to Dry evergreen forest is possible with
protection from fire). wood and non-wood products. The important wood products from the
Miombo woodland are timber, firewood, charcoal, fencing materials (poles) and materials for
making farm tools and household items while the non-wood products include mushrooms,
fruits, medicines and manyother essential subsistence goods ((Morris, 1995;Fanshave,1974;
Chidumayo and Marjokorpi 1997)
3.3.1. Supply of poles
Poles are important for house and barn construction for the communities. Most
of the species areused for pole production in the study area (Appendix 2.1, 2.2 &2.3). This,
according to Grundyet al. (1993) and Vermeulen (1993), is because the construction works
require many poles of many different dimensions, weights and durability. However, the
demand for pole sizes may behighest above a certain diameter. Lowore et al. (1993) observed
that the highest demand for poles around Chimaliro Forest Reserve in Malawi was from
stems of above 5 cm in basaldiameter and any recruitment into this size was rapidly utilized.
24
However, the importance of 25 Miombo woodland in supplying poles to different user group
ranks very low. This could be attributed to the fact the the construction of t houses and barns
is not a day to day activity. Therefore, once the house or barn is constructed, it takes long
before the need to replace it arises.
3.3.2.Timber production
Trees in many ways played a very important role in the industrial and economic
development of the country. Some species were extensively exploited and used in a variety
of ways which facilitated construction and building or operating of economic unit. This has,
in some cases, resulted in the deforestation of parts of the country. The main timber species in
the study area are Isoberlinia angolensis, Pterocarpus angolensis,Brachystegia floribunda,
Afzelia quanzensis and Albizia antunesiana. These species are among the many timber
species in the Miombo woodland. They are used for all sorts of timber applications such as
mining timbers or saw logs. The species are preferred among the producers because of their
specific attributes. For example, Pterocarpus angolensis is preferred because obits durability
(Gauslaa, 1989) while Afzelia quanzensis is straight-grained and hard, making it suitable for
both internal and external joinery (Chidumayo et al., 1996). However, other speciesmay be
preferred for other attributes such as fuzziness. Similarly, species such as Brachystegia
floribunda, Afzelia quanzensis and Albizia antunesianawere considered to be important
timber species by all the user groups although the levels of importance are significantly
influenced by the users : Brachystegiafloribunda Afzelia quanzensis and Albizia antunesiana
The importance of Pterocarpus angolensis as a timber species is not significant. Pterocarpus
angolensis is perceived to be important timber species
In the south west of Zambia, teak of the Baikiaia species namely called Mukushi and
Mukwa were from 1902 when small scale mining started, extensively logged and cut in various
lengths and thickness are used for construction, flooring, railway sleepers, making of furniture
and in underground mining. And in areas to the north, especially on the Copperbelt, and the
North-western part of the country, Branchystegia – Julbernaldia and Isoberlinia species were
from the 1920s, cut for timber used in the mines as well as for fuel in the smelting of copper
(ZCCM Achieves, KHB/73; Nzila, 1991;Nkhata,1991).
The contribution of the forests in Zambia has grown over the years. Forests and forest
products contribute about 3.7 percent to Zambia’s Gross Domestic Product and has created over a
million jobs in plantation forests, multiple –use forests and wood processing. Forestry products
are now being exported all over the world forming 14 percent of the manufacturing exports from
Zambia. Thesis bound to increase with the lifting of the ban on timber exports(Kayula, 2013:11)
25
 In 1955, the Rhodesia-Congo Border Timber Company Limited was formed by the
Mining Companies to exploit timber on the Copperbelt which was estimated at about 7 million
cubic metres. Some of the timber was treated and when used for underground work, lasted up to
about twenty years. Untreated timber has a much shorter life of about three years. In other areas
species such as Pterrocarpus angolensis (Mubanga) Aftelia quantanzesis (Mupapa) andFaura
saligna (Saninga or Kaimbi) were exploited for timber (Dobney,
Based on ZFAP a new National Forest Policy was formulated in 1998 aimed at
establishing rational and sustainable protection, management, production and utilization of
forest resources. Moreover for supporting this forest policy, a new Forest Act was enacted in
1999. The principles of the Policy are as follows: (i) Trees am important to environmental
preservation, ecosystem conservation and sustainable socio-economic development; (ii)
There is an inseparable relationship between humans, trees and land; (iii) There in need to
create responsible partnerships, with gender equity, among stakeholders in forestry activities,
to ensure the permanence and stability of forests; (iv) There is need to combine scientific and
indigenous knowledge in the management and utilization of the forest resources; and (v)
There is need for enhanced private sector participation in forestry development. Furthermore
the Policy is expected to address the following four main areas: (i) Resource management and
development;_ Enhancement forest resources management; Security of forest estates;
Expansion of plantations; Ecosystem conservation; Agro-forestry; Forestry research and
extension;(ii) Resource utilization; Securing of sustainable utilization of such products as
timber, wood fuel and other products; than wood;(iii) Capacity building: Capacity building
of stakeholders by means of human resource development an institutional/structural reform;
and (iv) Gender equality: Securing the gender equality in decision making, extension, training
and fund raising; Building of women’s organizations.

In February 2012, Mauri Kiviniemi, a Finnish timber expert expressed concern at the
high rate of deforestation in Zambia and noted that there was an urgent need to invest in the
local timber industry if it was to contribute effectively to the development of the Zambian
economy. He called for swift action to address the situation and also observed that the
dwindling timber resources, especially in state managed forests was equally worrying and
needed huge investments to replenish them. He said the mushrooming of illegal timber
dealers has greatly contributed to the dwindling of timber resources generally. "The rate of
deforestation in Zambia is worrying and needs to be addressed quickly if the local timber
industry is to be sustained. This also applies to state managed forests which needs huge

26
investments,". He appealed to the Zambian private sector to take interest in the development
and sustainability of the local timber industry by investing massively in the replenishing of
dwindling forest resources. He went on to explain that the forests were strategic to Zambia's
socio-economic development and needed to be managed properly. The timber sector also has
potential to create hundreds of jobs especially for the rural population and help to reduce high
poverty levels. He called on the Government to expand the monitoring system in order to
check illegal activities going unabated in the sector. He warned that failure to put in place a
strong monitoring system, will result in the country turning into a major importer of timber
and other related products in future.

Most of the wood energy is consumed by small-scale industries which include food
processing industries and service sectors such as brewing, fish smoking, salt production,
baking, restaurants, schools, hospitals and food vending; agro-processing industries such as
tobacco curing, tea drying and beeswax processing; and production of building materials such
as burnt bricks, lime, smiths, foundries, pottery and ceramics. These industries and domestic
activities which rely upon wood energy provide employment and income for rural people
particularly during off-season in agricultural production (Monela and Kihiyo,1999).
The energy policy of 1997 stresses on development and use of indigenous energy
sources such as bioenergy, coal, natural gas and hydropower (URT, 1997). However, less
than 2% of energy development budget is allocated to wood energy programs, and fuel wood
is still regarded as a minor forest product with little market value (URT, 2001). Yet still, the
majority of wood fuel consumers cannot afford the high investment costs associated with
alternative commercial energy sources (Moyo et al., 1993). Availability, reliability of supply
and cheaper prices renders wood fuels more preferable than alternative sources of energy.
Looking at the present economic forces,the majority of urban population will continue to
depend on fuel wood for unforeseeable future (Moyo et al., 1993;; Luoga et al. 2000).
Furthermore due to the anticipated steady increase in population (at an annual growth rate
2.8percent) it is expected that actual consumption of firewood and charcoal will continue to
rise to a greater extent. This will put stress on natural forests from where the charcoal is
obtained, possibly resulting in deforestation of the forest
ecosystems. Currently, little is known on the dynamics of charcoal production in terms of
ecological and socio-economic impacts.
3.3.3. Carving

27
 Many people in various parts of the country use wood for making various
implements: handles for hoes, knives, and axes, pestles and mortars, cooking sticks, plates,
weapons, bowls, paddles, canoes and many types of curios. As is the case with firewood,
specific attributes are required for each express purpose ( Grundy et al., 1993). For example,
hunting tools such as knobkerries and arrows are made from heartwood such as Swartzia
madascariensis,while species such as Julbernadia paniculata with interlocked grains at root
collar, and also strong, resistant to splitting and can also be sanded to a smooth finish are
more preferred(Chidumayo et al., 1996). For utility items a durable wood, with good form
and density isdesired such as Pericopsis angolensis This explains why species suchas
Julbernadia paniculata, Pterocarpus angolensis, Erythrophleum africanum,
Afzeliaquanzensis and Swartzia madascariensis are more preferred for carving purposes
among thecommunity members in the study area(Chidumayo et al., 1996).

3.3.4. Other Woodland Timbers

Mixed Mutondo woodlands comprise various tree species which are some of
the most productive in Zambia. These species provide fuelwood, charcoal and structural
timbers for both rural and urban dwellers. Due to intensive exploitation these woodlands are
severely exhausted and there is an urgent need to evolve effective regeneration methods and
conservation strategies. Prominent species in these woodlands are:Anisophyllea pomifera.
Brachystegia boehmii, B. Bussei, ,B.floribunda,, B.longifolia,B.spiciformis, B.taxifolia
Julbernardia gloiflora,J.paniculata,Marquesia macroura, Parinari curatellifolia, and
Pericopsis angolensis.Miombo woodlands, like many other types of woodlands and forests,
are important for both wood and non-wood products.

Applied research on indigenous tree species was carried out by D. B. Fanshawe for
many years and his interest and work resulted in more than 4 000 specimens and collections
of references on the flora of Zambia as well as the delineation of some fifty Botanical
Reserves These investigations on the Miombo woodlands are still being pursued and have
become some of the most valuable research undertakings in the quest for the scientific
understanding of the ecology and silviculture of Savanna woodland tree species at least in
Zambia..

3,4. Acacia-Albizia Woodland

28
 This woodland is found in the central and southern parts of the country. The forest is an
almost park-like open woodland with a canopy 10 – 12 metres high and no or very sparse
undergrowth – that is when not interfered with cultivation,orgrazing(Fanshave,1974).
3.5. Mopane
Mopane woodland occurs on alkaline soils of Central and parts of Lusaka Provinces. It is
also found mixed with Miombo at the bottom of escarpments and with Munga woodland at
dambo edges. The dominant and characteristic species is Colophospermum mopane..The Mopane
woodlandis one- storied woodland with an open deciduous canopy 6 - 18 m high. It covers an
area of 38,70, 000 hectares (or 5.15 percent of the forested land). The woodland is onestoried
woodland dominated by Colophospermum mopaneis pure or almost pure. It is also found mixed
with Miombo at the bottom of escarpments and with Munga woodland at dambo edges. Scattered
elements of the Munga woodland occur in places represented chiefly by Acacia nigrescens,
Adansonia digitata, Combretum imberbe, Kirkia accuminata and Lannea stuhlmannii. This
woodland covers most of the hot and dry valleys of the Zambezi, Luano, middle Kafue, Mashi
and LuangwaRivers. These areas receive between 500 and 750 mm of rain annually. The
predominant species is the Colophospermum mopane which is about one store high. The species
has adapted itself to the high temperatures and alkaline soils of the valley alluvia which are
normally flooded in varying degrees for shorter or longer periods every year and dry out almost
completely during the dry season. Other species which appear in less dominant members are
Kirkia accuminatastercula Africana and the Baobab.18 This leaves fruits and seeds are eaten by
human beings and livestock(Lawton,1976:98:Hobson,1998:21;.
3.6. Chipya
Lake basin Chipya is a vegetation type that probably resulted from the destruction, usually
by fire, of Parinari and Marquesia forests. It is three-storied with an open, evergreen or
deciduous top canopy up to 25m, a broken understorey 6-12m and a 2-3m shrub layer. It occurs
over an extensive area of Northern and Luapula Provinces around Lakes Bangweulu and Mweru
and in the Chambeshi and Luapula valleys. The soils are pale, sandy and very acidic. It also
occurs on the Copperbelt where it is called Copperbelt Chipya.The Chipya woodlands are found
in the areas between Lake Mweru in the north and lake Bangweulu in the south and in the
Copperbelt province. The term “Ichipya” comes from a Bemba wood meaning a place of areas in
which a fire has burnt the grasses, dried leaves, dead wood and the young samplings. It is
therefore applied to a woodland in which various fire-hardy trees other than the Miombo species
grow. The most common are Albizia anthunesiana, Burkea Africana Erythroipheum africanum,
Parinori curate folia, Pericopsia angolensis, Pterocarpus angolensis, Uapaca kirkiana, acacia,
29
Combretum Afromesia and Termilia some of these species are exploited for good timber
(Lawton,1973;.Chidumayo,1993;Fanshave,1974: 33-36; Hackabay, 1980:55-56; Storrs, 1980)
3.7. Munga (thorny) woodlands
Munga woodland is a park-like woodland with trees scattered or in groups. The dominant
species are Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia and this vegetation type covers the greater part of
Central and Southern Zambia. One prominent characteristic feature is presence of dense tall
grass, flat ground and rich clayey soils. This woodland,, usually called savanna woodland, may be
dense with a thicket understory, open park-like woodland one to two storeyed deciduous
woodland with scattered or grouped emergent’s to 18 m high or intermediate between the
extremes covering 326, 0,000 hectares (or 4.34 percent of the forested land)..Broad and dambos
extending from the flats into Miombo area carry open Munga woodlands.One prominent
characteristic feature is presence of dense tall grass, flat ground and rich clayey soils This
woodland is usually associated with flat topography characterised by red or re-brown clays and
heavy sand claysOne prominent characteristic feature is presence of dense tall grass, flat ground
and rich clayey soils. The most successful agricultural and cattle ranching areas of Southern
Province are situated in Munga woodlands. The vegetation is dominated by Acacia.Combretum
and Teminalia species. Others include Adansonia (the Baobab), Albizia, Borassus palms, Burkea
and Kirkia.The undergrowth is semi deciduous or deciduous and interspaced withtall grasses
such as Branchiaria, Echinochloa, Eragrostis and Hyparrheniapatchy or very dense and thicket-
like, 1.3 - 4.5 m high (Fanshave, 1974:60-63).
3.8. Mutemwa or BaikiaeaForests
This forest woodland covers 683,000 hectares of land ()about 0.91 percent of the forested
land)This is economically the most important vegetation type in Zambia. It is the source of the
valuable teak or Zambezi red woods (Baikiaea plurijuga) and Petrocarpus antunessi. The
Baikiaea forest is almost restricted to the Kalahari sands with a rainfall of 700 to 1,200 mm per
annum covering the districts of Sesheke, Senanga western Kalomo and southern Namwala. The
red teak has been exploited for railway sleepers to 1910.(Fanshave,, 1974:55-56).
3.9. Kalahari (Mushibe) Woodlands
Kalahari woodland is a variant of Miombo woodland that grows on Kalahari sand and is
widespread on the sands of Western Province and of the western half of North-Western
Province.This forest covers 854, 6, 000 hectares of land (about 11.36 percent of the forest cover).
It occurs widely on Kalahari sands in WesternProvince and western half of North-Western
province. The vegetation of the Kalahari woodland is derived from the partial destruction of dry
deciduous Baikiaea forest. Typical species are Guibourtia coleosperma, Burkea
30
AfricanaDiplorhynchus and Parinariand Erythriphleum africanum growing to a height of
between 18 and 24m. The woodland type is of local importance for its stock Baikiaea plurijuga
and Pterocarpus angolensis timber. The trees are interspaced with tall grass – Aristida,
Brachiaria, Eragrostis, Hyperrhenia and Setaria (Huckabay,60-63,
3.10 Lusese Woodland
This is found in Western Province and Namwala It is dominated by Barkeo Africana, Dialium
engleanum and species of Baikiaea and Colophospermum in western province it thins into
Diplorhynctus shrub savanna or into Loudetia grassland in the flooded areas of the Zambezi and
the tributaries (Mackael, 1972 :65-66) .
3,11. Anthill terminalia
Anthill (Termitaria woodland) is a Savannah vegetation that is dominant in the transition
between wetlands, grasslands and plateau forest or woodland. It has tree groves or termite
mounds and grasslands on low ground. This woodland supports a community of plants, which is
usually very different from surrounding forest or woodland. This is due to such factors as raised
elevation, higher clay and mineral content of the soil, high pH, higher moisture content of the soil
and a greater biological activity. Species of Boscia, Strychnos, Diospyros and Sterculia are
common.,

3.12. The Teak Forests

There are some eighteen silvicultural investigations being carried out in teak forests some of
which started in the 1960's. They are intended to provide basic information about phenology,
regeneration and tending methods of mukusi and other timber species of economic
importance (Pterocarpusangolensis, P.antunesii, Guibourtiacoleosperma, and
Entandrophrag macaudatum). Below is a list of species raised from seed and field tested.

Table 6:Uses of indigenous timber

:Species End
uses
Afzelia quanzensis

Furniture, parquet
batterns
joinery poles and
fence posts

31
 Albizia adianthifolia Furniture, parquet

batterns, joinery,
fence posts and tool
Handles
Baikiaea plurijuga Construction timber,
parquet batterns,
railway sleepers
Erythrophleum Joinery, flooring,
africanum
turnery, construction
Timbers
Parinari Flooring, scaffolding
curatellifolia
poles, fruit is
edible and suitable
for wine

Pterocarpus Furniture, construc-

angolensis tion timber, joinery,
flooring, poles
Branchystegia Joinery, furniture,
spiciformis
mining timber,
sleepers, bark rope
Uapaca kirkiana - Joinery, furniture,
charcoal, edible

In addition,there have been long standing investigations on Pterocarpus

angolensis in a number of trial plots at Dambwa and Katombola in Livingstone since 1958.

Following the successful first international conference on the Teak Forests of Southern
Africa(18-24 March,1984 Livingstone), resolutions were passed to treat all problems of teak
forest management and conservation as special projects requiring external funding. To this effect
a number of project proposals were drawn up by the Forest Department in order to solicit external
support from foreign governments
3.13...Commercial Plantations
Besides natural forests and woodlands there are industrial plantations on the Copperbelt,
provincial and district centres covering about ten percent of Zambia’s land mass. The largest
plantation is on the Copperbelt- run by the Zambia Forest Finance Company (ZAFFICO) a
government parastatal company. These forests cover a total area of 50,000 hectares. 40,000

32
hectares are planted with Pines (Pinus Kesiya). The remaining 10.000 hectares are planted with
Eucalyptus (E. grandes). These plantations produce poles and timber to the mining industry. 25
While Eucalyptus trees provide a renewable source of wood, they starve other trees and plants of
water, and rob water from rivers and reservoirs. They gobble so much water that they are
sometimes planted for the purpose of draining swamps.

3.14.Biodiversity Threats
Zambia, like many other developing countries, experiences threats to its ecosystem,
species and genetic biodiversity. The threats to biodiversity are mainly human induced and
include deforestation, wildfires, mining, climate change, introduced species, pollution and
inadequate capacity.
4..Bamboo
Grows mostly in dense patches on the Copperbelt and in small and scattered patches in
other parts of the country. While bamboo can tolerate dry conditions, like any plant, it will grow
more slowly with less water, and it cannot grow in desert climates — exactly where it is needed
most. And most bamboo is hollow, which means it burns more quickly than hardwood. Because
bamboo requires few nutrients, it can grow in soil inhospitable to other plants — not only does it
thrive there, it can reclaim the land so other plants can thrive, too. Its roots leach heavy metals
from the soil, hold the soil together and draw water closer to the surface. Charcoal, of course, is
not the only thing that can be made of bamboo. Its tensile strength makes it a good construction
material, and it is also used for furniture, flooring and textiles, among other things. In some parts
of Africa where bamboo is more accepted, p0lantingf it has helped raise the water table by up to
seven meters. Paradoxically, harvesting bamboo to make durable goods is greener than not
harvesting bamboo. Here’s why: bamboo culms — the poles — do not live as long as hardwood
trees, usually up to a decade. When an old culm decays, it releases carbon into the atmosphere.
(The root system, which hold 30 to 40 percent of its carbon, last much longer.) This means that an
untouched bamboo forest is a poor carbon sink. Fortunately, the best way to turn bamboo into
an excellent carbon sink is to make money with it — harvest the bamboo to make durable
products before it starts its decay. Treated bamboo flooring or furniture will last as long as wood,
storing its carbon the whole time.. The challenge is to persuade and sensitize people and
government that the bambo has commercial uses.

5. Deforestation
Deforestation is one of the biggest threats to ecosystem and species diversity leading
to habitat destruction, changes in species composition, disruption of the food chain, and

33
disappearance of saprophytic organisms in protected and open forest areas. Plant groups most
affected include mosses, hydrophilousorchids, ferns, herbs and fungus. .Major causes of
deforestation include; indiscriminate cutting of trees, commercial harvesting, and conversion
of forest land to settlement and agricultural land through excision, degazzetion and
encroachment of open areas. These are driven by the high demand for forest products to
provide for a growing population especially in urban areas of Central, Copperbelt and Lusaka
Provinces of the country. The social consequences of deforestation are many, often with
devastating long-term impacts
The forestry sector in Zambia is very important to national development and human
welfare. Forests provide a variety of benefits, which include food, fuel wood, building
materials and medicines. Jumbe, Bwalya, and Husselman (2007) estimated that forests
contribute about 20.6percent of rural household income in Central, Copperbelt, and Northern
Provinces, and Mutamba (2008). The World Bank, Sustainable Development Department,
Environmental, and Natural Resources Management Unit, Africa Region) reported a 50
percent contribution of forests to household income in Kabompo and Mufulira Districts. It
was also noted that most poor households engaged in Non Timber Food Products (NTFP)
mainly because exploitationthe forests protect the environment thus enhancing food
production. However, the country experiences a high level of environmental degradation. The
most pressing problems in the forestry sector are deforestation and forest degradation, soil
erosion and fertility loss, watershed degradation, and loss of biodiversity (Guruswamy and
Hendricks,1997)..

Although about 66percent of Zambia’s land area is under some form of forest cover,
evidence of continuing deforestation is common in certain regions. Such trends compelled the
Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) to institute measures to invigorate the
integrity of the forest estate and provide for a viable policy and legal framework for forest
management. New wildlife and forestry laws enacted in 1998 and 1999 were intended to
strengthen the management of natural resources and the environment. The Forest Act of 1999
conferred the responsibility of controlling and managing the forests and forest reserves on the
Forest Department, under the Ministry of Tourism, Environment, and Natural Resources.
These policies were meant to attract investment, create responsive corporate and public
enterprises, redefine forestland ownership, and guarantee meaningful commitment from
stakeholders to tree growing, protection and utilization of forest products as a means of
livelihood for local communities(Chendauka 2009).
34
 Deforestation and forest degradation, which are major problems in the forestry sector,
are attributed to a number of reasons. These include illegal and uncontrolled charcoal
production- even trees that can be used for fine carving, such as Mukwa and other hard
woods, are being cut down and made into charcoal, overexploitation, uncontrolled bush fires,
land clearing for agriculture, and illegal settlements. Large tracts of forests, especially near
urban areas, have disappeared because wood is one of the main sources of energy for cooking
and heating to more than 80 per cent of the households. reliance on hardwood fuel poses
more present dangers as well. It’s a woman’s job to collect firewood, and when trees are
scarce, women must walk farther and farther to find it, which takes more time and exposure
to danger from snakes. Much cooking in indoor s results air pollution which affects eyesight
and affects the lungs causing deaths from pneumonia The declining socio-economic
situation and increasing poverty has exacerbated the situation. Many people are turning to
forest resource exploitation as a means of livelihood, providing an alternative source of
income and employment ((Chendauka 2009 ).

5.2.The Role of Forests

At the launching of the Copperbelt Province Forest Action Programme in Ndola in
November 1996, William Harrington, then Minister of Environment and Natural Resources
(Times of Zambia, November 1995 ) observed the following: “Forests are not only an
important national assets but (are) also a strategic natural resource necessary for (the) overall
economic development of Zambia” . Demand for forest products and associated degradation
being driven by two main processes: ii. Rising demand for charcoal as energy and; ii. Rising
land constraints limiting income potential from agriculture As a resource, forests contribute
to the following:
5.3.Social and Economic Factors

One of the proposals for dealing with deforestation addresses the fundamental issue
of population pressures upon the land. Several explanations have been given for the problem
of deforestation as a result of human activity. One explanation is known as the "commons
problem"—suggesting that communal living and land tenure systems in Africa provide no
incentives to individual investment or maintenance of the land. Supporters of this notion say
that the problem of land degradation may be combated by restructuring the ownership of
land. They advocate a shift from communal land tenure to individual ownership to provide
security, encourage investment, and improve maintenance of the land. Developing countries
are advised to modify existing land tenure laws to allow more individual private ownership.
35
While this approach may seem logical to Westerners, there is much doubt about its
effectiveness. There is little empirical evidence to support the assertion that communal land
tenure systems do not provide security. In their study of the environment in Africa, Cleaver
and Schreiber maintain that "traditional land tenure systems provide considerable security of
tenure on land brought into the farming cycle through customary rules of community land
ownership and allocation of use rights to members of the community. In most cases, the
tenurial security enjoyed by members of the community is sufficient to induce investment in
land(Bwalya,2004;Chendauka 2009)).

Zambia is a country with a rapidly increasing population which impinges on

forests.Poverty, land tenure, property rights, encroachment, new settlements, non-usage of
indigenous knowledge and technologies have been identified as some of the social economic
factors that cause land degradation in Zambia. Agriculture is the mainstay for the majority of
households in Zambia. Small-scale (mostly poor) farmers represent 79 percent of the farming
community, while large-scale farmers are estimated at 1 percent of the total farming
population. The emergent/medium scale farmers constitute 20percenht of the farming
population. Unsustainable practices of agriculture lead to land degradation in Zambia.
Examples of such practices include shifting cultivation, monoculture cultivation, and use of
heavy machinery for cultivation, use of inorganic fertilisers, over-grazing, cultivation of
wetland areas and cultivation on unstable landscapes.
Wood fuel and charcoal consumption does contribute to deforestation and eventually
land degradation. Charcoal production also produces green house gases during carbonization
in the earth kilns. Indiscriminate late bush fires have been observed to reduce wood annual
increment by 50 percent in Miombo woodland. In woodland areas, trees less than 3m high are
generally susceptible to destruction when burnt and late fires destroy 84 percent of the
herbage biomass (Chimbelu,1990: 55-63;. Ball,1995: 39-4;.Cleaver and.
Schreiber,1993:204;Anderson,1993;Chendauka 2009)).
5.4.Agriculture
Agriculture is the mainstay for the majority of households in Zambia. It provides the
bulk of food and cash requirements. Much of this is dominated by small-scale farmers.,
Table 7: Figures in Land Use collected in 1994

Land use % of TotalLand Area Area in 000 ha.

Agriculture 20.0% 14,660
Forest land 60% 43,980

36
 Forest reserves 10% 7,330
National Parks 8.5% 6,230
Game Management Areas 22.0% 16.127
Customary land 19.5% 14, 293
Other 20.0% 14,660
Source: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1994

representing 79 percent of the farming community. Large-scale farmers are estimated at one
percent of the total farming population, while emergent/medium scale farmers constitute 20%
of the farming population. The sustenance of agricultural production and land productivity at
certain levels have meant adoption of farming systems and technologies by different types of
farmers depending on the agro-ecological zone. Clearing forests for agricultural production is
the major cause of deforestation. In Zambia, it is estimated to account for about 90percent of
forest clearing. Most of the agricultural activities such as large-scale agricultural clearing
systems, cultivation alongstreams or riverbanks and the semi-shifting cultivation prevalent in
Zambia have resulted into detrimental effects on the environment. It has been observed that
the cut and burn semi-shifting cultivation practice in areas where population densities are
high and thepoor method of cutting trees is used, slows down the regeneration process
(Anderson,1993).

5.5.Deforestation and Population Growth

Population growth is directly related to increase in the demand for food. In order to
meet this demand for food, we have to produce more crop. In order to produce more crop, we
require more land; and to get more land for cultivation we have started encroaching upon the
forestland, cutting down trees and turning vast tracts of lush green forests into large fields.
Deforestation in forested areas starts with human settlements mushrooming in near-forest
areas. As time elapses, these settlers begin producing their own food by resorting to
subsistence agriculture for which they begin clearing forest land. If the fertility of soil is less,
the crop produce is low which prompts humans to cultivate more area and leads to further
encroachment on forestland. While this practice is indeed helpful for us humans, species
which inhabit these forested areas have to bear the brunt of this practice. Even in the age of
metals, we are highly dependent on timber when it comes to construction; and this timber
comes from felling of trees in various parts of the world. Large tracts of forestland are also
cleared to fulfill the vested interests of the bigwigs in mining lobby with strong political

37
influences.

The rapid rate at which forests are converted to agricultural lands can be
attributed to the belief that forest conversion is more beneficial for humans than forest
conservation. Since 1970, somewhere around 232,000 square miles of Amazon forest has
been cleared to make way for agriculture and to obtain timber for construction activity. Even
today, these forests are cleared at the rate of 1.5 acres per second; which in turn has left
several species in these forests endangered. This destruction of tropical rainforests, like the
Amazon, is bound to affect the planet as a whole as these forests are home to half the species
of plants and animals on the planet. (Not to forget, these forests are referred to as the lungs of
our planet as they produce a significant amount of atmospheric oxygen that we require to
survive.)

5.6.Population Density and Deforestation.

Increased demand for fuel wood in urban areas has increased pressure on the
forest. This is evident in l the capital Lusaka that has exerted pressure on the Chibombo forest
reserves close to the city. Much of the pressure is being accelerated by an increase in
population without corresponding increase on material wealth i.e. poverty leading to
unsustainable exploitation of forest/land resources for timber, wood fuel and other forest
products. While population growth continues to fuel deforestation, the effects of
deforestation on population are also becoming pretty obvious in the form of climate change
and related environmental issues which has put us on toes of late. That explains why
developed nations like the United States and Russia have gone into a damage control mode,
and are trying their best to recover forest cover which they lost to extensive deforestation
during the initial phase of economic development(Chendauka 2009).

5.7 Annual Wildfires fire burning of forests

Setting of bush-fires is a common phenomenon in the Zambian society. Some fires are,
however, set indiscriminately. Various communities set bush-fires for a number of reasons which
include among others the following: vegetation control and fire-breaks around homesteads and
gardens, clearing of fields for cultivation, provision of potash, visibility improvement during
hunting as well as gathering and pasture management. The annual burning of the forests
especially in the dry season when the vegetation is tender-dry results in the destruction of these

38
trees. Bush fires range across most of the country in the later dry season, escaping from
Chitemene cultivation and caused by villagers burning off crop residue or hunting, as well as by
lightning strikes. The vegetation is adapted to it, particularly the grasses, and at that time of the
year deciduous trees have lost most of their leaves and so do not suffer damage. Prevailing winds
are not usually very strong and a lack of a great deal of dry fuel on the ground (since most areas
are burnt annually it does not build up) means that the fires are not as devastating as in countries
such as Australia and the south-western USA(Chidumayo,1986).

Fire destroys the vegetative cover in the agriculture area, which is meant to add organic
matter to the land. Indiscriminate late bush fires have been observed to reduce wood annual
increment by 50 percent in Miombo woodland (NEAP, 1994).However, deliberate late burning of
pasturelands can indeed increase their productivity (a late season burn favours regeneration of
grasses, rather than woody species). In woodland areas, 75 percent of trees of less than 3m high
are generally susceptible to destruction and late fires destroy 84 percentage of the herbage
biomass (Chiti, et al, 1989). In tree-less areas, and in the dry season, burning may promote soil
erosion by wind and by water at the on-set of the rain season before sufficient herbage cover
develops (Ibid.). These factors reduce the potential of the woodland to regenerate(NCS, 1985)

Burning experiments carried out in Ndola from 1933, showed that woodland can
be destroyed by repeated early burning when the vegetation is not so dry prevents the destruction
of the trees and other forms of vegetation. This is what was encouraged in the colonial period. 55
No estimates are available as to how much forest land is destroyed by annual fires.One significant
factor here is the frequent occurrence of uncontrolled fires, which reduces forest capacity to
regenerate if not properly handled. Climate and flammable biomass of the Miombo determines
the occurrence of wild fires. Fire danger season lies between the months of August and
November when temperatures are highest and humidity is lowest. In central Zambia average wind
speed is highest (13-16km/hour) during April-October compared to 8-11 km/hour during other
months. It is during this period of dry and windy condition that the risk of fires is greatest.
According to Chidumayo (1996), biomass fuel during the dry season is made up of the following:
- undecomposed dead biomass at the end of the previous rain season, above ground grass biomass
produced during the previous rain season and Current dry season litter fall

Fire is an important management tool in terrestrial ecosystems. However, if not

properly managed, it can destroy habitats leading to changes in species composition of both
flora and fauna. Anthropogenic fires, caused by hunters,agriculturalists and careless
39
Handling of fire, are a serious problem to Zambia’s biodiversity these fires affect
(I)regeneration of forests as the young seedlings are destroyed; (ii) change in forest
composition (reduction in fire sensitive species; (iii). Fire and burn hardy and other species
that are more common and (iv) lead to the loss of fire-sensitive habitat such the evergreen
habits: . Mateshi, Mishitu and riverine forest; Between September and November, late and
uncontrolled fires are common in catchment ecosystems causing hydrological imbalance
which is reflected in reduced water in rivers and streams during the dry seasons and floods
during rainy season. This results into disruption of breeding patterns of aquatic organisms.
Fire is commonly caused when clearing land for agriculture, hunting for small game,
production of charcoal, honey harvesting, for stimulating growth of new pasture in grazing
lands. Habitats are therefore destroyed affecting species regeneration which might take tens
of years or more, and species composition.

5.8. Change in Land Use

Land use change as a threat to ecosystems is prevalent in both protected and open
areas. Triggers of land use change are influenced by human activities such as change in
policy direction, encroachment, logging and mining. Land holding significant biodiversity is
increasingly being converted to other uses such as settlements, mining concessions, farm
lands and other commercial developments. For example, settlements in GMAs are expanding
due to population growth and migration as more land is being converted to agriculture and
settlement. Ecosystems in 25 percent and 48 percent of National Parks and GMAs
respectively, are degraded due to human encroachment (ZAWA, 2008).The result is loss of
biodiversity due to habitat fragmentation and edge effects. Mining and road construction
activities have degraded ecosystems and wildlife habitats in Lukusuzi, Lochinvar, West and
East Lunga National Parks (NBSAP, 1999). These have resulted in the fragmentation of
ecosystems and habitats and obstruction of migratory routes used by wildlife and fish to
breeding and feeding grounds.

5.9.Climate Change
Climatic hazards caused by extreme weather events are a threat to biodiversity resources in
the country. Droughts and floods in particular, adversely affect biodiversity resources in both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In recent years floods and droughts have caused crop
failure, impacted on wildlife populations and changed the honey flow period.

40
5.10.Pollution
Pollution disrupts the natural food chains leading to negative impact on
biodiversity. It also affects the reproductive cycle/patterns, triggers emigration and affects
behaviour of organisms which in turn affects the composition of species. For example, the
infestation of alien aquatic weeds linked to eutrophication of water bodies by industrial,
domestic and agricultural pollution of rivers has highly reduced invertebrate diversity, which
consists of a few pollution tolerant species (NBSAP, 1999).Major sources of air, land and
water pollution in Zambia include; wide scale application of pesticides and herbicides to
control pests and waste discharge from industrial production processes (such as cement
production and mining).
5.11.Chitemene (Slash and Burn).
In areas with the heavily leached ferralitic type of soils which cover 47 percent of
Zambia covering Luapula, Northern and Copperbelt, Central provinces, in order to supplement
soil deficiency, the local people practice Chitemene system.. This is a shifting form of cultivation
which involves the pollarding of branches and cutting of trees which are then stuck together in a
selected sport and burned to provide as nutrient. Due to the nature of the soil, this method worked
well and land could be used for 5 years before being left to rest. However, this system was
condemned as a backwards and destructive system by colonial authorities --without finding out
why the farmers used. They unsuccessfully tried to stop it but failed due to lack of man power
and absence of compliance by the local people.So, for many years, the farmers of Zambia logged
trees, burned the branches, and used ash as a fertilizer for the soil. it--, pushing farmers into
settled agriculture.According to a World Bank Report ( 1975), it was estimated that over
130,000km2 of woodlands were being lost annually by using this form of agriculture. These
gardens are abandoned every three to four years to allow regeneration to take place. Such a
system, according to the Hellen can only support a sparse population of about 4.00 persons per
square kilometer. When a population increases to a density higher than this, the demand for land
increased and the fallow periods are reduced allowing little time for the soil to recover its fertility.
The result is seen lower crop yields (DNR, Annual Reports 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982’ Mickels-
Kokwe, 2006 ).

41
Chitemene Gardens in Northern Zambia
Shifting cultivation the "chitemene" system-- which symbolized the effective use of
tropical soil by the African indigenous peoples, is an important agent of deforestation. It is a
practice in which for many years, the farmers of Zambia logged trees, burned the branches, and
used ash as a fertilizer for the soil grow crops for a year or a few years before repeating the cycle
in another area.. Due to the nature of the soil, this method worked well and land could be used for
five years before being left to rest.subsistence farmers clear and burn areas of land in the forest,
then This system, used to recycle nutrients to the soil and maintain productivity without
fertilizers, provided the fallow period was long enough to allow the regeneration of the forest

42
growth. But with increasing population and pressure on the land, the fallow period cut short.
Eventually, the soil has become unproductive, crops no longer flourish and trees do not grow
back. It is important to note that once an area has been cleared for agriculture or grazing, there is
no guarantee that trees will grow back
Chitemene as a system of agriculture has been condemned by all successful governments
as being a wasteful method of farming which had to be discontinued. In recent years former
President Kaunda championed a crusade against Chitemene. Although he won q lot of converts –
as statistics show that a large number of peasant farmers were turning to the use of chemical
fertilizer, there are those who still feel that the system has a lot to offer (Anderson,1986: 853-863;
(Campbell, et al., 1993; Grundy et al.,1993) Allen,1985: 59-84; Brown and Wolf,.(1985; (Nyathi
and Campbell, 1993; Lawton 1982
5.12. Collection and use of Fuel Wood
Like it other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, in Zambia, around 90 percent of the population
in both the urban and rural areas, use of firewood for cooking and hearing at an annual rate of 1.5
tonnes of oil per year which according to some sources is ten times the total consumption of
commercial energy fuel of all purposes (Anderson, 1986).. Firewood has many uses among the
user groups, such as cooking, burning bricks, making of salt, while charcoal is sold for income
generation. Many species are considered suitable for firewood such asBrachystegia spp.,
Isoberlinia angolensis and Julbernadia paniculata are more preferred..Forest loss attributed to
wood fuel alone is estimated to be around 56,000 hectares which is 28 percent of the
Environmental Council of Zambia’s estimated annual figures.Before 1962 the copper mining
industry used large quantities of firewood to generate electricity and this resulted in the loss of
150,413 ha of woodland between 1937 and 1961. When the mining industry switched to
hydroelectricity, urban households became the major users of woodfuel. The urban population in
the Copperbelt increased from 0.412 million in 1960 to 1.400 million in 1984 and its
consumption of woodfuel led to the deforestation of at least 89,436 ha between 1962 and
1984(Chidumayo, 2005).The need for firewood is now critical. In all the provinces apart from
Southern and Western Provinces, the annual rate of deforestation arising from wood and charcoal
harvesting for energy purposes is increasing annually, and contributing to the high rate of
deforestation. In addition, this is exacerbated by illegal settlements that are mushrooming
everywhere especially in Central, Copperbelt, North Western, Luapula and Lusaka Provinces.
Increased demand for fuel wood in urban areas has increased pressure on the forest. This is
evident in cities like the capital Lusaka that has exerted pressure on the Chibombo forest reserves
close to the city. Much of the pressure is being accelerated by an increase in population without
43
corresponding increase on material wealth i.e. poverty leading to unsustainable exploitation of
forest/land resources for timber, wood fuel and other forest products. Wood fuel is still the
common energy source (supplying about 96 percent of urban and rural households) used by most
households, with increases under cultivation and hence deforestation is at increase (Dept of
energy, 1998).

Table 8: Forest standing volume and annual decrease factor (to wood fuel) by province

Province Standing volume (million m3) Annual decrease factor (%)

Central 463.438 0.6
Copper belt 286.314 2.0
Eastern 401.619 0.5
Luapula 351.101 0.5
Lusaka 982.946 2.0
North-western 982.946 0.2
Southern 126.602 0.7
Western 304.913 0.2
Total 3,092.078 0.5

Source ECZ, 1994

Over-exploitation takes place in areas around urban districts.Firewood is usually

collected by women. In parts of Northern, Eastern, Central and North-western Zambia, 83
percent or rural dwellers obtain firewood from points varying between 30 minutes to three
hours of walking distance from their homes. In Southern and western Provinces and in areas
where there are swamps and floodplains or have suffered extensive deforestation, covering
of distances of fifteen to twenty kilometers or more may not be uncommon. The collection of
firewood is well spread throughout the country but is more intense along the line of rail,
provincial and district centres because of increased demand (Chimbelu,1990:55-63)..32

Firewood is collected from dead branches of living trees, trees that had been felled
with axes or by a tractor and left to dry for several months, trees that have died from natural
causes, uprooted by wind or hevy rain storms, or killed by lightening. Although all dried
wood is regarded as potential firewood, preference is given to some species because of their
output, emission of less smoke and lasting longer.Nkomeshya (1997) has listed the following
tree species for firewood production to the Brachystegia spiciformis (Muputu, B),Bauhinia
thoningii (Musekese, B),Pericopsis angolensis*Parinari curatellifolia (Mupundu,

44
B)Brachystegia boehmii (Musamba, B), Branchystegiaspiciformis (Muputu, B),
Juberrnardiapaniculata (Mutondo, B), Isoberlina Apace(Sandwe, B);globiflora and
Pterocarpus angeleisi(Mubanga, B),Uapaca kirkiana (Musuku, B.The smelly Erythrophleum
africanum and the “ashy” Parinari curatelifolia are usually left standing.

The above tree species are preferred because of their high heat content value and that
they last long in burning. Based on the same principle of heat value and durability in burning,
preferred charcoal tree species are not so different from those used for firewood. Selectivity
in wood fuel tree species has resulted in localised scarcities of the preferred species.
However, due to continuously increasing demand for wood fuel and depletion of priority
species, current-harvesting methods do not segregate on species and this situation has
culminated in complete degradation of certain forest areas. Natural regeneration in these
areas has become almost impossible (under current institutional arrangements and economic
situation) because regrowths are rarely given a chance to develop into mature trees - some are
cut immediately they start to show signs of stem rigidity and others are destroyed by late fires
which are very common, especially in livestock areas and in areas under the slash and burn
(Chitemene) system of agriculture. However, in the urban areas, commercial suppliers of
firewood and wood sellers do not discriminate. Any dry tree is collected and sold. In areas
like parts of southern and western provinces, where firewood is scarce, crop residues and
dried animal manure are used as fuel.

When collecting firewood, branches and sticks are cut into pieces of about a metre or
less. The trunk of the tree is split into small pieces. These are collected and tied into bundles of
varying sizes and weight. They are carried by women on their heads or men on these shoulders.
In some cases, bicycles, wheelbarrows, ox-carts and sledges and motor vehicles are used. In a
study by Chidumayo (1984) on the transportation of firewood, and Lusaka and Ndola Kabwe,
between 45.7 and 66.1 percent of the firewood used was carried by motor vehicles.

Table 9: Modes of Transportation of Firewood in Zambia

MODE OF
LUSAKA KABWE NDOLA
TRANSPORT M2 % M3 % M3 %
Human (on foot) 402 3.7 227 3.8 908 12.1
Bicycle 23 0.2 31 0.5 90 1.2
Wheel barrow 12 0.1 7 0.1 63 0.6

45
 Ox-cart 954 8.9 1820 30.6 - -
Motor Vehicle 9336 87.1 3855 65.0 6417 89.9
Source: Chidumayo (1984)

The dependence on fuelwood and charcoal for fuel is due to a number of obvious reasons.
In most places trees are readily available at short or manageable distances. Free firewood is
collected by members of the family from traditional land, common-user land or bought for a fee
In firewood and charcoal, the end user-technology – a potsherd, three stones
comprising a very basic stove or brazier costs very little. 45Besides domestic use, firewood is also
used in farming and commercial ventures. In the tobacco growing areas in Central and Eastern
Provinces, a substantial amount of firewood is used in curing Virginia tobacco. According to
Medey the amount of wood used in drying tobacco in Tanzania is in a ratio of two to three tones
of wood to cure one tonne of tobacco .(Medey,1983 : 55-56 ;Sukwa, 2012 :6) Evidence from
Kenya give even higher figures: about 20 tonnes of fuelwood per tonne of flue-cured tobacco
(Kaloki, 1982).In the Eastern and Central Provinces of Zambia, the use of firewood in curing of
tobacco was identified as contributing to the “massive deforestation” (Sukwa, 2012 :6) Fuel
wood is also required by fishermen and fish traders to smoke-dry their fish. Some species such as
the fatty Barbus requires more fuel wood than others. Areas adjacent to fishing villages and
campus are bare of trees which have been removed as firewood to smoke fish.(Musambachime,
1981). Fuel wood is also an important ingredientfor drying game meat, infiring bricks and pottery
products, in baking of wheat products – especially in rural bakeries, in brewing sweet and
opaque beer, as well as in the distilling of illicit gin (Lutuku, Kanchina, Kachasu). A lot of wood
fuels are consumed in making salt in the Katete, Kaputa, Kaimbwe and other smaller salt pans
( FAO, 1985).

Deforested areas are left to regenerate naturally. However, due to poor

management about 34 per cent of the area deforested before 1962 has failed to regenerate.
Although 50,200 hactres have been reforested with exotic trees, only 5,020 ha of this is on
land previously deforested. Thus only about 10 per cent of reforestation efforts have
contributed to the rehabilitation of damaged land. Ninety per cent of the reforestation has
actually replaced standing indigenous woodland. Uncontrolled bushfires have destroyed
forest plantations and have also caused the failure of woodland regeneration in deforested
areas. These observations indicate that if forest resources in the Copperbelt of Zambia are to

46
be properly managed it will be necessary: to effectively regulate land use changes and; to
control bush

5.13. Charcoal
Charcoal is one of the major products in indigenous woodlands and provides an
important source f income for the rural dwellers. It meets the energy needs of about 83 per
cent of urban householdsCharcoal burn more efficiently and cleanly than wood. Charcoal has
a higher energy density than other biomass fuels and can be stored without fear of insect
problems. It has excellent cooking properties: it burns evenly, for a long time, and can
beeasily extinguished and reheated. As users become more affluent, they typically switch
from wood fuels to charcoal and then to petroleum fuels such as paraffin or electricity.
Charcoal, available in large quantities, is bought in varying quantities ranging from a small
tin, to a large sack, at varying prices depending on the locality, distance of the transportation,
mode of transport used, demand and supply. Energy resources available in Zambia include
wood fuel, electricity, petroleumproducts, gas,coal, solar and wind. The statistics on the
national energy consumption show that 72percent was woodfuel (firewood and charcoal). It
is important to note that out of the total energy resourcesavailable, households consume
68.5percent. Wood fuel constitutes the largest resource base. In the same year, it was
reported that households consumed 88percent of firewood and 96percent of charcoal.
Charcoal is used by 85percent of urban households for cooking and heating(Chidumayo et
al., 1996 ;Ng’uni, 2013:10; :Siamwiza, 1999).

Charcoal is the most preferred by most urban markets because of its superior qualities
over firewood e.g. cleaner combustion, easy transportation and handling and high heat value.
Rural communities on the other hand prefer firewood because they cannot compete for
charcoal with urban customers whose high demand leads to increased prices which the
income ‘stripped’ rural dwellers cannot afford. Lack of alternative income generating
ventures further alienates rural dwellers from use of charcoal because even those who are
able to produce the commodity, would rather offer it for sale to fill the income gap and use
firewood for their energy requirements (Ng’uni, 2013:10 ).

Charcoal is used for cooking mainly in the cities, but it is produced in the rural areas.
The current trend of wood fuel consumption is projected to increase by 79 percent and the

47
amount of wood that is converted to charcoal is expected to increase by 119 percent in the
year 2016 (ZFAP, 1998). This demand has implications on the available forest resources.
Due to the high demand and high prices it fetches in urban areas, charcoal is
increasinglybecoming an important source of income for the peri-urban people. The effects of
charcoal production as a deforestation factor have been well documented. In Zambia, one
full-time charcoal producer is capable of clearing 0.5 ha per year (Chidumayo, 1988). With
increasing demand and as many people are entering into this venture as an economic activity,
the hectarage cleared per year is indeed great. Due to this clearance, most of the forests
around Lusaka have been deforested, such that the pattern of charcoal production and supply
has shifted from the western and north-western in the 1970’s and early 1980’s to the Central
and Eastern parts of Chongwe District during the 1990’s. ((Chidumayo, 1988; ZFAP, 1998;
NEAP, 1994;Ng’uni, 2013:10;Chalwe, 2014:8-9 (supplement):).

Charcoal production is produced through the kiln method. This method impacts on
woodland regeneration at two levels of intensities: the cut-over area in which most of the
trees are cleared and the kiln spot where regeneration is severely affected due to thermal
effects onplants and soil. Tree regeneration is known to be impaired on kiln spots up to
twodecades (Chidumayo, 1998).
Once the tree species has been identified,. logs are cut, brought to a central site and
stacked into a pile (clamp) which may be cylindrical or rectangular in shape. The average
height of the pile is about two metres and may contain from two to 30 cubic or logged wood.
The pile which varies in size. is then covered with grass and leaves followed by a thick layer
or blocks of soil and grass cut by a heavy hoe, each measuring between 60 by 30 by 45
centimetres to make a kiln which is either oblong or circular., leaving a small hole in the
windward side. It is here that the fire is lit and allowed to spread through the clamp. After
this, the hole blocked with leaves, grass and blocks of soil confining the burning to within the
clamp.. Kiln types and production methods are discussed in detail in Foley’s Charcoal
Making in Developing Countries (1986).Although the kiln is mostly sealed, a few air pockets
are initially left open to allow steam and smoke to escape. The rate of burning is indicated
by the amount of smoke seeping through. If there is too much smoke, additional earth is
added to the kiln to ensure that the heat is contained and prevented from escaping. This
containment raises the temperature of the kiln up to or more than 275oC which is the
carbonizing point at which the whole mass of wood is reduced to carbon. The conversion
rate is 20-22 percentEmissions during charcoal production are significant compared to those
48
from charcoal burning. As the kiln emissions change colour, the charcoal burner may seal
some air pockets
Charcoal is produced via paralysis, or thermal degradation, of biomass. This partial
combustion, in an oxygen-poor environment, results in formation of products of
incompletecombustion such as CH4, CO, alkenes, alkenes, oxygenated compounds and
particulatematter. In ideal biomass combustion only CO2 and H2O would be formed; in
practice, however,various amounts of PICs are produced, depending upon operating
conditions The production process may take up to a week or more.The kiln is left to burn for
several days, a week or more depending of the size and length of the cuttings and the
moisture contained therein.Once the burning is complete, and left to cool, the kiln is
uncovered and the burned logs are covered with soft earth and left to cool for a day, two or
more. Once cooled, the charcoal was unearthed, good quality charcoal is black and hard..
About half of the energy in the fuel wood is typically lost in the process. When the process
has ended, the kiln is opened or dug up and the charcoal is removed. The number of bags of
charcoal varied. Some of the largest produced about fifty or more 90kg bags The resulting
charcoal resembles smaller, lighter pieces of blackened wood. These will have higher energy
content by weight than fuel wood. The larger pieces can be sold in the market; smaller pieces
and powder, or fines, are disregarded the energy efficiency of the process is dependent upon
many factors: kiln type, moisture content, wood species, wood arrangement, and the skill of
the producer.

Many programmes over the past years, have been implemented to increase efficiency
of charcoal kilns. The major problem that has been associated with charcoal production,
however, is in the way it is produced and the kind of losses incurred in its production. The
earth kilns used are mostly 10 percent efficient, implying that in the process of producing
charcoal from wood, 90 percent by weight is lost. From 100 tonnes of wood, therefore, one
only expects to get 10 tonnes of charcoal. The charcoal production process should therefore
be done in efficient kilns or better still, wood should be burnt directly without first
transforming it into charcoal. This will serve to sustain the current available, but highly
endangered wood stocks. Promotion of alternative and renewable energy sources should be
intensified and implemented(Hibajene and Kalumiana, 1994;,Kapiyo, 1996).

Miombo tree species produce denser charcoal compared to trees of other vegetation.

49
Charcoal making process that is usually done in public lands involves wood cutting, kiln
preparation, carbonisation and finally unloading charcoal from the kiln. While between10
and 14 days are spent for wood cutting, kiln preparation and carbonization respectively,
unloading thecharcoal kiln takes only between four and seven daysHowever there are
variations between sites. Particular tree species in the Miombo woodlands are favoured for
charcoal production of high calorific value due to dense and hard charcoal they produce. In
terms of suitable tree sizes used for charcoal making, there is also variation between sites.
In many cases, there is a mixing of big and smaller trees for charcoal production. Distance
from towns and cities may explain this difference in the extent of exploitation. Remote areas
are less exploited forcharcoal making compared to other sites. Generally charcoal makers
expressed preference to use large trees due to concentrated wood volume near the kiln thus
utilizing economies of scale

The other environmental problem associated with charcoal production is the

production of green house gases during carbonisation in the earth kilns, and this could be
contributing tithe climate change problems facing Zambia. As for firewood, the problem of
deforestation is not severe in low-density rural areas where the use is specifically domestic.
This is because, dead wood is mostly collected and used as firewood. However, studies in
Savona.) And Luangwa (Kalyocha, 1997, 2000) shows that firewood collection is a major
problem causing deforestation around villages alongthe Rivers .Firewood is used mainly for
cooking and smoking oif fish. Some tree species are reported to be completely destroyed, for
instance, the Mopane along the Zambezi River. In densely populated and high fuel wood
demand areas, it has also been noted that live trees are felled in order to obtain firewood and
charcoal. Charcoalproduction/consumption figures are difficult to estimate

With an increasing urbanization level of almost 50 per cent, charcoal is the major
source of energy for more than a third of the population. Charcoal’s position implies that with
economic growth, charcoal users will switch to more modern fuels, but other biomass users,
on the order of two billion people, may switch from other biomass fuels to charcoal. More
importantly, charcoal demand in densely populated urban areas and the harvestingof wood
for charcoal production is an intensive process, concentrated in as small an area as
possibleover as short a period of time as possible. In some cases, wood is taken illegally from
state land,and producers are under pressure to harvest the wood make the charcoal as fast as
possible. The rural wood fuel users typically collect small amounts of wood daily, and thus
50
the forestry impact isdispersed and much less severe. Production costs typically involve only
labour and transportation of charcoal to the roadside, since wood is usually free. Where
charcoal is delivered to designated markets, transport distances will increase with time, as
nearby stocks of forests are depleted. So future transport costs may constitute a much greater
amount of the total cost. When transport costs are such a significant fraction of total costs,
any fluctuations in petroleum prices will likely have a great effect on real charcoal prices.
This is demonstrated by the 70 percent increase in charcoal prices between 1988 and 1989
due to the doubling in transportation costs. Therefore, although feedstock may be sustainably
and locally grown, charcoal is stronglylinked to petroleum, through both an energy and
economic perspective. Due to the large transportdistances involved, it would be interesting to
examine the energy balance and flows of this system. With charcoal production and end-use
energy losses already 70-85 percent, the amount of energyapplied to this system may exceed
the energy yield of the charcoal fuel in urban areas.

Table 10: Estimates of Charcoal Production and Deforestation in Zambia

from 1969 to 2008
Year Charcoal production Wood biomass used Estimated forest
(tonnes) (million tonnes) degradation
(hectares)
1969 330, 000 1.375 17, 000
1980 490, 000 2.042 26, 000
1990 685, 000 2.854 36, 000
2000 905, 000 3.771 48, 000
2008* 1, 392, 000 5.800 73, 000
*Includes both rural and urban, the rest of the years are for urban
Source, ILUA 20

Charcoal is the most important household fuel in urban Zambia. It meets the energy
needs of about 83 per cent of urban households. With an urbanization level of 42 per cent,
charcoal is the major source of energy for more than a third of the populationForestry
industry contributes at least 3.7 percent to GDP. And Mines, Energy and Water Development
Minister Yamfwa Mukanga bemoaned the high levels of charcoal consumption in Lusaka
currently estimated at K150 billion per annum (Times of Zambia, 10 October 2012).. Within
the industry, the largest part is thewooden fuel, including commercial charcoal production of
2.2 percent and subsistent wood collection of 0.8 percent. Then 90 percent of the people are

51
using the fuel wood thus produced. However the productivity offorestry industry is low
throughout all stages from production, processing to distribution, furthermoredue to the
underdevelopment of the infrastructure such as roads and communications, the
transactioncosts become high. For the reason, the improvement of efficiency in forestry
industry includingsmall-scale enterprises would bring great benefits to the economy and
environment. On the other hand,as it is estimated that 900,000 hectares of forests are being
lost every year, it is requested to reducesuch a high declining rate. One of the main causes of
forest reduction is charcoal production, which iswidely used by poor households in urban
area.
Charcoal produces more heat than firewood and is on average clean and smokeless.
Charcoal has a higher energy density than other biomass fuels and can be stored without fear of
insect problems. It has excellent cooking properties: it burns evenly, for a long time, and can be
easily extinguished and reheated.Charcoal is often traditionally made from species that yield a
dense, slow-burning charcoal. These species are slow growing and are therefore particularly
vulnerable to overexploitation. There is thus a need to encourage diversification and the use of
plantation species or species producing less dense charcoal. It is easy to handle and store and can
be used in small units.38 In producing charcoal, first, trees – mostly Branchystegia Isoberlinia and
Jubernaldia, Pterocapus angolensis, and Aftezia are felled and cut into lengths of between one,
two or more metres. The Miombo woodlands yield between 20 and 40 loads of wood per metre
which is suitable for charcoal burning. A medium sized tree yields about a cord of wood. The
yield of charcoal from one tree (including the bark) ranges from 90 to 200kg, depending on the
species, the size the quality of the wood (branches and trunks) and the efficiency of conversion
(Cheated,Mihalyi; .; Editorial, Post Newspaper, 3 October 2012, ;page 28)

52
A land laid bare by charcoal burners.

Through the felling of trees for wood, charcoal production, expansion and over-
exploitation of agricultural land and timber, the country is losing about 300,000 hectares of
forest cover annually. Every ton of charcoal produced using traditional kiln depletes 0.1
hectares of woodlands (Karekezi, 2001) Zambia has 300 000 hectares p.a. rate of
deforestation that is increasing at rate of to 3.5 to 4percent per annum. The charcoal industry
produces about 700,000 tonnes of charcoal per year (i.e. between 14 and 16 million bags) and
employs about 45,000 workers in production, transport and retailing. It is the third largest
industry in the country and is worth about £23 million (K230 billion). It is labour intensive
and requires only a moderate amount of foreign exchange for the transport of the charcoal to
the point of sale. It produces a high rate fuel used by the majority of households in both rural
and urban areas. A household survey in Lusaka in 1995 revealed that 82.5 percent of
households (each with an average of 6 persons) use charcoal as a principal fuel; 7.5 percent
used charcoal plus electricity. 7.5 percent used charcoal plus wood and Kerosene (paraffin)
and only 2.5 percent used electricity alone. (Chendauka 2009)
.It was observed that there are special months for charcoal production. These are off-
season months for agriculture and cover the period of June through November. Charcoal
production is usually done to supplement farm income which is the major economic activity.
On the average, each household produces about 35 bags a year, mostly for sale. No charcoal
is produced intentionally for home use except that which is left after sale and usually it is
very minimal

53
 The consumption of charcoal in urban areas is estimated to amount to 3.9 kg per day
or 1,040 kgper year per household estimated at K150 billion per annum. Charcoal
consumption is estimated to be 245,000 tons,which is equivalent to 15 million mof timber.
For the period of 2006-1010, the number of urbanhouseholds is estimated to increase by
100,000, thus a further increase of charcoal demand willcertainly take place. In strengthening
the forestry management in cooperation with the producers andIn improving the efficiency of
charcoal production, thus strengthening their negotiating position in the market would bring
the direct economic benefits to the rural poor.

The introduction of charcoal as an urban cooking energy source in Lusaka city created
a new incentive among rural communities in central Zambia to clear woodlands to supply
charcoal to the urban market. Incomes from charcoal production were used to buy household
requirements and in some cases these were invested in agricultural production after the
removal of subsidies: a forest product had become a source of subsidy for agricultural
production. Under traditional agricultural system trees were cut and burnt but with the
commoditisation of charcoal, cut trees were converted to charcoal for sale and the land
cultivated to produce both food and cash cropsNawa,2012:7;Chidumayo,1987:105-
115;Chidumayo, 1994;Chidumayo, 1998;).

A full-time charcoal burner might produce 7 to 50 tonnes of charcoal each

year.Chidumayo, 1994 And most producers work close to urban towns lying along the line of
rail and the Copperbelt. Three provinces, Lusaka, Copperbelt and Central Provinces
experience severe deforestation as a result of charcoal burning to supply the urban towns.
Forests often covering the distances lying between 50 and 160km are not – averaging about
255km,2 amounting to two percent of the national total, which in itself was four times the
national average experience in the other six provinces. And because most trees are cut at knee
level, regeneration is rather slow or totally absent transforming once wooded areas into
barren areas.( Chidumayo, 1994;DNR, Annual Reports, 1980;)

For example, a study by Limpitlaw [2004] revealed that with a population of more
than one million people in the Zambian Copperbelt, charcoal demand is approximately
36,500t annually, translating to at least 243,000t the mass of trees felled, or about 286,000 m 3
if a density of 850 kg/m3 is assumed. This takes about 3,400 ha of woodland per annum. If
large logs are used for mining timber, then 2,580 ha will be required annually.

54
A bucket of charcoal

Mining industry does stimulate economic benefits for the rural poor who they
generate through the production and sale of wood, fuel wood, non-wood forest products and
foodstuffs. What is important is to have a well managed forestry industry that ensures rights
to tree and forest resources and equitable access. There is a growing awareness of the
importance of urban green spaces to the aesthetic quality of the urban environment and urban
life. As part of forestation/reforestation of degraded mining areas, communities in the areas
can take advantage of the growing biofuels era to plant perennial energy crops, such as
Jatropha described above. Such trees will not only help to green the degraded areas, but they
will also provide employment and income to the vulnerable communities [FAO, 2008;
Thorpe et.a)

55
Charcoal being packed in sacks

56
 .

Table 11. Urban Populatiom in major cities in Zambia

City City Population Urban Area Population
Lusaka 1218200 1720800
Ndola 347900 590000
Kitwe 305000 786100
Kabwe 213800 213800
Chingola 150500 150500
Mufulira 131000 131000
Luanshya 124800 124800
Livingstone 108100 108100
Source: CSO,

5.13.1. Sustainable Regeneration

Chidumayo (1997) states that natural regeneration of forests is through seed, stumps
(coppices) and roots. He further states that there are five (5) factors that affect natural
regeneration: 1. Canopy shading in selective felling systems; 2. Inter-shoot competition,
whereby only the dominant shoots contribute to the next generation; 3. Capacity to regenerate
(coppice) decreases with age and stem size; 4. Late forest fires which kill seedlings and
coppices;5. Cutting of seed bearers for woodfuel and saw logs and clearing for agriculture.
Seed bearers are usually cut because of their bigger diameters and hence are preferred for
timber as saw logs. This contributes to poor regeneration from seed. The average
establishment period for natural regeneration has been calculated at 8 years for both seedlings
and coppices, but this varies between 2 and 11 years depending on species. Normal
establishment period for new crop is best regarded at 10 years when stool mortality and
different sources of regeneration are taken into account (Chitondo, 1997). The cutting cycle
in selective cutting areas is 20 years and 60 years in clear-felled areas. 100 years are regarded
as the period needed for a tree in a Miombo woodland, under natural conditions, to attain
DBH of 30cm. Silvicultural treatments have proved to reduce this period to 60 years on
average quality sites and 50 years on best quality sites (Chitondo, 1997).

Chitondo (1997) has also indicated that stumps of almost all Miombo species have the
ability to coppice. Many shoots may be produced on one stump, but this reduces due to inter-

57
shoot competition and therefore, as stated earlier in this paper, only dominant shoots
contribute to the next generation. On stumps for valuable species, singling may be applied to
leave only one dominant shoot. However, stump trimming is rarely done and hence the rate
of stump rot is high and regeneration through stumps is reduced. This problem has also been
compounded by inadequate supervision and control by the Forestry Department.

Root or vegetative regeneration is most prevalent in stumped, uprooted and

machinery-logged areas. Unless damaged by fire, such regeneration produces straight poles
in the medium-term and timber in the long-term. In recent times, such poles have been used
for firewood in wood deficit areas. Artificial regeneration has been used to ensure complete
regeneration in areas where no seed trees exist or where they are widely scattered.

Chitondo (1997) has identified the following as the main failures in the implementation of
natural regeneration:1. Institutional failures by the Forestry Department to supervise felling;2.
Lack of training for loggers;3. Death of suckers from late forest fires as a result of lack of
early burning;4. Seed bearing trees are not reserved. Artificial regeneration is also not
practised in natural forests and cutting cycles are not followed due to non-existent of
management plans.

5.13.2Charcoal and the national economy

The scale of the industry can be assessed from two different aspects: production and
consumption. Charcoal sales appear to provide easy cash income which is translated into
other livelihood assets such as farming implements and inputs. Production of charcoal is on
the increase throughout the country including all the rural areas, district and provincial
centres. Production can be estimated through the number of treescut, which is difficult
because of poor record keeping and monitoring. or indirectly from the number of people
involved which changes every day, from the statistics kept by the Department of Forestry
for the forest estate where a licence is required to exploit the trees. Little is known about
exploitation outside it. Unlicenced production varies from one area to another and can range
from 10 to 90 percent of the total production ( Ng’uni, 2013:10;DNR, 1980, 1982 ).
.
The demand for transportation and marketing of charcoal nationwide is high. It is
estimated that about trucks, usually old and not road worthy, are regularly involved in the
transportation of charcoal. The annual requirement for fuel to transport charcoal in terms of

58
amounts of dieselor petrol is very high.. Even so, as a proportion of total consumption of
petroleum products, charcoal transportation accounts for a small percentage. In terms of
income and employment generation, the charcoal industry is one of the most important
industries in Zambia. It is estimated that charcoal production provides full-time employment
for many tens of people in rural areas to produce charcoal, several thousands are involved in
transporting to the markets using various modes of transport – on foot, bicycle, scotch cart ,
cars, small and large trucks, and several thousands are employed in marketing and
distribution( Ng’uni, 2013:10).
In the areas along the line of rail,provincial centres andall districts, due to a rapidly
growing urban population, consumption of tree stocks has reached the point where it has
exceeded the mean – annul increment in the local stocks and reserves. Along all major roads,
charcoal vending is on the increase, indicating alarming levels of the loss of forests. The deficit
which arises by harvesting stocks, in turn leads to the spread of deforestation to other regions
(Ng’uni, 2013:10). Making charcoal illegal— is a well-intentioned ban that would seek to
prevent deforestation, but one that is impractical as long as people need to find their own cheap
cooking fuel. According to Nianga (1990), estimates for charcoal production in Africa was put
at 223,350 tonnes – the equivalent 75,000 hectares of forest. Statistics for Zambia are given by
Chidumayo indicate that present consumption for every requirements was put at between 1.5
cubic metres per person in Africa as against 0.5 cubic metres for the Third World as a whole.
(Chidumayo, )
Finally, it is not only agriculture and charcoal production which are destroying the forest:
uncontrolled or poorly controlled commercial exploitation of timber is a major cause of
deforestation in Zambia's Western, Eastern and Southern provinces. Few of the profits reaped
from this activity --supported by the government-- benefit the local communities, given that there
are no timber industries worth talking about in those areas. All the money realized from timber
sales goes abroad or ends in Lusaka. Address the problem.
Despite significant investments in electrification, the majority of the population as in
other Sub-Saharan African countries, continues to rely on charcoal as their main source of
energy, particularly for cooking. Charcoal is the single largest source of household energy in
urban areas, as it is considered cheap and easy to transport on the head by foot, wheelbarrow,
bicycle or motor vehicle; distribute, and store. His amount of charcoal consumed is expected
to further rise in the coming years due to (a) rapid population growth; (b) continued
urbanization; and (c) relative price increases of fossil fuel-based alternative energy sources.
These trends will apply particularly to the urban centers in the country. Due to income
59
constraints, switching to alternative fuels will only be an option for better-off households, but
even among those economic groups, socio-cultural aspects will still result in the consumption
of charcoal, albeit it at a lower level ( Trade in fuelwood represents a source of income and
employment for many rural dwellers of theMiombo ecoregion. Campbell et al., (2008)
observed considerable trade networks of charcoalfrom rural areas to urban areas. As such, the
proximity to markets and accessible routes are asignificant factor in the harvesting levels and
the resulting impacts on the Miombo woodland structure and productivity (Malimbwi et al.,
2005; Ng’uni, 2013:10).
Charcoal production/consumption figures are difficult to estimate in developing
countries.The FAO estimates charcoal production using constant charcoal consumption.
Energy is an essential ingredient for socio-economic development and economic growth and
the provisions of energy services are pre-requisites for economic development and an
improved standard of living. A rapidly increasing population, increased urbanization, rapid
industrial and economic development and an increased drive towards rural development are
some of the factors responsible for the increase in energy consumption.The household sector
is the largest energy consumer in the economy, accounting for about 90% of the traditional
fuels, especially fuel wood,

In many developing countries, particularly in rural areas, traditional fuels, such as fuel
wood, charcoal and agricultural waste, constitute a major portion of total household energy
consumption [stressed that efficiency of a traditional fuel wood cooking stove is as low as 10
- 12 percent, compared.Since charcoal is marketed by volume (piles, sacks, etc.), a heavier
product gives consumers the impression of buying more. Although dense charcoal does
indeed hold more energy by volume, this is not the case by weight.(Ng’uni, 2013:10;Ranta,
1986)

In sum, government policies --and not "the poor"-- are at the root of deforestation in
Zambia. It was government policies that made people switch from sustainable shifting
cultivation to unsustainable "green revolution" crop production. High electricity tariffs have
pushed people to use charcoal instead of electricity. Government promotion of certain cash
crops --such as sunflower, soybeans and cotton-- has encouraged forth. Forest destruction.
The government thus needs to be made responsible, not only for the past and current
destructive process but, more importantly, for taking the necessary steps to combat
deforestation

60
Table 12: Mode of Transportation of Charcoal in Lusaka, Kabwe and Ndola in 1984..
This table has not been updated. Currently the statistics would read differently.

Type of
Ndola Kabwe Lusaka
Traffic Quantity Percentage Quantity Percentage Quantity Percentage
(in tones)
Human 29.4 0.5 10.6 0.4 0.4 0.0
Bicycle 740.5 12.5 109.8 4.0 73.7 0.8
Wheelbarrow 27.6 0.5 10.4 0.4 3.2 0.0
Ox cart 172.9 1.9 772.4 28.1 172.9 1.9
Motor vehicle5164 86.6 842.2 67.1 9162.5 973

Chidumayo: 1984 (These statistics have not been revised. In my view, they could be five
times or more at present)..
Table : Mode of Transportation of Charcoal in Lusaka, Kabwe and Ndola in 1994

Type of Traffic Ndola Kabwe Lusaka

997.0 tonnes 3,284 tonnes 2116 tonnes
Human 7.0 6.6 0.6
Bicycle 79.9 60.7 39.4
Wheel barrow 3.0 3.1 2.1
Ox cart - 7.3 21.3
Motor vehicle 10.1 8.3 50.6

(These statistics have not been revised. In my view, they could be five times or more at
present)..

Varaious Methods of transporting Charcoal

61
Charcoal being carried on bicycles

Charcoal carried on a scotch cart

62
Charcoal carried on old former army trucks

Table14: Distribution of households using charcoal/electricity by rural & urban 2006-20

URBAN AREAS RURAL AREAS

Use of Charcoal in the Urban and Rural Areas
Source: LCMS ),2006 -2010

63
5.14. Over grazing
Zambia has on average a total herd of livestock of slightly over 2 million animals but
varies annually mainly due to animal mortality. The issue of over-grazing and deforestation
in Zambia depends on the type of management practices such as no rotational grazing, no
supplementary feeding system, no control of animal numbers according to carrying capacity
of the land and concentrating grazing pressure in localised pastoral areas. The potential
available pastureland is estimated at 10 million ha and only 2.7 million ha is available for dry
season grazing (NCS, 1985). Dry season grazing is concentrated in dambos and flood plains.
The potential grazing land gives a carrying capacity of 15 ha per animal as opposed to 5 ha
per animal at the present use. Most of the animal concentrations are in Regions I and II and
most of the grazing is free-range on communal areas. The concentration of grazing effort in
localised areas without a controlled range management system has resulted in over-
grazing.There is noticeable evidence of this phenomenon in Lusitu in Southern Province,
Katete(Kagoro) in Eastern Province and Luangwa in Lusaka Province.

Over grazed areas are bare with signs of gully formations and thus inducing lots of
soil erosion. The reasons for overgrazing and soil erosion are that: i.Too many animals on a
piece of land leading to over-grazing and trampling; ii. causing compaction whose aggregates
results into soil erosion; and iii..Young bushes and trees are destroyed through browsing.
Goats are particularly destructive in this respect, leaving the land devoid of vegetation**
(Kalyocha, 2000).

In the affected provinces, there have been some gradual deterioration in pastoral
resource base in localised areas linked to over-grazing and eventual soil erosion. The low
productivity and deaths of livestock reported in Eastern, Lusaka and Southern Provinces
(Section 2.3: Veterinary Department Annual Reports) could be attributed to disease, poor
management and range land degradation. This leads to a decline in theanimal productivity of
range land vegetation** (NCS, 1985)..

The problem of over-grazing has also been observed in wildlife areas, especially in
the Luangwa Valley due to high densities of elephants in the 1970s. (Caughley, 1975)
andhippos in the Luangwa River stretch (Kalyocha, 2000; Jachmann, 1994).. Due to
highconcentrations of the elephant populations in the 1970s, this exerted high
browsingpressure on the vegetation, particularly Mopane woodland and large areas were left
64
bare.With drought and the impact of fire, most of these areas have not regenerated and
haveremained bare or have been converted into grasslands (Ibid). The increase
inconcentrations of hippos in the Luangwa River (Central Luangwa Valley) in densities
ofover 40 animals per km river stretch in recent years has been observed to correlate withthe
elephant ‘problem’ but in turn is also causing grazing pressure on the riverine
areas(Jachmann, 1994). Signs of grazing pressure in form of soil compaction due to
trampling, erosion hills and gullies are evident in the Luangwa. Due to nutritional stress as a
result of habitat degradation in hippos, the reproductive rate is delayed, and the animals are
susceptible to high mortality when there is a disease outbreak, particularly anthrax(LIRDP
1996, Annual Report).

5.16. Gathering of Honey

Miombo Woodland is also the most important source of nectar for honey. Honey is
collected from the wild. Honey hunters find feral hives by observing bees or following the
greater honey guide (Indicator indicator), Ing’uni in Bemba, in the forest. Bees are subdued
by the use of fire and smoke when cutting open holes or felling trees when collecting the
honey. The collection and use of honey produced both by Apis sp., called ubuchi, andby
several species of Trigona bees. Various ethnic groups use bee brood as food. Three kinds of
hive are recognized: honeycombs, the beepupae, and the royal jelly. The honeycombs and bee
pupae are boiled tomake beeswax which is used to make varieties of candles, floor and
furniture polish, medicines and to condition animal skins onthe traditional drums. It is also
used to seal leaks on gourds in which beer isfermented is kept,earthenware pots, leaking
boats, and on horns from a variety of small and medium-sized animals which are used for
cupping (Kokwe, 2004)..
Honey is an important source of sugar for rural people who use it to sweeten their food
such as sample, porridge, boiled cassava and sweet beer (umunkoyo). Honey is also used tobrew a
portent local liquor called imbote. Honey is produced by honey bees and stored in hollowed tree
trunks andtermite mounds;the royal jelly is eaten in its raw form, mixed with pounded maize
ormade into a portent wine called imbote. It is also sold or bartered for grain. The larvae may be
eaten with the honey, orthey may be extracted, fried and consumed as relish with the main
meal.Bee keeping is centuries-old tradition. Many areas of Zambia have a long tradition in
beekeeping traditional bark-hive beekeeping for centuries. They make bark cylinderbee-hives that
they put up trees in which wild bees colonies. The samewild bees also nest in tree trunks and
termite mounds. Honey is readily available from May to December, scarce in January, lacking
65
from Februaryto April In areas where bees are plentiful, their value is appreciated, and the
collectors take care not to remove all the honey, so as to ensure the return of the swarm... In a
national perspective, the biggest single threat to beekeeping is deforestation.
Honey is found in a variety of trees. Someare short, some are of medium height, and
others tall. Where honey is located in tall trees, if the hunter cannot climb the tree and reach the
hive, it involves in most cases, the cutting down of host tree. In North western and western
Provinces which has a strong tradition of bee-keeping, the use of bark hives from the Brachysteia
Miombo species, results in extensive damage to the trees. The Department of Forests estimates
that up to above 435,000 trees are destroyed each year. In addition saplings are also destroyed by
tearing off bark strips for cordage used in bee hive making and in other activities in the village
like making roofs, mats, fish traps and other activities.56
In early 2003, the USAID- supported Zambia Agribusiness Technical Assistance Centre
(ZATAC) provided assistance to a “Smallholder Export Organic Honey Project” in Mwinilunga
District in Zambia’s poorest province, the North Western Province. ZATAC’s approach of
providing marketing, technical and financial linkages between producers and agribusinesses paid
off very quickly in the sub-sector. Approximately 3,000 honey farmers were trained through
ZATAC support in proper procedures in honey production, honey harvesting, and handling of
certified organic honey for export. In less than a year, the certified organic honey being exported
from North Western Province leaped from 50 tons to 180 tons, a 260% jump. This exponential
rise in volume has now successfully placed Zambian organic honey on the world organic honey
map. Over this period to come, it is estimated that households engaged in organic honey
production increased their annual income by 40 to 100 percent. In addition to increased income,
the rise of the honey market is slowly giving way to another positive development: strong focus
by the rural communities on forest conservation. This is a success story that is rapidly bringing
supplemental income and hope to many in Mwinilunga. ZATAC support at all levels (farm,
cooperative and commercial company) has enabled not only processors and exporters of honey in
North-Western Province, but also resource-poor households to take part in this economic activity
to sustainably boost beekeeping can be a lucrative income-generating activity which is an
important reason for promoting it. Although annual incomes between $200 and $1000 are
sometimes quoted, there are a number of things to take into account when looking at income
generation from beekeeping which makes quantifying the profitability extremely difficult.For
instance:(i)The skill of the beekeeper is of major importance; (ii).Some places are more suitable
for beekeeping than others; (iii).Honey harvests can vary from year to year; (iv)Poor colonization
and absconding must be taken into account; (v).Some species and races of bees are more
66
productive than others; (vi)The scale of the activity is critical to the amount of money generated;
(vii) The costs that beekeepers will incur in establishing the activity; viii).The value of any
environmental benefits such as increased crop pollination of better forest production should also
be taken into account.

The financial input for beekeeping using top-bar hives or frame hives is high. The
average extra harvest, the difficulties of colonisation and the risks of absconding do not
usually justify the initial investment. Some projects seek to reduce the costs by subsidising
these hives in some way. However, one important question has to be answered, "Can a
farmer continue improved beekeeping in the long run completely without outside financial
aid?" If the answer is 'no' the project is not supporting an economic undertaking and is
unlikely to be sustainable.

A beekeeping programme can focus on improving traditional beekeeping. In the

flagship North West Bee Products enterprise, 95 perecent of the honey is harvested from bark
hives located in the Miombo forests of Zambia and it easily meets international standards. It
is important that harvesting and handling is carried out carefully to ensure the honey is not
contaminated or adulterated after cropping. Beekeepers are trained to select high quality
combs that can be sold and separate them from the lower quality ones for home consumption
or local sale. They extract honey from the comb at home using simple equipment such as
cloths, buckets and sieves and clean and care for harvesting equipment to make sure the
extraction process does not permit any contamination of the honey.

One of the most frequently asked question is about sending honey for export into the
European Union. It is rarely worthwhile trying to tap into European markets if a reasonable
local market is available. The commodity prices for honey are not normally high enough to
be more profitable than local or regional markets, especially after investment costs have been
deducted. The costs of complying with European residue monitoring legislation are very
significant. In addition, a minimum consignment would be a container load which would be
around 18 tonnes of bulk honey and this relatively small amount would only be viable if
specialist Fair Trade or Certified Organic marketing schemes were accessed. These also incur
significant annual compliance costs. Before entering on this kind of investment it would be
essential to finding a reliable buyer within the EU.

67
 Local markets may be expanded by gaining a supermarket contract or seeking out
higher value shop outlets. Frequently, there is a lively regional demand for honey while Asian
and Middle Eastern markets are frequently easier to access the US or EU markets and may be
worth investigating through local business people with connections into these communities.
Entry into any large scale market will require a means of ensuring high quality honey free
form dirt, contamination or adulteration while small quantities of honey will need bulking or
consolidation of honey into larger quantities so a reliable supply can be made available
throughout the year. A reliable supplier offering high quality honey that they can guarantee is
pure, wholesome and clean will win customers who continue to return to buy more honey...

5.17. Collecting Mushrooms

Where the forest remains, it provides a variety of mushrooms which are an important
relish during therains and a substantial amount are sold in small and large markets and along the
highways. Some varieties of mushrooms are dried for use later in the year. In the deforested areas
thetree-associated mushrooms disappear, except those symbiotic with termitespecies (mainly
Termitomyces spp.), which remain important. The Miombo forest region is a valuable food
resource,mushrooms.. Fungi need moistureand suitable organic foods to flourish. Habitat type,
rainfall levels andseasons determine where different fungi occur. Some grow in grass, otherson
wood, termite mounds and many only close to certain trees. In SouthernAfrica, the majority of
mushrooms as well as other fungi, are confined tothe wetter central , southern and eastern
regions. Mushrooms appear aftera day or two after rain, and the first rains of the season usually
produce themost abundant and varied crop In the deforested areas the tree-associatedmushrooms
disappear, except those symbiotic with termite species (mainlyTermitomyces spp.) which remain
important(.Chileshe . 2005;. Mutamba. 2008).
In various parts of Zambia, between 20 and 60 species of fungi havebeen identified.
Some edible providing a lot of food for the people inthe rainy season. A lot of these are sold fresh
along the highways andin markets.. Some species are boiled and dried in the sun for later useor
sell at the markets. Among these are: Blusher (Amanita rubescenes,Amanita Zambiana); White
Parasol(Macroleptota zeyberi); SmoothParasol( Leucoagricus leucotbites) ;Field mushroom
(Agaricus Campestris);Noble Mushrooms( Agaricus nobilis); Beefsteak Mushroom
(Termitomyces); Oyster Mushroom(Pleurotus ostreatus); Chanterelle (Cantbarellus
Kongisporus);Cep (Boletus edulus); Popular mushroom; Popular Bolete –(Leccinum
duriusculum), and Splitgill-(Schiuzophyllum communbe) grows on dead wood to name a few.

68
 Many varieties of mushrooms are collected in the rainy season.They vary in size and
colour as well as in concentrations in the areas wherethey propagate. Some are densely located in
a given area, others are lightand sparse covering a large area. Some prefer sandy soils, others
loom orclay on the anthills and termites. Some last only for a few hours and eatenby snakes, wild
animals and a variety of insects. Others are scattered overa wide area and can last a few days.
Some are of a bigger size and attractpoisonous snakes and should be approached with care.
During the dry season, there are species that grow on dead wood.These are collected, boiled and
mixed with roasted groundnuts, pounded into a powder or paste, are added to make a rich thick
sauce.
Some mushrooms have medicinal properties used in curing a number of diseases.
However,some mushroom species contain saponin – a very strong poison and are therefore,
fatally dangerous to those who eat them. Each year a number of people die fromeating poisonous
and dangerous mushroom species which when consumedeven in small quantities can, in three to
six hours, lead to the degeneration ofinternal organs, the liver and kidneys and the harming of the
nervoussystem. Death Cap is the cause of 90 percent of all mushroom fatalities...
5.18. Edible tubers and Roots
Some identified roots and tubers are eaten as food during periods famine or drought.
Many collect very strong poison similar to cyanide and need to be boiled for a long time to
reduce the concentration of the poison content. In some areas, tubers store enough water to
provide drinking water to the quench thirst of a number of people. Across most of tropical
Central Africa, communities have, traditionally, relied on some edible roots, tubers and rhizomes
gathered from forests (or fallow lands) to tide them through famines.
5.19. Collecting of Caterpillars
Miombo and Chipya woodlands produce many edible caterpillars which are eaten by
many ethnic groups in Zambia The great Miombo woodlands and forest region have a
peculiarlyvaluable food resource, caterpillars. The richest forest type for caterpillar gathering is
Julbernardia paniculata forest, followedby Burkea africana/Erythrophleum africanum forest.
Edible caterpillars which feed on J. paniculata are thought to have a better taste than others. If a
larvawith several host plants, one of which is J. paniculata, is found on oneof the other hosts, it
may be moved to J. paniculata for a few days before harvest. The most important family is
theAmong the most popular are the Elephrodes lacteal and Saturniidae, caterprillars which feed
on the Miombo foliage.Edible caterpillars(Cerina forda), locally called (ifishimu, ifinkubala, or
Mumpa) are a highlyappreciated food and. They provide between 12 and 31 varieties of
edibleinsects that are eaten in some parts of Zambia. Caterpillars swarm atdifferent periods in
69
different districts during the wet season from Octoberto April. They are obtainable everywhere.
In some districts, caterpillars arethe most important single source of nutrients during the hunger
months fromNovember to February and make a considerable contribution to the animalprotein of
this diet. There is a great inter-annual fluctuation in caterpillarpopulations.

Mainly the women who search for them during the appropriate seasonwhile the men are
busy with cultivation of the land harvest caterpillars. Attime, they also go and collect caterpillars
in the afternoons or even forwhole day. If caterpillars that are not yet mature are found, a piece of
bark orcloth is tied around the tree to establish ownership of the insects. If the hosttree is far from
her home, a woman will collect the immature caterpillarsand transfer them to a tree nearer her
home. In good caterpillar areas, a family can collect as many as fourstandard six-tin bags of
caterpillars a day. They are prepared for the market and sold at beer halls. Some families make a
fairly good living fromselling caterpillars. The increasing demand for caterpillars in thegrowing
towns and attendant rising prices and cash payment has decreasedthe occurrence of regional
bartering.The main harvest method is to shake the tree so the larvae fall to theground, or to
transfer larvae to a tree closer to home. In areas of the district, a considerable amount of
deforestationoccurs. Trees are cut down to enable the collects to pick the caterpillars. Thefelling
of trees or cutting of branches for caterpillar harvest varies from areato area.Often, to accelerate
the rate of collecting caterpillars, trees are cut down. Where trees are gregarious, clearings up to
two hectares may be made during the collection of caterpillars. This has had obvious impact on
the Miombo woodland and has resulted in extensive deforestation in Ndola Rural, Kabwe rural,
Mumbwa, Serenje, Mansa, Samfya, Kawambwa, Mpika, Isoka and Kasama. The loss is
estimated to be in the range of 31 hectares per annum (DNR, , 1978; Anon,1965: 1. Mwansa,
1965: 16-7; Chidumayo 1988: 17-18 ).

For preparation, a caterpillar is held between the fingers of one handwhile the other hand
is used to forcefully push the head into the body, thuseliminating the ingesta through the anus. An
experienced collector canprocess up to a bag of caterpillars per day. The caterpillars are washed,
thenboiled in salt water. For storage they are dried in the sun and can then bestored for three to
six months. Because of the high content of unsaturated fatty acids, caterpillars, like other insects,
cannot be stored longer using the traditional methods of curing. These edible caterpillars are
harvested in great quantities in certainareas, and sold dried in the urban markets. It is mainly the
women whopick the caterpillars. Of the 14 ethno species reported as commonly consumed in the
past, allbut one has decreased in abundance and some are now very rare. Baribangofeeds on J.
70
globiflora and Bauhinia thonningii but while the former hasdecreased as a result of deforestation,
the latter invades agricultural and otherdisturbed land and is still abundant.The caterpillars are
extremely nutritious with 60-70 percent protein ona dry matter basis, becoming available at a
period when other high-protein foods are becoming scarce; Fat 5.0 7.9 percent; Carbohydrate
0 .0 percent; Calcium0.16 percent; Phosphorus 0.77percent; and Iron7.3 (mg/100 g) (Mbata,
1995).
When properly dried, the caterpillars can be stored a long period which could extend to
many months..Caterpillar husbandry on a communal basis could probably increase theproduction
of this valuable foodstuff very much if properly managed.Another fascinating aspect is that they
might be used to reduce the number of late bush-fires, the reason being that in areas where the
caterpillars arefound people make sure they burn early because late bush-fires destroythe
caterpillars. In areas where the caterpillars are not found late fires doconsiderable damage by
killing trees, lengthening the regeneration periodand increasing the damage caused by erosion.
Since these caterpillars arefound only in certain areas, they could be spread to new areas to
givepeople there a good reason for early burning.

Although insect populations dependent on woodland, such as most caterpillars, are

diminishing in dietary importance, other insect populationsare increasingly important, particularly
those favoring arable and disturbedground. Of four species now widely marketed, there are two in
each category,two species of caterpillars, a cricket and a katydid.

The decline in insect populations in general, is imminent as the result ofecological changes
involving bush clearance for settlement and agricultureand the consequent disappearance of many
indigenous trees and grasses onwhich the insects feed, and secondly as the result of the use of
insecticidesDeforestation, for example, leads to dramatic losses in edible caterpillarsand fungi.
Yet the grasslands and the fields that replace them support somedifferent types of caterpillars,
more grasshoppers and crickets, and moregrazing mammals, including buck, rodents.

71
 The gathering of flying ants and caterpillars is a seasonal activity, as these products
are usually collected in November and December and restricted to certain areas (Jumbe,
Bwalya, and Husselman 2007). Given the restricted nature of ants/caterpillars to certain
areas, it is not surprising that some provinces (Eastern, Lusaka, Southern and Western) had
no households deriving income from this source. It is clear that ants/caterpillars were most
common in North western, followed by Luapula, Copperbelt, Northern, and to a lesser extent
Central Provinces. Collecting ants/caterpillars is one of the main economic activities in these
provinces. After collection, most traders take their products to large urban markets, for
example Lusaka, or sell them along roadsides to capture motorists and travellers along the
road. North western Province had highest percentage (11 percent) of Non-Timber Forest
Products-dependent households deriving income fromants/caterpillars.
.
5.20. Collecting wild fruits
The seasgonal contribution of forest foods is especially important. Fruits improve the
nutritional content of the staple foods and the nutritional status especially in times of food
shortages and emergencies and have long been used for a long time to supplement dietary
needs. Varieties of wild fruitsare collected when in season and eaten orsold fresh along the
highways and in markets. Fruits contain vital nutrients and essential vitamins such as Vitamin
C, fat, fiber and carbohydrates which are important especially to young children. Who often
suffer from malnutrition and related diseases?(Wheeler, 1966Wheeler, A S, (1966), Wild
fruits contribute greatly to diet quality rather than quantity. Another important characteristic

72
of some wild fruits is their storage capacity. One wild fruittree of the Southern African called
the Mongongo tree, Ricindendron rautaneii, provides an astonishingly nutritious nut, but the
thin, spongy, rather dry outer flesh is date-like, although not as sweet as a date. Even when
the flesh is dried and shriveled up, the crumbly flesh is nutritious. It's importance was that is
that it could be stored as a kind of dried fruit for many months. This fruit is compared to dates
in sweetness it is so full of sugar (chiefly sucrose). Native people sometimes pound the dried
pulp to a mealy flour, and mix it with wild grass seeds (Eleusine coracana, Pennisetum
typhoides) and then baked it into a sort of biscuit. This way the dried fruit and the grass seeds
can be stored in one energy dense, storable “packet”.
The wild fruits are constrained primarily by their perishability and poor storability.
One of the great dilemmas of fruit supply is that fruit have to be very firm to stand handling
and transport to the village or market. Some fruit are simply not as good when picked This is
particularly the case with Ricinodendron rautanenii kernels which are available for 4-5
months during the dry season (Peters, 1987). In northern Zambia a `hungry season' precedes
the first rains in November when the busiest time of field preparation and planting normally
begins. The fresh fruits of Uapaca kirkiana contribute significantly to diet during this period,
whilst the sale of fruit generates much needed cash for farm inputs and other
householdrequirements. The nuts and oil from the Mungongi Ricinodendron rautanenii tree
extremely important.However, there are significant differences between priority uses between
the Luchazi and Toka-Leya peoples of Zambia. The Luchazirespondents valued the tree most
highly for its medicinal purposes, and then in descending order of importance for furniture,
food and fishing equipment. However, amongst the Toka -Leya, the majority of respondents
indicated that fruit was the most important product from the treeProtein content of fruit
kernels is also high in indigenous species:Ricinodendron rautanenii contains 60 percent
protein as compared with 48-56 percent for groundnut Wild fruits are also good sources of
carbohydrate, calcium, magnesium and potassium (Chimbelu (1990)..

Wild fruits have long been valued as buffer food resources infamines and food
shortages. Thus fruits are consumed when they are mostplentiful and when they are most
needed .The production and processing of fruits are labour intensive and therefore save to
provide employment to a large segment of the population. A lot of people are involved in the
marketing and trading of fruits to earn income. Fruits, especially indigenous species are well
adapted and can ensure household food security during periods of natural disasters such as
droughts. Despite the diversity of forestfruits (at least in some regions), the three species

73
Diospyros mespiliformis,Strychnos cocculoides and Azanza garckeana are most popular.
They aregenerally consumed as snacks but in some households they are consumedin meals as
well. Though many of these species have some commercialvalue in their unprocessed forms
and usually find their way into urbanmarkets, their potential as industrial raw products is
largely unexploited In Zambia, there are over 120 wild fruits that produce edible fruits
seasonally that provide human beings and wildlife with vital nutrients.Storrs has identified
about 41 fruit trees spread throughout Zambia. Among these are the popular Masuku fruit
from Uapaca Kirkiana and Mpundu (Parinari curatellifollia) which come in season from
October to December. Fruits ripen and drop to the ground from where they are collected.
Others remain on the tree to await collection by man or wild Sometimes fruit trees are cut
down to allow easier collection of the fruit.(Hans,1985:101-111), `Peters, 1987, 494-
502;’(1987:38-44)
The indigenous fruit species are collected from the wild and are largely underutilized.
Though many of these species have some commercial value in their unprocessed forms and
usually find their way into urban markets, their potential as industrial raw products is largely
unexploited. Little work has been done towards their improvement, domestication or
conservation. Some of the fruit species may be endangered making their conservation a matter of
urgency. Recently, a national fruit tree and plantation crops working group was formed to advice
on the conservation of these crops. The fruit crop working group has determined factors to be
considered in the conservation of indigenous fruit species. These factors include: level of genetic
variation, genetic erosion, economic value, social value, potential for domestication, ease of
propagation, nutritional value and extent of usage and cultivation. Many of the fruits are reserves
of food during seasonal shortages andfamines. A variety of products can be obtained from the
wild fruits: oil,vinegar, dyes, jelly, and wine, paste and sweeteners. A variety of alcoholicand
non-alcoholic drinks are made from the flesh of the fruits. Due toextensive urbanization, wood
collection, charcoal burning and commercialfarming, the fruit trees are under threat.Little work
has been done towards their improvement, domesticationor conservation. Some of the fruit
species may be endangered making theirconservation a matter of urgency. A national fruit tree
and plantation cropsworking group was formed to advice on the conservation of these crops.

Factors considered inthe conservation of indigenous fruit species include level ofgenetic
variation, genetic erosion, economic value, and social value, potentialfor domestication, ease of
propagation, nutritional value and extent ofusage and cultivation

74
Table 13: Some indigenous Fruits and their Uses:Indigenous fruit species in Zambia.
Species Part used Common name
Fruit

Anisophyllea boemii Eaten fresh, jam Mufungo (B)

Annona benegalensis Mulofo (B)
Azanza garckeana Eaten raw, relish Makole (T)
Balanites aegytiaca Drink Mukelete (L,T)
Bauhinia petersiana
Berchemia discolor Eate Eaten raw, Mwiyi (T)
porridge
Borassus aethiopum Whole fruit
Bridelia micrantha Edible fruit, dye
Cordyla Africana Wild mango (E)
Dialium engleranum Fruit pulp Muhamani (T,L)
Diosypyros mespiliformis Eaten fresh
Diosypros kirkii Eaten raw Nchenja(B,T))
Ekebergia banguelensis Edible
Garcinia livigstonei Eaten raw, Mutungwa (L,T),
porridge Mpule (N)
Garcinia huillensis Eaten raw Nsongwa (B)
Grevia flavescens Fruit pulp Namulomo (L)
Guipourtia coleosperma Seed eaten or Muzauli (L)
used as oil
Hexalobus monopetalus Eaten raw Mkandachembele
(N)
Hyphaene ventricosa Wine or spirit Buttons, Kakunka (T),
bronches Munganda (L)
Lannea stuhlmannii Whole spirit Seed kernels
Landolphia parvifolia Mabungo (B)
Lannea discolor Fruit pulp
Mimusops zeyheri Fruit pulp
Ochana pulchra Flesh Cooking oil
Parinari curatellifolia Eaten raw, cooked Seed as oil Mupundu (N)

Mubula (T,L)
Parinari capensis Eaten raw Kernels, rosted Sand apple (E),
Mubulabula (L)
Parkia filicoidea Pods Floury sheath African locust
bean (E), Musepa
(B)
Piliostigma thonnigi Pods
Ricinodendron rautanenii Fruit pulp Nuts Mungongo (L)
Sclerocarya birrea Eaten raw Kernels eaten Cider tree
(E),
Muyombo

75
 (L),
Msewe
(N)
Strychnos innocua Fruit pulp Elephant orange
(E), Muhuluhulu
Strychnos pungens Fruit pulp Muhwahwa (L)
Strychnos spinosa Fruit pulp Muhuluhulu (L)
Syzygium cordatum Eaten raw
Syzygium guineense Eaten raw Mufinsa (B),
Mutoya (L)
Tamarindus indicus Pulp Tamarind (E),
<Tamarindus indicus Musiika (T)
Trichilia emetica Oil used to
make soap
Uapaca kirkiana Eaten Masuku (T,B,N)
Uapaca sansibrica Eaten raw
Vangueriopsis lanciflora Eaten raw Mbubu (T),
Mumonsomonso
(L) wild metler
(E)

Ximeniaamerica Pulp eaten raw Mabona (N),

Mutende (L)
Ziziphus mauritiana Eaten raw Masau (T)

Vangueriopsis lanciflora Eaten raw Imfilu

Eaten raw Misafwa
Eaten raw Ndebelebe
Eaten raw Kasongole
Adasonia digitata Drink, porridge, snack Roasted and eaten Baobab (E)

Anisophyllea boemii Eaten fresh, jam Mfungo

Garckeana Eaten raw, Makole
Garcinia huilensis Eaten raw Nsongwa
Uapaca kirkiana Eaten raw, Masuku Wine Masuku
Parinari curatellifolia Eaten raw, Seed as oil Mpundu
Landolphia parvifolia Eaten raw Mabungo
Diosypros kirkii Eaten raw Nchenja
Parkia filicoidea Pods Floury sheath African locust bean Musepa

76
Note: B = Bemba, E = English, L = Lozi, N = Nyanja and T = Tonga Source:D.S. Mingochi,
Review of the Status of Fruit Research in Zambia, World Conference on Horticultural
Resarach, 17 -20 June 1998.Chimbelu, E G, (1990), `Developing Zambian Tree Resources
through Community Needs andValues, in Utilising Local Resources for Development, G
Lungwangwa (ed), Proceedings of the 9th PWPA Conference, Zambia, 1988; ames Packham,
The Value of Fruit-Bearing Trees in South Central Africa, RDFN Paper, 15c ( Summer 1993)
;Festus K. Akinnifesi1, T. Chilanga1 and F. Kwesiga, 1Wild Loquat Uapaca kirkiana (Müell)
Arg. Family Euphorbiaceae 97International Centre of Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF),
SADC-ICRAF Agroforestry Project, Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box
30798,Lilongwe, Malawi (Author for correspondence; [email protected] ). ICRAF
Southern Africa Regional

.
5.21.Vegetal materials
A wide range of indigenous wild vegetables are available in all parts of Zambia. Many of
these are rich in vitamins, essential minerals and oils. Young tender leaves of some identified
shrub species are collected, pounded, cooked into a slimy substance (Umulembwe) and eaten as
relish. Some of the leaves are dried and stored for later use.
5.22.Herbal or traditional medicine
Forests are important sources of herbal or traditional medicines tocure a variety of
diseases and ailments. The use of herbal or traditionalmedicines is an integral part of Zambian
culture and source of medical therapy because the peoplebelieve and rely on its potency.
Traditional medicine refers to healthpractices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating
plant, animaland mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques andexercises,
applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose andprevent illnesses or maintain well-
being. 25 percent of modern medicines aremade from plants first used traditionally. In Zambia,
the first line oftreatment for 60 percent of children with high fever resulting from malarias the use
of herbal medicines at home. A variety of traditional medicines are traded locally and in urban
areas and a substantial amount is exported to the neighbouring countries. Some of the species
used in medical practices are overexploited leading to a form of deforestation(Bradley & Dewees,
1993; Brigham et al., 1996)..
5.23.Roots used to ferment drinks
Some roots of shrubs are dug used to produce a sweet drink (Umunkoyo). These roots are also
sold in markets. The rate of extraction has increased over the years. Some of these roots are
transported over long distances to the market.
5.24. Edible nuts
A number of tree species such as the Mungongo (Riconodendron rautaneni)and Mupundu
produce nuts which are important sources of food for human beings and livestock such as cattle,

77
wild animals such as elephants, antelopes and rodents. Oil from the fruit is used as a cosmetic in
some parts of the rural areas..
5.25..Fodder.
A wide variety of tree species and shrubs are used as fodder for livestock.
5.26. Farming and resettlement Schemes
From the 1980s, Zambia has been facing economic problems as a result of the decline in
copper production. The government has tried in several ways to diversify the economy to
improve the level of the agriculture sector. Among the efforts made are the establishment of rural
resettlement centres and schemes to absorb and cater for the unemployed youths, retirees and
those retrenched; Lima programme to increase food production in the villages etc. In addition
large blocks of land have been set aside for commercial agriculture. All these programmes have
resulted in large tracks of land being cleared of trees and land being cleared of trees and forests.
May of these have been burnt or transformed into charcoal (Chidumayo, 1987:17-18, 22-24).
5.27 .Environmental Problems
The main environmental problems that affect Zambia today include land degradation,
air pollution especially in mining areas, water pollution and inadequate sanitation, wildlife
depletion and deforestation. These problems when combined lead to biodiversity loss.
5.28, Establishment of New Settlements
Deforestation is also caused by in-migrations in some areas that are forested and
sensitive to degradation. Out-migrations from Southern Province into Lusaka Province due to
shortage of arable land is causing areas to be opened up for new settlements. A case inpoint is
the area from Chongwe to Rufunsa where new immigrants from SouthernProvince have been
settled in the margins of the Lower Zambezi National Park(Kalyocha, 1997). About 400 ha
have been deforested by new settlements and there have been cultivations in the National
Park.(Kalumba, 1997). In addition in all district and provincial centres, new unplanned illegal
settlements have sprung up contributing to a rapid
529 Timber
Trees, have, in many ways, played a very important role in the industrial and economic
development of the country. Some species were extensively exploited and used in a variety of
ways which facilitated construction and building or operating of economic unit. This has, in
some cases, resulted in the deforestation of parts of the country. In the south west of Zambia,
teak of the Baikiaia species namely called Mukushi and Mukwa were from 1902 when small
scale mining started, extensively logged and cut in various lengths and thickness are used for
construction, flooring, railway sleepers, making of furniture and in underground mining. And in
78
areas to the north, especially on the Copperbelt, and the North-western part of the country,
Branchystegia – Julbernaldia and Isoberlinia species were from the 1920s, cut for timber used in
the mines as well as for fuel in the smelting of copper (ZCCM Achieves,
KHB/73;Nzila,1991;Nkhata,1991).
The contribuition of the forests in Zambia has grown over the years. Forests and forest
products contribute about 3.7 percent to zambia’s Gross Domestic Product and has created over a
million jobs in plantation forests, multiple –use forests and wood processing. Forestry products
are now being exported all over the world forming 14 percent of the manufacturing exports from
Zambia. Thisis bound to increase with the lifting of the ban on timber exports(kayula, 2013:11)
In 1955, the Rhodesia-Congo Border Timber Company Limited was formed by the
Mining Companies to exploit timber on the Copperbelt which was estimated at about 7 million
cubic metres. Some of the timber was treated and when used for underground work, lasted up to
about twenty years. Untreated timber has a much shorter life of about three years. In other areas
species such as Pterrocarpus angolensis (Mubanga) Aftelia quantanzesis (Mupapa) andFaura
saligna (Saninga or Kaimbi) were exploited for timber (Dobney,.60

Based on ZFAP a new National Forest Policy was formulated in 1998 aimed at
establishing rational and sustainable protection, management, production and utilization of
forest resources. Moreover for supporting this forest policy, a new Forest Act was enacted in
1999. The principles of the Policy are as follows: (i) Trees am important to environmental
preservation, ecosystem conservation and sustainablesocio-economic development; (ii) There
is an inseparable relationship between humans, trees and land; (iii) There in need to create
responsible partnerships, with gender equity, among stakeholders in forestry activities, to
ensure the permanence and stability of forests; (iv) There is need to combine scientific and
indigenous knowledge in the management and utilization of the forest resources; and (v)
There is need for enhanced private sector participation in forestry development. Furthermore
the Policy is expected to address the following four main areas: (i) Resource management and
development;_ Enhancement forest resources management; Security of forest estates;
Expansion of plantations; Ecosystem conservation; Agro-forestry; Forestry research and
extension;(ii) Resource utilization; Securing of sustainable utilization of such products as
timber, wood fuel and other products; than wood;(iii) Capacity building: Capacity building
of stakeholders by means of human resource development an institutional/structural reform;
and (iv) Gender equality: Securing the gender equality in decision making, extension, training
and fund raising; Building of women’s organizations.

79
 In February 2012, Mauri Kiviniemi, a Finnish timber expert expressed concern at the
high rate of deforestation in Zambia and noted that there was an urgent need to invest in the
local timber industry if it was to contribute effectively to the development of the Zambian
economy. He called for swift action to address the situation and also observed that the
dwindling timber resources, especially in state managed forests was equally worrying and
needed huge investments to replenish them. He said the mushrooming of illegal timber
dealers has greatly contributed to the dwindling of timber resources generally. "The rate of
deforestation in Zambia is worrying and needs to be addressed quickly if the local timber
industry is to be sustained. This also applies to state managed forests which needs huge
investments,". He appealed to the Zambian private sector to take interest in the development
and sustainability of the local timber industry by investing massively in the replenishing of
dwindling forest resources. He went on to explain that the forests were strategic to Zambia's
socio-economic development and needed to be managed properly. The timber sector also has
potential to create hundreds of jobs especially for the rural population and help to reduce high
poverty levels.He called on the Government to expand the monitoring system in order to
check illegal activities going unabated in the sector.He warned that failure to put in place a
strong monitoring system, will result in the country turning into a major importer of timber
and other related products in future.Aggressive deforestation has reduced the number of trees
and this has affected the level of rainfall in some areas like the Southern Province affecting
the perennial flow of many rivers which have now become seasonal rivers only during the
rainy season. In the dry season,the rivers l dry up destroying a major ecological system in the
process and adversely affecting the provision of water for domestic use and for livestock and
where possible for irrigation.

Most of the wood energy is consumed by small-scale industries which include food
processingindustries and service sectors such as brewing, fish smoking, salt production, baking,
restaurants, schools, hospitals and food vending; agro-processing industries such as tobacco
curing, tea drying and beeswax processing; and production of building materials such as burnt
bricks, lime, smiths, foundries, pottery and ceramics. These industries and domestic activities
which rely upon wood energy provide employment and income for rural people particularly
during off-season in agricultural production (Monela and Kihiyo,1999).
The energy policy of 1997 stresses on development and use of indigenous energy sources
such as bioenergy, coal, natural gas and hydropower (URT, 1997). However, less than 2% of
energy development budget is allocated towood energy programmes, and fuel wood is still

80
regarded as a minor forest product with little market value (URT, 2001). Yet still, the majority of
wood fuel consumers cannot afford the high investment costs associated with alternative
commercial energy sources (Moyo et al., 1993). Availability, reliability of supply and cheaper
prices renders wood fuels more preferable than alternative sources of energy.Looking at the
present economic forces,
the majority of urban population will continue to depend on fuel wood for unforeseeable future
(Moyo et al., 1993; URT 1998; Luoga et al. 2000). Furthermore due to the anticipated steady
increase in population (at an annual growth rate 2.8%) it is expected that actual consumption of
firewood and charcoal will continue to rise to a greater extent. This will put stress on natural
forests from where the charcoal is obtained, possibly resulting in deforestation of the forest
ecosystems.Currently, little is known on the dynamics of charcoal production in terms of
ecological and socio-economic impacts.
Environmental Problems
The main environmental problems that affect Zambia today include land degradation, air
pollution especially in mining areas, water pollution and inadequate sanitation, wildlife
depletion and deforestation. These problems when combined lead to biodiversity loss
6.Impact of Deforestation
Deforestation — defined as the conversion of forested land to other uses, or a
permanent reduction of canopy cover — has attracted increasing international attention in
recent years (FAO, 2004). Deforestation is considered one of the priority environmental
problems in Zambia. In a recent article, Doreen Nawa (Zambia Daily Mail, 28 January, 2013)
observed that “Deforestation is one of Africa’s vexing problems, with tangible effects
ranging from soil erosion to contributing to climate change”. By definition, deforestation is
the widespread removal and disappearance of vegetative cover as a result of clearing of trees.
In Zambia, the average rate at which forests are deforested is calculated at 250,000-300,000
hectares per annum and the annual forest decrease factor is 0.5 percent on average (Nawa,
2013:10).Zambia lost an average of 166,600 ha or 0.32 percent per year. In total, between
1990 and 2010, Zambia lost 6.3% of its forest cover, or around 3,332,000 ha. The annual
decrease factor of forests by the province is as follows: Copperbelt and Lusaka have the
highest at 20percent per annum, followed by Southern (0.7percent), Central
(0.percent),Eastern (0.5percent), Luapula (0.5percent) and Northern (0.3percent). The least
are Western (0.2percent) and North Western (0.2percent). Deforestation is taking place both
in forest reserves and open areas (Nawa; Chambwera, 2004;Campbell et al., 2008;
Shackleton & Clarke 2007 ).

81
Types of deforestation

Deforestation is the product of the interaction of the many environmental, social,

economic, cultural, and political forces at work in any given region. Tree species suitable for
charcoal production have been depleted at the roadside and the average distance to charcoal
production sites has increased. Tree cover is worse today than ten years ago due to charcoal
production. These observations have wide policy implications, given the increased demand

82
for charcoal from the growing urban population with no reliable and affordable alternative
sources of energy. The mix of these forces varies from decade to decade, and from country to
country. As a consequence, generalizations are dangerous. In most cases, deforestation is a
process that involves a competition amongst different land users for scarce resources, a
process exacerbated by counter-productive policies and weak institutions. It creates wealth
for some, causes hardships for others, and almost always brings serious consequences for the
environment.
Management efforts appear to fail to halt the situation. These figures are, however,
conservative ones, as these estimates are based on the 1960s inventories and the rate of
deforestation could be higher at the present moment. Field observations show clear signs of
the problem the country is facing particularly around big urban settlements. Statistics from
isolated case studies based on analysis of land cover maps, satellite images and aerial
photography interpretation show that the problem is a serious one. Four percent (4percent) of
Siavonga District, for instance, is reported to be deforested (Kalyocha, 1997). Around
Lusaka, particularly in east Chongwe, forests have decreased on average at a rate of
3.2percent per annum between 1989 and 1998, with a highest rate of change of 8.8percent
occurring in Munga woodland (Kalyocha, 2000 after Chaposa, 1999).
Forests provide significant social and economic benefits to the communities in form of
forest goods and service. A wide range of forest products and services remain un documented and
unaccounted for at the local provincial and national levels. Forest management continues to
emphasise wood production for timber for local use and export and for making curios for the
tourist market. However, many countries have recognised the importance and role of forests in
the informal sector trade,(meeting the social needs for health, food and general livelihood
security), tourism and the fishing industries., conservation of the biodiversity and the
environmental services (soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and mitigation of
global warming). Forests and products also support agriculture and food production directly and
indirectly. Forest products range from wild plant-based fruits, leaves, oils, tubers, rhizomes to
mushrooms, insects, particularly of termites and caterpillars and of course, bush meat. While
some of these provide simple supplementation and support a small population, Others constitute
delicacies with a growing market potential in the rural and urban areas.

Like many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zambia is experiencing rapid

deforestation of her forests and woodlands. Different statistics are given to indicate the gravity of
the matter. One source, the Provincial Forest Action Plan for Zambia for 1998, indicated that on
83
average, the annual forest loss is between 250,000 and 300,000 hectares per year. Other studies
indicate an annual average of up to 850 hatters per annum between 1990 and 2000.
Statistics show that between 1990 and 2010, Zambia lost an average of 166,600 hectares or 0.32
per cent per year of its forest mainly due to deforestation resulting from charcoal burning (energy
requirements), unsustainable agricultural and land use practices such as mining andinfrastructure
development, and timber and non-timber forest products extraction

A case study carried out by the European Forest Institute in 2000 gave the following
figures: the annual rate of deforestation ranges from 250,000 to 900,000 hectares representing 0.5
to 2.0 percent of the country's forest area. The United Nations Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) in 2001 indicated that in 1990, the total forest cover was 39,755, 000
hectares. By 2000, it was reduced to 31, 346,000 hectares Resource Assessment Study of Zambia
in 2005, concluded that the average annual rate of defore4stastyion for Zambia was 467, 368
hectares or 467 square kilo0metres. This translates into 13 square kilometres of forest per day! A
Finnish study that came out in 2005, indicated that over nine years from 1994n to 2005, Zambia
lost 26 percent of its forest. . In recent years, this phenomenon has attracted both local and
international attention, involving politicians, academics and environmentalists. In a widely
publicized lecture on “The Challenges of Sub-Saharan Africa,” Robert MacNamara
(1989:9;GRZ/IUCNR,1987), the former President of the World Bank, observed that:
Throughout Africa , the physical resources that underpin the economy
Are being degraded. One sees dwindling forests, eroded soils and falling
Water tables … The loss of forest over cover is taking place in normally
Every country (Leading to the) depletion of wood supplies ……As the
Land is cleared of vegetation, soil erosion accelerates and more rainfall
Runs off to the ocean rather than seep into the earth. With less water
Retained in the land to be re-evaporated into the atmosphere, fewer clouds
Are recharged and rainfall declines. The diminishing rainfall, in turn
Dried out the landscape.
Speaking on this issue when he opened the headquarters of the United Nations
Environmental programme in Nairobi in 1974, former President Kaunda (Times of Zambia 7
July 1990 ) called on the Nations of Africa to “take a hard look …. at mismanaged …
resources such as destruction of vegetation cover by bush fires, the deliberate cutting of trees
and shrubs, deforestation unmatched by reforestation …” In July 1990, speaking when he
presented a bill n Environment Protection and Pollution Control, which paved the way
for the establishment of the Environment Council whose mandate was to protect the
environment and stem pollution, the then Minister of Lands and Natural Resources, Paul
Mulukutilainformed Parliament that deforestation was “taking place at an alarming rate
84
(with) over 300,000 hectares of tree cover … being covered every year through charcoal
burning and other related activities”.30 Other activities contributing to this phenomenon are
the collection of firewood, cutting of trees for charcoal, gathering of caterpillars, late burning
of grass, the cutting of trees for timber and clearing of virgin lands for commercial agriculture
and settlement schemes.Apart from other social and environmental impacts, the consequences
of this process are felt on water supplies, since forests regulate much of the catchment area of
the Zambezi river and are essential during the annual seven month long dry season. Each of
these, individual and collectively, is and are contributing to the problem of deforestation and
its off-shoots of soil erosion, land degradation and lowering of water tables. I will now
discuss each of these in detail.
6.1. Predisposing Conditions
Predisposing conditions are those factors which combine to create an environment
where deforestation can occur. They are conditions created by society, at times intentionally
and at times the consequence of human nature, that pervade all aspects of society and are not
just related to land use. They are some of the most systemic, most difficult issues that
frustrate human progress and sustainable development.Without a doubt, one of the most
important predisposing conditions that underlies tropical deforestation and many of the
world's other problems related to achieving sustainable development is our growing
population. Our numbers are currently growing at the rate of 1,000 million new individuals
every decade. In the last half of the 20th century, we will have more than doubled our
numbers from 2,500 million to 6,000 million people (WRI, 1994). Most of the population
increase is occurring in developing countries, those nations least equipped to absorb them.
Nearly all of the expected 3.4 billion increase in our global population by the year 2050 will
come from the developing countries (3.4 billion more people requiring food, energy, shelter,
water, wood, paper, and all the other goods and services that come from the forests(Simons,
1998:).

Another predisposing condition of deforestation is poverty, particularly poverty in

rural areas. Although poverty is not a "cause" of deforestation, it is a condition of life that the
majority of people in this world must endure. While greed and power can be the motivations
of some groups in society that deforest, survival and the desire to escape from poverty is what
drives most people. Poverty is the socioeconomic environment that limits peoples' economic
options, damages health, limits the formation of rural capital, reduces income generating
opportunities, and limits institutional and infrastructure development. It is an underlying

85
condition that facilitates deforestation. There is some evidence from the industrialized
countries of the North that suggests as societies become more economically secure they reach
a point where the economic development pressures that drive deforestation are replaced by a
growing environmental concern and a greater appreciation of environmental values.
However, for most developing countries that point is off in the far distant future.
The rural poor have very few options. There are few prospects of off-farm
employment in either the urban centers or the rural areas. For those opportunities that do
exist, there is intense competition for the few jobs available. Illiteracy further limits the
options of many because they do not have the basic tools needed to pursue other economic
alternatives to subsistence farming. In some cases, people migrate from the overpopulated,
depressed regions to the forest frontier in search of a more prosperous, more secure life.
Hand-in-hand with poverty comes food insecurity and chronic undernourishment. With few
alternatives available to them, the rural poor look to the forests as a short-term solution to
their economic problems.
6.2. Loss of Biodiversity
The increased over-exploitation of forest resources in peri-urban areas, high
population centres have posed problems resulting into deforestation and consequently loss of
biodiversity. Some tree species that are threatened in Zambia include Daniellia alsteeniana,
Entandrophragma delevoyi, Baikiaea plurijuga, Podocarpus milanjianus, and
Encepharlotos goetzi. An example on tree species under pressure in Luangwa District as a
result of human population pressure and decentralisation has been given in Table 2 below.
With regards to wildlife, some species under threat due to either habitat destruction and/or
over utilisation are elephant, cheetah, eland, sable, roan, hartebeest, blue monkey, leopard
and wild dog (Kalyocha, 2000). A study of the trade and utilisation of game meat in
Zambia also added other species under threat to the list due to increased hunting pressure.
These include buffalo, kudu, warthog, impala and duiker (Kalyocha, 1998).

Table 16: Tree species extensively used and which are under pressure in the
Luangwa Valley;
Tree Species Most important use
of the Tree Other Uses
Mubuyu -Adansonia digitata Fibre Fruits, young leaves for relish
Mululu-Khaya Nyasica (anthotheca) Timber and Canoes Firewood and medicines
Mulombe-Pterocarpus angolensis Timber Medicine

86
Muzumba-Kirkia acuminata Timber
Mubanga-Pericopsis angolensis Poles for Construction, Firewood, timber,
Mupani-Colosphospermum Mopane , charcoal, hard wood pole used
locally in bridge construction, handles for hand
tools.
Mvungula (sausage Tree) Kigelia africana Making of pounding mortars
Milaza (palm) Hyphaene vertricosa For making hand-crafts, for example, baskets,
hats and many others food source in hunger
periods.
Reeds (Matete)-Phragnites mauritianus Making mats, chicken run, coffins, and many
others
Bamboos –Oxytenanthera For baskets (important in plateau areas)
Black ebony-Dalbergia melanoxylon Carving (sold to markets in Lusaka
Source: Kalyocha, 2000
6.3.Soil Erosion
There are many localised areas in which the problem of soil erosion has manifested
itself(Chiti, 1991, Chipungu, et al, 1994). Actual rates of erosion countrywide have not been
estimated, but visible evidence of the problem is observed in localised areas of Central,
Eastern, Lusaka and Southern Provinces. The problem of soil erosion was reported to be a
serious one in these provinces during the provincial workshops. These areas have the most
productive soils, which the country entirely depends on for agricultural production. Given
that in most Zambian soils, the highest nutrient concentration is in the top 0-10 cm layer, soil
erosion can result into considerable losses of plant nutrients (NEAP, 1994).
The causes of erosion are rooted in poor land-use practices such as cultivation on
sloppy areas without conservation measures, shifting cultivation, continuous mono-cropping
and over-grazing which result into deforestation. Soil erosion in Zambia is correlated or
associated with areas with high rural population densities, high livestock populations and
high percentage of land under cultivation. The cost of soil erosion in terms of agricultural
productivity is very high. The most prevalent indicators of soil degradation are low crop
yields and low livestock productivity, causing shortages of food and food insecurity.
Farmers have therefore resorted to selling their animals, though of low quality, as a risk
avoidance strategy and at the same time raising income to purchase food.
6.4.Siltation, Sedimentation and Flooding
There is visible evidence of the problems of siltation, sedimentation and flooding in
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Zambia, although the rates and extent of the problems are not well documented and known
particularly in the southern region. These problems are clearly evident in all the ten
provinces. Rivers and streams that were once perennial have become seasonal, flowing only
during the rainy season..Deforestation in uplands and cultivation along river/stream banks,
culminates in soil erosion and choking up of streams/rivers with silt and sediments. When
there is an intensive storm, these results in flush flooding of these streams. For example, the
Luangwa (formerly known as Feira) District, Lusitu area in Southern Province and Central
Luangwa Valley area in Eastern Province are cases in point where these processes have been
seen to occur(Kalyocha, 2000; Siamwiza, 1998; Kalyocha, 1988 and Larsen, et al,
1985).These processes also make people who cultivate along the stream/river banks to lose
their crops due to flooding and layering of the fields with sand/silt after a flood (Kalyocha,
1988;2000).
There is a problem of drying-up of streams and rivers. This problem is due to a
combination of low ground water recharges, soil erosion and drought (Kalyocha, 2000). In
recent years, however, even seasonality has rapidly diminished for some of the streams
/rivers, especially in Southern Province and the drier parts of Western Province, west of the
Zambezi River.. Water is only available in the brainy season but quickly runs off or dries up
in a few days or few months.

6.5.Other factors leading to soil Infertility

Poor land management can lead to soil infertility. Apart from the problem of
acidification and soil compaction, the problem of salinalization due to irrigation is yet another
problem in Zambia, though on a small scale. It is not a major problem as yet, partly due to the
fact that only a small hectare (2percentage) of the estimated potential of the irrigatable land,
(450, 000hais under irrigation. But given the irrigation potential and the strong need to
expand irrigation schemes in these dry land areas as a result of drought, the problem of
Stalinisation can be exacerbated which can lead to soil degradation.The need to properly
investigate and provide the appropriate irrigation system is strongly emphasised. The key to
good irrigation is good drainage. If irrigated land is not drained properly, the soils first
become waterlogged and then Stalinised or alkalinised. It, therefore, becomes difficult to
cultivate as the evaporation of water from the soil increases, reducing the available moisture
for crops.
6.6.Institutional, Policy and Legal Issues

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 Zambia lacks a clear and consistent environmental management policy until the mid
1980s. accordingly, environmental concerns were not a major input in the social and
Economic development processes of the country. In addition to the absence of a
Consolidated ‘environmental policy’, there has been a myriad of various pieces of
Legislation dealing with different aspects of the environment, some dating as far back as
The pre-independence era and others have not been reviewed. These pieces of legislation
Were scattered in different Acts relating to many activities such as use of water, wildlife,
Land, mining and others. These have been noted to be rudimentary, sectoral, scattered and
at times contradictory to each other.

The government attempted to overcome this problem through the formulation and
implementation of the National Conservation Strategy (NCS) in 1985. This saw and
marked the beginning of serious attempts by the government to incorporate environmental
management considerations including issues of land degradation in the mainstream
development process of the country. Apex institutions, Environmental Council of Zambia
(ECZ) and the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources (MTENR) were
created, including the enactment of the Environmental Protection and Pollution Control
Act (EPPCA).
Despite these developments, environmental management efforts are still sectoral,
scattered, out of date with present circumstances and uncoordinated with limited
institutional enforcement capacity and support (MENR, 1999). Currently, there is still no
consolidated policy and legislation for the environment, though the matter is being
addressed through the Environmental Support Programme (ESP). There is also inadequate
policy addressing desertification and drought. Zambia despite ratifying the UNCCD, has
not incorporated it in her legislation. However, a draft policy has been formulated with
regard to overall disaster management issues, but has not yet been ratified by Cabinet.
The decentralisation policy is also not yet ratified. MTENR is addressing the problem of land
degradation through the Environmental Support Programme, existence of a National Focal
Point (NFP) and National Steering Committee (NSC) of the UNCCD. In order to adequately
address the land degradation problem, it is important to strengthen the co-ordination structure
and also establish frameworks at all levels that bring together stakeholders on the subject.

An undisturbed terrestrial ecosystem naturally develops into a sparse or dense

forest. Factors like, humidity, temperature, rainfall and soil types etc. determine the nature
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and composition of the biotic community within a forest. Those very factors of a biotic
environment which influence and shape a forest are also in turn modified by the population of
living organisms within the system. Deforestation involves removal of plant biomass which
cripples the system. Various useful products such as firewood, timber, honey, fruits, nuts,
resins and medicinal plants etc. are no longer available. A chain of events is set into motion
the consequences of which can be summed up as follows: 1. Soil degradation and erosion;2.
Changes in climatic conditions;. Destruction of natural habitats; and.4. Destruction of a
valuable sink for environmental pollutants

6.6. Weak Institutions

The Forest Department that is entrusted responsibility over forest resources has
inadequate staff and funding to effectively perform their role of natural resource
conservation. Forestry inspections to forest areas are therefore almost absent. The local
people on the other hand are not also able to protect forest resources and watersheds largely
due to lack of sensitisation coupled with increasing levels of poverty in the local
communities. The local forest dwellers have instead compromised the resources in their quest
to survive. This has rendered them unsustainable.

6.7. Unpopular Conservation laws

The first policy of Zambia was formulated in 1965 as a set of instructions to the
Forest Department. This policy renowned for its rigidity gave absolute control over
ownership, planning, and management of forests to central government. Provisions for
community participation in forest management were lacking. As a consequence of this
policing attitude to resource conservation, the local communities became unsustainable and
overexploited the forest resources that they now viewed as belonging to the government.
Local communities considered the government as an enemy for it took away the ownership
rights of the forest resource from the local forest dwellers that strongly believed were the
traditional owners of the forests. Realisation of this fact has lead way to the current on -going
restructuring of the forest resource conservation strategy to a more decentralised structure.
Both the forest policy and Act of 1998 and 1999 back this concept respectively though the
implementation mechanism is rather vague.

6.8.Institutional and Legal Issues

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 The Government has since the 1980s instituted a number of important institutional,
policiesand legal reforms, which could advance effective environmental management.
However,some of these are still underway like the decentralisation policy, which should
ensure better involvement of the local populations and the civil society in all development
activities. There exist various Acts, which address issues of environmental management
including land. Some of these Acts have efforts that are scattered, sectoral or out of date, and
often not known by the general public. Zambia does not have specific policy on
desertification and drought. It is important to develop such a policy in order to address the
problem of land degradation. In addition, Zambia has not incorporated the UNCCD in her
law despite ratifying the Convention in 1996.
6.9. Manifestations and Effects of the Land Degradation Problem
The effects of land degradation are multiple. These include loss of environmental
benefits, such as, shelter, shade, visual amenities; and productivity of the land to support
natural veldt, livestock and crop production. At global level, the land degradation problem
has negative implications on the hydrological cycle in particular on flood occurrence,
drying-up of streams, poor ground water recharge systems due to high run-off rates and
siltation and sedimentation of rivers. Deforestation reduces the carbon dioxide sink and
this can lead to the destabilisation of the climate. The low productivity of the land caused by
land degradation causes low crop yields, poor animal productivity and animal diseases.
Noting that the human population in Zambia is dependent on agriculture, these factors
undermine social economic development, and continue to deepen the poverty crisis.
6.10Natural Disasters
Forests in Zambia suffer mostly from droughts. They in fact save to compensate for
loss of livelihood due to droughts thereby pausing even more pressure on them.
6.11. Impact of Deforestation
Deforestation occurs in areas where trees are cut down to provide firewood, charcoal and
timber, and to free space for crop cultivation or grazing land. Much of deforestation- like much
other environmental degradation –is a result of large numbers of individuals engaging in
decisions that are privately rational but collectively destructive. Human activity has altered the
landscape of earth.Deforestation has increased dramatically since the end of the Second World
War and since independence in 1964.A major reason for the deforestation is poverty and
economic underdevelopment. 90 to 98 percent of the population uses wood as fuel for cooking
and brush supply the bulk of the energy sources. In fact, urbanization has had a huge effect on the
loss of forests because deforestation is most noticeable near urban areas. According to Anderson,
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the growth of towns and cities has brought about increased demands for wood fuel and charcoal
and accounts for much of the decline in tree stocks in the surrounding country side, often for a
radius of 30 to 50 kilometres or more.(Guruswamy and Hendricks,1997:87)

Clearing of forests to obtain fuelwood is indeed a major problem: however, fuel wood
leads to the degradation of the open forests only and plays a part in the destruction of the
closed forests. The major cause of deforestation is the clearing of forests for purposes of the
cultivation of crops – the need to expand agricultural land. Research into the immediate
causes of deforestation has grown significantly in the last decade,and although some
disagreements linger, the overall picture is clear. After reviewing more than 150 economic
models of tropical deforestation, Kaimowitz and Angelsen report published in 1998: “A
broad consensus exists that expansion of cropped area and pastures constitutes a major source
of deforestation.” 62 a. This is echoed by Pierre Pradervande (UNEP), The Disappearing
Forests, UNEP Environmental Brief Number 3 ( UNEP, 1990 ), summarized the problems of
deforestation in the following words:
By far the most important cause [of deforestation] is the opening up of
land for agriculture. The most striking characteristic of deforestation . . .
was the speed at which it was taking place. In less than a generation . . .
wooded environments [ have] literally disappeared. There does not appear
to be another [cause] . . .; such a transformation has been as rapid and severe.

A growing but often under reported source of deforestation was the conflicts in among
Zambia’s neighbours such as the DRC, Mozambique and Angola where conflicts, civil wars,
social and economic disruptions caused the movement of a large number of people some spilling
into Zambia as refugees who settled in overcrowded camps, sometimes for lengthy occur leading
to soil erosion and land degradation.. This leads to land degradation with serious consequences
for food production. Desertification, drought, floods, the unpredictable climate change have also
contributed to the vast amounts of tree cover. It has also led to the massive loss of wild life
(Pravervand,. 1989: 37 -38)

Deforestation has serious repercussions which have been discussed by several authorities.
Some of these repercussions have had irreversible changes on the ecology, flora and fauna of the
affected forest areas and woodlands, principally in the carrying capacity, fertility of the soil,
removal of tree species and the fauna dependent upon it, reduction in clear air and the drying up
of some areas with good examples being Monze district and East Mazabuka – the Chikankata
92
Mapangazya area. In some areas some ever green forests (Mushitu) which lined perennial
streams and rivers have been removed causing them to dry up, loss of dependable sources of
water, riverine species – crabs, fish, frogs and plant life such as lilies, papyrus reeds, sedges and
other grasses. Although the nature and extent of changes taking place vary appreciably from
region to region, there are four characteristics that are commonly associated with deforestation.
These are: 1. Increased land degradation through the loss of soil erosion which in itself, increases
siltation of rivers and lakes. In turn, this affects and reduces the quantity flow, and depth of
water. In turn this affects riverine life in several waters such as the destruction of spawning
grounds; 2.Gully erosion arising from losses of top soil from wind and rain. This is most evident
in parts of Southern and Eastern Provinces and in the Mkushi Block where for example, 232
gullies were identified. Many of these cause considerable damage and cut through farm lands,
settlement schemes, road sites, drains on the roadsides, disused roads, footpaths and livestock
trials. They also threaten the stability of roads bridges and even roadside buildings as they
advance. A number of these are “cured” but a lot many remained as lack of funds does not allow
the state to attend to all of them;3.Greater surface evaporation occurs and reduces soil moisture
content which leaves the soil dry and easy to break;4,Greater surface runoffs and adverse changes
in water table take place (which also places existing trees and shrubs under increasing stress);.A
great reduction in the recycling of nutrient takes place..As a result of extensive deforestation,
some ethnic groups in Zambia re experiencing chronic shortages of wood fuel forcing them to
turn to use cow dung and crop residues which in turn, deprive the fields of manure. These
problems together with those of overgrazing, poor management of soils, and cropping practices to
contribute to deforestation and ultimately desertification (Fanshave,1979).

Deforestation is also a direct result of the clearance of trees and woodlands for
agriculture.While agriculture is widely acknowledged as a major economic activity on which a
significant proportion of Zambia’s population depends, the downside is that it is faulted for being
one of the country’s major drivers of deforestation, Deforestation also comes from settlement
with the establishment of unauthorized villagesfor farming purposes, and resettlement.. At the
moment, as a government embarks on the promotion of resettlement schemes as a means of
solving the unemployment issues and as a means of increasing food production, large tracts of
virgin lands are cleared to facilitate the exercise. Some of this land is properly managed. Some
of it is not resulting in the rapid loss of soil fertility and poor yields.(Mwendabai and
Mwape,2013, 7:GRZ/IUCN, 1990; Musambachime, 1990,37-52;Chidumayo, 1988:9-18;)

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 It has been observed that given time and appropriate management systems degraded
forests are able to regenerate and continue to offer the diverse needs of the people. It is
therefore very important that the current status of secondary forests and their potential is
determined. Appropriate management strategies should then be put in place in order to
promote the sustainable development and management of this important natural resource.

However, nearly all forests in Zambia at present are managed without management
plans. The country lacks up-to-date forest inventory data. The only management tool in the
Forest Reserves under the Forestry Department has been licensing. A license simply states
the minimum amount of timber to be removed annually. This system has not worked due to a
number of problems, which, among others, include inadequate capacity of the Forestry
Department.

7.The Desertification Problem in Zambia

This is one of the main and long standing environmental problems that has been
recognised by the international community to affect social economic development the world
over, is the Intertwined issue of human and animal activities, climate change seen in
drought, floods and land degradation. Desertification refers to the process environmental
change from forested or wooded area to a barren one due to deforestation, soil erosion and
land degradation (Guruswamy and Hendricks, 1997:346-349).. Writing on this issue in 1974
shortly after the holding of a Conference on Desertification in an African Environment in
London, A.T. Grove (1974 ) argued that:

“Desertification or desert encroachment can result from a change in climateor from

human action, and it is often difficult to distinguish between the two this has
commonly led to confusion and misinterpretation. A temporary or long continued
deterioration of climate may accentuate the harmful consequences of human
occupation of land vice versa. It hasoften been suggested that man’s activities
have resulted in climatic deterioration but this is difficult to substantiate”.

Desertification is a world phenomenon, which describes the gradual loss of

productivityin soils and vegetation in dry lands and sub-humid areas due to processes such as
soil erosion and declining soil fertility exacerbated by both human activities and climatic
variations (Gruruswamy and Hendricks,1997:85 -90, 345-349). Zambia, like most developing
countries has, from time to time, experienced mild and severe drought for either a year or
more for some parts of the country.. This has greatly affected the country’s capacity for
food production and ultimately has affected its food security. Therefore, the drought

94
accompanied with soil erosion and declining soil fertility has undermined the people’s living
conditions, especially those that are solely dependent on agricultural production.The problem
of land degradation is caused by a variety of factord:natural, environmental, social,
economic, land use, as well as, institutional, policy and legal issues.. There are clear
indications of considerable momentum for future population growth. This growth of the
population is due to mainly high fertility rates, calculated at 6.7 children per woman and
reduced mortality rates. These fertility rates are considered as one of the highest in Africa.
Fertility rates are even higher in rural areas (7.0 children per woman) as compared to urban
areas (6.3 children per woman). This is due to lower levels of literacy and contraceptive use
in the former. High fertility rates complimented by lowered mortality rates between the 1960s
and 1980s, led to the rapid increase in the Zambian population. The mortality rate has begun
to rise in the recent years due to the deterioration in living standards of many Zambians and
the prevalence of the Human Immune-Deficiency Virus/ Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (HIV/AIDS).
A large percentage of the population is dependent on natural resources for survival.
This has serious implications on the country’s physical environment. The government
capacity to provide adequate services to its people and effectively manage natural resources
is hindered by its constrained treasury. According to 1990 census, the Zambian population is
characterised by high proportion of females as compared to males. Out of every 100 females,
96.1 were males. As regards to households, 24% were female headed and 35% of these were
in rural areas.Females have special cultural problems as a result of their gender, for example,
limited access to productive resources, poverty and heavily constrained with household
chores, this distribution of population entails serious social economic problems with the
Zambian Female-headed households. The increasing human population pressure on the
resources, coupled with the competitive open access harvesting for day to day subsistence,
have resulted into the cumulative demand pressures on the resources arising from commercial
activities including those of the poor.

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Cleated farm Land
Adapted from Mail and Gurdian, 3 August 2010.

Desertification has profound impacts, manifested in the general and gradual decline
in land productivity, leading to a reduction of the land’s biological potential and economic
ability to sustain life. This has led to widespread poverty and human misery. This problem is
compounded by the effects of climatic variations, in particular the occurrence of severe
droughts. The problem is more serious in African developing countries due to lack of
financial resources, technological know-how and capacity to combat the problem. Zambia
has not been spared from the scourge of land degradation especially during the past ten (10)
years.
The UNCCD was initiated in 1994 and it came into force in 1996 after the 1992 Rio
Earth Summit. Zambia signed and ratified the Convention in 1994 and 1996 respectively.
It aims at combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought bypromoting
effective action through innovative local programmes and supportiveinternational
partnerships. This is done through developing and carrying out nationalaction programmes.
These action programmes must adopt a democratic, bottom-upapproach and should
emphasise popular participation and create of an ’enablingenvironment’ designed to allow
local participation to help them to prevent and reversedesertification.

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Source:GRZ
:
7.1.1:Copperbet Province.
In the Copperbelt Province, forest degradation stands at 40.7percent and 52percent
for forest reserves and open areas respectively (Table 1.1) which has resulted in decrease in
forest conditions. This shows considerable pressure on the woodlands and forests which will
continue as long as unemployment and poverty levels remain high in the Country. As such, it
is important to understand the dynamics of Miombo woodland ecosystems under different
forms of utilization in order to provide for the formulation of policies and strategies for their
sustainable management. Such policies should provide for the incorporation of charcoal
production, timber harvesting and slash & burn agriculture into the management of the
Zambian Miombo woodlands.

7.1.2. Lusaka Province

In Lusaka Province, desertification has caused the following problems: food
insecurity, scarce energy resources, inadequate water supplies and adverse climatic
conditions. The causes of food insecurity were identified among others as low yields, poor

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marketing and storage facilities. Scarce energy sources were as a result of deforestation and
no availability of energy alternatives. Droughts, lowered water tables and poor water
management caused inadequate water supplies. Adverse climatic conditions were identified
as being a result of deforestation and frequent droughts

7.1.3. Central Province

In CentralProvince, major desertification problems included the following: reduced
agricultural yields, reduced rainfall due to prolonged dry spells during the rainy season,
reduced plant and animal productivity, low ground water supply, silting of water
courses, Stalinization of the soils and reduced quality of rangelands. The causes of these
problems were listed as follows: poor land management practices, inadequate extension
and technical support by relevant extension authorities, deforestation, global weather
changes, increase in population, poverty, accelerated soil erosion, drought, overgrazing
and uncontrolled bush fires.
7,1.4.Eastern Province
In Eastern Province, the following list represents the problems of desertification:
poverty, low ground water levels, reduced soil fertility, soil erosion, and poor crop and
animal productivity. The cause of which included; cultivation along streams and
riverbanks, over-grazing, poor farming methods, population growth and rural-urban
drift, for example, cultivation on hill slopes in Chipata.
7.1.5. Southern Province
In Southern Province, the following form the list of desertification problems that were
prevalent, indiscriminate cutting down of trees, soil erosion, inadequate pastoral lands,
windy and dusty conditions, siltation, low water level, low yield and poor road
infrastructure. The causes of which included the following: high energy demand, land
clearing for farming settlements, poor methods of farming, uncontrolled rangeland
management, late burning, intensive and rain storms and bare-land.
7.1.6.WesternProvince
Desertification problems in WesternProvince included the following: soil erosion,
deforestation, loss of soil fertility, drought, drying of rivers, aridity, climatic variation,
loss of biodiversity, poor rangeland and sedimentation. The causes of desertification
were listed as follows: uncontrolled cutting down of trees, overstocking, high localised
density population, poor information and communication, poor drainage, poor harvest,
over cultivation and poor pasture management.
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7.2.The Implications of the implications of the desertification Problem: Some
Consequences and Costs of Desertification
The impacts of desertification at a local scale are very negative. These cause low
productivity of the land to support natural veld, livestock and crop. They in turn have social
economic consequences. Other environmental costs at a local scale that are directly or
indirectly associated with land degradation are loss of shade, shelter and visual amenities.
Any changes in the productivity of the land have consequences on agricultural production in
Zambia and in turn on the social economic well being of the people. The increasing spates of
drought occurrence and prevalence of land degradation problems have had dramatic impact
on agricultural production, especially on small-scale farmers in the severely affected
provinces (Agricultural Statistical Bulletin, Policy and Planning Division, MAFF,
1999/2000).In Zambia, there has been a general decline in total cultivated hectarage from 1,
004, 300 in 1989/90 to 701, 500 hectares in 1997/98, a decline of over 30percentage.
Furthermore, the average maize yield (the main staple food crop in Zambia) per hectare
decreased from 1.48 tonnes in 1989/90 to 1.27 in 1997/98. The 1989/90 yield is three times
less than the expected average yield.
7.3. The National Act
Desertification is a world phenomenon, which describes the gradual loss of
productivity in soils and vegetation in dry lands and sub-humid areas due to processes such as
soil erosion and declining soil fertility exacerbated by both human activities and climatic
variations.Zambia, like most developing countries has been experiencing severe drought for
the pastures. This has greatly affected the country’s capacity for food production and
ultimately has affected its food security. Therefore, the drought accompanied with soil
erosion and declining soil fertility has undermined the people’s living conditions, especially
those that are solely dependent on agricultural production.

It is with this background that Zambia welcomed and signed the Convention to
Combat Desertification (CCD). in those countries experiencing serious drought and/or
desertification,
particularly in Africa Zambia signed the Convention on 15th October 1994 andratified it on
19th September 1996.As a party to the Convention, Zambia was requested to prepare a
National Action Programme that provides a framework to incorporate long-term strategies to
combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought with national policies for
sustainable development. This is in line with the UNCCD objectives under Articles 2, 9 and
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10 where the formulation and implementation of National Action Programmes forms thecore
to the implementation of the Treaty.Forests play an important role as part of the complex and
delicate ecosystem. When the balance in the ecosystem is altered thorough human activities
such as the cutting of forests, a chain reaction occurs leading to the deterioration of parts of
the ecosystem. The problem of desertification is associated with the increase in the rate of
deforestation. Eckholm and Brown have argued that “While “desertification” has become
something of a catch-all word, the problems usually covered by this term involve ecological
changes that sap land of its ability to sustain agriculture and human habitation” 66a And
Timberrlake argues that “desertification”, more accurately, describes the conversion of
productive land into wasteland by human mismanagement. The declining ratio of the mean
annual incremental growth of local tree stocks has led to the decreasing ability of land to
sustain agriculture and human habitation. As with other environmental issues, it is difficult to
have an accurate figure on how fast the deserts are spreading in Zambia (Eckholm and.
Brown,1977;Mubita,1992/1993:63 -78).

To fully understand the nature of desertification in Zambia, it is important to take into

account the rapid population growth. At the time of independence in 1964, the population was
3,000,000. Growing at the rate of 2.5 percent per year, it is now estimated to be around
12,000,000, a four –fold increase in 45 years. This development has increased population density
which was relatively low. To this aspect we should add the increasing population of livestock –
especially cattle, as well as game. The issue of desertification can also be related to climatic
changes – less rainfall in some areas caused by the clearing away of forests, as well as to the
incidences of drought (Timberrlake, 1986, 58 -59 ;Nyang’oro , 227 – 228; Mubita,1992/1993:63
-78).
7.4.Environmental Problems
The main environmental problems that affect Zambia today include air pollution in
Mining areas, deforestation, water pollution and inadequate sanitation, wildlife depletion
And land degradation which when combined has led to biodiversity loss.
7.5.Biodiversity loss
The existence of every life form is dependent on the survival of the other forms of life
Including human life. The activities of over-exploitation appear to alter this balance and
an increasing number of species are lost each day on earth, posing a serious threat to the
existence of life. In Zambia, depletion of wildlife, fish resources and plant species
resulting from illegal hunting, over exploitation and habitat destruction is a serious

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problem.

7.6.Agriculture, Land-use Pressures, Deforestation, and the resultant Desertification

The majority of the people depend on agriculture, forests and other natural resources
for their survival. However, the practices employed to enhance production or extraction are
detrimental to the natural resource base, resulting into land degradation. Unlesssustainable
land management systems are practised, land degradation will continue, water. Land
degradation also has far-reaching implications likewidespread poverty, significant disruptions
in social economic systems, migrations and loss in land productivity. Other issues
include growing amount of wastes and air pollution. In Zambia, there is increasing use of
biomass energy, which increases carbon emissions and eventually contributes to global
warming. This in turn has effects on life. Air pollution is as a result of dust pollution from
huge mine tailing dumps and sulphur dioxide emissions from mining operations in urban
areas. Furthermore, increase in human population exerts pressure on resources and increases
generation of waste matter
7.7. Attempts to solve the Problem of Deforestation.
In combating the problem of deforestation, and arrest all the other off shoots relating to
land degradation, the government of the Republic of Zambia has embarked on the following:
7.8.. The development of industrial plantations to provide alternative sources of timber to
The wood-based industries.
This strategy was started in 1963 and continued after independence. The plantation
established along the Ndola-Kitwe highway gradually expanded to 55,000 hectares, planted
with fast growing exotic tree species of Pines and Eucalyptus. The industrial plantations now
in the hands of the Zambia Forest and Forestry Industries Corporation (ZAFFICO) now
produces all types of industrial and building timber. Their contribution has not helped much
because a number of companies including the mines continue to depend on indigenous
species for their operations.
7.9. Creation of Woodlots.
Through the Forest Department, the Government established a number of village or
district woodlots to provide alternative sources of energy and building materials. These
woodlots, mainly planted with Eucalyptus were mainly concentrated close to district
centres. Although these woodlots have helped in providing building and construction
materials to a section of the population, they have not answered the problem of providing
alternative sources of energy. The local people tend to shun away from eucalyptus when
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it comes to using it for domestic cooking. Instead they continue using the heavily
depleted indigenous stocks thereby perpetuating the problem of deforestation.
7.10. Introduction of Conservation Programmes
Again through the Forest Department, the government has mounted a number of
forest conservation programmes. These have been supported by a number of donor agencies
and multilateral organizations such as the Food and Agricultural Organization and the
World Bank. The conservation programme, have been conducted through extension
services, radio forums, seminars and workshops. In spite of these efforts the response has
remained disappointing.
7.11.Tree Planting
To reverse the damage that done due to deforestation, the country should grow more
trees. Individuals should start this initiative by growing trees in their own backyards. Also,
cutting of trees should be checked. If at all trees need to be cut, it should be old and dead
trees which are going to collapse anyway, while the younger ones should be allowed to grow.
The government on its part should enforce a ban on cutting of trees. Fines and punishments
should be imposed if rules to safeguard trees are broken by anybody.
The government has, in conjunction with a number of donor agencies and involving other
stakeholders such as chiefs and headmen, put up tree planting programmes in villages, at schools
and farms. The result has been that a number of eucalyptus and pines have been planted. These
die soon after due to lack of care.The government has released K12 billion for scaling up the
national tree planting exercise throughout the country in an effort to mitigate the effect of climate
change and deforestation.The tree-planting exercise in the next nine years, will continue to offer
employment to the locals during the planting seasons and when the trees have grown In addition,
aUS$20 million(KR100 million) pilot project by the Centre for International Forestry Research
(CIFOR) has been launched to address the problem of deforestation and to combat deforestation
and climate change in Zambia in the next four years, station.The four-year United States Agency
for International development (USAID) funded Nyimba Forest Project is envisaged to mitigate
the impact of deforestation and climate change in the country. CIFOR deputy director general
Peter Kanowski summed the importance of the Nyimba Forest Project in the following
words:“The Nyimba Forest Project is important locally, regionally and globally; I want to
explain why, and why it’s important to CIFOR.I don’t need to tell those of you who live and
work here in the Nyimba district, or Zambia, or indeed other countries of South East Africa, how
important the Miombo woodlands are, for livelihoods and as an ecosystem delivering
environmental services and values.”This woodland system covers nearly three million sq km and
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is home to some 100 million people in ESA. Nearly half of Zambia’s forests are Miombo”.Prof
Kanowski noted that across the miombo, there are well developed traditional systems of
management, reflecting the value of the forests for both household and cash economies.

“The miombo forests are also subject to increasing pressures from other land
uses, such as commercial agriculture, and to unsustainable levels of harvesting
of commercially important products like charcoal.“All of this is impacting on the
sustainability of these forests, the livelihoods of communities that depend on them
and the rate and scale of greenhouse gas emissions”Simply put, this project aims
to provide Zambia’s decision-makers and forest managers with a much better
information base for policy about and management of Zambia’s woodlands.”

The research output will help in the formulation of Zambia’s national REDD + strategy
(NRS), and better align it with local and national needs, as well as with international standards.
Although the project is based in Nyimba district, and focused on Zambia, it offers lessons for the
many of other countries in the region with miombo forests. “Globally, the research is important
because we know much less about the carbon dynamics of dry forest systems such as the miombo
– we suspect they are more important than we’ve given them credit for, but we don’t yet have the
information to be sure – and this project will help address that deficiency. .Prof Kanowski added
that “.CIFOR’s purpose is to advance human well-being, environmental conservation, and equity
by conducting research to inform policies and practices that affect forests in developing
countries” (Mwendabai and Mwape, 2013: 7).
The issue of tree-planting has been taken on by Government as an important national
project. The current Minister of Energy has, in a number of speeches stressed the importance of
tree –planting to combat deforestation and gradual desertification. He has come up with a
National Tree Planting Programme which will see the planting of 25 million trees countrywide.
This programme has been embraced by President Michael Sata who has also stressed the
economic .potential of the forestry sector arguing that “with proper management and utilisation
of trees, the forest industry has the capacity to turn the country’s economy into one of the most
developed in Africa. Forests not only alleviate poverty by sustaining food and [productive eco-
system for agriculture and water development but also assist in the reduction of greenhouse gases
which have led to global warming, resulting in climate change”(Nawa, 2013: 10).

To kick start this, all Members of Parliament(MPs) all chiefs,headmenand villagers need
to support the Government to: deliberately come up with a policy formulated to compel all those
who own farm land to plant at least 10 per cent the area of their land with trees under the

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supervision of district forestry officers. engage some selected small-scale farmers in all corners of
Zambia to mass-produce seedlings of various species of exotic and indigenous trees suitable for
fuel and construction under the supervision of forestry officers. the seedlings should then be
freely given and distributed to all farmers by the district forestry officers before the onset of the
rains every year. This is an activity which even other cooperating partners would surely have no
problem to support. if a farmer wishes to harvest some trees for sale when they mature, the law
should allow this to be done only under the supervision of a forestry officer who should also
ensure that the farmer replaces the trees he has cut by replanting the same number. The
empowering of Zambians with these plantations would bring benefits ranging from having a
clean environment for healthy living, good rainfall patterns in the region to various economic
gains for individual families and the country at large and many other gains, too many to mention.
But this will be up to the MPs, chiefs and Government who are free to either ignore or not ignore
this voice. If they choose not to ignore this voice, then this empowerment alone will make
Zambians feel that they own the plantations and the rampant cutting down of trees will just die
away slowly. On the other hand, if they choose to ignore this voice, and keep the status-quo, then
this country is headed for very serious calamities related to desertification, especially if the
population should increase by a few millions or double, and if ZESCO is allowed to keep on
increasing the tarrifs.

7.12..Application of New Land use Systems

In the last seven years Zambia has adopted new system of land use to stop erosion. One
of these is the agro-forest system which falls for the integration of forests and agriculture. The
system is still in its infant stage. The only problem with it is that it works well in a laboratory
situation but fails to click at the field level.67
7.13..Involving the Community
Extensions service must conscientize and involve the population that the wise sustainable
exploitation of natural resources – trees for example lives with the local communities.
7.14..Research Needs and Priorities
In order to stem the tide of deforestation the country must assess its priorities and research
needs in the management of forests.These must be based on the present knowledge available to
the public, experts and government institutions and the need for research results to yield more
information to create an enabling environment for profitable management of forests.This will
help generate scientific evidence and conduct analyses to help Zambia align its deforestation and
forest degradation prevention strategy with local needs and international standardsRural and peri-
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urban areasare an ideal place to conduct monitoring, reporting, and verification activities in
support of the national Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) strategy.

The research needs of the management of natural forests has been discussed by several
authors. Some recommend that research on natural forest management should be
expanded and given priority comparable to that of other fields of forest research, and that
better liaison should be established between research workers and forest services officials.
Priority should be given to studies of growth and yield optimum cutting regimes, fire and
socio-economic problems. In studying forests, the following should be given priority.
Inventories of multiple use systems and development of effective extension techniques.

The following topics could also be appropriate: ecology (bioclimatology) photo

interpretation techniques methodology of estimating estimate the volume and the
productivity of a stand; stand regeneration methods, development of an agro foresting
system based on natural regeneration use and control of bush fires (.Pravervand,1989, 37 -38)
7,15..Research Strategies
Management of natural forests in Zambia should also cover the following fields:.
(i).The value to the population of the products from the natural forests such as food, fodder fibres,
medicinal plants, and wood for fuel, timber, construction and other purposes.(ii). Management
methods and possibilities to influence the production of these various products.(iii). Factors
influencing coppicing and coppicing production;(iv). Factors influencing seed production,
regeneration and the possibilities to improve the forest cover and composition by means of direct
seeding and planting;(v). The dangers of forest fires and the possibilities to manage these;(vi).
Prices and marketing;(vii).Wildlife management Legal and tenure problems concerning the rights
of the inhabitants to trees and forest products; and(viii). Inventory methods for identifying and
evaluating natural forests and for management planning.
A possible strategy for pararrell efforts on management and research could include the
following:(i).Identifying existing natural forests by means of satellite images and air photos
where possible; (ii).Select forest areas and study their value to inhabitants especially with respect
to the possibilities of harvesting forest products for local exploitation and use or for sale;(iii).
Discuss with local communities to determine to what extent they agree and are prepared to
participate;(iv).Train and organize the villagers and implement the project; and(v). Monitoring
the operations as well as their effects on the development of the forests.

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 Research problems relating to management of natural forests may be performed at those
different levels: The first is when a project dealing with forest management undertakes
monitoring, studies and research trials to solve immediate problems. This can be built in to any
project of the kind. The cost may be part of the research efforts. The second is the identification
of problems which could be handled by an independent research institution, or consultant. And
the third could be by University – either dealing with forestry or aspects of
conservation(Wormald,1991: 395-400)..
7.16.. Analysis of multi-sectoral Environmental Programmes
The 1985 National Conservation Strategy that aimed at incorporating environmental
management in the national development processes of the country was recognised to have a
few inadequacies. These included the following:(i)The economy was undergoing a period of
liberalisation, and as such, there was need to review and integrate environmental concerns
into the social and economic development process of the country, consistent with the
country’s new market economic orientation. These formed the main guiding objectives for
the Government (ii).Against the above, there was need to make provisions for new
opportunities forinvolvement of local communities, the private sector and NGOs in
themanagement of the environment while at the same time recognising the important rolefor
government in monitoring, regulation and enforcement of appropriate resource-usein the
interest of sustainable development. The other reason for the preparation of the NEAP was
that the main recommendations of the NCS had been implemented; hence a re-orientated
programme was a necessity.
The Government policy is a comprehensive document developed through the
participatory analysis of the environmental situation and management, which resulted in
theidentification of key environmental issues facing Zambia. The five major
environmentalproblems isolated are land degradation, deforestation, air pollution in
themining areas, water pollution and inadequate sanitation, and wildlife (game and
fish)depletion. It reviewed the weaknesses in existing legislation and institutions and
providedstrategy options for improvement of environmental quality. The policy also
providesupdated environmental policy actions and forms the basis for the future development
of aninvestment plan for its implementation. The need for supporting the public, the
privatesector and community based approaches in environmental and natural resources
management was strongly recommended. This is consistent with the guiding principles othe
Convention to Combat Desertification.
The areas of relevance to the Convention to Combat Desertification from the NEAP
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document includes the following: (i).Institutions and Environmental Legislation;
(ii)/Economic Development and the Environment; (iii).Agriculture; (iv)Renewable Natural
Resources; (v).Human Population; (vi). Energy Resources, (vii).Environmental Education
and (viii). Environmental Issues in the Provinces. There are some areas which, do not feature
prominently in the policy but are of great concern . These include the strengthening of the
early warning systems, utilisation and development of indigenous knowledge, transfer of
appropriate technology to the community level and the area of information collection,
management and exchange including the aspect of impact indicators. These gaps are very
important areas of entry and support.

The recommendations of the policy are being implemented through the

Environmental Support Programme (ESP), an environmental investment fund, mainly
supported by the World Bank. The ESP is aimed at mainstreaming environmental and natural
resources management in Zambia’s development processes at both the national and local
level, so as to tackle the root causes of environmental degradation. The ESP Phase I was
initiated in 1998 and ran up to 2003,. The major components covered by the programme are:
(a).Strengthening the Institutional, legal and regulatory framework. This includes
implementation of the Community Environmental Management Programme; (b).
Strengthening Environmental Education and Public Awareness; (c).Undertaking pilot
activities to strengthen community-level environment and natural resources through provision
of matching grants through Pilot Environmental Fund for community initiatives and for
environmental studies; (d).Building environmental information management systems; (e).
Community Based Natural Resources Management Programme in WesternProvince. As
Zambia aims to reduce poverty from the current level of about 70 percent of the households to
50 percent by the year 2005, the above areas are pivotal to the sound environmental conservation
which in turn is important elements in achieving a clean and healthy environment. Their
achievements are, therefore, a necessary pre-condition to achieving sustainable development.
This was s in line with provisions of the Agenda 21, which recommended that member states
make provisions for their national development plans, programmes and policies to be in harmony
with sustainable development goals.The implications were already formed a foundation on which
tobuild upon,.

7.17.The Forestry Sector

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 The status of the forestry resources has been deteriorating over the past years. Given the
importance of the forestry sector to the economy and the environment, the Government
initiated a process in 1993 to 1997 to prepare a 20 year Zambia Forest Action Plan (ZFAP)
to address this problem. The main objective of ZFAP is to provide for the national
management and conservation of forest resources in order to enhance the contribution of
the forest sector to social economic development, poverty reduction and the improvement
of food security. This process has led to the review of the Forest Policy of 1965 and Forest
Act of 1973. The main essence for the review of the Policy and Act was to provide for a
mechanism to enhance the participation of local communities and other stake-holders
particularly private sector in the management of the forestry resources. The Government
has since adopted the New Forest Policy of 1998.The action programmes elaborated by ZFAP
include the following: (i).The Indigenous Forest Management and Biodiversity sub-programme;
(ii) The Tree and Forest Development sub-programme; (iii).The Forestry Industry and Non-
WoodForest Products Development Sub-programme; and (iv). The Wood fuel Energy
Development Sub-programme
The above sub-programmes are front-line activities with direct impact on the forest sector
development objectives. They are complemented by the supportive sub-programmes and a series
of forest sector policy actions and institutional strengthening activities, which
promote sustainable forest resources management namely: (i).The Forest Education and Training
Sub-programme; (ii).TheForest Research and Extension Sub-programme, and (iii).
The Policy, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Sub-programme. These will require to be
reinforced by encouraging the Private Sector and NGOs to participate in sustainable forest
management. The actions to strengthen these programmes need to be supported by the private
sector incentives, to encourage investment in sound mores management. The Forest Department
in all the provincesis undertaking the promotion of forest management involving indigenous
systems as well as local district administration.
The Provincial Forestry Action Programme (PFAP),funded by FINNIDA focuses on Joint
Forest Management Systems (Jams), a participatory methodology which is action oriented and
promotes co-operation and the sustainable management culture. The client groups and
stakeholders of PFAP include individuals and households dependent on forests, rural and urban
communities, Private Sector enterprises, NGOs forestry industry, mining and politicians. The
project also undertakes vegetation mapping through ground surveys, aerial photography and use
of remote sensing satellite imagery to determine the status and trends in forest resources and the
extent of their utilisation. The Forests Bill has been enacted and this will enable full
implementation of the Jams.

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 The ZFAP is, therefore, a very promising model in terms of its aims to contribute to
sustainable economic development through its sub-programmes. However, support and
investment in the sub-programmes is still required to meet the objectives of ZFAP. The
UNCCD-NAP has an opportunity for complementing the ZFAP initiatives.

The ZFAP ultimate objectives and its programmes are indeed in line with those of the
UNCCD, which focus on contributing to social economic development throughsustainable
economic growth and reducing poverty. The support of the UNCCD-NAP tothe implementation
of ZFAP will require an assessment of current investment gaps andsupport requirements in the
forest sector to determine and optimise UNCCD-NAP’scommitments. Since the PFAP initiative
is operational only in four provinces of Zambia, two of which do not fall in the NAP priority
areas, there is need through the NAP toextend the programme to the other provinces, especially
the ones severely degraded inRegions I and II

7.18. Soil Degradation and Erosion:

Most of the soils of Zambia particularly those in the northern parts of the country
arehighly weathered, leached and acidic. This is because of high rainfall in those parts of
thecountry. In the western part of Zambia, the soils are very strongly to strongly acid,
coarseto fine sandy soils with more than 90% quartz developed over Kalahari sands.
Theeastern and south central plateau has moderately leached clayey to loamy soils with
medium to strong acidity. These areas are considered to be the best agricultural soils in the
Country

Plants check rapid movement of air and water. Flowing waters stay in the area for a
longer duration during which time nutrients are re-absorbed and as water percolates down,
ground water table is recharged. Plant cover keeps the ground surface humid. Trees with the
help of deep root systems are able to draw water from sub-surface water table. Humidity
prevents excessive water loss and rapid desiccation. Plants contribute organic matter which
upon decomposition adds humus to the soil. Porosity, water-holding capacity and
productivity of the soil improve. Organic matter binds the soil particles in soil crumbs which
make it more stable again forces of erosion.

Deforestation leaves the ground surface bare. In humid tropics a large portion of
available mineral nutrients is taken away when the biomass is removed. Herbaceous plants
and grasses are exposed to the action of sun, wind and rapidly flowing waters. There is

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further loss of mineral nutrients. Grazing may remove much of the organic matter with which
there is further loss of nutrients. Where remaining vegetation is burned to clear the land and
agriculture attempted loss of nutrients is even more rapid. Already poor tropical soil is made
poorer. All this further reduces the cover of small plants and grasses as well.

Adequate plant cover keeps the soil temperature lower. At all depths up to 70 cm a
higher temperature is observed in soil devoid of plant cover. Higher temperatures speed up
mineralization of organic matter. This reduces the stability of soil crumb structure and the
soil becomes easily erodible. It also loses its capacity to hold water, recycle mineral nutrients,
nitrogen-fixing capacity etc. and turns into a dead mass of silt, clay and sand. With plant
cover gone the battering action of wind and rains loosen the top soil which is thus carried
along with water or air currents and deposited elsewhere.

The top soil which is thus lost is irreplaceable. Nature takes about 1000 years to
produce 2.5 cams of top soil. Most of the multipurpose reservoirs are silting up at a faster
rate. This has curtailed the life-span of our multipurpose reservoirs drastically. Massive soil
erosion aggravates flood situation in two ways. Firstly, the deposition of silt and sediments in
river beds makes them shallow. Secondly, land devoid of forest cover loses its water holding
capacity. In absence of plant cover this water flows down in rapid torrents. In streams and
rivers it has to flow through shallow channels where it spills over its banks inundating low
lying areas. Due to deforestation and extensive soil erosion in water sheds of almost all major
rivers in India total area of land affected by floods has been rising steadily.

7.19. Changes in Climatic Conditions:

Forests shape our natural environment and local climatic conditions. They maintain
humidity, regulate temperatures, break wind velocities and influence precipitation. The extent
up to which forests influence our natural environment is a controversial subject. However, it
is almost certain that dense growth of green plants has a moderating influence on local
climatic conditions and the global environment in a number of ways:

7.20. Loss of Biodiversity

The unique biodiversity of various geographical areas is being lost on a scale that is
quite unprecedented. Even though tropical rainforest make up just 6 percent of the surface
area of the Earth, about 80-90 percent of the entire species of the world exist here. Due to
massive felling of trees, about 50 to 100 species of animals many of birds and insects are
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being lost each day. The outcome of which is the extinction of animals and plants on a
massive scale. The effects on animals are very heartbreaking. They not only lose their habitat
and protective cover, they are pushed to extinction. Many beautiful creatures, both plants and
animals have vanished from the face of the earth.
7.21...Flooding and Drought
One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water
quickly when there are heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of
water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of flood and then drought in the affected
area. Thus, leading to disruption of human settlements and loss of life in thousands.
7.22..Landslides -
The roots of the trees, shrubs and grasses bind soil to it and to the bedroock
underlying it. That is how plants prevent soil from getting eroded by natural agents like wind
or water. When trees and shrubs are uprooted, there is nothing to hold the soil together thus
increasing the risk for landslides which can cause seriously threaten the safety of the people
and damage their properties.
7.23.. Denuded Uplands
After several harvests of the forest the cleared land is no longer suitable for
planting trees. It has become a desert. The transformation of a forest to a semi-desert
condition is called desertification.
7.24.Degraded Watersheds
When forest mountains, highlands and plateaus are denuded, watersheds are
degraded and this leads to the loss of sustained water supplies for lowland communities. This
is because trees affect the hydrological cycle. They can change the amount of water in the
soil, groundwater, and in the atmosphere.

7.25. Maintenance of Humidity

Active transpiration by green plants keeps the environment humid. Roots of trees
penetrate deep down to the sub-surface water table. They are able to draw water even when
the surface is dry.

7.26. Regulation of Atmospheric Temperatures:

Average air temperatures under tree cover have been found to be appreciably
lower than those measured in open fields. The type of plants also influences the temperatures

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in a forest. Evapo-transpiration exercises profound cooling effect-air cools down by 2-5°C
when it comes in contact with cool vegetation. The mean maximum temperature of the city
rose by 6.5°C within a span of thirty years. A significant depression in the rising tree fan is
observed from 1975 onwards as an extensive reforestation drive was undertaken to remix the
situation.

7.27. Moderation of Wind Velocity:

Forests check wind velocity by obstructing its passage physically. The velocity of wind
through a forest is profoundly affected by the density of vegetation. Higher wind velocities
accelerate transpiration and evaporation which in turn speed up desiccation. Under drier
conditions soil particles are loosened and transported by air currents resulting in a higher rate
of soil erosion. High speed winds make man and animals uncomfortable, often uprooting
weak structures and plants. The moderating effect of forests on wind velocity is, therefore,
beneficial in many ways.

8. The Role of Forests in Enhancing Precipitation

:The effect of forests on annual precipitation has been one of the most debated topics
among scientists. Experts have come up with varying assessments starting from nominal rise
to an enhancement of about 12% in planes and almost twice as much in hilly areas. While
studying the forest-climate link it is important to realize that every shower is not due to
forests. Rains depend on a number of factors such as location, topography sea-surface
temperatures etc. Of these forests could be one of the factors which promote rainfall...

8.1. Evapo-transpiration:

Evaporation and transpiration recycle back about 50-70 percent rains to the
atmosphere. This is not possible by evaporation alone. The total surface area from which
evaporation can occur is enormous in forests due to the density of foliage. On bare land solar
radiations heat up the soil and surrounding air making it drier.

8.2.Albedo:
The term “albedo” denotes the proportion of solar radiations reflected back into atmosphere
to the total amount striking earth's surface. Lower albedo in regions under plant cover (about
15-25percent ) results in greater absorption of solar energy which sets into motion strong

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thermal up-currents. The moisture is taken high up into the atmosphere where it cools down
and condenses into rain-drops. On bare soil albedo is higher (by about 30-35 percent ), for
example, large amount of solar energy is reflected back into the atmosphere which heats up
upper layers of air. This restricts upward movement of air bearing whatever moisture it
happens to hold. The net result of which is reduction of rains of convectional type.

8.3.The effect of mechanical friction:

Forests obstruct the path or air currents by raising the effective height of the land.
While decreasing the velocity of air currents this obstruction redirects the air mass upwards,
forcing it to rise. The moist air ascends and cools high up in the atmosphere, condenses and
adds to the convectional rains

8.4.Pollen grains and other plant debris:

These act as effective nuclei on which water vapours condense. The aerosols of
plant origin are lighter as compared to dust particles of the same size, which require a much
lower temperature to act as a condensation loci for water vapours. Deforestation results in a
sudden drop in the number of aerosols of plant origin in the atmosphere while those of dust
particles rise as a consequence of soil erosion by wind. This has an adverse effect on
convectional rains.

8.5.Horizontal precipitation:

Plants growing on tropical mountains and coastal zones are capable of absorbing
moisture from moist and humid air. This water is sufficient for the plant growth as well as for
maintaining the surroundings humid and hospitable. No water can be harnessed if land is
rendered devoid of plant cover.

8.5.. Forest Cover and Global Warming:

An enormously large quantity of Carbon is trapped in forests and forest soils of the
world. Coniferous forests possess about 117.6 billion metric tons, forests and woodlands of
temperate zone about 188.6 billion metric tons while the tropical seasonal and rain forests
possess about 502.25 billion metric tons of carbon. Needless to say, the oxidation of this
carbon shall yield a huge quantity of carbon dioxide which will be added to the atmosphere.

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Apart from being the basic raw material for photosynthesis Carbon dioxide is an important
green house gas. Rising concentrations of this gas in atmosphere could cause excess warming
up of our planet just as a thicker blanket makes us too much warm and uncomfortable. A rise
in global temperatures, howsoever mild, could cause serious problems for the mankind.About
81.50 billion metric tons of carbons are added into the atmosphere annually out of which
about 3.5 billion metric tons are contributed by combustion of fossil fuels, organic matter,
forest fires, deforestation and other human activities.A major part of this Carbon dioxide,
almost 70 billion metric tons out of 81.5 billion metric tons are absorbed by green plants and
is converted to organic matter. Of the remaining 11.5 billion metric tons, some C02 dissolves
in rain water and is brought down to earth's surface while a continuous exchange of this gas
occurs between water and air above at the air-water interface.

Deforestation substitutes lush green forests with agriculture, grass land or herbs and
shrubs with low productivity and little biomass. Enormous quantities of carbon dioxide are
set free while loss of plant cover reduces the overall photosynthetic efficiency of the system.
Thus while the input of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is increased its output decreases.
Many scientists believe that deforestation has been contributing significant amounts of
carbon dioxide to the global atmosphere and thereby to the greenhouse effect or global
warming.

8.6. Destruction of Natural Habitats and Reduction in Biodiversity:

In forests the shaded area under trees provides protection, tolerable temperatures,
adequate humidity etc. to other smaller plants, animals and microbes The living organisms
co-exist interact with one another and with plants, animals and microbes. The living
organisms co-exist, interact with one another and with abiotic components maintain a state of
dynamic equilibrium. It is these interactions which provide nutrition, water and shelter - a
suitable habitat for the diverse flora and tauna to live and thrive in it. Each species has
developed through countless million years as an unique specimen in perfect harmony with its
surrounding environment. No doubt the existence and well being of man is intimately linked
with other life forms which provide the basic raw materials for his existence.

However, deforestation caused by man himself tends to disturb or eliminate completely the
very habitats of millions of species. The bio-diversity is collapsing at an alarming rate. The
greatest threat comes from the tropical regions where we are losing forests at an equally

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alarming rate of about 1.7 million sq. kms per year. The home of almost half of the living
species on this planet is being destroyed and almost one species of mammal birds or plants is
condemned to extinction per day.

8.7. Destruction of an Important Sink for Pollutants of the Environment:

Forest soils and vegetation have a large capacity to absorb, transform and
accumulate various pollutants of environment. Vegetation acts as an effective sink for a
number of undesirable constituents of the environment. Deforestation not only destroys this
sink but also reduces soil's capacity to eliminate pollutants. Removal of plant cover leaves the
soil bare. Its organic matter content is quickly mineralized. Without organic matter microbes
fail to survive and the soil is turned into a lifeless mass of sand silt and clay. In absence of
microbial machinery the soil is unable to perform the biochemical activity involved in
absorption, accumulation or transformation of pollutants.

On global scale an enormous quantity of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur

dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, reactive hydrocarbons, ozone and other particulates are cleared
by vegetation and the soil These pollutants may serve as fertilizer to the plant community.As
much as 1 -13 kg per hectare per year of Nitrogen, 6.1 kg per hectare per year of sulphates
and about 20-40 kg per hectare per year of calcium and potassium may be provided to natural
ecosystem through atmosphere in the shape of dry or wet deposition (Likens et al, 1977,
Boremann and Likens 1979, Swank 1984).

No doubt many of the contaminants eliminated by green cover and the soil
originate naturally from plants and the soil microorganisms. However, there is an efficient
natural sink to eliminate them. The natural system is also capable of making adjustments for
limited inputs of pollutants added by human activity. If we destroy this natural sink while
introducing more and more pollution to the system, it is bound to fail with grave
consequences for the human race.

9. Logical Framework and Action Plan

An action plan based on the logical framework approach has been prepared. The approach
shows in matrix form, the vision, objectives, outputs, interventions, activities,
performance indicators, means of verification, assumptions, key players and timeframe.
Detailed interventions and Action Plans for each programme age provided in Appendix IV.

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A time frame of 5 years is proposed and activities costed, requiring US$ 26.6 million in
total for the whole programme period to implement the NAP. Government, donors,
NGOs, communities and other groups identified with the NAP, will support the proposed
budget.

The policy for forestry of the Northern Rhodesian Government was, in brief to: i.
Manage an estate of national forests to supply the territory’s principal industries with wood and
timber; ii.Establish a network of lesser forests to provide wood for the people who live on the
land; and iii. Preserve under forests, large parts of the catchment of the principal rivers.
Additional aims were to research to find and implement effective techniques, and for training a
well informed staff that will carry out the policy of the Government of the Republic of Zambia
being the following:

(a) Objective:
To manage the Nation's natural forest resources in a sustainable manner to maximize
benefit to the Nation and especially forest dependent communities retaining their
ecological integrity,
(b) Guiding Principles;
i. Deforestation is a major factor in soil erosion, siltation of lakes, rivers, and dams and
other water bodies, loss of biodiversity and climate change; ii. The involvement of the
private sector, NGOs and local communities in forestry is critical to improved
management, conservation and sustainable utilization;. iii. Promotion of private plantation
and homestead forestry should be encouraged;. iv.Community-based participation in the
management of Forest Reserves, Protected Forest Areas and forests on customary lands
shall be promoted;. v.Local communities that participate in the management of
indigenous forest resources shall receive financial and other benefits from their
sustainable utilization;. vi.Inventorying and monitoring should be an integral part of
sustainable forestry management.; vii. Sustainable forest resource management and
control of deforestation should best be enhanced on the basis of appropriate research,
production forestry development and extension.
viii. Appropriate subsidiary legislation and regulations at the district level are essential to
effective implementation of forest policy.

10.Strategies

116
 Forests are a multifaceted resourceutilised in the rural and urban areas. To do so
sustainably, the Government needs to engage all stakeholders at village, district, provincial and
national levels to be able to formulate a poli9cy framework to: i. Provide an enabling framework
for promoting the participation of local communities, NGOs and the private sector in forest
conservation and Joint Forest Management;. ii.Establish appropriate incentives that should
promote the effective contribution of Zambia's forest resources and on-farm trees to the
alleviation of poverty, sustainable economic development and environmental protection;. iii.
Provide economic incentives and the necessary legal framework and technology to encourage and
facilitate rural communities to introduce alternative sources of energy to gradually reduce reliance
upon fuel wood and charcoal;. iv. Take direct measures to control charcoal production and
organise sustainable practices which include rehabilitation of seriously degraded woodland; v.
Promote development and dissemination of agro-forestry practices; vi Promote dissemination of
indigenous knowledge about the medicinal and other properties of Zambia's indigenous forest
resources and where possible assist in marketing such knowledge for the benefit of the custodians
of the knowledge; vi Introduce marketing and pricing policy reforms that provide industrial fuel
wood users with incentives to invest in tree planting and woodland management; vii Ensure the
sustainable utilization of forest resources by practicing conservation in the use of forest products,
improving specifically the efficiency of fuel wood conservation, recycling paper through
incentives and regulations and substituting fuel wood with alternatives such as paraffin, solar
energy, biogas, electricity and coal where feasible.; viii. Promote and support the conservation
and protection of forest ecosystems and the growing of trees by individuals, companies, estates,
local communities and authorities, including the integration of forests and trees into farming
systems, soil conservation activities and land-use systems; ix. Involve local communities in
afforestation and rehabilitation of bare, fragile or erosion-prone areas; x. Have particular regard
to protection and rehabilitation of evergreen riparianmushitu woodland, especially along upper
river drainage lines.; xi Assist communities to set up appropriate management institutions to
control the use of forestry resources on customary land on a sustainable basis;. xii. Promote forest
conservation measures for civil works, including minimal tree destruction when constructing
roads, prohibiting encroachment of protected areas; xii Provide alternative income generating
activities that should reduce pressure on forestry products such as the commercial use of Non-
timber Forest Products. xiii. Establish a forum where interested parties in forestry issues can
share ideas;. xiv. Conduct well designed research programmes or adapt exogenous technologies
to local conditions in order to generate usable technologies for the sustained management of
planted and natural forest resources;. xv. Revise and update the Forest Act in order to strengthen
117
it in line with the National Forestry Policy(NFP) and to promote participatory forest management
and sustainable utilization of forest resources having particular regard for private sector and
participation of women in all aspects of forest resource management; and xvi. Continue the
conservation and management of gazetted forestry reserves and prohibit encroachment into
Protected Forest Area

The NFP aims at contributing to sustainable environmental management through the

reduction/control of land degradation, thereby contributing to Poverty Reduction, Food
self-sufficiency and Food Security and ultimately contributing to Economic Growth. Its
immediate objectives are: i.Reduce the destruction of land resources in affected areas; ii.Promote
sustainable use of land resources; iii. Increase public awareness and information dissemination on
matters of land degradation; iv.Provide a suitable policy and legislative framework for the
implementation of NFP; v.Establish and support effective administrative and co-ordination of the
NFP; vi.Introduce and improve on assessments, planning and monitoring systems for the
effective management of NFP, and vii. Establish partnerships with multi-lateral and bilateral
institutions in the management of arid areas. To achieve the stated objectives, the following
programme areas have been proposed according to their priority: Early Warning and
Preparedness; Forestry, Ecosystems and Species Conservation; Water Catchment and Energy
Conservation; Collaboration and Networking; Capacity Building of Programme Co-ordination
Unit and Other Focal Persons; Extension, Public Awareness, and Information Dissemination;
Land Degradation Assessments, Monitoring and Reporting; Easy to use environmentally friendly
technologies including Indigenous Knowledge; Livelihood Improvement; Food Self Sufficiency
and Food Security; Human Settlement Management, and Legal and Policy Reviews.
11.Conclusions
During the last few decades, the forest crises have prompted governments many
international, regional and national organizations to initiate strategies and preservation initiatives
to protect forests and prevent deforeststion, desertification and land degradation. Yet, there has
been, in many cases, little success. There is general agreement is that this is due to the fact that
strategies and initatives were too focused on the immediate causes of deforestation, and neglected
the underlying causes which are multiple and interrelated. In some cases, they are related to major
international economic phenomena, such as macro-economic strategies which provide a strong
incentive for short-term solution instead of the long-term sustainable ones. Also important are
deep-rooted social structures, which result in inequalities in land tenure, discrimination against
rural subsistence farmers and poor people in general. In other cases, they include political factors
such as the lack of participatory democracy and the exploitation of rural areas by urban elites.

118
Overconsumption by consumers urban areas constitutes another of the major underlying causes of
deforestation, while in some regions uncontrolled establishment of farms is at the heart of forest
degradation.
The causes of deforestation are many and varied, and it is impossible to cover them all.
However some examples can show how these causes are closely interrelated one to each other. In
his foreword to proceedings on Zambezi Teak (1986), former President Kaunda observed
that:“Our forests are among our greatest assets, since they are renewable resources, so long as
they are used wisely. The delicate balance of nature is all too easily upset by man’s wanton
exploitation of hisenvironment”.This observation is echoed by Mubanga, E. Kashoki (1988).who
noted that the “environment is at the mercy of man’s voraciousness.” The threat to our forests
and the resultant consequences have been discussed by several scholars and international
organizations. The Earth Summits in Rio de Janairo, Brazil, re-emphasized the importance of
forest conservation. The droughts which sweep Southern Africa have been attributed to the
rampant deforestation and gradual desertification that is taking place. Warnings have been
sounded. The question is not one of economic development versus the environment. It is how
this development can go forward in ways which are minimally disruptive to the life supporting
ecological systems and promising of individual self-fulfillment

The task is to take cognissant of the observations raised by Chidumayo, Kaunda,

MacNamara and the international organizations. The awareness that once forests are
depleted, the consequences will be desertification and land degradation must be made known
to all citizens. In addition, effective conservation measures must be enforced in order to
avoid the gradual desertification of the land. The task is not only for the government, all
citizens have to participate. The government through the various agencies such as the
National Council for Scientific Research and the Energy Commission should work hard to
devise new and cheap sources or energy to reduce dependence on wood or charcoal.
Unfortunately although electricity is provided to several parts of the country, this is not
spread far and wide enough to be an alternative source of energy. Besides the connection
fees are prohibitive for many. Experiments have been made with biogas but as in the case of
electricity, the cost is a handicap. Solar energy which is abundant is lacking a cheap form of
technology to tap cheaply to provide wider access. The use of coal brickets is still in
experimental stages. Its success will depend on the adoption of a cheap method of making
bricks and the devising of the efficient forms of distribution. In the absence of alternative
sources of energy, the large percentage of the Zambian population have no alternative but to
119
depend on woodfuel and charcoal This dependence, will as the population increases, result in
the over-exploitation of forests. If this is not accompanied by an aggressive policy of
reforestation and tree-planting, the consequence will most certainly be gradual desertification
and land degradation, poor crop yields, starvation, poor nutrition and poor productivity. The
cycle is vicious and can only be broken if deforestation is arrested. This is a task the
government and all the citizens have to take seriously if they have to succeed (Barraclough.,
and Ghimer, 2000).
Forest resources directly contribute to the livelihood of people in the rural and urban
areas that live in extreme poverty. Forest services are particularly important for the poorest
of the rural poor, and this fact alone provides a powerful reason to protect forests and the
stream of services that they provide to poor rural dwellers. Then, while acknowledging that
forests mare of immediate importance to the rural poor, some analysts do not believe that
forests have the ability to lift the rural poor out of poverty. They point to the fact that, as rural
household income increases, the proportion coming from forest services decreases sharply
(.Geist and Lambin,2001).

More generally, in a review of 152 deforestation case studies, Geist and Lambin
(.Geist and Lambin,2001), concluded that:“. . . deforestation is driven by…economic factors,
institutional and nationalpolicies, and remote influences…Our findingsreveal that too much
emphasis hasbeen given to population growth and shiftingcultivation as primary and direct
causative variables at the decade timescale.”.The problem of loss of forest cover in Zambia
needs an urgent and immediate address. With frequent occurrence of drought cases in forest
areas, there are growing fears that if the current trend (rate of forest loss) is left unchecked,
the situation is expected to become worse over time. It’s evident that though individual
patches of annual clearing are small, they tend to expand and coherse over time. At the
current average rate of 851,000 ha/annum, it therefore estimated that in 40 to 50 years from
now, the forests cover in the country will tremendously reduce, giving rise to serious local
and global human and environmental problems. Since forests play an important role in the
livelihood of most Zambians, there is therefore great need for synergetic and coordinated
effort from all natural resources sectors, more political will and intervention from relevant
independent bodies, to quickly address the problem facing Zambian forests and the Southern
African sub-tropical region as a whole. Vice President Guy Scott has rightly observed
that“protecting the environment in which we live and operate is one of our key sustainability
priorities” (26 August 2013). Deforestation remains one of the key challenges facing the

120
country to stop the country sliding into desertification. This will require a concerted effort by
all stake holders..
12.Note to the reader
A much shorter version of this paper was presented at a Conference hosted by the Department of
Economic History, University of Zimbabwe, in August 1997.This revised version is
Notes
1.Miombo is a word widely used in Central, Luapula and Northern Provinces of Zambia
as well as in Central and Southern Highlands region of Tanzania. It was originally
applied by Germans to describe woodlands dominated by Brachystegia and Julbernadia,
See R.M. Lawton, EcologyLand Resources of the Northern andLuapulaProvinces,
Zambia – a reconnaissance assessment Vol. 4 (Surbiton, U.K. Land Resources Division,
Ministry of Overseas Development, 1976). 98; Hobson, “The Wooded World”,
21;Huckabay “The Vegetation of Southern Province,” 55-66. Mackael, “Vegetation” 24-25;
R.M. Lawton, A, An ecological study of Miombo and Chipya Woodland with particular
reference to Zambia, PhD thesis, Oxford University, 1973; E.N. Chidumayo, Responses of
Miombo Harvesting Ecology and MaManagement (Energy, Environment and Development
Series No. 34) (Stockholm, 1993).
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About the Author

The author is a graduate of the Universities of Zambia in Lusaka (BA, 1974), University of
Wisconsin at Madison, USA (MA, 1976, PhD, 1981), and Uppsala, Sweden (Post Graduate
Diploma In Conflict Resolution, 1994). He has taught at the Universities of Zambia 1974 –
1997, 2005 - to the present, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States of America,
Chancellor College, University of Malawi, and University of Namibia. He served as
Zambia’s Ambassador and Permanent Representative at the United Nations, New York from
September 2000 to February 2005.

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