Phase transition

In chemistry, thermodynamics, and other related

fields, a phase transition (or phase change) is the
physical process of transition between one state of a
medium and another. Commonly the term is used to
refer to changes among the basic states of matter:
solid, liquid, and gas, and in rare cases, plasma. A
phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of
matter have uniform physical properties. During a
phase transition of a given medium, certain
properties of the medium change as a result of the
change of external conditions, such as temperature
or pressure. This can be a discontinuous change;
for example, a liquid may become gas upon heating
to its boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in
volume. The identification of the external
conditions at which a transformation occurs defines
the phase transition point.

Types of phase transition This diagram shows the nomenclature for the different
phase transitions.

States of matter

Phase transitions commonly refer to when a substance

transforms between one of the four states of matter to another.
At the phase transition point for a substance, for instance the
boiling point, the two phases involved - liquid and vapor, have
identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist.
Below the boiling point, the liquid is the more stable state of
the two, whereas above the boiling point the gaseous form is
the more stable.

Common transitions between the solid, liquid, and gaseous

phases of a single component, due to the effects of temperature A simplified phase diagram for water,
and/or pressure are identified in the following table: showing whether solid ice, liquid water, or
gaseous water vapor is the most stable at
different combinations of temperature and
pressure.
 Phase transitions of matter ()
To
Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
From
Solid Melting Sublimation

Liquid Freezing Vaporization

Gas Deposition Condensation Ionization

Plasma Recombination

For a single component, the most stable phase at different temperatures and pressures can be shown on a
phase diagram. Such a diagram usually depicts states in equilibrium. A phase transition usually occurs when
the pressure or temperature changes and the system crosses from one region to another, like water turning
from liquid to solid as soon as the temperature drops below the freezing point. In exception to the usual
case, it is sometimes possible to change the state of a system diabatically (as opposed to adiabatically) in
such a way that it can be brought past a phase transition point without undergoing a phase transition. The
resulting state is metastable, i.e., less stable than the phase to which the transition would have occurred, but
not unstable either. This occurs in superheating and supercooling, for example. Metastable states do not
appear on usual phase diagrams.

Structural

Phase transitions can also occur when a solid changes to a

different structure without changing its chemical makeup. In
elements, this is known as allotropy, whereas in compounds it
is known as polymorphism. The change from one crystal
structure to another, from a crystalline solid to an amorphous
solid, or from one amorphous structure to another
(polyamorphs) are all examples of solid to solid phase
transitions.

The martensitic transformation occurs as one of the many

phase transformations in carbon steel and stands as a model for
displacive phase transformations. Order-disorder transitions
A phase diagram showing the allotropes of
such as in alpha-titanium aluminides. As with states of matter,
iron, distinguishing between different
there are also a metastable to equilibrium phase transformation
several different crystal structures
for structural phase transitions. A metastable polymorph which
including ferrite (α-iron) and austenite (γ-
forms rapidly due to lower surface energy will transform to an
iron).
equilibrium phase given sufficient thermal input to overcome
an energetic barrier.

Magnetic

Phase transitions can also describe the change between different kinds of magnetic ordering. The most
well-known is the transition between the ferromagnetic and paramagnetic phases of magnetic materials,
which occurs at what is called the Curie point. Another example is the transition between differently
ordered, commensurate or incommensurate, magnetic structures, such as in cerium antimonide.

Mixtures
Phase transitions involving solutions and mixtures are more
complicated than transitions involving a single compound.
While chemically pure compounds exhibit a single temperature
melting point between solid and liquid phases, mixtures can
either have a single melting point, known as congruent
melting, or they have different liquidus and solidus
temperatures resulting in a temperature span where solid and
liquid coexist in equilibrium. This is often the case in solid
solutions, where the two components are isostructural.

There are also a number of phase transitions involving three

phases: a eutectic transformation, in which a two-component
single-phase liquid is cooled and transforms into two solid
A phase diagram showing different
phases. The same process, but beginning with a solid instead
magnetic structures in the same crystal
of a liquid is called a eutectoid transformation. A peritectic
structure of Manganese monosilicide.
transformation, in which a two-component single-phase solid
is heated and transforms into a solid phase and a liquid phase.
A peritectoid reaction is a peritectoid rection, except involving
only solid phases. A monotectic reaction consists of change
from a liquid and to a combination of a solid and a second
liquid, where the two liquids display a miscibility gap.[1]

Separation into multiple phases can occur via spinodal

decomposition, in which a single phase is cooled and separates
into two different compositions.

Non-equilibrium mixtures can occur, such as in

supersaturation.

A binary phase diagram showing the most

Other examples stable chemical compounds of titanium
and nickel at different mixing ratios and
Other phase changes include: temperatures.

Transition to a mesophase between solid and liquid,

such as one of the "liquid crystal" phases.
The dependence of the adsorption geometry on
coverage and temperature, such as for hydrogen on iron
(110).
The emergence of superconductivity in certain metals
and ceramics when cooled below a critical temperature.
The emergence of metamaterial properties in artificial
photonic media as their parameters are varied.[2][3]
Quantum condensation of bosonic fluids (Bose–Einstein
condensation). The superfluid transition in liquid helium
is an example of this. A small piece of rapidly melting solid
The breaking of symmetries in the laws of physics during argon shows two concurrent phase
the early history of the universe as its temperature changes. The transition from solid to
cooled. liquid, and gas to liquid (shown by
Isotope fractionation occurs during a phase transition, the white condensed water vapour).
the ratio of light to heavy isotopes in the involved
molecules changes. When water vapor condenses (an
 equilibrium fractionation), the heavier water isotopes (18O and 2H) become enriched in the
liquid phase while the lighter isotopes (16O and 1H) tend toward the vapor phase.[4]

Phase transitions occur when the thermodynamic free energy of a system is non-analytic for some choice of
thermodynamic variables (cf. phases). This condition generally stems from the interactions of a large
number of particles in a system, and does not appear in systems that are small. Phase transitions can occur
for non-thermodynamic systems, where temperature is not a parameter. Examples include: quantum phase
transitions, dynamic phase transitions, and topological (structural) phase transitions. In these types of
systems other parameters take the place of temperature. For instance, connection probability replaces
temperature for percolating networks.

Classifications

Ehrenfest classification

Paul Ehrenfest classified phase transitions based on the behavior of the thermodynamic free energy as a
function of other thermodynamic variables.[5] Under this scheme, phase transitions were labeled by the
lowest derivative of the free energy that is discontinuous at the transition. First-order phase transitions
exhibit a discontinuity in the first derivative of the free energy with respect to some thermodynamic
variable.[6] The various solid/liquid/gas transitions are classified as first-order transitions because they
involve a discontinuous change in density, which is the (inverse of the) first derivative of the free energy
with respect to pressure. Second-order phase transitions are continuous in the first derivative (the order
parameter, which is the first derivative of the free energy with respect to the external field, is continuous
across the transition) but exhibit discontinuity in a second derivative of the free energy.[6] These include the
ferromagnetic phase transition in materials such as iron, where the magnetization, which is the first
derivative of the free energy with respect to the applied magnetic field strength, increases continuously from
zero as the temperature is lowered below the Curie temperature. The magnetic susceptibility, the second
derivative of the free energy with the field, changes discontinuously. Under the Ehrenfest classification
scheme, there could in principle be third, fourth, and higher-order phase transitions. For example, the
Gross–Witten–Wadia phase transition in 2-d lattice quantum chromodynamics is a third-order phase
transition.[7][8] The Curie points of many ferromagnetics is also a third-order transition, as shown by their
specific heat having a sudden change in slope.[9][10]

The Ehrenfest classification implicitly allows for continuous phase transformations, where the bonding
character of a material changes, but there is no discontinuity in any free energy derivative. An example of
this occurs at the supercritical liquid–gas boundaries.

The first example of a phase transition which did not fit into the Ehrenfest classification was the exact
solution of the Ising model, discovered in 1944 by Lars Onsager. The exact specific heat differed from the
earlier mean-field approximations, which had predicted that it has a simple discontinuity at critical
temperature. Instead, the exact specific heat had a logarithmic divergence at the critical temperature.[11] In
the following decades, the Ehrenfest classification was replaced by a simplified classification scheme that is
able to incorporate such transitions.

Modern classifications

In the modern classification scheme, phase transitions are divided into two broad categories, named
similarly to the Ehrenfest classes:[5]
First-order phase transitions are those that involve a latent heat. During such a transition, a system either
absorbs or releases a fixed (and typically large) amount of energy per volume. During this process, the
temperature of the system will stay constant as heat is added: the system is in a "mixed-phase regime" in
which some parts of the system have completed the transition and others have not.[12][13]

Familiar examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water (the water does not instantly turn into vapor,
but forms a turbulent mixture of liquid water and vapor bubbles). Yoseph Imry and Michael Wortis showed
that quenched disorder can broaden a first-order transition. That is, the transformation is completed over a
finite range of temperatures, but phenomena like supercooling and superheating survive and hysteresis is
observed on thermal cycling.[14][15][16]

Second-order phase transitions are also called "continuous phase transitions". They are characterized by
a divergent susceptibility, an infinite correlation length, and a power law decay of correlations near
criticality. Examples of second-order phase transitions are the ferromagnetic transition, superconducting
transition (for a Type-I superconductor the phase transition is second-order at zero external field and for a
Type-II superconductor the phase transition is second-order for both normal-state–mixed-state and mixed-
state–superconducting-state transitions) and the superfluid transition. In contrast to viscosity, thermal
expansion and heat capacity of amorphous materials show a relatively sudden change at the glass transition
temperature[17] which enables accurate detection using differential scanning calorimetry measurements.
Lev Landau gave a phenomenological theory of second-order phase transitions.

Apart from isolated, simple phase transitions, there exist transition lines as well as multicritical points, when
varying external parameters like the magnetic field or composition.

Several transitions are known as infinite-order phase transitions. They are continuous but break no
symmetries. The most famous example is the Kosterlitz–Thouless transition in the two-dimensional XY
model. Many quantum phase transitions, e.g., in two-dimensional electron gases, belong to this class.

The liquid–glass transition is observed in many polymers and other liquids that can be supercooled far
below the melting point of the crystalline phase. This is atypical in several respects. It is not a transition
between thermodynamic ground states: it is widely believed that the true ground state is always crystalline.
Glass is a quenched disorder state, and its entropy, density, and so on, depend on the thermal history.
Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic phenomenon: on cooling a liquid, internal degrees of
freedom successively fall out of equilibrium. Some theoretical methods predict an underlying phase
transition in the hypothetical limit of infinitely long relaxation times.[18][19] No direct experimental
evidence supports the existence of these transitions.

The gelation transition of colloidal particles has been shown to be a second-order phase transition under
nonequilibrium conditions.[20]

Characteristic properties

Phase coexistence

A disorder-broadened first-order transition occurs over a finite range of temperatures where the fraction of
the low-temperature equilibrium phase grows from zero to one (100%) as the temperature is lowered. This
continuous variation of the coexisting fractions with temperature raised interesting possibilities. On cooling,
some liquids vitrify into a glass rather than transform to the equilibrium crystal phase. This happens if the
cooling rate is faster than a critical cooling rate, and is attributed to the molecular motions becoming so slow
that the molecules cannot rearrange into the crystal positions.[21] This slowing down happens below a
glass-formation temperature Tg , which may depend on the applied pressure.[17][22] If the first-order
freezing transition occurs over a range of temperatures, and Tg falls within this range, then there is an
interesting possibility that the transition is arrested when it is partial and incomplete. Extending these ideas
to first-order magnetic transitions being arrested at low temperatures, resulted in the observation of
incomplete magnetic transitions, with two magnetic phases coexisting, down to the lowest temperature.
First reported in the case of a ferromagnetic to anti-ferromagnetic transition,[23] such persistent phase
coexistence has now been reported across a variety of first-order magnetic transitions. These include
colossal-magnetoresistance manganite materials,[24][25] magnetocaloric materials,[26] magnetic shape
memory materials,[27] and other materials.[28] The interesting feature of these observations of Tg falling
within the temperature range over which the transition occurs is that the first-order magnetic transition is
influenced by magnetic field, just like the structural transition is influenced by pressure. The relative ease
with which magnetic fields can be controlled, in contrast to pressure, raises the possibility that one can
study the interplay between Tg and Tc in an exhaustive way. Phase coexistence across first-order magnetic
transitions will then enable the resolution of outstanding issues in understanding glasses.

Critical points

In any system containing liquid and gaseous phases, there exists a special combination of pressure and
temperature, known as the critical point, at which the transition between liquid and gas becomes a second-
order transition. Near the critical point, the fluid is sufficiently hot and compressed that the distinction
between the liquid and gaseous phases is almost non-existent. This is associated with the phenomenon of
critical opalescence, a milky appearance of the liquid due to density fluctuations at all possible wavelengths
(including those of visible light).

Symmetry

Phase transitions often involve a symmetry breaking process. For instance, the cooling of a fluid into a
crystalline solid breaks continuous translation symmetry: each point in the fluid has the same properties, but
each point in a crystal does not have the same properties (unless the points are chosen from the lattice points
of the crystal lattice). Typically, the high-temperature phase contains more symmetries than the low-
temperature phase due to spontaneous symmetry breaking, with the exception of certain accidental
symmetries (e.g. the formation of heavy virtual particles, which only occurs at low temperatures).[29]

Order parameters

An order parameter is a measure of the degree of order across the boundaries in a phase transition system;
it normally ranges between zero in one phase (usually above the critical point) and nonzero in the other.[30]
At the critical point, the order parameter susceptibility will usually diverge.

An example of an order parameter is the net magnetization in a ferromagnetic system undergoing a phase
transition. For liquid/gas transitions, the order parameter is the difference of the densities.

From a theoretical perspective, order parameters arise from symmetry breaking. When this happens, one
needs to introduce one or more extra variables to describe the state of the system. For example, in the
ferromagnetic phase, one must provide the net magnetization, whose direction was spontaneously chosen
when the system cooled below the Curie point. However, note that order parameters can also be defined for
non-symmetry-breaking transitions.
Some phase transitions, such as superconducting and ferromagnetic, can have order parameters for more
than one degree of freedom. In such phases, the order parameter may take the form of a complex number, a
vector, or even a tensor, the magnitude of which goes to zero at the phase transition.

There also exist dual descriptions of phase transitions in terms of disorder parameters. These indicate the
presence of line-like excitations such as vortex- or defect lines.

Relevance in cosmology

Symmetry-breaking phase transitions play an important role in cosmology. As the universe expanded and
cooled, the vacuum underwent a series of symmetry-breaking phase transitions. For example, the
electroweak transition broke the SU(2)×U(1) symmetry of the electroweak field into the U(1) symmetry of
the present-day electromagnetic field. This transition is important to explain the asymmetry between the
amount of matter and antimatter in the present-day universe, according to electroweak baryogenesis theory.

Progressive phase transitions in an expanding universe are implicated in the development of order in the
universe, as is illustrated by the work of Eric Chaisson[31] and David Layzer.[32]

See also relational order theories and order and disorder.

Critical exponents and universality classes

Continuous phase transitions are easier to study than first-order transitions due to the absence of latent heat,
and they have been discovered to have many interesting properties. The phenomena associated with
continuous phase transitions are called critical phenomena, due to their association with critical points.

Continuous phase transitions can be characterized by parameters known as critical exponents. The most
important one is perhaps the exponent describing the divergence of the thermal correlation length by
approaching the transition. For instance, let us examine the behavior of the heat capacity near such a
transition. We vary the temperature T of the system while keeping all the other thermodynamic variables
fixed and find that the transition occurs at some critical temperature Tc. When T is near Tc, the heat capacity
C typically has a power law behavior:

The heat capacity of amorphous materials has such a behaviour near the glass transition temperature where
the universal critical exponent α = 0.59[33] A similar behavior, but with the exponent ν instead of α, applies
for the correlation length.

The exponent ν is positive. This is different with α. Its actual value depends on the type of phase transition
we are considering.

The critical exponents are not necessarily the same above and below the critical temperature. When a
continuous symmetry is explicitly broken down to a discrete symmetry by irrelevant (in the renormalization
group sense) anisotropies, then some exponents (such as , the exponent of the susceptibility) are not
identical.[34]

For −1 < α < 0, the heat capacity has a "kink" at the transition temperature. This is the behavior of liquid
helium at the lambda transition from a normal state to the superfluid state, for which experiments have
found α = −0.013 ± 0.003. At least one experiment was performed in the zero-gravity conditions of an
orbiting satellite to minimize pressure differences in the sample.[35] This experimental value of α agrees
with theoretical predictions based on variational perturbation theory.[36]

For 0 < α < 1, the heat capacity diverges at the transition temperature (though, since α < 1, the enthalpy
stays finite). An example of such behavior is the 3D ferromagnetic phase transition. In the three-
dimensional Ising model for uniaxial magnets, detailed theoretical studies have yielded the exponent α ≈
+0.110.

Some model systems do not obey a power-law behavior. For example, mean field theory predicts a finite
discontinuity of the heat capacity at the transition temperature, and the two-dimensional Ising model has a
logarithmic divergence. However, these systems are limiting cases and an exception to the rule. Real phase
transitions exhibit power-law behavior.

Several other critical exponents, β, γ, δ, ν, and η, are defined, examining the power law behavior of a
measurable physical quantity near the phase transition. Exponents are related by scaling relations, such as

It can be shown that there are only two independent exponents, e.g. ν and η.

It is a remarkable fact that phase transitions arising in different systems often possess the same set of critical
exponents. This phenomenon is known as universality. For example, the critical exponents at the liquid–gas
critical point have been found to be independent of the chemical composition of the fluid.

More impressively, but understandably from above, they are an exact match for the critical exponents of the
ferromagnetic phase transition in uniaxial magnets. Such systems are said to be in the same universality
class. Universality is a prediction of the renormalization group theory of phase transitions, which states that
the thermodynamic properties of a system near a phase transition depend only on a small number of
features, such as dimensionality and symmetry, and are insensitive to the underlying microscopic properties
of the system. Again, the divergence of the correlation length is the essential point.

Critical phenomena

There are also other critical phenomena; e.g., besides static functions there is also critical dynamics. As a
consequence, at a phase transition one may observe critical slowing down or speeding up. Connected to the
previous phenomenon is also the phenomenon of enhanced fluctuations before the phase transition, as a
consequence of lower degree of stability of the initial phase of the system. The large static universality
classes of a continuous phase transition split into smaller dynamic universality classes. In addition to the
critical exponents, there are also universal relations for certain static or dynamic functions of the magnetic
fields and temperature differences from the critical value.

Phase transitions in biological systems

Phase transitions play many important roles in biological systems. Examples include the lipid bilayer
formation, the coil-globule transition in the process of protein folding and DNA melting, liquid crystal-like
transitions in the process of DNA condensation, and cooperative ligand binding to DNA and proteins with
the character of phase transition.[37]

In biological membranes, gel to liquid crystalline phase transitions play a critical role in physiological
functioning of biomembranes. In gel phase, due to low fluidity of membrane lipid fatty-acyl chains,
membrane proteins have restricted movement and thus are restrained in exercise of their physiological role.
Plants depend critically on photosynthesis by chloroplast thylakoid membranes which are exposed cold
environmental temperatures. Thylakoid membranes retain innate fluidity even at relatively low temperatures
because of high degree of fatty-acyl disorder allowed by their high content of linolenic acid, 18-carbon
chain with 3-double bonds.[38] Gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature of biological
membranes can be determined by many techniques including calorimetry, fluorescence, spin label electron
paramagnetic resonance and NMR by recording measurements of the concerned parameter by at series of
sample temperatures. A simple method for its determination from 13-C NMR line intensities has also been
proposed.[39]

It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points. Examples include neural
networks in the salamander retina,[40] bird flocks[41] gene expression networks in Drosophila,[42] and
protein folding.[43] However, it is not clear whether or not alternative reasons could explain some of the
phenomena supporting arguments for criticality.[44] It has also been suggested that biological organisms
share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a
system at a critical point.[45] Phase transitions are prominent feature of motor behavior in biological
systems.[46] Spontaneous gait transitions,[47] as well as fatigue-induced motor task disengagements,[48]
show typical critical behavior as an intimation of the sudden qualitative change of the previously stable
motor behavioral pattern.

The characteristic feature of second order phase transitions is the appearance of fractals in some scale-free
properties. It has long been known that protein globules are shaped by interactions with water. There are 20
amino acids that form side groups on protein peptide chains range from hydrophilic to hydrophobic,
causing the former to lie near the globular surface, while the latter lie closer to the globular center. Twenty
fractals were discovered in solvent associated surface areas of > 5000 protein segments.[49] The existence
of these fractals proves that proteins function near critical points of second-order phase transitions.

In groups of organisms in stress (when approaching critical transitions), correlations tend to increase, while
at the same time, fluctuations also increase. This effect is supported by many experiments and observations
of groups of people, mice, trees, and grassy plants.[50]

Experimental
A variety of methods are applied for studying the various effects. Selected examples are:

Thermogravimetry (very common)

X-ray diffraction
Neutron diffraction
Raman Spectroscopy
SQUID (measurement of magnetic transitions)
Hall effect (measurement of magnetic transitions)
Mössbauer spectroscopy (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic
transitions. Limited up to about 800–1000 °C)
Perturbed angular correlation (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic
transitions. No temperature limits. Over 2000 °C already performed, theoretical possible up
to the highest crystal material, such as tantalum hafnium carbide 4215 °C.)

See also
Allotropy
Autocatalytic reactions and order creation
 Crystal growth
Abnormal grain growth
Differential scanning calorimetry
Diffusionless transformations
Ehrenfest equations
Jamming (physics)
Kelvin probe force microscope
Landau theory of second order phase transitions
Laser-heated pedestal growth
List of states of matter
Micro-pulling-down
Percolation theory
Continuum percolation theory
Superfluid film
Superradiant phase transition
Topological quantum field theory

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Further reading
Anderson, P.W., Basic Notions of Condensed Matter Physics, Perseus Publishing (1997).
Faghri, A., and Zhang, Y., Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat Transfer and Flow (https://www.
springer.com/gp/book/9783030221362), Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020.
Fisher, M.E. (1974). "The renormalization group in the theory of critical behavior". Rev. Mod.
Phys. 46 (4): 597–616. Bibcode:1974RvMP...46..597F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
74RvMP...46..597F). doi:10.1103/revmodphys.46.597 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Frevmodph
ys.46.597).
Goldenfeld, N., Lectures on Phase Transitions and the Renormalization Group, Perseus
Publishing (1992).
Ivancevic, Vladimir G; Ivancevic, Tijana T (2008), Chaos, Phase Transitions, Topology
Change and Path Integrals (https://books.google.com/books?id=wpsPgHgtxEYC&q=comple
x+nonlinearity), Berlin: Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-79356-4, retrieved 14 March 2013
M.R.Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, Ice Phase Transition as a sample of finite system phase
transition, (Physics Education(India)Volume 32. No. 2, Apr - Jun 2016)[1] (http://www.physed
u.in/uploads/publication/23/371/4.-Ice-Phase-transition-as-a-sample-of-finite-system-phase--
transition.pdf)
Kleinert, H., Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. I, "Superfluid and Vortex lines;
Disorder Fields, Phase Transitions", pp. 1–742, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989) (https://ar
chive.today/20060514143926/http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/0356.htm); Paperback
ISBN 9971-5-0210-0 (readable online physik.fu-berlin.de (http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kle
inert/kleiner_reb1/contents1.html))
Kleinert, H. and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, Critical Properties of φ4-Theories, World
Scientific (Singapore, 2001) (https://web.archive.org/web/20080226151023/http://www.world
scibooks.com/physics/4733.html); Paperback ISBN 981-02-4659-5 (readable online here [2]
(http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b8)).
Kogut, J.; Wilson, K (1974). "The Renormalization Group and the epsilon-Expansion". Phys.
Rep. 12 (2): 75–199. Bibcode:1974PhR....12...75W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974
 PhR....12...75W). doi:10.1016/0370-1573(74)90023-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-157
3%2874%2990023-4).
Krieger, Martin H., Constitutions of matter : mathematically modelling the most everyday of
physical phenomena, University of Chicago Press, 1996. Contains a detailed pedagogical
discussion of Onsager's solution of the 2-D Ising Model.
Landau, L.D. and Lifshitz, E.M., Statistical Physics Part 1, vol. 5 of Course of Theoretical
Physics, Pergamon Press, 3rd Ed. (1994).
Mussardo G., "Statistical Field Theory. An Introduction to Exactly Solved Models of
Statistical Physics", Oxford University Press, 2010.
Schroeder, Manfred R., Fractals, chaos, power laws : minutes from an infinite paradise, New
York: W. H. Freeman, 1991. Very well-written book in "semi-popular" style—not a textbook—
aimed at an audience with some training in mathematics and the physical sciences.
Explains what scaling in phase transitions is all about, among other things.
H. E. Stanley, Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena (Oxford University
Press, Oxford and New York 1971).
Yeomans J. M., Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transitions, Oxford University Press, 1992.

External links
Interactive Phase Transitions on lattices (http://www.ibiblio.org/e-notes/Perc/contents.htm)
with Java applets
Universality classes (https://web.archive.org/web/20160204235430/http://www.sklogwiki.or
g/SklogWiki/index.php/Universality_classes) from Sklogwiki

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