Academic Communication

Expository and
Argumentative
Essays
GE FTF TEAM
July 2021

Expository Essays
The purpose of expository writing is to explain something, that is, to provide readers with
information worth knowing and thinking about. It also teaches important facts and presents
exhaustive information on a topic. Written in 3rd person (using “it”, “he”, “she”, “they”), expository
essays use formal language to discuss someone or something.

Elements of an Expository Essay

1. Quality of Content
The phrase "quality of content" refers to the significance of the writer's topic, the depth of the
writer’s knowledge and analysis of the topic, * and the appropriateness of the writer’s discussion
and treatment of the topic. Depth of analysis is also the main feature of strong development.

2. Clarity of Thesis
A thesis concisely states the central point of the essay. It is often called the controlling idea or
main idea because every subsequent part of the essay should support it. The thesis usually
appears in an essay's opening paragraphs so that the reader will know exactly what point the
essay will discuss. Often, professional writers state their topic and direction in the introduction
but reveal the full thesis as the essay progresses.

3. Development
A well-developed essay demonstrates depth of analysis and discussion. It includes a sufficient
number of representative and accurate facts, examples, details, and explanations to convince
readers that the thesis is significant and worth their consideration. The reasoning must be clear,
logical, and free of error (no important information or assumptions are left out; compared things
are comparable; generalizations are qualified and based on sufficient evidence).

4. Unity and Coherence

Unity: All sentences in a paragraph must relate to and support the point of the paragraph; all
paragraphs in an essay must relate to and support the thesis of the essay. Irrelevant material
disrupts the reader’s attention.

Coherence: When paragraphs and essays have coherence, readers can easily understand the
relationship between the ideas in one sentence and those in the next and between the ideas in
one paragraph and those in the next. In order to achieve coherence, writers should always place
their sentences and paragraphs in a logical order. In addition, writers should provide smooth
transitions between two sentences or paragraphs in one or both of the following ways: (1) by
using connective words and expressions, such as in addition to or in contrast and (2) by
repeating or referring to key words, phrases, events, or ideas that have already been
introduced.

5. Word Choice
Writers should choose words that are consistent with standard English usage and appropriate for
the context. They should also be sure that the words they choose convey the meaning intended.
Slang, clichés, vague words (nice, fine) and the overuse of any one term should not appear in
the writing.

6. Sentence Variety
Writers who use the same length and type of sentence to express each thought miss two vital
points: variety helps convey meaning and increases reader interest. In the paragraph below, the
writer uses a variety of sentence lengths and types to convey an important message.

The best students are not always those who memorize every fact in their school books, score
well on multiple-choice tests, and raise their hands during every lecture to pin down each
definition. The best students are thinkers. These are the students who grasp the larger picture,
filling in details as they relate to the whole. They look for connections, differences, patterns, and
analogies among ideas. They ask about causes and effects, never consider any answer
complete or final, and never stop wondering. The best students combine logic and imagination
to propose, test, and refine ideas; they are constantly revising their picture of the world. The
best students understand that learning how to think is the most important thing to know.

7. Tone
The tone of an essay conveys the writer's attitude toward the subject and the audience. The tone
may be enthusiastic, optimistic, humorous, friendly, matter-of-fact, serious, sincere, concerned,
impassioned, cynical, pessimistic, or hostile, to name just a few possibilities. Tone results from
the combined effect of word choice, sentence style, imagery, emphasis, and rhythm. It is
important for writers to be aware of their tone because tone is often a deciding factor in how well
their ideas are received.

8. Reader Adaptation
If a paper is well adapted to the reader, it provides all needed information and states that
information in a clear manner that is appropriate for the intended audience. All too often
beginning writers insist that what they have written is perfectly clear, not realizing that they
possess much more knowledge about what they intended to say than their readers do.
Remember this rule: All good writers learn to look at their work from the reader’s point of view.

Expository Essay Organization

Introduction Paragraph

Hook Start your paper with a general statement about your topic that catches the
reader’s attention, a relevant quotation, question, anecdote, fascinating fact,
definition, analogy, the position opposing one you will take, or a dilemma
that needs a solution.

Context Provide the information the reader will need to understand the topic.

Thesis State your arguable position on the topic that you will
support with evidence in your body paragraphs.

Body Paragraphs

Topic Provide the main idea of the paragraph.

Sentence

Supporting Include specific textual evidence: cited quotes, paraphrases or summary; or

Evidence evidence that supports your thesis from other sources: anecdotes, first-
person interviews or your own experience.

Analysis Explain to the reader the significance of the evidence you have provided.
Think about why you chose to include it. How does the piece of evidence
support your thesis?

Transition Connect each paragraph with a sentence or two that demonstrates how
each idea leads into the next, and how they work together to support your
position.

Conclusion - Provide the reader an overview of the main ideas you discussed, but
also be sure to highlight the progression of your thought process, offer solutions,
next steps or present new questions that your paper generated. Don’t only restate
your thesis but show the significance of your synthesis of the information.

Argumentative Essay
Argumentative essays often deal with complex and controversial issues, where choosing a side
is not just a matter of common sense or easy moral judgment. It differs from an opinion (or
expository) essay in that you cannot rely on widely held assumptions or personal experience to
argue your points. When writing this type of essay, you must clearly state a position and defend
it using evidence obtained through extensive research. Your task, therefore, is to persuade the
reader that your position, or thesis, is valid through your analysis of evidence from a variety of
sources.

Things to Remember
1. Don’t inform, persuade! Don’t describe, argue!
Keep in mind that while the reader should come away from your essay knowing more than s/he
did before, your job is not simply to inform her/him about your topic. Before you begin writing,
ask yourself questions such as “how and why would someone reject my position and how might
I respond?” and “what types of evidence are most likely to persuade my reader?” As your goal is
to influence the reader’s view on your topic, use a strategic approach to obtain the desired result.

2. Persuasion through refutation

To appear credible, ethical and unbiased (and therefore persuade your reader), you must be
able to 1) fairly evaluate arguments that contradict your thesis and then 2) refute those
arguments. One or more of your body paragraphs can be committed to this task. Be careful not
to be dismissive towards opposing points of view. Your essay should give the impression that
you’ve considered all sides of an issue and that, in light of your research, you have chosen the
stronger position.

3. Consider your audience

While you can generally assume your reader is your teacher or a well-informed peer, you may
be asked to write an argumentative paper for a specific audience. For example, if you are trying
to convince an expert as opposed to someone with only casual knowledge of your topic, the
types of evidence and even the terms you use will differ. If writing for a hostile audience (people
who you expect will disagree with you), you have to work harder to anticipate counter-
arguments and focus on establishing common ground between your diverging positions. In
short, tailoring your essay to its audience will help make it more persuasive. Ask yourself the
following:

• What does your audience value and believe? Keep these things in mind when writing the
paper! Your argument is going to be more convincing if you show that you have taken the
situation of your audience into account.
• What side of the argument do they favor? Are you trying to convince someone who
probably already agrees with you, or is the reader someone you need to convince to
think otherwise?
• How will their interests be affected by the issue? In other words, why should your audience
care about this issue? This question can also be broader—why should anyone care
about this issue?
• What kind of evidence will be most effective with them? Because you are writing a college
level paper, the type of evidence you want to use should be based on reputable research
and sound logic.

4. Become an expert: research

Many topics worthy of discussion have been debated at length for generations. Keep in mind
you are joining a conversation, not beginning one; before you contribute your ideas, you need to
know what has already been said. If you’re arguing for or against the legalization of euthanasia,
for example, you should have a grasp of the issue’s historical context, recent developments,
ethical and moral considerations, case study findings, legal status, etc. Even if you don’t include
all of the background information in your essay, your research will help you come across as
knowledgeable and credible. Ask a librarian or your teacher for help in finding suitable sources.

What type of evidence do I use to support my argument? The evidence can be in many forms,
but make sure it is reputable and clearly connects to the point you are trying to make.

• Statistics— always investigate how this data was achieved. This could influence the
credibility of the information.
• Factual data—this data should be widely agreed on by most people, or supported by other
reliable information.
• Reputable opinions and claims—make sure the individuals have the credentials to be
making these claims and are respected in their fields.
• Relevant Personal Testimony—the testimony might be from individuals directly involved in
the issue you are investigating. They may be able to provide first-hand experience that
will help validate your argument.

Argumentative Essay Organization

Introductory Paragraph

Hook The hook explains the importance of the issue and summarizes the
opposing side’s arguments very briefly.

Connecting This provides the context and background information; this sets the
information stage or the context for the position you are arguing for.

Thesis statement The thesis states what your position on an issue is. It usually
appears at the end of the introduction in a short essay. It should be
clearly stated and often contains emphatic language (should,
ought, must).

Body Paragraphs

Background This section of your paper gives the reader the basic information he
Information or she needs to understand your position. This could be part of the
introduction, but may work as its own section.
 Reasons or All evidence you present in this section should support your
Evidences to position. This is the heart of your essay. Generally, you begin with
Support Your a general statement that you backup with specific details or
Claim examples. Depending on how long your argument is, you will need
to devote one to two well-developed paragraphs to each
reason/claim or type of evidence.

Types of evidence include:

• first-hand examples and experiential knowledge on your topic
(specific examples help your readers connect to your topic
in a way they cannot with abstract ideas)
• Opinions from recognized authorities

• The tipsheet on the three logical appeals covers the types of

evidence you can use in argumentation.

Addressing the Any well-written argument must anticipate and address positions in
Opposite Side/ opposition to the one being argued.
Counterargument • Pointing out what your opposition is likely to say in response to
your argument shows that you have thought critically about
your topic. Addressing the opposite side actually makes
your argument stronger!
• Generally, this takes the form of a paragraph that can be
placed either after the introduction or before the conclusion.

Conclusion - The conclusion should bring the essay to a logical end. It should
explain what the importance of your issue is in a larger context. Your conclusion
should also reiterate why your topic is worth caring about.
• Some arguments propose solutions or make predictions on the future of the
topic.
• Show your reader what would happen if your argument is or is not believed or
acted upon as you believe it should be.

Resources:
• Argumentative Essays. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2021, from

http://www.vaniercollege.qc.ca/tlc/files/2013/10/argumentative-essays.pdf • Classic
Model for an Argument. (n.d.). In valenciacollege.edu. Retrieved July 5, 2021, from
https://valenciacollege.edu/students/learning-support/winter-park/communications/ •
Structure of a General Expository Essay. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2021, from
https://www.mtsac.edu/eops/tutoring/StructureofaGeneralExpositoryEssay.pdf • The
Elements of Effective Expository Writing. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2021, from
https://www.owen.k12.ky.us/userfiles/255/Classes/7000/0-ELEMENTS.nolines.PDF •
Writing an Argumentative or Position Paper. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2021, from
 https://www.strose.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Writing-an-Argumentative2.pdf

Subject-Verb Agreement (SVA)

Verbs have a singular and a plural form. When using a verb in a sentence, pay attention to the
subject-verb agreement. This means that the subject and the verb must agree in number.

Important Rules of SVA

1. When you have a sentence that uses I or you as the subject, even though the subject is
singular, the verb takes the plural form.
• I eat broccoli.

• You play the piano.

2. Another time when subjects and verbs do not have to agree is when the verbs are written
in the past tense. In this case, the form of the verb is the same no matter what the subject
is.
• Maria talked on the phone.

• My parents talked on the phone.

• Dad washed the car.

• They washed the car.

3. If there are prepositional phrases between the subject and verb, they don't affect the
agreement.
• The ice from the Arctic began to melt.

• The drops of rain fell on my face.

4. In a sentence that starts with here or there, the subject is after the verb, so you must
pay attention to make sure the two agree.
• There are my shoes.

• Here is my shirt.

5. In questions, sometimes the subject does not always come right before the verb.
So, you must pay attention to make sure the two agree.
• Do you want to come over to my house?

• How did Sarah find us?

6. When a word such as each, every, or no comes before the subject, you will always use
a singular verb.
• No dog or cat plays baseball.

• Every student needs a pencil.

7. Two subjects joined by the word and need a plural verb.

 • Gil and Kelly race to the park.

• Dogs and cats smell the flowers.

8. Singular subjects connected by words such as or, neither/nor, or either/or make the
verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb
• Either Jack or Russell is guilty.

• Neither the lab assistant nor the students were able to download the information.

9. When writing about units of measurement or time, use a singular

verb. • Five hours was all it took to complete my homework.
• Four gallons of milk is enough for the recipe.

10. Indefinite pronouns, such as somebody, everybody, everyone, and someone, use
singular verbs.
• Everybody arrives on the 15 of the month.
th

• Somebody needs to hear this.

11. Words such as athletics, economics, measles and news are usually singular despite their plural
form.
• Statistics is among the most difficult courses in our program
12. Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, and gerund phrases are
singular. • Lost Cities describes the discoveries of many ancient civilizations.
• Delmonico Brothers specializes in organic produce and additive-free meats.

Action, Linking, and Helping Verbs

Verbs are words used to describe an action, occurrence, or state of being. They form the main
part of the predicate of a sentence. Verbs are also the drivers of written and spoken English,
since they animate the conversation or article.

There are three types of verbs; action, linking and helping (auxiliary). The different types of verbs
have varying degrees of impact; it is important to choose the correct verb and type of verb to suit
the particular situation such as business English.

What is an Action Verb?

In every sentence you have two main parts. First, there’s a subject. This is usually a noun or
pronoun. Second, you have an action or “state of being” word. This word describes information
about the subject.

When the word describing the subject is an action verb, the reader or listener understands what
action the subject takes. It’s important to learn about action verbs because these words convey a
variety of different actions that are both mental and physical. By increasing the number of action
verbs, you use in conversation, you can accurately describe to listeners what a subject is doing.
No action verb definition is complete without understanding two types of an action verb. In fact,
the next section will explain more.

What is an Action Verb? Defining the Transitive

A transitive action verb definition describes an action taken. However, this type of verb also
affects a direct object. The direct object can be another noun or pronoun. Additionally, this type
of action verb can even affect a phrase or clause. Let’s review some transitive action verb
examples and compile a list of action verbs:

• Fred’s going to buy a comic book.

Without knowing the direct object (in this case a comic book) you wouldn’t understand what Fred
is going to buy. That’s what makes the word buy transitive. See if you can identify the direct
object in the next two action verb examples.

• Stacy is washing her dirty dishes.

Stacy (the subject) is washing (the verb) her dirty dishes (the direct

object.) • Can you check whether the front door is locked?

You (the subject) should check (the verb) the front door (the direct object) to determine if it’s
locked.

What is an Action Verb? Defining the Intransitive

Whereas a transitive word requires a direct object, an intransitive word does not. That’s because
these action verbs describe what the subject of a sentence does to itself. Thus, it does not act
upon a direct object. Here are some intransitive action verb examples:

• I can’t stop crying.

This action only impacts the subject, who cries continuously.

• Stacy always arrives to work ten minutes late.

The action verb arrives is followed by the location work. In this case, work is a preposition of
place and not a direct object. You can also say, “Stacy always arrives ten minutes late,” and the
sentence would still retain its meaning.

An Action Verb Definition

Considering that there are two ways to describe action verbs, a good action verb definition
describes what a subject does involving physical and mental action verbs. These words can
even explain the impact the action has on the subject itself, or the impact it has on a direct
object. The other is called resume action verbs, but we will get to those in the next section.

What is a Linking Verb?

To be, to feel, and to become are linking verbs examples. A linking verb connects a subject to
the words that describe what the subject is. Linking words, unlike action verbs, do not describe
actions. Instead, a linking verb definition describes a state of being.
Examples of Linking Verbs
Examples of linking verbs include: to be, to become, and to seem. These three examples are
always linking verbs. In addition, you have a linking verb: to appear, to feel, to look, to smell, to
sound, and to taste. These words act as either action or linking verbs, depending on whether
they express an action or not. Here are some linking verb examples.

• Pete is my favorite dog.

• That car was incredibly fast.

• I am happy that I passed my math exam!

• The house smells like the ocean breeze.

• Nancy feels a bit sick today.

Although linking verbs such as smells and feels can describe actions in the above examples,
they help connect the subject to the predicate. They aren’t used in these examples of linking
verbs to express any action but instead describes a state of being. Sometimes an action word
can be
considered both an action or a linking verb. Linking verb examples include remain, prove, and
grow but depending on the context in which the word is used can also be defined as action
words.

What is a Helping Verb? The Auxiliary Form

In some sentences you have multiple actions or linking verbs. One action or linking verb is often
more important in the sentence than the other. The second action or linking verb simply provides
additional meaning and assists the main word. Turns out a helping action assists with answering
what are linking verbs and linking verb examples.

What is a helping verb exactly? A helping word adds both emphasis to your sentences and
describes the possibility of something happening. There are two types of helping verbs: auxiliary
and modal.

Auxiliary words include the tenses of to be, to have, and to do. If you find a sentence with
multiple actions or being words, such as to be, to have, or to do, then you know these words are
in their auxiliary form. Here are some helping verb example sentences that include an auxiliary:

• Jacob is running another marathon this weekend.

• Her father has not made dinner for us yet.

• I am reading my favorite book right now.

The second type of helping verb is known as a modal. Modals include the words: can, could,
might, may, should, shall, will, would, must, and ought to. You can use a modal helping verb to
discuss possibility and obligation. Here is a modal helping verb example:

• May I use your bathroom please?

• More than likely you can, but there’s a chance that whoever you’re asking will not let you
use the bathroom.
 • You must make this basket to win the game!

• You might need to, but there’s a chance that you miss the basket and lose the game. •
Could Steve give me a hand with the groceries?

Helping words can also be used in the past perfect, present perfect and future perfect tenses.
Look at these examples of a helping word at work:

• He will finish doing his chores before playing outside.

• Lily has delivered the packages to the post office.

As you can see the perfect tenses are italicized whereas the helping verbs are bolded. In this
case, the tenses take the form of to be and to have as the helping verb in the sentence indicating
points in time when the verb was or will be completed. The bolded word is identified as the main
verb.

One more thing before jotting down what is a helping verb; adverbs that appear in between
action words do not count as helping words. For example, words like not, always, never, often
and sometimes are just some of the few.

References:
Action, Linking and Helping Verbs Multiple Choice Test. (n.d.). Review Game Zone. Retrieved July 23, 2021, from
https://reviewgamezone.com/mc/candidate/test/?test_id=23198&title=Action%20Linking%20And%20Helping
%20Verbs Linking Verbs, Helping Verbs, and Action Verbs. (n.d.). Citation Machine. Retrieved July 23, 2021, from
https://www.citationmachine.net/resources/grammar-guides/verb/linking-action-helping/
Subject Verb Agreement Lesson (n.d.). Turtle Diary. Retrieved July 23, 2021, from https://www.turtlediary.com/lesson/subject-verb
agreement.html

Transitions and Conjunctions

Conjunctions and Transitions are used to connect ideas, paragraphs and sentences. Without
these forms, fluent writing and speech would be much more difficult. Although most native
speakers are aware of the grammatical differences, transitions and conjunctions are used in
different ways, even if the same word can be used as either a transition or a conjunction.

Transitional Phrases
Transitional phrases follow a full stop and form a new sentence. Transitional phrases are also
separated from the following sentence by a comma.

Examples:

• Susan told her boss she was pregnant. As a result, he dismissed her two weeks later.
(Consequence)
• The handsome millionaire Paul Ryder is looking for a new wife after his divorce. However,
he is very unfriendly. (Contrast)
• Generally, Politicians are honest. However, the job also attracts many dishonest people.
(Generalisation and Contrast)
• It was snowing outside. Despite that, we decided to take the dog for a walk. (Comparison)
Showing consequences or effects Adding Information Exemplifying Generalizing - As a
result - In addition - For instance - Generally - Consequently - Furthermore - In particular
- On the whole

- Therefore - Likewise - Specifically -Generally Speaking

- For this reason - Finally - As an illustration - As a rule

Emphasizing Summarizing Comparison Contrast - Above all - In the end -

Similarly - However - Especially - Overall - Likewise - On the other hand

- In fact - All things - Despite that - On the contrary considered

- Of course - All in all - In the same way - Regardless Coordinating

Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is used in a sentence and follows a comma. It is used to join two
clauses.

Common Conjunctions:

• And : Used to add information

• But : Used to show a contrast

• So : Used to show a consequence or effect

• Or : Used to show a choice or alternative

Examples:

• We all know smoking is bad for our health, but many people smoke anyway. •
He studied very hard this year, so he passed the exam easily.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions are used to create complex sentences. A subordinating conjunction
does not need to be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. They can be used at
the start of a sentence, or in the middle. When a subordinating conjunction is used at the start of
a sentence its meaning (or strength) is emphasized. When the conjunction is used in the middle
of a sentence its meaning is weaker.

Examples:

• Although we all know smoking is bad for our health, many people still smoke. •
 Many people still smoke despite knowing smoking is bad for their health. • They
went out for a walk despite the cold wind.
• Despite the cold wind, they went out for a walk.

• The students passed their exams because they had studied hard.

• Because the students had studied hard, they passed their exams easily.

Function Conjunctions and Transitions

Addition Also, Again, And, And then, As well as, Besides, Coupled with,
Equally important, First, Finally, Furthermore, In addition, In the first
place, Last, Likewise, Moreover, Next, Plus, Second, Still, Too

Concession Accordingly, Granted, Naturally, Of course

Consequence Accordingly, As a result, Consequently, For this reason, For this

purpose, Hence, Otherwise, So then, Subsequently, Therefore, Thus,
Thereupon, Wherefore

Contrast and Although, Also, And yet, (But) at the same time, Despite, Despite that,
Comparison Even so, Even though, For all that, However, In contrast, In spite of, In
the same way, Instead, Likewise, Nevertheless, Notwithstanding, On
the contrary, On the other hand, Otherwise, Regardless, Similarly, Still,
Though, Yet

Direction Above, Beyond, Here, In the distance, Nearly, Opposite, Over there,
There, To the left, To the right, Under

Diversion By the way, Incidentally

Emphasis Above all, Chiefly, Certainly, Especially, Indeed, In fact, Of

course, Particularly

Example - After all, As an illustration, Even, For example, For instance, In

illustration conclusion, Indeed, In fact, In other words, In short, It is true, Of course,
Namely, Specifically, That is, To illustrate, Thus

Exception Aside from, Barring, Besides, Except, Excepting, Excluding, Exclusive

of, Other than, Outside of, Save

Generalizing As a rule, As usual, For the most part, Generally, Generally

speaking, Ordinarily, Usually

Reiteration In essence, In other words, Namely, That is, That is to say, In short,
In brief, To put it differently

Summary All in all, Altogether, As has been said, Finally, In brief, In conclusion,
In other words, In particular, In short, In simple terms, In summary,
On the whole, That is, Therefore, To put it differently, To summarize
 Sequence After a while, Afterwards, Again, Also, And then, As long as, At last, At
length, At that time, Before, Besides, Earlier, Eventually, Finally,
Formerly, Further, Furthermore, In addition, In the first place, In the past,
Last, Lately, Meanwhile, Moreover, next, Now, Presently, Previously,
Prior to, Second, Shortly, Simultaneously, Since, So far, Soon, Still,
Subsequently, Then, Thereafter, Too, Until, Until now, When

References:
Milano, I. I. (n.d.). English Grammar Guide - Conjunctions and Transitions. Insegnanti-Inglese. Retrieved July 23,
2021, from https://www.insegnanti-inglese.com/grammar-1/conjunctions-transitions.html
Transitions Test 5. (n.d.). GrammarBank. Retrieved July 23, 2021, from https://www.grammarbank.com/transitions
test.html
Mixed Conjunctions Test 9. (n.d.). GrammarBank. Retrieved July 23, 2021, from
https://www.grammarbank.com/mixed-conjunctions-test.html