By

Assistant.Prof. Dr. Ban Mahmood

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements found in
small amounts in the body. Inorganic
means that the substance does not contain
carbon.
 Minerals
*Remain intact during digestion
*Generally do not change shape or structure when
performing biological functions
*Most minerals absorbed from the diet are in the
form of water-soluble salts
*Are not destroyed by heat, acid, oxygen, or
ultraviolet light
*Mineral bioavailability: Degree to which a
nutrient from food is absorbed and utilized in the
body

Mineral Bioavailability
 Minerals
• Two categories:
• macrominerals > 0.005%
• microminerals < 0.005%
• macrominerals are essential at levels of
100mg or more per day for human adults
• microminerals are often referred to as
trace elements

Macrominerals
Ca calcium
P phosphorus
S sulfur
K potassium
Cl chloride
Na sodium
Mg magnesium
 Microminerals
F fluorine V vanadium
Zn zinc Sn tin
Cu copper Se selenium
I iodine Mn manganese
Cr chromium Ni nickel
Co cobalt Mo molybdenum
Si silicon

Other microminerals found in

humans
Sr (strontium)
Br (bromine)
Au (gold)
Ag (silver)
Al (aluminum)
Bi (bismuth)
As (arsenic)
B (boron)
the function of these minerals has not been
established as of to date
 Scientific development which have
contributed to trace element knowledge
*Advances in analytical measurements
• colorimetruy
• fluorimetry
• flame photometry
• neutron activation analysis
• atomic absoption spectroscopy
• microwave excitation emission spectroscopy

Functions of minerals
• provide a suitable medium for cellular
activity
– permeability of membranes
– irritability of muscles and nerve cells
• play a primary role in osmotic
phenomenon
• involved in acid base-balance
• confer rigidity and hardness to certain
tissues (bones and teeth)
• become part of specialized compounds
 Metalloenzymes
Examples of metalloenzymes:
– superoxide dismutase (Zn and Cu)
– carboxypeptidase A (Zn)
– carbonic anhydrase (Zn)
– cytochrome oxidase (Fe and Cu)
– xanthine oxidase (Co and Fe)
 Metal-activated ezymes
• Examples of metal-activated enzymes
– creatine kinase (Mg, Mn, Ca or Co)
– glycogen phosphorylase kinase (Ca)
– salivary and pancreatic alpha-amylases (Ca)

The electrolytes
• There are 3 major electrolytes:
– sodium
– potassium
– chloride
 Sodium (Na)
• Sodium is the principal cation in
extracellular fluids
• functions include:
• osmotic equilibrium
• acid-base balance
• carbon dioxide transport
• cell membrane permeability
• muscle irritability
 Sodium (Na)
• food sources: table salt, salty foods
• absorption and metabolism:
– readily absorbed
– excreted in the urine and sweat
– aldosterone increases reabsorption in renal
tubules
• RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance

• UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level

 Sodium (Na)
• RDA for adults: 1.1 to 3.3 gm/day
• sodium deficiency:
– dehydration
– acidosis
– tissue atrophy
• sodium excess:
– edema (hypertonic expansion )
– hypertension

Sodium (Na)
• Sodium supplements:
– usually used to replace sodium and chloride
lost through perspiration during high heat
• Thermotabs
• Slo-salt
• Heatrol
• Lytren solution
• Pedialyte solution
• Gatorade and other sports drinks
 Potassium (K)
• Potassium is the principal cation in
intracellular fluid
• functions:
– buffer constituent
– acid-base balance
– water balance
– membrane transport
– neuromuscular irritability

Functions of potassium
Na/K ATPase -pump
 Potassium
• Food sources: vegetables, fruit (bananas),
whole grains, meat, milk
• absorption and metabolism:
– readily absorbed (more so than sodium)
– intracellular
– secreted by kidney (also in sweat)
• RDA for adults: 1.5 - 4.5 gm/day

Potassium
• deficiency (hypokalemia)
– causes:
• increased renal excretion (diuretics)
• primary aldosteronism
• severe vomiting and diarrhea
• cutaneous losses via perspiration
– symptoms:
• profound weakness of skeletal muscles (paralysis
and impaired respiration
• weakness of smooth muscles
• cardiac anomalies: Atrioventricular block (AV
block), cardiac arrest
 Potassium
• excess (hyperkalemia)
– causes:
• sudden increased intake
• severe tissue trauma and burns
• acute and chronic acidosis
– symptoms:
• weakness and paralysis
• cardiac anomalies (impaired conduction,
fibrillations, cardiac arrest)

Chloride (Cl)
• an essential anion
• closely connected with sodium in foods,
body tissues and fluids and excretions
• readily absorbed along with sodium
• excreted mainly in the kidneys (~ 2% in
feces and ~ 4-5% in perspiration )
• important for osmotic balance, acid-base
balance and in the formation of gastric
HCl
 Chloride (Cl)
• Deficiency of chloride:
– hypochloremic alkalosis
– hypovolemia
– pernicious vomiting
– psychomotor disturbances

Calcium (Ca)
• the most abundant of the minerals
• the 5th most abundant element in the body
• needed by all cells
• found in largest amounts in bones (90%)
• found in bone as hydroxyapatite
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
• contaminated with sodium, potassium,
magnesium, carbonate and fluoride
 Calcium (Ca)
• controlled by parathyroid hormone
(PTH), calcitonin and vitamin D
• maintained at a concentration of 5 mEq/L
in plasma
• about 1/2 is in the ionized form in serum
• the other 1/2 is bound to protein (calcium
citrate complex)

Calcium (Ca)
• function of calcium:
– structural unit of bones and teeth
– contraction and relaxation of muscles
– stabilizes nervous tissue
• low calcium --- irritable nerves --- tetany
• high calcium --- depresses the nervous irritability
– required for blood clotting
– activates various enzymes (glycogen
phosphorylase kinase, salivary and
pancreatic amylase)
Deposition of Ca2+ in bone(mineralization)
and Ca2+ mobilization from bone are
regulated by at least 15 hormones and
hormone like signaling substances. These
mainly influence the maturation and
activity of bone cells.
 * At the same time, it promotes the development
of osteoblasts . Osteoporosis, which mainly occurs
in women following the menopause, is based on a
reduction in estrogen levels. Estrogens normally
inhibit the stimulation of osteoclast differentiation
by osteoblasts. If the effects of estrogen decline,
the osteoclasts predominate and excess bone
removal occurs.
 Calcium (Ca)
• Calcium absorption:
– variable due to insoluble salts:
• phosphate
• carbonate
• oxalate
• phytate
• sulfate
– also forms calcium soaps with fatty acids
• absorption is enhanced by:
• acid pH
• vitamin D
• lactose
• lysine and glycine
 Calcium (Ca)
• Excretion:
– urine and feces
– enhanced by lack of vitamin D and ingestion
of large quantities of proteins (acid urine)
• RDA
– adult: 800 mg/day
– pregnacy and lactation: 1200 mg/day
 Calcium supplements
• calcium gluconate: 9%
• calcium lactate 13%
• calcium carbonate 40%
• dibasic calcium phosphate 30%
• calcium glucobionate 6%
• calcium chloride 27.2%
• calcium levulinate 13%

Phosphorus
• Phosphorus is the second most abundant
mineral in the body (22% of total mineral
content; 80% is structural – insoluble apatite in
bone and teeth)
• 20% is very active metabolically:
• High energy phosphate compounds
• Nucleic acids
• Phospholipids
• Phosphoproteins
• Coenzymes (vitamins)
 Phosphorus
• RDA for phosphorus is established on the basis
of a 1:1 relationship with calcium
– Adults: 800 mg/day
– Pregnancy and lactation: 1200 mg/day
• Phosphorus deficiency (hypophosphatemia)
• Not common
• May be associated with total parenteral nutrition (TPN)
without sufficient phosphates; give either sodium or
potassium phosphate

Functions of phosphorus
 Magnesium (Mg)
• second most plentiful cation in
intracellular fluids
• ~50% of total amount in bone
• ~45% in muscle and nervous tissue
• ~ 5% in extracellular fluids
• blood plasma magnesium : ~ 2 mEq/L
 Magnesium (Mg)
• Functions:
a. enzyme systems
– cofactor of all enzymes involved in
phosphate transfer reactions that use ATP
and other nucleotide triphosphates
– phosphatases
– pyrophosphatases

Magnesium (Mg)
b. CNS(Central Nervous System)
– hypomagnesemia ---- cns irritability,
disorientation, psychotic behavior,
convulsions
c. neuromuscular system:
– magnesium has a direct depressant effect on
skeletal muscle
– magnesium also causes a decrease in
Acetylcholine (Ach) release at motor end
plate (used in treatment of eclamptic
seizures)
 Magnesium
• Abnormally low concentrations of Mg in
the extracellular fluid ---- increased Ach
release ---- increased muscle excitability
(tetany)
• food sources: all green plants
(chlorophyll); meats
• RDA: 350 mg/day
– pregnancy and lactation: 450 mg