K. K.

WAGH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

NASHIK

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

THEORY NOTES
Course No.: - PATH -121

Course Title: - Fundamentals of Plant Pathology

Credits: - 3 (2+1)

Compiled By

Prof. Patil K.P.

Assistant Professor
Department of Plant Pathology
Teaching Schedule
a) Theory
Lecture Topic Weightage
(%)
1 Importance of plant diseases, scope and objectives of Plant 3
Pathology.....
2 History of Plant Pathology with special reference to Indian work 3
3,4 Terms and concepts in Plant Pathology, Pathogenesis 6
5 classification of plant diseases 5
6,7, 8 Causes of Plant Disease Biotic (fungi, bacteria, fastidious 10
vesicular bacteria, Phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas, viruses,
viroids, algae, protozoa, and nematodes ) and abiotic causes
with examples of diseases caused by them
9 Study of phanerogamic plant parasites. 3
10, 11 Symptoms of plant diseases 6
12,13, Fungi: general characters, definition of fungus, somatic structures, 7
14 types of fungal thalli, fungal tissues, modifications of thallus,
15 Reproduction in fungi (asexual and sexual). 4
16, 17 Nomenclature, Binomial system of nomenclature, rules of 6
nomenclature,
18, 19 Classification of fungi. Key to divisions, sub-divisions, orders and 6
classes.
20, 21, Bacteria and mollicutes: general morphological characters. Basic 8
22 methods of classification and reproduction in bacteria
23,24, Viruses: nature, architecture, multiplication and transmission 7
25
26, 27 Nematodes: General morphology and reproduction, classification 6
of nematode Symptoms and nature of damage caused by plant
nematodes (Heterodera, Meloidogyne, Anguina etc.)
28, 29, Principles and methods of plant disease management. 6
30
31, 32, Nature, chemical combination, classification of fungicides and 7
33 antibiotics.
34, 35, Mode of action and formulations of fungicides and antibiotics. 7
36
Total 100

Suggested Readings
1) Pathak, V. N. Essentials of Plant Pathology. Prakash Pub., Jaipur
2) Agrios, GN. 2010. Plant Pathology. Acad. Press.
3) Kamat, M. N. Introductory Plant Pathology. Prakash Pub, Jaipur
4) Singh RS. 2008. Plant Diseases. 8th Ed. Oxford & IBH. Pub. Co.
5) Singh RS. 2013. Introduction to Principles of Plant Pathology. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co.
6) Alexopoulos, Mims and Blackwel. Introductory Mycology
7) Mehrotra RS & Aggarwal A. 2007. Plant Pathology. 7th Ed. Tata Mc Graw Hill Publ. Co. Ltd.
8) Gibbs A & Harrison B. 1976. Plant Virology - The Principles. Edward Arnold, London.
9) Hull R. 2002. Mathew.s Plant Virology. 4th Ed. Academic Press, New York.
10) Verma JP. 1998. The Bacteria. Malhotra Publ. House, New Delhi.
11) Goto M. 1990. Fundamentals of Plant Bacteriology. Academic Press, New York.
12) Dhingra OD & Sinclair JB. 1986. Basic Plant Pathology Methods. CRC Press, London, Tokyo.
13) Nene YL & Thapliyal PN. 1993. Fungicides in Plant Disease Control. 3rd Ed. Oxford & IBH,
New Delhi.
14) Vyas SC. 1993. Handbook of Systemic Fungicides. Vols. I-III. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
15) Rajeev K & Mukherjee RC. 1996. Role of Plant Quarantine in IPM. Aditya Books.
16) Rhower GG. 1991. Regulatory Plant Pest Management. In: Handbook of Pest Management in
Agriculture. 2nd Ed. Vol. II. (Ed. David Pimental). CRC Press.
Importance of plant diseases, scope and objectives of Plant Pathology
Importance of the Plant Diseases
Globally, enormous losses of the crops are caused by the plant diseases. The loss can occur from
the time of seed sowing in the field to harvesting and storage. Important historical evidences of
plant disease epidemics are Irish Famine due to late blight of potato (Ireland, 1845), Bengal
famine due to brown spot of rice (India, 1942) and Coffee rust (Sri Lanka, 1967). Such
epidemics had left their effect on the economy of the affected countries.
Objectives of Plant Pathology

Plant Pathology (Phytopathology) deals with the cause, etiology, resulting losses and control or
management of the plant diseases. The objectives of the Plant Pathology are the study on:
i. the living entities that cause diseases in plants;
ii. the non-living entities and the environmental conditions that cause disorders in plants;
iii. the mechanisms by which the disease causing agents produce diseases;
iv. the interactions between the disease causing agents and host plant in relation to
overall environment; and
v. the method of preventing or management the diseases and reducing the
losses/damages caused by diseases.

Scope of Plant Pathology

Plant pathology comprises with the basic knowledge and technologies of Botany, Plant
Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Virology, Nematology, Genetics,
Molecular Biology, Genetic Engineering, Biochemistry, Horticulture, Tissue Culture, Soil
Science, Forestry, Physics, Chemistry, Meteorology, Statistics and many other branches of
applied science.

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History of Plant Pathology with special reference to Indian work
Historical perspectives show that the attention of man to plant diseases and the science of plant
pathology were drawn first only in the European countries. Greek philosopher Theophrastus
(about 286 BC) recorded some plant diseases about 2400 years ago. This branch of science could
maintain a proper record on the plant disease and their causal organisms only after development
of compound microscope by the Dutch worker Antony von Leeuwenhoek in 1675. He first
visualized bacteria in 1683 under his microscope. Robert Hook (1635-1703) also developed
simple microscope which was used to study of minute structure of fungi. The Italian botanist
Pier’ Antonio Micheli (1679-1737) first made detail study of fungi in 1729. With the
contribution of many other scientists’ viz., Mathieu Tillet (1755), Christian Hendrik Persoon
(1801) and Elias Magnus Fries (1821), the foundation of modern plant pathology was built and
was further strengthened by Anton de Bary (1831-1888), who is regarded as the Father of Plant
Pathology.
Historically, plant pathology of India is quite ancient as the Indian agriculture, which is nearly
4000 years old. This confirms that mention about plant diseases was made much before the time
of Theophrastus. The events of the development of plant pathology in India are chronologically
recorded as follows:

(i) Plant diseases, other enemies of plants and methods of their control had been recorded in the
ancient books viz., Rigveda, Atharva Veda (1500-500 BC), Artha Shastra of Kautilya (321-186
BC), Sushruta Samhita (200-500AD), Vishnu Purana (500 AD), Agnipurana (500-700 AD),
Vishnudharmottara (500-700 AD) etc.

(ii) During 11th century, Surapal wrote Vraksha Ayurveda, which is the first book in
India where he gave detail account on plant diseases and their control. Plant diseases
were grouped into two-internal and external. Tree surgery, hygiene protective
covering with paste, use of honey, plant extracts, oil cakes of mustard, castor,
sesamum etc. are some of the disease management practices recorded in the book.

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(iii) Symptoms of plant diseases are cited in other ancient Indian literatures viz. Jataka of
Buddhism, Raghuvamsha of Kalidas etc.

(iv) The Europeans started systemic study of fungi in India during 19th century. They
collected the fungi and sent to the laboratory in Europe for identification. D.D.
Cunningham and A. Barclay, during 1850-1875, started identification of fungi in
India itself. Cunningham specially studied on rusts and smuts. K.R. Kirtikar was
credited as the first Indian scientist for collection and identification of fungi in India.

(v) Edwin John Butler started the systemic study on Indian fungi and the diseases caused
by them. This Imperial Mycologist came to India in 1901 and initiated the works on
fungi at Imperial Agricultural Research Institute established by the British Government of Pusa
(Bihar). The first and most classic book in the field of plant pathology of India i.e. Fungi and
Diseases in Plants was written by him based on the exhaustive study on Indian fungi. He left
India in 1920 and joined as the first Director of Imperial Mycological Institute in England. He is
regarded as the Father of Indian PlantPathology.

(vi) Jahangir Ferdunji Dastur (1886-1971), a colleague of Butler, was the first Indian plant
pathologists to made detail study of fungi and plant diseases. He specially studied the
diseases of potato and castor caused by genus Phytophthora and established the
species P. parasitica from castor in 1913. In recognition of his command in Plant
Pathology, he was promoted to the Imperial Agricultural Science in 1919.

(vii) G.S. Kulkarni, a student of Butler, generated detail information on downy mildew and
smut of jowar and bajra. Another student S.L. Ajrekar studied wilt disease of cotton,
sugarcane smut and ergot of jowar.

(viii) Karam Chand Mehta (1894-1950) of Agra had contributed a lot to Plant Pathology of
India. He first joined Agricultural College as a demonstrator at Kanpur. His

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outstanding contribution in the discovery of the life cycle of stem rust of wheat in
India and reported that barberry, an alternate host, does not play any role in
perpetuation of the rust fungus in India. He published two monographs entitled
“Further Studies on Cereal Rust in India” Part I (1940) and Part II (1952) and also
established three laboratories for rust works at Agra, Almora and Shimla.

(ix) Raghubir Prasad (1907-1992) trained under K.C. Mehta, contributed to the
identification of physiological races of cereal rusts and life cycle of linseed rust.
Subsequently, L.M. Joshi at IARI conclusively studied various aspects of wheat rusts
viz., chief foci of infection of rusts, dissemination of rust pathogens in India. Later on
S. Nagarajan and L.M. Joshi developed most useful mathematical models in 1978 to
predict appearance of stem and leaf rust of wheat.

(x) Manoranjan Mitra was considered as one of the most critical plant pathologist worked
on Helminthosporium. He first reported Karnal bunt of wheat in 1931 from Karnal in
Haryana.

(xi) B.B. Mundkur was the second mycologist trained under Butler and worked with
Mehta and Mitra. He worked on control of cotton wilt by using resistant varieties and
became successful in reducing yield loss in Maharashtra. His significant contribution
is the establishment of Indian Phytopathological Society (IPS) in 1948 with its journal
Indian Phytopathology. In the same year, he published a text book Fungi and Plant
Diseases which was the second book of Plant Pathology after the classic book of
Butler.

(xii) S.R. Bose was taxonomist, mainly worked on the classification of Polyporaceae and
isolated “polyporin” from Polyporus.

(xiii) Notable contribution in the field of Mycology was made by M.J. Thirumalachar
(1914-1999). He created 20 new genera and 300 new species of fungi, monographed

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genera of Uredinales of the world and Ustilaginales of India. Similarly many
Hyphomycetes particularly Fusarium were elaborated by C.V. Subramanian in 1971.

(xiv) Works on fundamental plant pathology, especially the biochemistry of host-parasite

relationship were started at Lucknow and Madras (Chennai) lead by Sachindra Nath
Dasgupta (1904-1990) and T.S. Sadasivan (1913-2001), respectively. Dr. Dasgupta
initiated the works on leather mycology, paper pulp mycology and predacious fungi.
Dr. Sadasivan’s school developed the concept of vivotoxin and reported the
production of fusaric acid by Fusarium vasinfectum that causes wilt diseases in
cotton.

(xv) T.S. Ramakrishnan, a mycologist to Madras Government cultivated ergot diseased

rye for toxin production. He published two books entitled Diseases of Millets (1963)
and Diseases of Rice (1971). Renowned plant pathologists viz., G Rangaswami and
R. Ramakrishnan were his students.

(xvi) Plant Bacteriology in India got a shape with the effort of Makanj Kalyanji Patel
(1899-1967). He established a school of Plant Bacteriology at College of Agriculture,
Pune and first described a new species Xanthomonas campestris pv. uppali in 1948
from the host Ipomea muricota. He described more than 30 bacterial diseases from
India. Other scientists viz., V.P. Bhide and G. Rangaswami also contributed their
pioneering works to the phytobacteriology of India. D.N. Srivastava (1925-2000) is
mostly remembered for his tremendous contribution on bacterial blight of rice. M.K.
Hingorani reported about the complex nature of tundu disease of wheat caused by a
bacterium and a nematode in 1952 and also he confirmed the causal agent of ring
disease of potato as Pseudomonas (=Ralstonia) solanacerarum. J.P. Verma (1939-
2005) contributed many valuable findings on bacterial blight disease of cotton.
(xvii) Plant virus research in India was started particularly at IARI, New Delhi under the
leadership of R.S. Vasudeva (1905-1987), S.P. Raychaudhury (1916-2005) and
Anupam Varma. Considering the importance of plant viral diseases, IARI established

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some Regional Research Stations at Shimla for temperate fruits (1952), at Pune for
fruits and vegetables (1952) and at Kalimpong (West Bengal) for large cadamom,
citrus and other crops in north-eastern sub-Himalayan mountain (1956). Y.L. Nene’s
contributions have been well remembered particularly the viral diseases of pulses and
the ‘Khaira’ disease of rice caused by Zinc deficiency. He wrote the book
“Fungicides in Plant Disease Control”.

(xviii) Teaching of plant pathology as a course was started at University of Calcutta,

Bombay and Madras in 1857 where only fungal taxonomy was emphasized. But plant
pathology as a university science was started in 1930 at University of Allahabad,
Lucknow and Madras. Of which, perhaps University of Madras was first to introduce
plant pathology as a course. Agra University had introduced one post-graduate
programme in plant pathology in Govt. Agricultural College, Kanpur in 1945. The
organized teaching in Mycology and Plant Pathology was began as a part of
agricultural science under the banner of Indian Agricultural Research Institute. The
subject received due importance and teaching of its supporting courses viz.
mycology, bacteriology, virology and nematology in both under- and post-graduate
programmes of Agriculture was taken up regularly after the establishment of
Agricultural Universities in different states of India in 1960. At present, most of the
courses related to plant pathology have been revised and added molecular plant
pathology by keeping pace with the advancement in the science.

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Terms and concepts in Plant Pathology, Pathogenesis

Definition and terms

1. Parasite: An organism living upon or in another living organism (the host) and obtaining the
food from the invading host.
2. Pathogen: An entity, usually a micro-organism that can cause the disease.
3. Biotroph: A plant pathogenic fungus that requires living host cells i.e. an obligate parasite.
4. Hemibiotroph: A plant pathogenic fungus that initially requires living host cells but after
killing the host cell grows on the dead and dying cells.
5. Necrotroph: A pathogenic fungus that kills the host and survives on the dying and dead cells.
6. Pathogenicity: The relative capability of a pathogen to cause disease.
7. Pathogenesis: It is a process caused by an infectious agent (pathogen) when it comes in
contact with a susceptible host.
8. Virulence: The degree of infectivity of a given pathogen.
9. Infection: The initiation and establishment of a parasite within a host plant.
10. Primary infection: The first infection of a plant by the over wintering or over summering of
the pathogen.
11. Inoculum: That portion of pathogen which is transferred to plant and cause disease.
12. Invasion: The penetration and spread of a pathogen in the host.
13. Colonization: The growth of a pathogen, particularly a fungus, in the host after infection is
called colonization.
14. Inoculum potential: The growth or threshold of fungus available for colonization at
substratum (host).
15. Symptoms: The external and internal reaction or alterations of a plant as a result of disease.
16. Incubation period: The period of time between penetration of a pathogen to the host and the
first appearance of symptoms on the plant.
17. Disease cycle: The chain of events involved in disease development.
18. Disease syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease are collectively
called a syndrome.
19. Single cycle disease (Monocyclic): This type of disease is referred to those caused by the
pathogen (fungi) that can complete only one life cycle in one crop season of the host plant. e.g.

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downy mildew of rapeseed, club root of crucifers, sclerotinia blight of brinjal etc.
20. Multiple cycle disease (Polycyclic): Some pathogens specially a fungus, can complete a
number of life cycles within one crop season of the host plant and the disease caused by such
pathogens is called multiple cycle disease e.g. wheat rust, rice blast, late blight of potato etc.
21. Alternate host: Plants not related to the main host of parasitic fungus, where it produces its
different stages to complete one cycle (heteroecious).
22. Collateral host: The wild host of same families of a pathogen is called as collateral host.
3
23. Predisposition: The effect of one or more environmental factors which makes a plant
vulnerable to attack by a pathogen.
24. Physiologic race: One or a group of microorganisms similar in morphology but dissimilar in
certain cultural, physiological or pathological characters.
25. Biotype: The smallest morphological unit within a species, the members of which are usually
genetically identical.
26. Symbiosis: A mutually beneficial association of two or more different kinds of organisms.
27. Mutualism: Symbiosis of two organisms that are mutually helpful or that mutually support
one another.
28. Antagonism: The counteraction between organisms or groups of organisms.
29. Mutation: An abrupt appearance of a new characteristic in an individual as a result of an
accidental change in genes present in chromosomes.
30. Disease: Any deviation in the general health, or physiology or function of plant or plant
parts, is recognized as a disease.
31. Cop Damage: It is defined as any reduction in the quality or quantity of yield or loss of
revenue resulting from crop injury.
32. Deficiency: Abnormality or disease caused by the lack or subnormal level of availability of
one or more essential nutrient elements.

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Concept of Plant Disease

The normal physiological functions of plants are disturbed when they are affected by pathogenic
living organisms or by some environmental factors. Initially plants react to the disease causing
agents, particularly in the site of infection. Later, the reaction becomes more widespread and
histological changes take place. Such changes are expressed as different types of symptoms of
the disease which can be visualized macroscopically. As a result of the disease, plant growth in
reduced, deformed or even the plant dies.
When a plant is suffering, we call it diseased, i.e. it is at ‘dis-ease’. Disease is a condition that
occurs in consequence of abnormal changes in the form, physiology, integrity or behaviour of the
plant.
According to American Phytopathological Society (Phytopathology 30:361-368, 1940),
disease is a deviation from normal functioning of physiological processes of sufficient duration
or intensity to cause disturbance or cessation of vital activities. The British Mycological Society
(Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 33:154-160, 1950) defined the disease as a harmful deviation from the
normal functioning of process. Recently, Encyclopedia Britannica (2002) forwarded a simplified
definition of plant disease. A plant is diseased when it is continuously disturbed by some causal
agent that results in abnormal physiological process that disrupts the plants normal structure,
growth, function or other activities. This interference with one or more plant’s essential
physiological or biochemical systems elicites characteristic pathological conditions or symptoms.

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Parasitism and Pathogenesis

An organism which lives in or on other living organisms and derives its nutrients from the latter
is called parasite. The relationship between a parasite and its hosts is known as parasitism. Many
fungi and most bacteria grow on a non-living substrate within a living plant. The organism of
this type of mode of nutrition is called saprophyte. Based on the different types of modes or
nature of nutrition, the relationship between the host and parasite or saprophyte is termed in
many ways viz., obligate parasite (biotroph), obligate saprophyte, facultative parasite, facultative
saprophyte, hemibiotroph and necrotroph (perthotrophs or perthophyte).
Parasitism in cultivated crops is common phenomenon. Any agent that can cause suffering or
damage or disease is called a pathogen. In plant pathology, the term ‘pathogen’ is usually used to
the living or infectious organisms. The ability of a pathogen or parasite to cause disease is known
as pathogenicity.

It is obvious that a plant becomes diseased when it is attacked by a pathogen or parasite. The
ultimate condition i.e. disease occurs by passing through some distinct events. Thus, the genesis
or chain of events or stages of disease development are called pathogenesis. This is also called as
disease cycle. The events that occur in specific order are namely inoculation, penetration,
establishment of infection, invasion or colonization, growth and reproduction, dissemination and
survival of the pathogen (over wintering or over summering in absence of the host). The events
will continue to repeat in the same order in presence of both the host and pathogen/parasite that
may lead to severe disease condition.

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Classification of plant diseases
To facilitate the study of plant diseases they are needed to be grouped in some orderly fashion.
Plant diseases can be grouped in various ways based on the symptoms or signs (rust, smut, blight
etc.), nature of infection (systemic or localized), habitat of the pathogens, mode of perpetuation
and spread (soil-, seed- and air-borne etc.), affected parts of the host (aerial, root disease etc.),
types of the plants (cereals, pulses, oilseed, ornamental, vegetable, forest diseases etc.). But the
most useful classification has been made based on the type of pathogens that cause plant
diseases. Since this type of classification indicates not only the cause of the disease, but also the
knowledge and information that suggest the probable development and spread of disease
alongwith their possible control measures. The classification is as follows:
1. Infectious plant diseases:
a. Disease caused by parasitic organisms: The organisms included in animate or biotic
causes can incite diseases in plants.
b. Diseases caused by viruses and viroids.
2. Non-infectious or non-parasitic or physiological diseases: The factors included in
inanimate or abiotic causes can incite such diseases in plants under a set of suitable
environmental conditions.
Plant diseases are caused by pathogens. Hence a pathogen is always associated with a disease. In
other way, disease is a symptom caused by the invasion of a pathogen that is able to survive,
perpetuate and spread. Further, the word “pathogen” can be broadly defined as any agent or
factor that incites 'pathos or disease in an organism or host. In strict sense, the causes of plant
diseases are grouped under following categories:
1. Animate or biotic causes: Pathogens of living nature are categorized into the following
groups.
(i) Fungi (v) Algae
(ii) Bacteria (vi) Phanerogams
(iii) Phytoplasma (vii) Protozoa
(iv) Rickettsia-like organisms (viii) Nematodes
2. Mesobiotic causes : These disease incitants are neither living or non-living, e.g.
(i) Viruses
(ii) Viroides

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3. Inanimate or abiotic causes: In true sense these factors cause damages (any reduction in the
quality or quantity of yield or loss of revenue) to the plants rather than causing disease. The
causes are:
(i) Deficiencies or excess of nutrients (e.g. ‘Khaira’ disease of rice due to Zn deficiency)
(ii) Light
(iii) Moisture
(iv) Temperature
(v) Air pollutants (e.g. black tip of mango)
(vi) Lack of oxygen (e.g. hollow and black heart of potato)
(vii) Toxicity of pesticides
(viii) Improper cultural practices
(ix) Abnormality in soil conditions (acidity, alkalinity)

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Flowering Plant Parasites (Phanerogams)
Most of the diseases are caused by fungi bacteria and viruses. There are few seeds plants called
flowering parasites (Phanerogams) which are parasitic on living plants. Some of these attack
roots of the host, while some parasites on stem. Some are devoid of chlorophyll and entirely
dependent on their host for food supply, while other have chlorophyll and obtain only mineral
constituents of food from host by drawing nutrition and water they are called as Holoparasites or
complete or total parasite. They have haustoria as absorbing organs, which are sent deep into the
vascular bundle of the host to draw nutrients, water and minerals.

Flowering Plant Parasites: There are two types of parasites.

1) Root Parasites:

i) Striga (Partial root parasite)

ii) Orobanche (Complete root parasite)

2) Stem Parasites:

i) Dodder (Cuscuta) (Complete stem parasite)

ii) Loranthus (Partial Stem parasite)

A. Root Parasites:

1. Total or Complete or Holoparasite:

Orobanche (Broom rape or Tokra)

It is annual flashy flowering plant growing to height of about 15-50 cm long, yellow or brownish
colour and covered by small thin scaly leaves. Flowers appears in the axil of leaves are white or
tubular. Fruits appears in the axil of leaves are white or tubular. Fruits are capsule containing and
seeds are very small, black in colour remain viable for several years. The hausteria of parasite
penetrates into the roots of hosts and draw its nourishment. The growth of the plant is retarded,
may die some times. It attacks tobacco, tomato, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower.

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2. Hemi Partial or Semi Root Parasite:

Striga (Witch Weed or Turfula or Talop)

Family Scrophulariaceae

It is a small plant with bright green leaves grows upto height 20-60 cm leaves beers chlorophylls
and developed in clusters of 10-20 % host plant. They are obligate parasites therefore, do not
obtain all their nutrient from their host root. Flowers are pink in colour, seed are very minute and
produce in grate number 5000 to 100000 seeds plant per years. One flower contain 1200-1500
seeds and remains viable upto 12-40 years. Dissemination takes place with rain water, flood,
wind and irrigation water. It cause yellowing and wilting of host leaves. It attacks sugarcane
jowar, Maize, cereals and millets.

B. Stem Parasites:

1. Total or Complete or Holoparasite:

Cuscuta or dodder (Amarvel, Lovevine) Family cuscutaceae.

Genus – Cuscuta
It is non chlorophyllous, leaf less parasitic seed plant.

It is yellow pink or orange in colour and attached to the host. They do not bear leaves but bear
minute function less scale leaves is produces flower and fruits. Flower are white, pink or
yellowish in colour and found in clusters. Seed are form in capsules. A single plant may be
produce 3000 seeds.

The first appearances of parasites is noticed as thread like leaf less stem which devoid of green
pigment and twine around the stem or leaves of the host. When stem of parasitic plant comes in
contact with host, the minute root like organs. i.e. hausteria penetrates into the host and absorbs.
When the relation ship of the host is firmly established, the dodder plant looses the contact from
soil.

These affect plant get weakened and yield poorly the seeds spread by animals, water and
implements and remain viable when condition are unfavorable.

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It attacks berseem alfalfa, clover, flax, onion, potato, ornamental and hedge plants.

2. Partial, Semi or Hemi Stem Parasites:

Loranthus
Family- Loranthaceae.
It is a partial parasite of tree trunks and branches with brown stem, dark green leaves but no
roots.

1. Stem is thick and flattened of the node, appear in clusters at the point of attack which can be
easily spotted on the trees.

2. At the point of attachment with the tree, it shows swellings or tumourous growth where the
haustoria are produced. It produces flowers which are long, tabular, greenish, white or red colour
and found in clusters. It produces fleshy berries with single seed.

3. The affected host plant becomes stunted in growth and dispersal of seed is mostly through the
birds and animals. It attacks mango, citrus, apple, guava.

Phanerogamic Plant Parasites

Some flower and seed bearing higher plants (phanerogams) live parasitically on other living
plants and can cause important diseases on agricultural crops and also in forest trees. They are
classified in the following botanical families and genera,
1. Cuscutaceae (stem parasite)
Genus: Cuscuta, the dodders
2. Viscaceae (stem parasites)
Genus: Arceuthobium, the dwarf mistletoes of conifers
Phoradendron, the American true mistletoes of broad leaved trees
Viscum, the European tree mistletoes
Dendrophthoe, the giant mistletoes
3. Orobanchaceae (root parasite)
Genus: Orobanche, the broomrapes

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4. Scrophulariaceae (root parasite)
Genus: Striga, the witchweeds
Identifying characters, reproduction and life cycle

1. Dodder (Love-vine, Amarbel): Dodder is slender, twining plant. The stem is tough,
succulent, threadlike, curling, leafless and bearing minute scales in place of leaves. Stem
is usually yellowish or orange in colour. They grow and climb in abundance on the wild
and cultivated plants. Their haustoria penetrate the stem or leave of the host plant and
absorb foodstuffs and water. Growth of the infected plants is suppressed and finally dies.
Tiny whitish flowers arise in clusters from the stem and they produce numerous grey to
reddish-brown seeds within few weeks of bloom. The seeds fall on the ground where they
either germinate immediately or remain dormant until next season. The seeds may be
spread to new areas by animals, water, equipments and by mixing with crop seeds.
2. Giant mistletoe (Loranthus) : Mistletoes are semi-parasites of thee-trunks and branches.
They have green leaves and many branches and hence grown like a small bush on the
host. They do not have true roots and hence develop haustoria to draw nutrients from the
vascular system of the host plant. Flowers are long, tubular, greenish white to red in
colour and borne in clusters. Seed is fleshy, contains one seed, sweet in taste and usually
eaten by birds and animals. The parasite is spread mostly through birds. Droppings of
bird containing seeds get deposited on the other trees, mainly at the junction of a branch
and main trunk. These seeds germinate, develop haustoria and established on the host
plant.
3. Broomrape: Broomrape is a complete root parasite. It affects tobacco mostly and many
other Solanaceous and Cruciferous plants. The parasite has a stout, fleshy stem of 10-15
cm long. The stem is pale yellow or brownish red in colour and is covered by small, thin,
browny, scaly leaves. Flowers are white and tubular and appear in the axil of leaves.
Seeds are very small, black in colour and can remain viable in soil for several years.
Roots are haustoria-like, can penetrate the roots of the host for nutrition. The affected
plants become stunted and may die.
4. Witchweed: It is a semi root parasite but obligate in nature. Commonly affected plants
by this parasitic plant are sugarcane, cereals, maize and millets. Striga is a small plant

19
with bright green, slightly hairy stem and leaves. The weed grows 15-60 cm high in
clusters. Leaves are long and narrow in opposite pairs. Flowers are small, brick red or
yellowish or almost white with yellow centers, appear throughout the season. Tiny brown
seeds are produced in each capsule and thus a single plant can produce 50,000-500,000
seeds. The seeds can remain viable for 12-40 years. Roots are watery white in colour
without root hairs and hence obtain nutrients by haustoria from the host plant. The life
cycle from seed germination to first seed setting on the developed plant needs 90-120
days.

20
Symptoms of Plant Diseases

A visible or detectable abnormality expressed on the plant as a result of disease or disorder is

called symptom. The totality of symptoms is collectively called as syndrome while the pathogen
or its parts or products seen on the affected parts of a host plant is called sign. Different types of
diseasesymptoms are cited below:

Necrosis: It indicates the death of cells, tissues and organs resulting from infection by
pathogen. Necrotic symptoms include spots, blights, burn, canker, streaks, stripes,
damping-off, rot etc.

Wilt: Withering and drooping of a plant starting from some leaves to growing tip
occurs suddenly or gradually. Wilting takes place due to blockage in the translocation
system caused by the pathogen.

Die-back: Drying of plant organs such as stem or branches which starts from the tip
and progresses gradually towards the main stem or trunk is called die-back or wither
tip.

Mildew: White, grey or brown coloured superficial growth of the pathogen on the
host surface is called mildew.

Rusts: Numerous small pustules growing out through host epidermis which gives
rusty (rust formation on iron) appearance of the affected parts.

Smuts: Charcoal-like and black or purplish-black dust like masses developed on the
affected plant parts, mostly on floral organs and inflorescens are called smut.

Blotch: A large area of discolouration of a leaf, fruit etc. giving a blotchy appearance.

White blisters: Numerous white coloured blister-like ruptures are surfaced on the

21
host epidermis that forms powdery masses of spores of fungi. They are called white
blisters or white rust.

Colour change: It denotes conversion of green pigment of leaves into other colours
mostly to yellow colour, in patches or covering the entire leaves. (i) Etioliation:
Yellowing due to lack of light, (ii) Chlorosis: Yellowing due to infection viruses,
bacteria, fungi, low temperature lack of iron etc. (iii) Albino: Lack of any pigment
and turned into white or bleached (iv) Chromosis: Red, purple or orange pigmentation
due to physiological orders etc.

Exudation: Such symptom is commonly found in bacterial diseases when masses of

bacterial cells ooze out to the surface of affected plant parts and form some drops or
smear, it is called exudation. This exudation forms a crust on the host surface after
drying.

Overgrowth: Excessive growth of the plant parts due to infection by pathogens.

Overgrowth takes place by two processes (i) Hyperplasia: abnormal increase in size
due to excessively more cell division (ii) Hypertrophy: abnormal increase in size or
shape due to excessive enlargement of the size of cell of a particular tissue.

Atrophy: It is known as hypoplasia or dwarfing which is resulted from the inhibition

of growth due to reduction in cell division or cell size.

Sclerotia: These are dark and hard structures of various shaped composed of dormant
mycelia of some fungi. Sometimes, sclerotia are developed on the affected parts of
the plant. Presence of sclerotia on the host surface is specifically called a sign of
disease rather than symptom.

22
 General characteristics of fungi

FUNGI: Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllous, heterotrophic organisms

that generally reproduce sexually and asexually and whose filamentous, branched
somatic structures are typically surrounded by cell walls containing chitin or cellulose or
both with many organic molecules and exhibiting absorptive nutrition.
Somatic structures:
Thallus/ Soma Commonly called as vegetative body or fungal body. A thallus( pl.
thalli) is a simple, entire body of the fungus devoid of chlorophyll with no differentiation
into stem, roots and leaves lacking vascular system.

Hypha (hypha=web) ( pl. hyphae) : Hypha is a thin, transparent, tubular filament filled
with protoplasm.It is the unit of a filamentous thallus and grows by apical elongation.

Mycelium( pl. mycelia): A net work of hyphae ( aggregation of hyphae) constituting the
filamentous thallus of a fungus.It may be colourless i.e., hyaline or coloured due to
presence of pigments in cell wall.The mycelium may be ectophytic or endophytic.

image of fungal mycelia

23
Types of fungal thalli:
1.Plasmodium (plasma = moulded body): It is a naked,multinucleate mass of
protoplasm moving and feeding in amoeboid fashion . Eg. Plasmodiophora brassicae
Plasmodiophora brassicae in host cell

2.Unicellular thallus: consisting of a single cell. Eg.Chytrids, Synchytrium

3.Multi cellular or filamentous thallus: Majority of fungi i.e., a true fungi are
filamentous, consisting of a number of branched, thread like filaments called
hyphae.Eg.Many fungi,Alternaria.

Fungi based on reproductive structures:

Holocarpic (holos=whole+karpos=fruit): If the thallus is entirely converted into
one or more reproductive structures, such thallus is called holocarpic thallus.
Eg.Synchytrium

24
Eucarpic(Eu=good+karpos=fruit):If the thallus is differentiated into a vegetative
part which absorbs nutrients and a reproductive part which forms reproductive
structures, such thallus is called eucarpic thallus. Eg.Pythium
Ectophytic fungus: If the fungal thallus is present on the surface of the host plant, it
is called ectophytic.Eg. Oidium .
Endophytic fungus: If the fungus penetrates into the host cell / present inside the
host, it is called endophytic.Eg. Puccinia. Endophytic fungus may be intercellular
(hypha grows in between the cells), or intra cellular ( hypha penetrates into host
cell).Eg.Ustilago, or vascular (xylem vessels) Eg. Fusarium oxysporum
Inter cellular hyphae produce special organs called haustoria which penetrate the host
cell and absorb food. These are absent in intracellular hyphae. Endophytic intra
cellular mycelium absorb food directly from protoplasm with out any specialized
structures.
In ectophytic mycelium, haustoria are produced in epidermal cells.
Septation in Fungi :(septum=hedge/partition) ( pl.septa)
Some fungal hyphae are provided with partitions or cross walls which divide the
fungus into a number of compartments /cells. These cross walls are called septa.
Aseptate hypha/coenocytic hypha: ( Koinos=common,kytos=hollow vessel) A
hypha with out septa is called aseptate /non-septate/ coenocytic hypha wherein the
nuclei are embedded in cytoplasm.Eg. lower fungi like Oomycetes and Zygomycetes.

Eg.common in higher fungi like Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina

and Deuteromycotina

25
General types of septa:
1.Based on formation:
a)Primary septa : These are formed in direct association with nuclear division
(mitotic or meiotic) and are laid down between daughter nuclei separating the nuclei
/cells. Eg. Higher fungi like Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina. b)Adventitious
septa: These are formed independent of nuclear division and these are produced to
delimit the reproductive structures. Eg. lower fungi like Oomycetes and Zygomycetes
in which septa are produced below gametangia (sex organs) which separate them
from rest of the cells.
2. Based on construction:
a)Simple septa: It is most common which is a plate like, with or without
perforation.
b)Complex septa: A septum with a central pore surrounded by a barrel shaped
swelling of the septal wall and covered on both sides by a perforated membrane
termed the septal pore cap or parenthosome. Eg. Dolipore septum in
Basidiomycotina.

26
3.Based on perforation:
a)Complete septa: A Septum is a solid plate without any pore or perforations.
Eg. Adventitious septa in lower fungi.
b)Incomplete septa: A septum with a central pore.

Fungal tissues: Plectenchyma :( plekein=to weave+enchyma=infusion)

Fungal tissues are called plectenchyma i.e., mycelium becomes organized into
loosely or compactly woven tissue. This tissue compose various types of vegetative
and reproductive structures.
T ypes of plectenchyma:
1.Prosenchyma: It is a loosely woven tissue. The component hyphae retain
their individuality which can be easily distinguishable as hyphae and lie parallel to
one another.Eg. Trauma in Agaricus.
2. Pseudoparenchyma:It is compactly woven tissue. It consists of closely packed
cells which are isodiametric or oval in shape resembling parenchymatous cells of
plants and hence the name. The component hyphae loose their individuality and are
not distinguishable as hyphae. Eg. Sclerotial bodies of Sclerotium and rhizomorph of
Armillariella.
A.Prosenchyma B.Pseudoparenchyma

27
MODIFICATION OF MYCELIUM/ SPECIALISED SOMATIC
STRUCTURES
Purpose :
1. to obtain nourishment i. e., for nutrition .
2. to resist or tolerate unfavourable conditions for their survival i.e., over wintering,
over summering.
3. for reproduction.
1.Rhizomorphs: ( rhiza=root, morph=shape) Thick strands of somatic hyphae in
which the hyphae loose their individuality and form complex tissues that are resistant
to adverse conditions and remain dormant until favourable conditions return. The
structure of growing tip of rhizomorphs res emble that of a root tip, hence the name
rhizomorph. Eg. Armillariella mellea
2.Sclerotium: (skleron=hard) pl.sclerotia: It is a hard, round ( looks like mustard
seed)/ cylindrical or elongated (Claviceps ) dark coloured ( black or brown )resting
body formed due to aggregation of mycelium, the component hyphae loose their
individuality , resistant to unfavourable conditions and remain dormant for a longer
period of time and germinate on the return of favourable conditions.
Eg. Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia .
3.Stroma : (stroma=mattress) pl.stromata. It is a compact somatic structure looks
like a mattress or a cushion on which or in which fructifications ( spores or fruiting
bodies ) are usually formed.
a. Sub stomatal stroma: cushion like structure formed below epidermis in sub
stomatal region from which sporophores are produced. Eg. Cercospora
personata.
b. Perithecial stroma: When reproductive bodies like perithecia of some fungi are
embedded characteristically throughout periphery of stroma, such stroma are called
perithecial stroma. Eg.Claviceps, Xylaria.
4. Haustorium: ( hauster=drinker) pl.haustoria.It is a outgrowth of somatic hyphae
regarded as special absorbing organ produced on certain hyphae by parasitic

28
fungi for obtaining nourishment by piercing into living cells of host. They may be
knob like( Albugo), elongated ( Erysiphe, Uncinula), finger like ( Peronospora ).
5.Rhizoids: (rhiza=root, oeides=like) These are slender root like branched structures
found in the substratum produced by some fungi which are useful for anchoring the
thallus to substratum and for obtaining nourishment from the substrate.Eg. Rhizopus
stolonifer.
6. Appresorium: (apprimere=to press against) pl.appressoria A flattened tip of
hyphae or germ tube acting as pressing organ by attaching to the host surface
and gives rise to a minute infection peg which usually grows and penetrates the
epidermal cells of the host. Eg. Puccinia, Colletotrichum, Erysiphe.

Fungal cell :
Fungal cells are typically eukaryotic and lack chloroplasts.
Cell is bounded by cell wall, which provides rigidity and shape to the cell is the
outermost membrane of cell consisting of more than one layer with fibrous structure
and made up of chitin or cellulose or both.

29
The layer surrounding the cytoplasm is called cytoplasmic membrane or
plasmalemma. Protoplasm contains a true nucleus surrounded by two layered
membrane with nucleolus, cytoplasm and other inclusions.
Endoplasmic reticulum is not well developed, and it may be rough atudded with
ribosomes or smooth with out ribosomes.
Vacuoles in which metabolic products are accumulated are bounded by a
membrane called tonoplast .
Ribosomes are protenaceous bodies scattered all over cytoplasm, play a role in
protein synthesis.
Mitochondria are the sites of respiratory activities.
Lomasomes are the swollen membranous structures of plasmalemma.
Cytoplasm also contains fat particles, calcium oxalate crystals, resins, glycogen.

Fungal nutrition:
Fungi are heterotrophic with holophytic nutrition( absorptive type). The essential
elements for fungi are, C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Zn, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Cu and Ca. Reserve
food material in the c ell may be either fat or carbohydrates. Fats may be present in
the form of oil drops and carbohydrates in the form of glycogen or sugars. Starch is
never present in the fungal cell.

Groups of fungi based on mode of nutrition:

1. Saprophytes: ( sapros=rotten, phytos=plant ) Organisms which obtain nutrition on
from dead organic matter either completely or for a part of their life. A large number
of fungi fall under this category.
Eg. Saprolegnia, Rhizopus, Mucor, Alternaria.
a. Obligate saprophytes: (obligare =to bind it self) Organisms which can
never grow on living organisms or can never obtain their food from living
source. They get their food only from dead organic matter.
Eg. Mucor, Agaricus .
. b. Facultative parasite: (facultas=ability) Organisms which are usually
saprophytic but have ability to become as parasites.

30
 Eg. Pythium aphanidermatum, Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani.
2.Parasites: Organisms which live within or out side another organisms for their
nutrition either completely or for a part of their life .
Pathogen : If a parasite damages the host then they are called as
pathogens..
All pathogens are not parasites and all parasites need not be pathogens .
a.Obligate parasites: (Organisms which obtain food only from living organisms (
living protoplasm) and can never derive their food from dead organic matter or
artificial medium. Eg. Puccinia graminis , Plasmopara viticola .
b. Facultative saprophytes: Organisms which are usually parasites but have ability
to become saprophytes .Eg. Ustilago maydis

Reproduction in fungi :
Reproduction is the formation of new individuals having all the characteristics of the
species.
T ypes of reproduction: 1. Asexual /non-sexual / vegetative / somatic
reproduction 2. Sexual reproduction.
1.Asexual reproduction :

Asexual reproduction stage is also known as imperfect stage and technically called as
anamorphic stage. There is no union of nuclei /sex cells/ sex organs. It is repeated
several times during the life span of a fungus producing numerous asexual spores.
Hence, it is more important for fungi than sexual reproduction.

Asexual spores are formed after mitosis, hence also called mito spores.

31
Methods of asexual reproduction :
1. Fragmentation 2. Fission. 3. Budding 4. Sporulation ( production of spores)
1. Fragmentation : It is the most common method. Hypha of fungus breaks into
small pieces, each broken piece is called a fragment, which function as a
propagating unit and grows into a new mycelium.The spores produced by
fragmentation are called arthrospores (arthron=joint) (spora=seed) or oidia..
Eg. Oidium, Geotrichum. Sometimes, the contents of intercalary cells or
terminal cells of hypha rounded off and surrounded by thick wall and
formed as chlamydospores which are thick walled resistant spores produced
either singly or in chains. Eg. Fusarium oxysporum, Ustilago tritici.
2. Fission / Transverse fission: The parent cell elongates,nucleus under go mitotic
division and forms two nuclei, then the contents divide into equal halves by the
formation of a transverse septum and separates into two daughter
cells.Eg.Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

32
3.Budding: The spores formed through budding are called blastospores. The parent
cell puts out initially a small out growth called bud / blastos ie.,sprout or out growth
which increases in size and nucleus divides, one daughter nucleus accompanied by a
portion of cytoplasm migrates into bud and the other nucleus remains in the parent
cell. Later, the bud increases in size and a constriction is formed at the base of bud,
cutting off completely from parent cell . Bud, when separated from parent cell, can
function as an independent propagating unit.Sometimes multiple buds are also seen
i.e., bud over bud and looks like pseudomycelium. Eg. Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
4. Sporulation ( spores): The process of production of spores is called
sporulation.
Spore: It is a minute, simple propagating unit of the fungi, functioning as
a seed but differs from it in lacking a preformed embryo that serves in the
reproduction of same species.
Spores vary in colour,size,number of cells and the way in which they are
borne.

33
 There are 2 main types of spores.
1. Sporangiospores 2. Conidia

1.Sporangiospores:When the asexual spores are produced internally, within

the sporangia,such spores are called sporangiospores.The sac like structure
which produces sporangiospores is called sporangium. The special hypha
bearing sporangium is called sporangiophore which may or may not be
distinguishable from hypha. A small sporangium with or without columella
containing a few or single spore is called as sporangiolum.
Eg. Choanephora trispora .

Sporangium which is cylindrical in shape is called as merosporangium.

Eg. Syncephalastrum racemosum.

Sporangium with columella is called as columellate sporangium.

Eg.Rhizopus stolonifer

Sporangiospores are of 2 types.

a. Zoospores /planospores b.Aplanospores

a.Zoospores / planospores: sporangiospores which are motile by flagella are called

zoospores.Also known as planospores.Eg. Pythium, Phytophthora. b.Aplanospores:

Flagellation in fungi:
Flagella : (sing.flagellum)Flagella are thin, hair like delicate structures attached to a
basal granule called blepharoplast in cytoplasm and these are the organs of motility in
lower fungi and aquatic fungi.

T ypes of flagella :Flagella of zoospores are of 2 types.

a.Whiplash b.Tinsel

a)Whiplash : A flagellum with long, thick, rigid basal portion and with a short,
narrow, flexible, upper portion .It gives a whip like appearance to flagellum.

34
b)Tinsel : It is a feathery structure consisting of a long rachis with lateral hair like
projections called mastigonemes or flimmers on all sides along its entire length.
The number, position and nature of flagella play an important role in the
classification of lower fungi.

Uniflagellate zoospore : A zoospore with a single flagellum, may be placed at

anterior or posterior end of spore.

Biflagellate zoospore:A zoospore with two flagella, situated laterally or anteriorly

on zoospore.

One whiplash,one tinsel type flagella and equal in size.Eg. Pythium

aphanidermatum, Phytophthora infestans

Both whiplash flagella,unequal in size (heterokont).Eg .Plasmodiophora brassicae.

2. Conidia / Conidiospores: ( konis=dust; oides=like ) Conidia are non- motile

asexual spores which may arise directly from somatic hyphae or from specialized
conidiogenous cells ( a cell from which conidia are produced) or on conidiophore (
hypha which bear conidia).Conidia are produced freely on conidiophore ie.,at the tips
or sides of conidiophore or may be produced in specialized asexual fruiting bodies
viz., pycnidium, acervulus, sporodochium and synnemata.

35
Asexual fruiting bodies :

(a) Pycnidium: ( pl.pycnidia ) It is a globose or flask shaped fruiting body lined

inside with conidiophores which produce conidia. It may be completely closed or
may have an opening called ostiole.

Pycnidium may be provided with small papillum or long neck. Eg.Phomopsis.

(b) Acervulus: ( pl.acervuli ) A flat or saucer shaped fruiting body with a stromatic
mat of hyphae producing conidia on short conidiophores.

An acervulus lacks a definite wall structure and not having an ostiole or definite line
of dehiscence. Eg.Colletotrichum,Pestalotiopsis.

(c) Sporodochium : (pl.sporodochia) A cushion shaped asexual fruiting

body. Conidiophores arise from a central stroma and they are woven together on a
mass of hyphae and produce conidia.Eg.Fusarium.

(d) Synnemata: ( pl.synnema ) A group of conidiophores often united at the base

and free at the top. Conidia may be formed at its tip or along the length of synnema,
resembling a long handled feather duster.Eg.Graphium.

Pycnidium Acervulus Sporodochium Synnemata

36
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction involves union of two compatible nuclei or sex cells or sex
organs or somatic cells or somatic hyphae for the formation of new individuls. Sexual
stage is perfect stage and technically called as teleomorphic stage. Sexual cycle
normally occurs once in the life span of the fungus. Sexual spores or sexual structures
which contain sexual spores are thick walled, resistant to unfavourable conditions and
are viable for longer period and thus these spores help the fungus to perpetuate from
one season to another , hence these are called as resting spores.Sexual spores are
definite in number.
Sex organs of fungi :
Gametangia: Sex organs of fungi are called gametangia containing gametes
or gamete nuclei.

Gametes: Sex cells are called as gametes .

Antheridium: ( pl.antheridia ) Male gametangium is called as antheridium.

Male gametangium is small and club shaped.

Oogonium / Ascogonium:(pl.oogonia/ascogonia ):The female gametangium is

called Oogonium (oomycetes) or ascogonium (ascomycotina).Female gametangium
is large and globose shaped.

Male gametes are called antherozoids or sperm or spermatozoids .

Female gametes are called egg or oosphere.

Planogametes: If gametes are motile, they are called planogametes.

Isogametangia: If gametangia are morphologically similar or identical

i.e.,indistinguishable as male and female , they are called as isogametangia.

37
Isogametes: If gametes are similar morphologically, they are called as isogametes.
Heterogametangia: If gametangia differ morphologically in size and structure, they
are called as heterogametangia.
Heterogametes: If gametes differ morphologically, they are called heterogametes.
+ or – signs: In some sexually undifferentiated fungi, male and female are
symbolically designated as ‘ + ’ ( male) and ‘ – ’ ( female ).

Classification of fungi based on sex :

1. Monoecious fungi / hermaphroditic fungi: ( mono=single,oikos=home)
The fungi which produce distinguishable male and female sex organs on the
same thallus, which may or may not be compatible are called monoecious/
hermaphroditic fungi. Eg. Pythium aphanidermatum.
2. Dioecious fungi: (di=two, oikos=home) The fungi which produce
distinguishable male and female sex organs on two different thalli ie., there
will be separate male and female thalli . Eg. Phytophthora infestans.

Classification of fungi based on compatibility ;

Homothallic fungi: Fungi in which both sexes occur on same thallus, which
can reproduce sexually by it self with out the aid of another thallus ie., self
compatible / self fertile are called homothallic fungi. Eg. Pythium
aphanidermatum.
Heterothallic fungi: A fungal species consisting of self sterile
(self incompatible) thallus requiring the union of two compatible thalli for
sexual reproduction, regardless of the possible presence of both male and
female organs on the same thallus. Heterothallic fungi are dioecious Eg.
Phytophthora infestans..

Phases in Sexual reproduction:.There are 3 phases in sexual reproduction.

1. Plasmogamy: union of two protoplasts takes place.As a result of it the
two nuclei come together within the same cell.
2. Karyogamy: union of 2 sexually compatible nuclei brought together by
plasmogamy to form a diploid nucleus (2n) i.e., zygote.

38
3. Meiosis: This is reduction division . The number of chromosomes is reduced to
haploid ( n ) i.e., diploid nucleus results into haploid nucleus..
In lower fungi (Phycomycetes -Mastigomycotina and Zygomycotina)
plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis occurs at regular intervals / sequence
i.e.,karyogamy follows immediately after plasmogamy. In higher fungi
(Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina), karyogamy is delayed, as a result the nuclei
remain in pairs ( dikaryotic phase- n+ n condition), which may be brief or
prolonged.
Dikaryon : A pair of genetically different nuclei, lying side by side with out fusion
for a considerable period of time is called dikaryon.A cell containing dikaryon is
called dikaryotic cell. And the process is known as dikaryogamy.

Methods of sexual reproduction : 5 methods.

1. Planogametic copulation. 2. Gametangial contact 3. Gametangial copulation
4. Spermatisation 5. Somatogamy .
1.Planogametic copulation ( gametogamy ): This involves the union of 2 naked
gametes one or both of which are motile.
a.Isogamy (Isogamous planogametic copulation) : If both gametes are
motile and similar.Eg. Plasmodiophora brassicae.
b.Anisogamy (Anisogamous planogametic copula tion) : If both gametes
are motile but dissimilar.E g. Allomyces macrogynus
c.Heterogamy: If gametes are dissimilar, one motile, another is non
motile. Eg. Monoblepharis polymorpha.
2.Gametangial contact ( gametangy / oogamy ): Male and female gametangia
come in contact . At the place of contact, dissolution of wall occurs and a fertilization
tube is formed. The conte nts of male gametangium migrate into female
gametangium through a pore or fertilization tube developed at the point of contact.
The gametangia do not loose their identity. E g. Pythium aphanidermatum.

39
3.Gametangial copulation ( gametangiogamy ): The isogametangia come ni
contact, their intervening wall dissolves leading to fusion of entire contents of two
contacting gametangia to form a single unit.Gametangia loose their identity.The
protoplasts fuse and the unit increases in size. Eg. Rhizopus stolonifer.

4.Spermatiz ation: Minute, uninucleate male cells called as spermatia which are
produced on spermatiophores in a fruiting body ( pycnium) are carried to female
reproductive structures called receptive hyphae. Spermatia and receptive hyphae
come in contact and contents of male spermatium migrate into female receptive
hypha, thus making the cell binucleate. This process is called dikaryotization. Eg.
Puccinia graminis tritici.

40
5.Somatogamy: Many higher fungi do not produce sex organs.In such cases
somatogamy takes place.It is the union of 2 somatic hyphae or somatic cells
representing opposite sexes to form sexual spores .Eg. Agaricus campestris
Parasexual cycle / Parasexuality :Parasexual cycle is a process in which
plasmogamy, karyogamy and haploidisation (non meiotic process) takes place in a
sequence but not at specified points in the life cycle of a fungus. It was first
discovered in 1952 by Pontecorvo and Roper in Aspergillus nidulans, the imperfect
stage of Emericella nidulans.It is of importance in heterokaryotic fungi( a fungi in
which genetically different nuclei are associated in the same protoplast or
mycelium) .This is one of the methods of producing variability of fungal pathogens.
In majority of Deuteromycotina,true sexual cycle is absent but derive many of the
benefits of sexuality through this cycle.
Different types of sexual spores :Sexual spores are formed after
meiosis,hence also called meiospores.
1.Oospores 2.Zygospores 3.Ascospores 4.Basidiospores
1.Oospore: A thick walled sexual resting spore produced by the union of two
morphologically different gametangia.
Eg.Pythium, Phytophthora , members of class Oomycetes.
2. Zygospore: A thick walled sexual resting spore produced by the fusion of two
morphologically similar gametangia.
Eg.Rhizopus , members of sub-division Zygomycotina
3. Ascospore:Sexual spore produced in a specialized sac like like structure known
as ascus. Generally 8 ascospores are formed.
Eg.Erysiphe,members of sub-division Ascomycotina.
4.Basidiospore:Sexual spore produced on a club shaped structure known as
basidium.Generally 4 basidiospores are formed.
Eg.Puccinia, members of sub-division Basidiomycotina.
Various Life cycle patterns displayed by fungi:
1. Haplobiontic life cycle 2. Diplobiontic life cycle
1. Haplobiontic life cycle: If there is only one free living thallus, which is haploid
or diploid in life cycle of a fungus, it is called as haplobiontic life cycle.

41
( long haploid somatic phase and short diploid phase confined to zygote cell, which
undergoes meiosis immediately after karyogamy and develop ascospores ) Eg.
Schizosaccharomyces octosporus.
2. Diplobiontic life cycle: If haploid thallus alternates with a diploid thallus, the life
cycle is called diplobiontic life cycle, which has a long diploid somatic phase and a
very short haplo Id phase. Eg. Saccharomyces ludwigii.

42
Nomenclature, Binomial system of nomenclature, rules of
nomenclature
Taxonomy : The science of classification. It is concerned with pricnciples of
classification.
Classification: Grouping of organisms into classes,orders,families,genera,
species etc.
Nomenclature : Art of naming living organisms.
Importance of taxonomy and nomenclature;
1. for study of fungi
2. for scientific communication between mycologists and plant pathologists
throughout the world.
Binomial system of nomenclature was originally introduced by Carl Linnaeus for
higher plants. Later, this classification was adopted to fungi by his students
C.H.Persoon amd E.M. Fries.
Some important rules of nomenclature :

1.According to International code of Botanical Nomenclature, the names of

organisms should be binomial i.e., 2 parts.The first part is noun designating genus
and the first letter of the genus name should be in capital. The second name is
often an adjective, describing the noun which denotes the species, and the first
letter should be in small letter. Eg. Puccinia graminis.
2.Binomials are usually derived from Greek or Latin.
3.Binomials when hand written should be underlined and when printed italicised.
Eg.. Puccinia graminis ( hand written)
Puccinia graminis ( printed)
4. Citation of authors name: The full name or abbrevation name of scientist who
described fungus first, follows the species name.Eg. Puccinia graminis Persoon or
Pers.
5. Citation of two authors names: If name of species is transferred to another
genus from original ( Botrytis infestans), the name of first author who first
described species must be kept in parenthesis followed by name of second author
43
who gave present status of species. i.e., Phytophthora infestans. Eg.
Phytophthora infestans ( Mont.) de Bary.
6. The taxa ( groups) used in classification are Kingdom, Division, Class, Order,
Family, Genus and Species.Each category may be sub divided into sub groups
like Sub- Division,Sub- Class, Sub- Order.
7. Species is the unit of classification or basic taxonomic category ( taxon).
8. Species some times broken into variety / formae speciales ( f.sp.) and varieties
into races and races into biotypes.
Standard endings of TAXA:
Division ends with mycota
Sub- Division ends with mycotina
Class with mycetes
Sub- class with mycetidae
Order with ales
Family with aceae
No special ending for genus and species.
TAXA:
Kingdom
Division
Sub-division
Class
Sub-class
Order
Sub-order
Family
Genera
Species
Eg. Puccinia graminis triticirace 1
Kingdom :Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Basidiomycotina
Class : Teliomycetes
Order : Uredinales
Family : Pucciniaceae
Genus : Puccinia
Species : graminis
Variety : tritici
Race : 1

44
Classification of fungi. Key to divisions, sub-divisions, orders and
classes.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI

(CLASSIFICATION BY AINSWORTH, 1973)

KINGDOM: MYCOTA

DIVISIONS

MYXOMYCOTA EUMYCOT
A

CLASS SUB DIVISIONS

PLASMODIOPHOROMYCETES 1. MASTIGOMYCOTINA

ORDER : PLASMODIOPHORALES 2. ZYGOMYCOTINA

3. ASCOMYCOTINA
FAMILY:PLASMODIOPHORACEAE
4. BASIDIOMYCOTINA
Eg.Plasmodiophora
5.DEUTEROMYCOTINA

45
S.D : 1. MASTIGOMYCOTINA
CLASSES

1.CHYTRIDIOMYCETES
ORDER: CHYTRIDIALES
FAMILY: SYNCHYTRIACEAE
Eg. Synchytrium
2.OOMYCETES
ORDER: PERONOSPORALES
FAMILY: PYTHIACEAE
Eg: Pythium, P hytophthora

FAMILY: ALBUGINACEAE
Eg. Albugo
FAMILY: PERONOSPORACEAE
Eg : Sclerospora . Peronospora,Peronosclerospora

Plasmopara , Pseudoperonospora, Bremia

S.D :2. ZYGOMYCOTINA
CLASS :ZYGOMYCETES

ORDER: MUCORALES
FAMILY: MUCORACEAE
Eg. Rhizopus, Mucor
S.D 3. ASCOMYCOTINA
CLASSES

1 .HEMIASCOMYCETES
ORDER:
PROTOMYCETALES
FAMILY: PROTOMYCETACEAE
Eg. Eurotium, Talaromyces

2 .PLECTOMYCETES
ORDER:
EUROTIALES
FAMILY: EUROTIACEAE

46
 ORDER : ERYSIPHALES
FAMILY:ERYSIPHACEAE
Eg. Erysiphe, Leveillula, Phyllactinia, Uncinula,
Sphaerotheca,Podosphaera, Microsphaera

3.PYRENOMYCETES
ORDER: HYPOCREALES
FAMILY: CLAVICIPITACEAE
Eg. Claviceps

4.DISCOMYCETES
ORDER: TUBERALES
FAMILY: TUBERACEAE
Eg. Tuber

ORDER: PEZIZALES
FAMILY: MORCHELLACEAE
Eg. Morchella
5.LOCULOASCOMYCETES
ORDER: PLEOSPORALES
FAMILY: VENTURIACEAE
Eg. Venturia
FAMILY: PLEOSPORACEAE
Eg. Cochliobolus
ORDER: MYRIANGIALES
FAMILY: MYRIANGIACEAE
Eg. Elsinoe

ORDER: DOTHIDIALES

47
 FAMILY: DOTHIDIACEAE
Eg. Mycosphaerella

S.D 4. BASIDIOMYCOTINA
CLASSES
1.TELIOMYCETES
ORDER: UREDINALES
FAMILY: PUCCINIACEAE
Eg.Puccinia, Uromyces, Hemileia
FAMILY: MELAMPSORACEAE
Eg. Melampsora
ORDER: USTILAGINALES
FAMILY: USTILAGINACEAE
Eg. Ustilago, Sphaecelotheca,Tolyposporium
FAMILY: TILLETIACEAE

Eg. Tilletia, Neovossia, Urocystis

FAMILY: GRAPHIOLACEAE
Eg. Graphiola

2.HYMENOMYCETES
SUB CLASS: HOLOBASIDIOMYCETIDAE

ORDER : AGARICALES
FAMILY: AGARICACEAE
Eg. Agaricus, Volvariella, Pleurotus

ORDER: APHYLLOPHORALES
FAMILY: POLYPORACEAE
Eg. Polyporus, Fomes, Peria
FAMILY: GANODERMATACEAE

48
 Eg. Ganoderma
S.D 5 DEUTEROMYCOTINA
CLASSES

1.COELOMYCETES
ORDER: SPHAEROPSIDALES

FAMILY: SPHAEROPSIDACEAE
Eg. Phoma, Phomopsis, M acrophomina,
Phyllosticta, Diplodia,Botryodiplodia
FAMILY:EXCIPULACEAE
Eg. Ephelis
FAMILY: NECTRIOIDACEAE
Eg. Zythia
FAMILY: LEPTOSTROMATACEAE

Eg. Leptostroma
ORDER: MELANCONIALES
FAMILY: MELANCONIACEAE
Eg. Colletotrichum, Gloeosporium,
Pestalotiopsis, Pestalotia

2.HYPHOMYCETES
ORDER: HYPHOMYCETALES / MONILIALES

FAMILY: MONILIACEAE
Eg. Pyricularia, BotrytIs, Verticillium,
FAMILY: DEMATIACEAE
Eg. Alternaria ,Bipolaris, Cercospora, Phaeosariopsis
ORDER: STILBELLALES

49
 FAMILY: STILBELLACEAE
Eg. Graphium
ORDER : TUBERCULARIALES

FAMILY: TUBERCULARIACEAE
Eg. Fusarium, Myrothecium
ORDER : AGONOMYCETALES
FAMILY: AGONOMYCETACEAE
Eg. Sclerotium,Rhizoctoni

50
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF DIVISIONS AND SUB-DIVISIONS
DIVISIONS :

1. MYXOMYCOTA: Plasmodial forms with out cell wall. Plasmodium is a naked

multinucleate mass of protoplasm which moves and feeds in an amoeboid
direction.Also calledcas slime molds.

EUMYCOTA: True fungi. Thallus is typically filamentous with cell wall.

Plasmodium absent

SUB DIVISIONS OF EUMYCOTA :

1. MASTIGOMYCOTINA :
Thallus is unicellular or aseptate mycelium.Asexual spores are zoospores (motile
spores).Sexual spores are oospores. Sexual reproduction by gametangial contact.
2. ZYGOMYCOTINA :
Thallus is aseptate mycelium. Motile spores are absent. Asexual spores are
sporangiospores (aplanospores).Sexual spores are zygospores.Sexual reproduction
through gametangial copulation.
3. ASCOMYCOTINA :
Thallus is septate mycelium. Rarely unicellular. Motile spores are absent. Asexual
spores are conidia.Sexual spores are ascospores produced endogenously in an
ascus.Sexual reproduction mainly by gametangial contact .
4. BASIDIOMYCOTINA:
Thallus is septate mycelium.Motile spores are absent.Clamp connections and
dolipore septum are present.Sexual spores are basidiospores produced exogenously
on basidium.Sexual reproduction is by spermatization and somatogamy.
5. DEUTEROMYCOTINA:
Thallus: septate mycelium . Motile spores are absent. Sexu al spores are absent. Asexual
spores called conidia are present.

51
DIVISION - MYXOMYCOTA

CLASS :PLASMODIOPHOROMYCETES,ORDER:PLASMODIOPHORALES

FAMILY:PLASMODIOPHORACEAE

1. These are obligate endoparasites.Commonly called as endoparasitic slime molds .

Thallus is a plasmodium,
2. There are 2 types of plasmodia.
a. Sporangiogenous plasmodium - formed asexually containing many thin

walled zoosporangia and each zoosporangium produce a single or many secondary

zoospores or sporangial zoospores.

b. Cystogenous plasmodium - formed sexually consisting of thick walled cysts

and each cyst gives rise to a single primary zoospore / cyst zoospore. Cysts may be
free or united.Cysts act as resting spores.

Zoospores are anteriorly biflagellte, whiplash type,unequal in size which are called
as Heterokont zoospores. After swimming for some time, the zoospore encysts on
the root hair of the host. A cylindrical sharp pointed body, called satchel, is formed
in a specialized pouch or sheath called Rohr.
4.Nuclear division is by cruciform division.
5. Sexual reproduction is by isogamous planogametic copulation.
6. Members cause abnormal enlargement and multiplication of host cells i.e.,
hypertrophy and hyperplasia. Eg: Plasmodiophora ,Spongospora
Differences between Plasmodiophora and Spongospora :
Plasmodiophora : Resting spores / cysts lie freely with in the host cell, but not in
cystosorus.
Spongospora : Resting spores form balls and appear like sponge.
Diseases :Plasmodiophora brassicae : club root / finger & toe disease of
cabbage / crucifers.

Spongospora subterranea : powdery scab of potato

52
 DIVISION :EUMYCOTA

SUB - DIVISION: MASTIGOMYCOTINA

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS CHYTRIDIOMYCETES:

1. Thallus (a) primitive members - unicellular, advanced members with coenocytic

mycelium.
(b) endobiotic (fungus which lives with in the cells of host) or epibiotic
(reproductive organs of the fungus on surface of the host, part or entire thallus with in
the host cell).
(c) holocarpic or eucarpic.
2 .Zoospores are posteriorly uniflagellate whiplash type. Inside the zoospore,
around the nucleus cell ribosomes cluster together to form a nuclear cap.
3. Asexual reproduction is by zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
4.Sexual reproduction is by (a) planogametic copulation ( isogamy, anisogamy,
heterogamy) . (b)gametangial copulation.
5. Zygote is converted into resting sporangium / resting spore. Zoospores produced
from this resting spore infect host cell and produces prosorus
which is thick with golden-brown chitinous wall. Prosorus eventually gives rise to
sorus. Eg.Synchytrium.

Important characteristics of Order: Chytridiales

1.Thallus is epibiotic or endobiotic, monocentric or polycentric, vegetative parts are
rhizoidal .
2.Zoosporangium is operculate or inoperculate (operculum present or absent).
3.Zoospore germination is unipolar.
4.Resting spore on germination functions as a sporangium or prosporangium
Important characteristics of Family: Synchytriaceae :
Includes only single genus - Synchytrium, species - endobioticum.
Thallus is unicellular, endobiotic and holocarpic . Warts contain resting sporangia .
Thallus behaves as a prosorus.
Disease: Causes black wart of potato. It is prominent in hilly regions like
Darjeeling.
Epidermal cells of tubers are infected by the fungus. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia
takes place, as a result, out growths appear on tubers.
Diseases transmitted : Synchytrium endobioticum transmits potato virus - x .

53
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS OOMYCETES

1. Members may be aquatic or terrestrial ,saprophytes or obligate parasites.

2. Thallus - mostly eucarpic ,coenocytic

3. Cell wall consists of cellulose. Chitin is absent.

4. Asexual reproduction is by zoospores produced in zoosporangia.

Zoospores are biflagelte (whiplash and tinsel), anteriorly or laterally
positioned, equal in size.

5. Sexual reproduction is oogamous type ie.,gametangial contact/ gametangy..

Heterogametangia come in contact, contents of antheridium (male
gametangium) passes into oogonium( female gametangium ) containing
oosphere (egg) through fertilization tube.

6. Zygote resulting from sexual reproduction is called oospore.

7. Oospore is the sexual resting spore which is the characteristic of

oomycetes.

8. This zygote/ oospore is diploid.Oospore which gives rise to mycelium/

gametangia is also diploid.

9. Meiosis o ccurs in gametangia instead of zygote.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS ORDER PERONOSPORALES:

1.Many species are destructive pathogens causing very serious diseases in some
important crop plants.The diseases caused by these members include white
rusts, downy mildews, damping off, leaf blights and seedling blights.
2.Members are mostly terrestrial.
3.Mycelium is coenocytic, produce inter and intra cellular hyphae.If inter –
cellular produce haustoria.
4.Sporangia are produced on well developed, distinct sporangiophores and
sporangia are deciduous ( fall off at maturity).

54
5.Sporangiophores may be indeterminate / indefinite type (sporangiophores
continue to grow indefinitely producing sporangia at the tip as they
grow.ie.,sporangia of different ages are seen on sporangiophores) or
determinate/definite type (sporangia are not produced until sporangiophores
complete their development and maturity and all the sporangia are produced at
one time.ie.,single crop of sporangia are produced.)
6.Zoospores are monomorphic (producing morphologically one type of
zoospores i.e., reniform zoospores) and monoplanetic ( only one swarming
period.).
7.Zoospores are reniform ie., kidney shaped and biflagellate.
Some species exhibit highly specialized parasitism i.e., obligate parasites.
8.Oogonium produces a single oosphere / egg surrounded by conspicuous
periplasm except in Family: Pythiaceae in which periplasm is
inconspicuous. Periplasm serves as a source of nutrients to oosphere.

ORDER PERONOSPORALES :

Families: 1.Pythiaceae 2.Albuginaceae 3.Peronosporaceae

These three families are distinguished based on characteristics of sporangiophores
and sporangia.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY
1. PYTHIACEAE :
1.Species may be saprophytes or facultative parasites.Commonly called
water molds.
2.May be inter or intra cellular mycelium.If inter cellular,produce haustoria,
if intra cellular, no haustoria are produced.
3.Sporangiophores generally not distinguished from somatic hyphae unless
sporangia are present.
4.Sporangiophores are indefinite or indeterminate type .
5.In oogonium ,Periplasm is inconspicuous (not visible).
Eg. Pythium and Phytophthora

55
Genus PYTHIUM :Fungus is facultative parasite and lives in soil on dead organic matter
or parasitically on young seedlings of crop plants .Mycelium well
developed,branched,coenocytic,hyaline,intracellular mycelium without haustoria. Thallus
is homothallic.Asexual reproduction is through zoospores produced in zoosporangia .
Sporangia are large globose( P. debaryanum ) or irregularly lobed (P.aphanidermatum)
produced terminally or intercalary on somatic hyphae.Zoospores are produced in a
vesicle which emerge out of sporangium.ie.,zoospore differentiation takes place in
vesicle.Sexual reproduction is by gametangial contact.Paragynous
antheridium(Antheridium is by the side of oogonium).Oospores are smooth,thick
walled,round,light brown and aplerotic (oospore wall do not fuse with oogonial wall) or
plerotic (oospore wall fuses with oogonial wall).
Diseases:Damping off of vegetable seedlings of solanaceous crops caused by
Pythium debaryanum or P.aphaniderma

56
Genus PHYTOPHTHORA : (Phyto=plant,Phthora=destructor)

Fungus lives in soil on dead organic matter or parasitically on potato tubers.

Mycelium is well developed,branched,coenocytic,hyaline,intercellular mycelium
with haustoria.Thallus is heterothallic.
Asexual reproduction is by zoospores produced in sporangia.Sporangia are lemon or
pear shaped,thin walled,papillate,formed terminally on sympodially branched
sporangiophore (sympodium is with a more or less zig zag growth and characteristic
swellings at nodes).Sporangiophores are distinct ie.,easily distinguished from somatic
hyphae.Vesicle is not formed, zoospores are differentiated in zoosporangium it self.
Sexual reproduction is by gametangial contact.Antheridium is amphigynous
(Oogonium penetrates the antheridium) or paragynous.Oospores are smooth,thick
walled,round ,dark brown and plerotic.
Also produces resting spores called chlamydospores.
Diseases: Phytophthora infestans - Late blight of Potato
P. parasitica var. nicotianae - black shank and leaf blight of tobacco

57
Differences between Pythium and Phytophthora

Pythium Phytophthora

1.Myceliumisbothinterand Only intercellular. Haustoria are

intracellular.Whenintracellular, no produced.

haustoria are produced.

2. Production of sporangia on somatic Sporangiophores can be distinguished

hyphae. Sporangiophores are by sympodial branching and nodal

indistinct from hyphae. swellings.

3.Sporangia are globose or elongated Sporangia are lemon or pear or oval

or lobed. shaped.

They are produced intercalary or Produced terminally.

Terminally.

No papillum. Papillum is present.

4.Sporangia germinate by forming No vesicle is seen.

vesicle.

Differentiation of zoospores takes Zoospores differentiate in the

Place in the vesicle. sporangium .

5. Antheridium is of paragynous type. Amphigynous type.

6. Homothallic Heterothallic.

7.Asexual reproduction is by Zoospores in sporangia and

Zoospores in sporangia. chlamydospores.

8.Oospores are plerotic / aplerotic. Oospores are aplerotic

9.Appresorium not formed Formed

10.Oospore hyaline,smooth Brown,warty

58
 FAMILY ALBUGINACEAE - IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS
1.Members are obligate parasites.
2.Mycelium is intercellular producing knob shaped haustoria.
3.Sporangiophores are specialized which are short, unbranched and club
shaped.They are of indeterminate type.Sporangiophores are borne in close
proximity to one another in compact layers or beds under the epidermis of the
host.
4.Each sporangiophore gives rise to several aporangia which are produced in
succession,one below the other,so that a chain of sporangia is formed with the
oldest at the tip and youngest at the base ( basipetal manner ).
5.Sporangia are globose.Successive sporangia are connected by isthmus or
disjunctor cell or separation disc.
6.Periplasm is conspicuous.
7.Single genus under the family i.e., Albugo.
The diseases caused by this genus are called white rusts. The term rust is restricted
normally for the fungi belonging to the order Uredinales of class Teliomycetes of
sub division Basidiomycotina and the diseases they cause. Since these white pustules
resemble the pustules caused by true rusts in order Uredinales, the term white rust
was coined to the group of diseases caused by Albugo sp. The white rusts also cause
floral malformation and tumors on stems, leaves, petioles etc. due to hypertrophy of
infected tissue.

Genus ALBUGO:
Fungus is an obligate parasite on crucifers and lives in soil in the form of oospores or
parasitically on plants.
Mycelium iscoenocytic,hyaline,endophytic,intercellular with knob shaped
haustotia.
Asexual reproduction is by zoospores produced in sporangia.Sporangiophores are
unbranched,hyaline clavate,bears sporangia in chains in basipetal
succession.Sporangia are spherical,thin walled,sessile, hyaline and germinate by
zoospores.
Sexual reproduction is by gametangial contact.Oospores are round ,thick
walled,dark brown and outer wall warty.
Diseases:White rust on mustard caused by Albugo candida

59
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY:3.PERONOSPORACEAE

1. All the members are obligate parasites of plants causing diseases called
downy mildews.
2. Mycelium is coenocytic and intercellular with haustoria
3.Sporangiophores are well developed, specialized , characteristically branched and
determinate type.Sporangiophores attain maturity and later produce sporangia at one
time. ie.,single crop of sporangia are produced.
4.Sporangia deciduous, may be papillate ( also called operculum) or may not be
papillate. In most genera, sporangia germinate by zoospore. However, in some
species they germinate by germ tube and function as conidia depending on
environmental conditions.
5.Oospores may be plerotic or aplerotic.
6.Periplasm conspicuous.
The name downy mildews( downy= feathery or soft + mildew= superficial growth) is
given because of soft feathery growth observed on the lower side of affected foliage
consisting of sporangiophores of these fungi.
The members are further divided into different genera and distinguished based
on two characteristics viz., 1. morphology of sporangiophore
( branching pattern) 2. method of germination of sporangia.
Eg. Peronospora, Pseudoperonospora, Peronosclerospora, Sclerospora,
Plasmopara, Bremia, Sclerophthora.

60
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF DOWNY MILDEW GENERA:

1.SCLESPORA:Sporangiophores are stout ,having upright branches,

bearing sporangia on sterigmata.Sporangia are h yaline ,ovoid,smooth
walled,papillate and germinate by zoospores.Oospore is plerotic.
Eg.Sclerospora graminicola –downy mildew of bajra.

2.PERONOSPORA:Sporangiophores are dichotomously branched 2-7 times at

acute angles and tips of branches are curved and pointed bearing sporangia on
sterigmata.Sporangia are hyaline ,ovoid ,non-papillate and always germinate by
germ tube. i.e.,sporangia behave like conidia. Eg;Peronospora destructor-downy
mildew of onion.

3.PERONOSCLEROSPORA :Fungus possess characteristics of both

Peronospora and Sclerospora.Sporangiophores are erect,short,stout,widening
towards upper portion,dichotomously branched 2 -5 times at apex bearing
sporangia on sterigmata.Sporangia are hyaline,elliptical or ovoid,thin walled, non-
papillate and germinate by germ tube like Peronospora. Oospore is plerotic type
like Sclerospora.
Eg.Peronosclerospora sorghi-downy mildew of jowar
P.philippinensis-downy mildew of maize

61
PSEUDOPERONOSPORA:Sporangiophores are branched at acute angles with
curved,blunt tips,bearing sporangia on sterigmata.Sterigmata are unequal ( 1 big and
1 small ).Sporangia are greyish,ovoid,papillate and germinate by zoospores.
Eg.Pseudoperonospora cubensis -downy mildew of cucurbits.

5.PLASMOPARA;Sporangiophores are branched at right angles to the main axis at

regular intervals.Monopodial branching is observed.Subsequent branches are 3-6
which end in blunt sterigmata of 3 in number.Sporangia are ovoid and germinate by
zoospores.
Eg.Plasmopara viticola-downy mildew of grapes.

6.BREMIA :Sporangiophores are dichotomously branched ,tips of branches are

expanded to cup shaped apophysis with four sterigmata bearing
sporangia.Sporangia are ovoid,papillate and germinate by zoospores. Eg:Bremia
lactucae-downy mildew of lettuce.
SUB-DIVISION: ZYGOMYCOTINA
CLASS: ZYGOMYCETES

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS:

ZYGOMYCETES, ORDER:MUCORALES:

1.Absence of motile zoospores (planospores) and production of non- motile

sporangiospores (aplanospores).

2.Production of thick walled resting spore-zygospore

3.Well developed , coenocytic mycelium and cell wall with chitin

4.Asexual reproduction is by sporangiospores though some species produce

Chlamydospores.

5.Sexual reproduction is by gametangial copulation of isogametangia or

heterogametangia.
FAMILY:MUCORACEAE:

Eg.Rhizopus stolonifer

Genus:Rhizopus:

Rhizopus stolonifer, commonly called as bread mold is a general contaminant of

several food materials. The fungus is mostly saprophytic but is a weak parasite.

62
1.Well developed coenocytic mycelium.Mycelium is differentiated into rhizoids,
stolons and sporangiophores
2.Rhizoids / holdfast are a cluster of brown, slender, branched root like structures
which arise from the lower side of stolons and penetrate into the substrarum. These
are useful for anchoring the thallus into the substratum and for absorption of
nutrients.

3.Stolons or runners are aerial hyphae which grow on the surface of substratum
horizontally and connect the two nodal points ( the junction of stolon and rhizoid or
the point from which rhizoids are produced is called node).

4.Sporangiophores are erect, unbranched hyphae usually produced in fascicles

(groups) only from the nodes during asexual reproduction. Each sporangiophore
bears a single sporangium at its tip. Sporangia are large, globose , many spored with
a sterile structure called columella.

5.Asexual reproduction is by non-motile sporangiospores which are

uninucleate,globose,brown,smooth walled and are produced inside columellate
sporangium.The sporangiospores are liberated by rupture of sporangial wall.The
spores germinate under favourable conditions and gives rise to mycelium,

6.Fungus is heterothallic.Phenomenon of Heterothallism was discovered by in 1904

by A.F.Blakeslee.Heterothallism is favoured by sexual harmones called gammones or
trisporic acid.

7.Sexual reproduction is by isogametangial copulation.Zygospores are thick

walled,dark,warty sexual resting spores which develops in a zygosporangium.
Diseases: Soft rot of sweet potato, fruits and vegetables.

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64
 SUB DIVISION: ASCOMYCOTINA
The members of sub division Ascomycotina are commonly called as sac fungi,
because of production of sexual spores, ascospores in a sac like structure called ascus.
The members of sub divisions Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina and Deuteromycotina
are also considered as higher fungi. The members are found in a variety of habitats .
Some are parasitic on plants, some saprophytes living in soil or on decaying
vegetable matter or grow on dung.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF SUB -DIVISION ASCOMYCOTINA :

1. Produce definite number ( usually eight) of sexual spores (ascospores) in a sac

like structure called ascus.

2. Mycelium is septate,branched and organized into tissues known as plectenchyma.

3. Production of sexual fruiting body called ascocarp in which asci are produced.

4. Absence of motile spores and presence of asexual spores called conidia.

5. Presence of a short dikaryotic phase in ascogenous hypha or

asc ogenous cell.

1. Somatic characteristics: Mycelium is septate and organized into fungal tissues.
Some consists of septate hyphae except in a few cases like yeasts which are single
celled. Mycelium is profusely branched. (except in yeasts) and th e hyphal walls
containing chitin.In few species cellulose is also reported. The septum is simple,
incomplete, perforated and have a central pore/ septal pore through which cytoplasm
and nuclei move from one cell to another cell thus, cytoplasmic continuity is
maintained.

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2. Fungal tissues: Mycelium is mostly organized into fungal tissues known as
plectenchyma. These tissues are chiefly associated with fruiting bodies called
ascocarps viz.,cleistothecium,perithecium,apothecium and ascostroma.
3. Asexual reproduction:Asexual stage is also called as anamorph or imperfect
stage. Asexual reproduction occurs by fission (Yeasts), budding (blastospores)
(Yeasts),fragmentation( majority of fungi) chlamydospore and conidia. Conidia are
short lived, indefinite(enormous) in number,may be produced directly from somatic
hyphae, or from conidiogenous cells or from specialized hyphae called
conidiophores. Conidiophores may be short or long,branched or unbranched or may
form complex asexual fruiting bodies viz., pycnidium, acervulus, sporodochium and
synnemata and the method vary with species and environmental conditions.
4. Sexual reproduction: Sexual stage is also called as teleomorph or perfect stage
or ascigerous stage / state. Sexual spores are called ascospores which are produced in
a sac like structure called ascus. The methods of sexual reproduction are gametangial
copulation, gemetangial contact, spermatiz ation and somatogamy. The gametangia
are antheridium ( male sex organ) and ascogonium( female sex organ). Ascogonium
is provided with a hair like structure called trichogyne (receptive neck of
ascogonium), which is often long and functions as a fertilization tube.
5. The asci may be formed by any of the following methods.
A. Direct development of zygote into ascus - eg. In yeasts, the compatible nuclei brought
together during plasmogamy, fuse ( karyogamy) and the cells containing single diploid
nucleus ( zygote) directly develops into ascus.

B .Indirect Development of asci from ascogenous hyphae- eg. sexual reproduction and
ascus development as exemplified by general life cycle pattern in Pyronema omphalodes.

6.Short dikaryotic phase is seen.Plasmogamy and karyogamy are separated

both by space and time.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ASCUS INDIRECTLY FROM ASCOGENOUS
HYPHAE OR LIFE CYCLE OF PYRONEMA OMPHALODES :

1.The male sex organ is known as antheridium and the female sex organ is known as
ascogonium.
2.During sexual reproduction,the male nuclei from the antheridium pass through the
trichogyne into the ascogonium and pairs up with female nuclei to form dikaryon. (
they do not fuse thus delaying karyogamy) .
3. The sexual act stimulate the ascogonium to produce a number of swellings/
papillae just opposite to groups of nuclei located in the periphery of the ascogonium.
4. The dikaryons in ascogonium multiply by conjugate division and as these
swellings enlarge, the daughter nuclear pair from ascogonium begin to pass into
swellings one by one.
5. Eventually, the swellings elongate into ascogenous hyphae. The nuclear pair or
dikaryon in ascogenous hyphae undergoes conjugate divisions.Later, septa are
formed in ascogenous hyphae in such a way that each cell of ascogenous hyphae is
dikaryotic,except the terminal cell which is uninucleate.Thus,the dikaryotic phase in
Ascomycotina is represented by ascogenous hyphae where in one nucleus is
ascogonial origin and the other antheridial.
6.The penultimate binucleate cell of ascogenous hypha elongate s and bends
over to form a hook like cell called as ‘ hook cell ‘ or ‘crozier ‘. The two nuclei in
crozier cell undergoes conjugate division to form 4 nuclei.
7. Now septa are formed in hook cell in such a way that basal and apical cells consist
of single nucleus each,and the middle cell consists of two nuclei.This binucleate
middle cell is known as ‘Crook cell ’.
8.Crook cell enlarges and converted into ‘Ascus mother cell ’. Karyogamy takes
place in ascus mother cell fusing two nuclei and forms diploid nucleus ( 2 n ).
Thus, plasmogamy ( in ascogonium) and karyogamy ( in ascus mother cell) occur at
different places.Meanwhile ascus mother cell elongates and develops into ascus.
9.The diplod nucleus undergoes meiosis resulting in the formation of 4 haploid
nuclei.
10.These 4 haploid nuclei further undergo mitosis forming 8 haploid nuclei.

67
11.The nuclei develop in to ascospores by reef cell formation.The process of
formation of ascospores is called ‘Free cell formation’ or ‘Ascosporogenesis’. The
ascospores are formed by aggregation of cytoplasm of the ascus around the nucleus
forming definite walls. Epiplasm is the portion of cytoplasm left over, out side the
ascospore walls , which supplies nutrients to the developing ascospores.
12. The number of ascospores may be 8, 16, 32, 64, or even more depending on the
number of mitotic divisions following meiosis. The ascospores vary in shape, size
and some times in color also.
13. Based on compatibility, the members may be homothallic(eg. Aspergillus,
powdery mildew fungi) or heterothallic(E g.Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

68
MORPHOLOGY OF ASCI:
Ascus is a sac like structure usually containing a definite number of ascospores (
typically eight) formed by a process called free cell formation after karyogamy and
meiosis. In majority members of ascomycotina shape of ascus may be elongated,
cylindrical , clavate or club shaped,except in some groups where they are globose or
ovoid. Asci may be stalked or sessile. Generally ascus represents a single cell but in
some ascus may be septate.
Origin of asci:

Asci may arise from a common place called fascicle and spread out like afan or they
may arise singly and distributed irregularly at various levels in the fruiting body. They
may also form at the base of the fruiting body in a definite layer called as hymenium. In
some cases they are not produced in any fruiting body.

Types of asci based on structure of ascus wall:

The wall structure plays an important role in classifying the species.There are three
types of asci based on structure of ascus wall.
1. Prototunicate ascus: This is the primitive type.The wall is very thin, dissolves at
maturity and spores are released. The ascospores are released in a mucilaginous
substance. Eg. Eurotium

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2. Unitunicate ascus: The ascus wall consists of 2 layers which are rigid and unite
together through out length and existence of the ascus. . The outer wall is called
exotunica or exoascus and the inner wall is called endotunica or endoascus and not
separated during spore release. The spores are released through a terminal pore, slit or
operculum.E g. Claviceps.

ASCOCARPS:
Ascocarps are the fruiting bodies of members of Sub-division Ascomycotina which
produce the asci containing the ascospores. In some members such as yeasts,
Taphrina fruiting bodies are not produced and the asci are naked.
Types of ascocarps : 4 types.
1. Cleistothecium: It is a completely closed ball like( globose) ascocarp and it is
made up of a wall with pseudoparenchymatous tissue called as peridium. In some
species these are provided with outer appendages. Asci are scattered or
distributed at different levelsin ascocarp.When the asci are
matured, ascospores are released by disintegration of peridium. Eg. Eurotium, Erysiphe.
2. Perithecium; It is a flask shaped more or less closed ascocarp but provided with a
pore or opening at the tIp called true ostiole through which ascospores are released at
maturity.Ostiole is lined inside with sterile structures called as periphysis. The wall is
called peridium . The asci are arranged in definite layer called hymenium. In between
the asci,there are sterile thread like structures called paraphyses which help in
liberation of ascospores.Eg. Claviceps, Xylaria.
3. Apothecium.: It is an open cup shaped ascocarp with a wall peridium. The asci
are arranged in a layer called hymenium , either exposed from the beginning or later
exposed. The sterile structures called paraphyses ( tips free / not fused ) are also
present intermingled with asci which help in liberation and dispersal of
ascospores.Epithecium is a layer on the surface of hymenium of an apothecium
formed by fusion of tips of paraphyses over the asci.E g. Peziza, Tuber.
4. Ascostromata: The asci are formed directly in cavities called locules with in
stroma. The stroma itself serves as wall of ascostroma. Sterile structures called
pseudoparaphyses are present in ascostromata.Eg.Elsinoe.
If the ascostromata is with a single locule ie., An unilocular ascostroma which
resembles perithecium with pseudoparaphyses is called as
pseudothecium.Eg.Venturia.

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STERILE THREAD LIKE STRUCTURES IN ASCOCARP:

Ascocarps contain sterile thread like structures of various types.

1.Paraphyses: These are elongated, cylindrical , club shaped or sometimes branched

threads arising from bottom of ascocarp. They may be septate or aseptate. They grow
among asci in hymenium and remain free at their tips. However, in Discomycetes, the
tips fuse together forming a layer known as epithecium. Paraphyses help in liberation
and dispersal of ascospores. Eg. Perithecium (Claviceps) , Apothecium( Peziza).

2.Paraphysoids:These are inter ascal tissue that stretch and resemble

pseudoparaphyses,but remotely septate,very narrow,anastomose and tips remain free.

3.Periphyses: These are short, hair like threads lining in side of an ostiole of
perithecium or pseudothecium. Their function is to direct the asci towards ostiole at
the time of ascospore release.
Eg. Perithecium( Claviceps) , Pseudothecium( Venturia).
4.Periphysoids: These are the lateral periphyses which are short and originate above
the level of developing asci but do not reach base of cavity and curve upwards
towards apex.

5.Pseudoparaphyses:These are distinct,vertical, paraphyses -like hyphae,that

originate above the level of asci and grow downwards between the developing
asci,finally becoming attached to the base of the cavity,thus forming curtains
between asci.These are often broader,regularly septate,branched and
anastomosing.Eg. Elsinoe.

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Ascomycotina is sub divided into six classes based on presence or absence of
ascocarp and shape of the ascocarp.

Class 1. Hemiascomycetes 2. Plectomycetes 3. Pyrenomycetes 4. Discomycetes 5.

Loculoascomycetes. 6. Laboulbeniomycetes.

Important plant pathogens are in the classes :

Hemiascomycetes,Plectomycetes,Pyrenomycetes and Loculoascomycetes

IMPORT ANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS HEMIASCOMYCETES

1.Mycelium is pseudomycelium or dikaryotic mycelium.
2.Ascocarp is absent i.e.,asci are naked.
3.Asci are not formed from ascogenous hyphae but formed directly from zygote or
ascogenous cells.
4.Asci release ascospores by bursting or deliquescing of ascus.
5.Orders:
a.Protomycetales, Family:Protomycetaceae.Eg.Protomyces,Protomycopsis
b.Taphrinales, Family:Taphrinaceae Eg.Taphrina

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER

TAPHRINALES, FAMILY TAPHRINACEAE :

1. The order Taphrinales includes a single family Taphrinaceae and a single genus
Taphrina.
2. Mycelium is septate containing typical thick walled binucleate cells called
ascogenous cells.Hyphae may be intercellular, sub cuticular, or may grow with in
walls of epidermis.
3. Asexual reproduction is through small oval or spherical uninucleate haploid
blastospores that bud from ascospores either with in the ascus or after their release.
4. Ascocarps are not produced. Asci are naked. Sex organs are not formed. Asci are
formed from special binucleate ascogenous cells. Asci
are unitunicate and tip of the ascus bursts at the time of libetration of ascospores.
Eg. Taphrina deformans - peach leaf curl
T. maculans – leaf blotch of turmeric.

72
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS PLECTOMYCETES

1. Ascocarp is a non-ostiolate cleistothecium.

2. Asci are thin walled, globose to pyriform,unitunicate.
3. Asci are produced from ascogenous hyphae,evanescent, scattered at various
levels in the cleistothecium and not forming a definite hymenium.
4. Ascospores are unicellular, released by disintegration of ascus wall.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER : ERYSIPHALES,

FAMILY : ERYSIPHACEAE :
1. Erysiphales is the exceptional order as it produces cleistothecium instead of
perithecium. The reason is that the asci are grouped in fascicles or form a basal

layer ( hymenium) at maturity and ascospores are released violently with

force.Cleistothecia are formed on superficial mycelium with out formation of
stroma.
2. Members cause a disease called powdery mildew because they produce

enormous number of conidia on the surface of infected host plants which appear to
the naked eye as a white powdery coating.
3. Mycelium is hyaline and mostly ectophytic
4. Members are obligate parasites of plants and nourishment through haustoria.
5. Asci are persistant, globose to pyriform and explodes at the time of release of
ascospores.
6. Important plant pathogenic genera are 1. Erysiphe 2. Leveillula 3. Phyllactinia
4. Uncinula 5. Sphaerotheca 6. Podosphaera 7. Microsphaera

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Somatic characteristics:
Mycelium is well developed, septate, uninucleate, profusely branched entirely
superficial (ectophytic) except Leveillula (endophytic) and Phyllactinia (semi-
endophytic),produce haustoria into epidermal cells to absorb nourishment.
Asexual reproduction :
Asexual reproduction is through conidia produced on conidiophores.
Conidiophores are long, erect and hyaline.
Three types of conidial stages are recognised in powdery mildews.
1. Oidium 2. Oidiopsis 3. Ovulariopsis
1. Oidium (Acrosporium) : Mycelium is ectophytic, hyaline. Conidia are developed
from a flask shaped mother cell ( spore mother cell) formed on a short conidiophore .
Conidia are barrel shaped with flat ends and are produced in chains..The conidia are
also referred to as meris tem arthrospores as these are formed by fragmentation of
hyphae. Eg. The perfect stages viz.,
Erysiphe,Podosphaera, Uncinula, Sphaerotheca and Microsphaera produce Oidium
as conidial stage.
2. Oidiopsis: Mycelium is endophytic.Conidiophores may be branched or
unbranched, erect, septate, hyaline and emerge through stomata. Conidia are
produced singly and cylindrical in shape. Conidia are of two types. a. blunt tip b. pointed
tip. Eg. Leveillula sp. produce Oidiopsis as conidial stage.
3. Ovulariopsis: Mycelium is partly ectophytic and partly endophytic.The
conidiophores are hyaline, septate, unbranched, and bear a single conidium. Conidia
are rhomboid in shape.In some species,the conidiiphores are spiral in shape. Eg.
Phyllactinia subspiralis. Phyllactinia sp .produce ovulariopsis as conidial stage.

Oidium Oidiopsis Ovulariopsis

74
Powdery mildew conidia do not require free water for germination and are able to
germinate at very low humidity levels.
Sexual reproduction:
Some species are homothallic and some are heterothallic. Antheridia and
ascogonia are sex organs.Both gametangia are uninucleate .Fruiting body is
cleistothecium which is produced on superficial mycelium as a result of
gametangial contact. The cleistothecia are first white and finally black in color
when mature. The wall is made up of pseudoparenchymatous tissue of several layers
called peridium. Over wintering of powdery mildews takes place in clestothecial
stage which are resistant to winter conditions. In perennials , the mycelium may over
winter in the dormant buds of host. In warm weather , many species never form
cleistothecia and perpetuate by means of conidia. The cleistothecia are provided with
characteristic appendages which vary considerably in length and character.
T ypes of cleistothecial appendages:
1. Mycelioid appendage s: These are flexible, flaccid and res emble somatic hyphae.
Eg. Erysiphe, Sphaerotheca, Leveillula.
2. Circinoid / hooked / coiled appendages : These are rigid with curled or coiled
tips. Eg. Uncinula .
3. Dichotomously branched tips: These are rigid,flattened with dichotomously
branched tips. Eg. Podosphaera, Microsphaera.
4. Bulbous base with pointed tip: These are rigid, spear like with bulbous base and
pointed tip. Eg. Phyllactinia.

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KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF POWDERY MILDEW GENERA:
1. Type of cleistothecial appendage
a. mycelioid
b. dichotomously branched c
. circinoid
d. bulbous base with pointed tip
2. Number of asci in cleistothecium
a.one
b.many
3. Type of conidial stage
a. Oidium
b. Oidiopsis
c. Ovulariopsis

4. Nature ofmycelium
a. ectophytic
b. endophytic
c . semi- endophytic

MYCELIUM

1. Ectophytic

a. One ascus per cleistothecium

Oidium type conidial stage

Mycelioid appendages- Eg. Sphaerotheca

Dichotomously branched appendages - Eg. Podosphaera

b. Several asci per cleistothecium

Oidium type conidial stage

Mycelioid appendages -Eg. Erysiphe

Circinoid appendages -Eg. Uncinula

Dichotomously branched appendages -Eg. Microsphaera

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 2. Endophytic

Many asci per cleistothecium

Oidiopsis type conidial stage

Mycelioid appendages-Eg. Leveillula

3. Semi- endophytic

Many asci per cleistothecium

Ovulariopsis type conidial stage

Bulbous base with pointed tip -Eg. Phyllactinia

Important powdery mildew diseases:

CROP PATHOGEN
1. Pea Erysiphe polygoni
2. Cucurbits E. cichoracearum
3. Grasses E. graminis
4. Mulberry Phyllactinia corylea
5. Chillies Leveillula taurica
6. Apples Podosphaera leucotricha
7. Roses Sphaerotheca pannosa

8. Lilac Microsphaera alni

9. Grapes Uncinula necator

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IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS: PYRENOMYCETES
1. Ascocarp is mostly a true perithecium in which asci are arranged in a definite
layer called hymenium. Perithecium may be globose or flask shaped. Some members
produce cleistothecium.
2. Asci are unitunicate, persistant, club shaped or cylindrical.
This class includes 2 important Orders viz., Hypocreales and Sphaeriales.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER HYPOCREALES :

1.In the centrum ,apical paraphyses called peri-physoids arise from perithecial apex
below the periphyses and finally disintegrate as the asci grow among
them.
2.Ascocarps are usually bright coloured , fleshy, rarely non-ostiolate.
3.Asci are clavate to cylindrical.
4.Ascospores are colourless, non-septate or multiseptate .
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY CLAVICIPITACEAE ;
1.Members produce perithecia within a well developed stroma composed of
entirely fungal tissue.
2.Asci are long, narrow and cylindrical with a thick cap perforated by a long
cylindrical pore through which ascospores escape.
3. Lateral walls of ascocarps are lined with periphysoids (lateral paraphyses that
originate all along lateral walls of perithecium but do not occur among asci at the
base of perithecium.).
4.The ascospores are thread like and break into fragments after they are
released and each fragment function as individual spore capable of giving
rise to mycelium.
5.Many members are parasitic on grasses infecting gynoecium which later
converts it into sclerotial bodies (ergots) and thus causing a group of
diseases known as ergots.
6.Asexual stage:The fungus parasitises the ovaries of plants and form sporodochia
(asexual stage) bearing short conidiophores with minute, oval conidia at their tips.
These conidia are mixed with a sticky sweet nectar like

secretion.This sugary slime is called honey dew and hence the asexual

78
 stage is commonly called as honey dew stage/sphacelia stage.
7.Sclerotial stage:L ater mycelium hardens converts into purple black hard
sclerotia.The sclerotium of Claviceps is known as ergot commercially. During
the harvesting operation, many sclerotia are knocked off the spikelets and fall to
the ground where they pass the winter.The ergots are
highly poisonous as they contain powerful alkaloids such as ergonovin ,
ergometrine and ergotamine.When the animals or human beings consume ergot
contaminated grains or flour, a serious disease termed ergotism occurs.
Another important disease in humans due to consumption of ergot
contaminated grain flour of rye is St. Anthony’s fire. Alkaloids have also got
medicinal values. They are used to prevent haemorrhage (bleeding) during
child birth and as artificial abortifacient. The drug prepared from ergot bodies is
called ergotin.
Diseases:
Ergot of rye- Claviceps purpurea ( I.S- Sphacelia segetum )
Ergot of bajra- C. microcephala,C.fujiformis
Sugary disease of sorghum- Claviceps sp. ( I.S: Sphacelia sorghi)
Parasitic on insects - Cordyceps sp.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS LOCULOASCOMYCETES

1. Ascocarp is ascostromata or pseudothecium .
2. Presence or absence of sterile structures pseudoparaphyses in ascocarp.
3. Asci are bitunicate and are borne in locules in stromatic tissue.

Order: 1. Pleosporales
Family: Venturiaceae
Eg. Venturia inaequalis(I.S: Spilocaea pomi)
Family: Pleosporaceae
Eg. Cochliobolus miyabeanus(I.S:Bipolaris oryzae)
Order 2. Myriangiales
Family: Myriangiaceae

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 Eg. Elsinoe ampelina (I.S:Sphaceloma ampelinum)
Order 3. Dothidiales
Family: Dothidiaceae
Eg.Mycosphaerella arachidis
(I.S:Cercospora arachidicola)
Mycosphaerella berkeleyi
(I.S:Cercosporidium personatum)

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER: 1. PLEOSPORALES,

FAMILY: VENTURIACEAE
1. Fruiting body is called pseudothecium produced sub epidermally
or sub cuticularly.
2. Presence of pseudoparaphyses in fruiting body.
3. Conidiophores are short producing flame shaped conidium.
4. Conidiophore and conidia resemble a short burning candle.
5. Ascospores are 2 celled, ellipsoid, unequal in size, hence the name of the
species “inequalis”.
Eg. Apple scab- Venturia inaequalis (I.S:Spilocaea pomi)
Pear scab- V. pyrina

Flame shaped conidia

Conidiophore

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 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY : PLEOSPORACEAE
1.Ascocarp is pseudothecium.
2.Ascospores a re filiform and many celled.
3.Conidia are dark, cylindrical with many transeverse septa (pseudosepta)
Eg. Brown spot of rice- Cochliobolus miyabeanus ( I.S: Bipolaris oryzae)
Leaf spot of maize- C. heterostrophus

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER:2. MYRIANGIALES

FAMILY: MYRIANGIACEAE
1. Ascocarp is ascostromata with uniascal locule.
2.Locules are distributed at various levels of ascostromata.
3. Asci are globose, thick walled with 8 ascospores.
4. Ascospores are 4 celled.
Eg. Citrus scab- Elsinoe fawcetti, Grape anthracnose- E. ampelina
Mango scab- E. mangiferae
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER :3, DOTHIDIALES,

FAMILY : DOTHIDIACEAE
1. Ascocarp is pseudothecium, spherical in shape, immersed in host tissue,
ostiolate with periphyses, polyascal locules, ps eudoparaphyses absent.
2. Asci are clavate with 8 ascospores.
3. Ascospores are 2 celled, hyaline.
4. Sexual reproduction is by spermatization in some of the species producing
spermatia in spermagonium.
Eg. Tikka disease
a)Early leaf spot of groundnut- Mycosphaerella arachidis
(syn: M. arachidicola) ( I.S: Cercospora arachidicola)
b)Late leaf spot of groundnut- Mycosphaerella berkeleyi
(I.S:Phaeoisariopsis personata) (syn: Cercospora personata)
Sigatoka leaf spot of Banana:Mycospherella musicola (I.S:cercospora musicola)

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IMPERFECT STAGES FOR THE GENERA OF CLASS LOCULOASCOMYCETES:

PERFECT STAGE IMPERFECT STAGE

1. Venturia inaequalis Spilocaea pomi

2.Cochliobolus miyabeanus Bipolaris oryzae

3.Elsinoe ampelina Sphaceloma ampelinum

4.Mycosphaerella arachidicola Cercospora arachidicola

5.Mycosphaerella berkeleyi Phaeoisariopsis personatum

6.Mycospherella musicola Cercospora musicola

somatogamy between compatible cells of monokaryotic mycelium or fusion of 2

basidiospores or spermatization.It exists during major part of the life cycle.Thus, this
stage is an independent and extensive phase unlike the short dikaryotic phase of
Ascomycotina.This is associated with special structures called clamp connections
through which dikaryotization takes place.(dikaryotiz ation is a process by which
monokaryotic primary mycelium is converted to dikaryotic secondary mycelium).
3.Tertiary mycelium: This is the binucleate mycelium which is organized into
specialised tissues which form into fruiting bodies called sporophores (basidiocarps)
in the members of higher Basidiomycotina .
Clamp connections: It is a hook like structure formed laterally in between the
dividing nuclei in a dikaryotic hypha. It acts as a by-pass for the nuclei , as they can
not pass through septal pore ie., dolipore septum. It is meant for multiplication of
dika ryotic cells.

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Mode of development of clamp connection: When a binucleate cell is ready to
divide, a small lateral branch called clamp connection arises from the cell between
the 2 nuclei (a and b) and begins to form a curved hook.Then the 2 nuclei divide
simultaneously. One division orients obliquely so that one daughter nucleus “b”
forms in the clamp connection and the other daughter nucleus “b1 ” forms in the
dividing cell. The second division orients itself along the length of the dividing cell
so that one daughter nucleus “a” forms near one end of the cell and the other “ a 1
”
approaches the nucleus “ b1 “of the first division near the other end of the cell. In the
mean time, the clamp bents over and its free end fuses with the cell so that clamp
forms a bridge through which one of the daughter nucleus “ b” passes to the other end
of the cell and approaches daughter nucleus “ a “. A septum is formed to close the
clamp at the point of origin and another septum vertically under the bridge to divide
the parent cell into two daughter cells with “ a” and “ b ” in one
1”
1
daughter cell and nuclei “ a ” and “ b in the other cell.The clamp remains
permanently attached to hyphae. Its presence indicate s that the hypha is
dikaryotic.

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 SUB- DIVISION: BASIDIOMYCOTINA
1.Members of this sub-division are highly advanced fungi.
2.The name Basidiomycotina is given because the fungi produce sexual
spores on a special club shaped fruiting body called basidium.
3.A definite number of sexual spores called basidiospores (usually four in
number) are produced on each basidium .
4.Fungi belonging to this sub division are referred as club fungi.
5.The group includes mushrooms,toadstools,shelf fungi,jelly fungi, puff balls,
coral fungi,bracket fungi, birds nest fungi,stink horns, rusts and smuts.
General characteristics:
1. Produce sexual spores (basidiospores ) on the out side of a specializ ed spore
producing structure called basidium.
2. A typical basidium is a club shaped structure ,bearing specially 4 basidiospores
on pointed projections called sterigmata.
3. Basidiospores are haploid, uninucleate and are the result of plasmogamy,
karyogamy and meiosis.
4. Dikaryotic phase dominates the life cycle.
5. Presence of clamp connections on the mycelium .
6. Presence of dolipore septum, except in rusts and smuts.
7. Absence of motile spores .

Somatic structures:
The mycelium consists of well developed septate mycelium.The mycelium passes
through three distinct stages before the completion of life cycle. They are primary,
secondary and tertiary mycelium.
1.Primary mycelium: (homokaryon or monokaryotic mycelium) .It consists of
hyphae with uninucleate cells. It usually develops from the germination of a
basidiospore.It may be multinucleate at first when the nucleus of basidiospore divides
many times as the germ tube emerges and grow. This multinucleate stage is short
lived because septa are formed dividing the mycelium into uninucleate cells.

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2.Secondary mycelium: (dikaryon or dikaryotic mycelium).This originates from
primary mycelium and its cells are dikaryotic (binucleate, n+ n nucleus) formed
Dolipore septum: Both primary and secondary mycelium consists of dolipore
septum. The septum around the central pore swells at the center forming a barrel
shaped structure with open ends,thus forming a septal pore.The septal pore is
surrounded by a cup like or dome shaped membrane called parenthosome or septal
pore cap or nuclear pore cap. It is made up of a double membrane and its function is
to shut the pore. The dolipore septum will not allow the movement of nuclei in
hyphae but maintai ns continuity of cytoplasm.

Asexual reproduction: Asexual reproduction takes place by means of budding

(conidia), fragmentation of hyphae ( arthrospores) , uredospores. Conidial production
is common in smuts while rusts produce uredospores (summer spores) that are
conidial in origin and function.

Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction results in the production of basidium

bearing haploid basidiospores. Basidiospores are formed as a result of karyogamy
and meiosis taking place in basidium. In most of the members, sex organs
(gametangia) are not produced and the somatic hyphae or detached somatic cells
(arthrospores) undergo sexual process by somatogamy.In Puccinia sexual process is
accomplished by spermatization through specialized organs called spermatia acting
as male gametes and receptive hyphae as female organs.Thus,sexual cycle involves
in typical cases, a monokaryotic phase and establishment of dikaryotic phase by

85
somatogamy or spermatization of primary mycelium and then karyogamy and
meiosis in the basidium and return to monokaryotic phase by means of
basidiospores.Thus,in the life cycle there is an alternation of monokaryotic and
dikaryotic phases.
Basidium: Basidium is a club shaped, sexual, fruiting body bearing on its surface a
definite number of (usually 4) basidiospores which are formed as a result of
karyogamy and meiosis.
Development of basidium: A simple, club shaped basidium originates as a terminal
cell of a binucleate hyphae and is separated from the rest of the hyphae by a septum
over which a clamp connection is generally seen. At first, basidium is narrow and
elongated and later it enlarges and becomes broader.Mean while, the
2 nuclei with in the young basidium, fuse (karyogamy) and the zygote nucleus soon
undergoes meiosis giving rise to 4 haploid nuclei. In the meantime, four small
outgrowths termed as sterigmata push out at the top of the basidium and their tips
enlarge eventually forming the basidiospore initials. During this time, a vacuole
forms at the base of the basidium and as it increases in size, it pushes the
contents of basidium out into basidiospore initials which finally become
basidiospores.

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 Parts of basidium: Basidium is divided into 3 patrs. Probasidium (portion where
nuclear fusion takes place),metabasidium / promycelium (portion where meiosis
occurs) and sterigmata ( any portion between metabasidium and basidiospore).
In smuts and rusts, fusion of 2 nuclei takes place in a specially formed thick walled
spores called chlamydospores and teleospores respectively. During the germination
of chlamydospore / teleospore, fusion of 2 nuclei takes place in the spore, followed
by meiosis. A germ tube called promycelium is formed which becomes transversely
septate into 4 cells, each cell containing a haploid nucleus. The basidiospores are
formed on the sterigmata on promycelium.
Basidiopspores: A basidiospore is typically a unicellular, uninucleate (exceptional 2
nuclei) haploid structure .The basidiospores are formed exogenously on the basidium
in contrary to the endogenous formation of ascospores. The basidiospores may be
globose, oval, elongate or sausage shaped and may be hyaline or coloured.
Dispersal of basidiospores: In majority cases, the spores are released violently and
such spores are called ballistospores.Many possible mechanisms of spore discharge
have been suggested. Buller was one of the first to examine critically the spore
discharge.According to him, Basidiospores rest on the tip of sterigmata in an oblique
fashion and a bubble or drop ( called Bullers drop consist of liquid which forms at the
hilar appendix ie.,a minute projection of the spore near the point of attachment to the
sterigmata ) is responsible for basidiospore discharge . This drop keeps on increasing
in size and its expansion results in explosive discharge of spore to a distance of about
0.1mm. The spores are discharged in succession at intervals of several seconds to
minutes.

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Basidiocarp (Fungus flowers): Basidiocarp is a fruiting body that bears basidia
which may be crust like, gelatinous, papery, spongy, corky, woody in texture. They
vary in size from microscopic to a meter or more in diameter. Most Basidiomycotina
bear their basidia in basidiocarps except in rusts and smuts. Basodiocarp producing
fungi are mushrooms, shelf fungi/ bracket fungi, coral fungi, puff balls,bracket
fungi,birds nest fungi,earth stars etc. Basidia are formed typically in definite layers
called hymenium. The hymenium is a layer composed of basidia and any other sterile
structures like cystidium (larger and protrude beyond the other structures and of
taxonomic importance) and basidiole (resemble basidium but with out basidiospores
and provide support to fertile basidium).

Basidiole Cystidium

Basidiospore

Basidium

Hymenium

Compatibility: The members are either homo or heterothallic (majority).

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IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS TELIOMYCETES:
1. Include rusts and smuts.
2. Basidiocarp is lacking and replaced by thick walled teleospores or
chlamydospores in sori with in the host tissue.
3. Basidia arise from thick walled resting spores i.e., teleospores or chlamydospores.
4. Members are obligate parasites or facultative saprophytes.
In class Teliomycetes there are two orders.1.Uredinales 2.Ustilaginales
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER UREDINALES:
1. The popular name for the Uredinales is the rust fungi, which relates to the
reddish brown colour of some of the spores. All are obligate parasites of crop plants.
2. The mycelium is primary in the early stage and in the later stages secondary. The
mycelium is inter cellular and produce haustoria that penetrate the host cells and
obtain nourishment. There is no tertiary mycelium and hence there is no basidiocarp.

3. Clamp connections are rare or absent. Dikaryotisation takes place either through
somatogamy or spermatisation.

4. Teleospores originate from the apical cells of dikaryotic hyphae. They may be uni
or multi cellular. The structure of teleospores forms the basis for identification of the
rust genera. The teleospore acts as an encysted basidium in which karyogamy occurs.
It germinates by producing a promycelium ( metabasidium) in which meiosis takes
place.
5. The rusts have polymorphic life cycle. Production of many spore forms in the
life cycle is called polymorphism. Generally 5 types of spores are seen during the life
cycle viz., spermatia (uninucleate) in spermagonium, aeciospores(binucleate)

in aecium,uredospores( binucleate) in uredium , teleospores(binucleate)in telium and

basidiospores (uninucleate) on promycelium or metabasidium.The spermagonium
represents gametic stage (male gamete- spermatium, female sex organ- receptive
hypha), aecia represent the stage in which dikaryotisation occurs,uredia represent
conidial or repeating asexual stage, telia represent sexual stage and act as encysted

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basidium in which karyogamy occurs and subsequently giving rise to basidiospores
from promycelium or metabasidium.
6. Autoecious rust: If all the spore stages are produced on the same host then the
fungus is called autoecious and the phenomenon is called
autoecism.Eg.Melampsora lini- linseed rust, Uromyces appendiculatus - bean rust. 7.
Heteroecious rust: If spore stages are formed on two unrelated hosts ie., pycnia and
aecia on one host and the uredia and telia on the other host, such rusts are called
heteroecious rusts and phenomenon is called heteroecism. Eg. Puccinia graminis f.
sp. tritici- black stem rust of wheat. Primary host: The host in which heterocious
rust produce the telial stage is called primary host (Eg. wheat). Secondary or
alternate host The host in which telial stage is not produced is called alternate or
secondary host ( Eg. barberry) .
8. Based on life cycle pattern, rusts are divided into macrocyclic, demicyclic and
microcyclic rusts.
Macrocyclic rust: ( long cycled rust): Rusts in which all 5 spore forms are
produced or produce at least one type of binucleate spore in addition to
teleospores are called macrocyclic rusts. It may be autoecious macrocyclic rust
(Eg.Puccinia helianthi- sun flower rust) or heteroecious , macrocyclic rust
(Eg.Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici - black stem rust of wheat).

Demicyclic rust: The rust in which uredial stage is absent. eg. Gymnosporangium
juniperi – virginianae- cedar apple rust.

Microcyclic rust (short cycled rust):Rusts which produce no binucleate spore other
than teleosporei.e., teleospore is the binucleate spore produced and both aecia and
uredia are lacking. E g.Puccinia malvacearum- hollyhock rust.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY PUCCINIACEAE:

1.Teleutospores are free or variously united, but never in the form of layers or crusts.
2.Teleutospores are stalked. E g. Puccinia, Uromyces, Hemileia

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Genus Puccinia:
Obligate parasites.Teleutospores are two celled and stalked.They lie free in the sorus.
Disease: Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici- black stem rust of wheat
Genus Uromyces:
Teleutospores are single celled with a thick apex ( papillum) and stalked. The stalks
are fragile and short.
Eg. U. appendiculatus - bean rust
Genus Hemileia:
Uredospores are reniform, bifacially ovate resembling orange segments, concave side
smooth, convex side echinulate.
Teleutospores are turnip shaped. 1 celled, stalked, smooth walled and produced on
erumpent,club shaped stalks which arise through stomata.
Eg. H. vastatrix - coffee rust

Puccinia Uromyces Hemileia

LIFE CYCLE OF PUCCINIA GRAMINIS F. SP. TRITICI

The pathogen is an obligate parasite and causes black stem rust of wheat. It is a
heterocious rust that requires 2 hosts for completion of its life cycle. The primary
host (wheat) and the secondary host (barberry). .On barberry it produces pycnia and
aecia while uredial telial stages are produced on wheat.
It is a macrocyclic rust producing all the five types of spores. The different kind of
spores and their spore stages are designated as follows.

Stage Spore Nucleus status

O spermagonia with spermatia uninucleate
(pycnia with pycniospores)

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I aecia with aeciospores binucleate
II uredia with uredospores binucleate
III telia with teleospores binucleate
IV basidia with basidiospores uninucleate

It produces the first 2 stages in barbery and other 3 stages on wheat or other
graminaceous hosts.

Significance of each stage :

Stage “ O “: The spermatia produced in spermagonia were till recently thought to be

functionless asexual spores. Mycologists have not found them to germinate to
produce mycelium as in case of otHer asexual spores. Hence, they thought that they
are vestigial bodies. At the time when mycologists do not know the function of pycnia
and pycniospores the stage was designated as “ O “ stage. But in 1927, Cragie found
that spermatia are male gametes and are essential for spermatisation of receptive
hyphae (female organ) and consequent formation of aeciospores. This stage “ O”
represents the sexual stage of rust fungi but the nomenclature stage “ O “ retained
even today to to avoid confusion.
Stage I: Aeciospores are the first binucleate spores formed in the life cycle.
Stage II: Uredospores are also called as repeating asexual spores as they functionas
conidia for the propagation of the rust fungus.

Stage III: Teleutospores represents the perfect stage because karyogamy and
meiosis ocuur in them.

Stage IV: Basidiospores represent the sexual spores.

Stages “ O” and “ I” occur on barbery while stages “ II” and “ III “ occur on
wheat. Basidiospores can infect only barbery plant where as aeciospores can infect
only wheat plant.

Stage “ O”: Spermagonia with spermatia:

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The spermagonia or pycnia are the structures which bear the sex organs of the
pathogen. It contains spermatia which are the male sex organs and the receptive
hyphae which are the female sex organs. These spermagonia are formed near the
upper epidermis in about 4 days after infection of the host by a basidiospore. In
nature it generally happens that several basidiospores at random will reach and infect
the same barbery leaf so that both + and – mycelium develop side by side and
intermingle in the barbery tissue. Each spermagonium contains numerous spermatia.
These are exuded (ooze out) in small droplets of nectar present in the spermagonium.
Each spermatium carries + or – nucleus depending on the strain of mycelium which
produced the spermagonium. All spermatia from a single spermagonium carry the
same factor or genetic make up as that of receptive hyphae. These arise from upper
part of spermagonia and protrude through the ostioles. Spermatisation i.e., fusion
between receptive hyphae and spermatia of opposite sex takesplace through agency
of insects which are attracted by the honey fluid. The spermatial contents pass into
the receptive hyphae . Meanwhile the mycelium penetrates the entire leaf and the
hyphae near the lower epidermis develop number of aecial primordial. It is presumed
that spermatial nuclei which pass from the spermatia into the receptive hyphae reach
the cells of the aecial promordia rendering them binucleate. It has been demonstrated
that aecial primordial fail to develop into aecia until and unless spermatisation takes
place.

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Life cycle of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici

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Stage“I” : Aecia and aeciospores are formed in the lower epidermis soon after
dikaryotisation. These are the first binucleate spores produced in the life history of
the fungus. An aecium is a group of binucleate hyphal cells ( aeciospore mother cell )
which give rise to aeciospores in chains. The aeciospores finally disseminated by the
wind and under favourable conditions germinate on graminaceous host . These can
not infect barbery.
Stage “ II”: Soon after infection by aeciospores on graminaceous host , binucleate
mycelium begins to form masses of cells. These are called uredia from which
binucleate uredospores are borne on long stalks. The uredospores are one celled, oval,
yellowish and spiny. They germinate readily in water and produce one or more germ
tubes. The uredospores are those spores which perpetuate the fungus throughout the
growing season and they are capable of reinfecting the graminaceous host on which
they produce. Hence, they are also known as repeating asexual spores. They spread
from plant to plant and from field to field and the disease soon becomes an
epiphytotic. The uredospores upon germination produce binucleate mycelium which
grows between the cells of the host and in a few days produce new uredia and
uredospores.

Aecium Uredium Teliospore

Stage “ III” : Late in summer, at the time of ripening of grain another kind of spores
known as teleospores or teleutospores are developed in the same mycelium when the
uredia begin to cease. The pustules which produce teleospore s are known as telia
and constitute the black stage of rust. The teleospores are ellipsoidal, oblong or
obclavate, typically two celled, and thick walled with slight constriction at the
septum. The young teleospore is binucleate . Karyogamy eventually take s place and

95
 render the teleosspores diploid and uninucleate . The teleospores are not capable of
germinating immediately and should have resting period of several months and thus
remain dormant until the following spring
Stage “ IV” : Early in the spring each cell of teleospore germinate and produce a
basidium ( promycelium). The diploid nucleus in teleospore migrates in to the
promycelium and undergoes meiosis and four haploid nuclei are formed. Then septa
are formed, separating the nuclei from one another into four cells. Each cell of
promycelium produces a sterigmata on which basidiospore is formed. The nuclei now
migrate into the basidispore. Two of the basidiospores are of one strain ( + ) and two
are of other strain ( -- ) . Soon after their formation ,the basidiospores are ejected and
are carried away by wind. They can not infect graminaceius host, but can infect
barbery and produce a well developed monokaryotic mycelium. Thus, the life cycle
gets repeated on these two hosts viz., wheat and barbery.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERA (OR) KEY FOR

IDENTIFICATION OF GENERA:

Ustilago: 1.Teleospores singles

2.Sori dusty at maturity
3.Sori covered peridium ( membrane) of host origin

Spacelotheca: 1.Teleospores singles

2.Sori dusty a t maturity
3.Sori covered by membrane ( peridium) made up of fungal cells
4.Central columella present

Tolyposporium:1.Spores in balls
2.Spore balls permanent, spores adhering by thickenings of
exospore .
DISEASES CAUSED BY THE GENERA:
U. nuda tritici- loose smut of wheat

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 Sphacelotheca sorghi- short or grain or kernal smut of jowar S.
cruenta- loose smut of jowar
S. reliana- head smut of jowar
Tolyposporium ehrenbergii- long smut of jowar
T. penicillariae- smut of bajra

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RUSTS AND SMUTS

Character Rusts smuts

1. Systematic position Order: Uredinales Ustilaginales

foliar parts (leaves, stem, petiole
2. Plant parts affected ) floral parts( flowers)
ovaries turn into
3. Symptoms reddish brown coloured pustules black
facultative
4. Parasitism obligate parasites saprophytes
5. Polymorphism polymorphic not polymorphic

Germinating teliospores of bunt fungi

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DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERISTICS (OR)KEY FOR IDENTIFICATION

OF GENERA:

T illetia:

1.Teleospores singles

2.Spores dusty and escaping at maturity

3.Sporidia are fused to form H shaped structures

Neovossia:

1.Teleospores singles

2.Spores dusty and escaping at maturity

3.Sporidia do not fuse, no H shaped structures

Urocystis :

1.Teleospores in balls

2.Sori dusty, spore balls surrounded by an adhering layer of hyaline sterile cells.

3. spore balls escape from sorus

DISEASES CAUSED BY THE GENERA:

Tilletia caries and T. foetida- bunt of wheat

Neovossia horrida- bunt of paddy

N. indica- Karnal bunt of wheat

Urocystis cepulae- onion smut

U. tritici- flag smut of wheat

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SMUTS AND BUNTS :

S.No. Smuts Bunts

Belongs to family
1 Belongs to family Ustilaginaceae Tilliteaceae

2 Promycelium is Septate Promycelium is non-Septate and

hollow tube like
Basidiospores are formed laterally
3 from Basidiospores are formed at the tip of
each cell of the
promycelium the promycelium
Basidiospores are usually
4 four Basidiospores are more than four
usually eight

5 H shaped structures are not formed H shaped structures are present in

which plasmogamy occurs.
Meiosis always occurs in
6 Meiosis occurs in promycelium or teliospores
teliospores before germination
Characteristic stinking fishy odour
7 No fishy odour is observed is
observed

8 Genera included are Ustilago, Genera included are Tilletia,

Sphaecelotheca, Tolyposporium Neovossia, Urocystis

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 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF HYMENOMYCETES:

1.These fungi are popularly called as mushrooms.

2.It includes bracket or pore fungi, toadstools, jelly fungi, honey mushrooms, etc.
3.Basidia are formed on a hymenium of a well developed fruiting body,
basidiocarp.
4.Basidiocarps are gymnocarpous or hemiangiocarpous.
5. Basidia are not formed from teleospores.
6.The hymenium is exposed in the fruiting body from the beginning and thus
basidiospores are exposed before they mature.
7.Basidiospores are called ballistospores (the spores which are perched
obliquely and
discharge forcibly and violently are called ballistospores).
8.Members are saprophytes or facultative parasites.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER APHYLLOPHORALES:

1. All the members produc e single celled , club shaped basidia in well defined
hymenium.Basidiocarp is tough and non fleshy, may be cottony, leathery, corky or
woody in texture.
2. The development of basidiocarp is gymnocapous i.,e., the hymenium is exposed
while the spores are still mature.Thus, hymenium is exposed through out
development.
3. Hymenophore( the layer that supports hymenium) may be smooth, flatte ned or
resupinate, teeth like, with pores etc.
4. This order consists of both terrestrial and wood inhabiting forms. Some are
serious pathogens of forest trees causing root rot and heart rot. Dead trees and
lumber are commonly attacked by certain members.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY GANODERMATACEAE;
1.Members are commonly called as bracket fungi or shelf fungi and members are
lignicolous forms.
2.The fruiting body of the fungus is called bracket which is formed laterally at the
base of affected plant as a leathery stalked fan shaped or bracket shaped or with out

100
stalk,made up of trimitic hyphal system,hymenophore poroid. The bracket is
tough,leathery or woody in texture and size vary from 1-20 inches in diameter.The
stalk is cylindrical and brown to black in colo ur.

3.The upper surface of bracket is reddish brown in colour and coated with a hard shiny
substance resembling sealing wax, while the lower side is white or
yellowish in colo ur. When examined with a lens, minute holes or pits are seen all over
the under surface. These are the openings of numerous hymenial tubes or pores which are
vertically oriented ins ide the fruiting body.Each basidium gives rise to 4 sterigmata, each
of which bears a basidispore at tis tip.

4.Basidiospores are coloured,two layered and cystidia are absent in

hymenium.Bracket shaped basidiocarp ,broadly and horizontally attached to the tree
trunks by means of a short stalk or stipe.Ganoderma differs from other bracket fungi
in having much longer span of spore release,extending upto 5 months. Diseases
caused by Ganoderma :

Ganoderma lucidum- root rot and wilt of coconut & other palm trees and citrus.

Ganoderma

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 22.SUB- DIVISION: DEUTEROMYCOTINA

These are a group of fungi which reproduce only by means of asexual spores or
fragmentation of hyphae or modified mycelium. The asexually produced spores are
generally called as conidia. A conidium is a non-motile asexual spore formed at the
tip or side of sporogenous cell. For several genera of this group sexual reproduction/
sexual stages/ perfect stages/ teleomorphic stages are not known or have not been
discovered or not found or rarely formed or have been dropped from the life cycles in
the evolution of these organisms.
Thes e fungi are commanly called as imperfect fungi and technically called as fungi
imperfecti as they have only imperfect stages or conidial stages.Whenever the
perfect stage of an imperfect fungus is detected in nature or laboratory cultures, it is
shifted to proper place on the basis of fruiting body.In most cases the perfect stages
have been found to belong to sub-division Basidiomycotina.
Mycelium is well developed, septate with branched hyphae and multinucleate cells.
Since , present classification is based on characters of sexual stage, these fungi are
not fit for natural classification.
For most of these genera perfect states are not known or rare in nature, they are
temporarily grouped as members of form class, form order, form family , form genus
and form species.
CLASSIFICATION OF DEUTEROMYCOTINA :
The classification is completely artificial. It is based on their conidial peculiarities
and neither bears connection to their sexual stage nor to their origin or evolution. It
can not therefore be called as a natural classification.
The main characteristics (criteria ) on which classification of fungi imperfect fungi is
based are
1. presence or absence of asexual spores( conidia )
2. type of asexual fruiting body
3. manner of production of asexual spores

4. morphology ( shape, size, color and septation) of asexual spores.

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SACCARDOAN ( 1906 ) SPORE GROUP SYSTEM :
Traditionally, the form sub classes, Coelomycetidae and Hyphomycetidae have been
divided in to sections. The section is not an official category in the classification
system. The various families under each section were divided further by Saccardo
into seven sections based on conidial characters viz., shape, color, septation.
Saccardo ( 1906 ) later, modified the section names with the prefixes hyalo or phaeo
depending upon whether the conidia were hyaline or pigmented. This approach is
referred to as the Saccardoan Spore Group System since it was Saccardo ( 1899 ) who
initially proposed the system.
Saccardo described the spores in Deuteromycotina based on shape, septation and
colour.
I. Amerosporae: conidia non septate ( single celled) , spherical, ovoid to
elongated, or short cylidric.
a)Hyalosporae(Hyalo =colourless): conidia hyaline Eg: Phoma
b)Phaeosporae(phaeo=coloured): conidia coloured Eg: Sphaeropsis
II. Didymosporae : conidia ovoid to oblong, one septate ( two celled )
a)Hyalodidymae: conidia hyaline Eg: Fusarium micro conidia
b)Phaeodidymae: conidia coloured Eg: Botryodiplodia
III. Phragmosporae : conidia oblong, two to many septate ( 3 or more celled ) ,
only transverse septa present. a)Hyalophragmae:
conidia hyaline Eg: Pyricularia b)Phaeophragmae:
conidia coloured Eg: Drechslera
IV. Dictyosporae : conidia ovoid to oblong, both longitudinal and transverse septa
present ( muriform ) .
a) Hyalodictyae: conidia hyaline Eg: Epicoccum
b)Phaeodictyae: conidia coloured Eg: Alternaria
V. Scolecosporae: conidia thread like to worm like, filiform, septate or aseptate (
one to several celled ) Eg: Cercospora
VI. Helicosporae( Allantosporae) : conidia spirally cylindrical, curved ( allantoid ),
septate or aseptate. Eg:Helicomyces

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VII. Staurosporae : conidia stellate ( star shaped) , radially lobed, septate or
aseptate (one to several celled ). Eg: Actinospora

Amerosporae Didymosporae Phragmosporae Dictyosporae

Scolecosporae Helicosporae Staurosporae

Color of conidia
1. Hyalosporae : cell wall of conidia hyaline
2. Phaeosporae : cell wall of conidia coloured/ pigmented.

AINSWORTH ( 1973 ) CLASSIFICATION:

According to Ainsworth ( 1973 ), 2 form classes are there in Deuteromycotina.

1. Coelomycetes
2. Hyphomycetes

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS COELOMYCETES:

The conidia are borne on conidiogenous cells with or with out distinct conidiophores,
enclosed in fungal fructifications ( asexual fruiting bodies ) such as pycnidium or
acervulus.
Coelo mycetes is divided into 2 form- orders 1.Sphaeropsidales 2. Melanc oniales

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER SPHAEROPSIDALES:

The fruiting bodies are called pycnidia. A pycnidium is a globose or flask shaped
asexual fruiting body that is lined inside with conidiophores. It may be completely
closed or may have an opening called ostiole. It may be papillate or beaked or long
necked at apex , leading to an opening. They vary greatly in their shape, size, color
and consistency of pseudoparenchymatous wall.

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Sphaeropsidales are further divided in to 4 form families 1 Sphaeropsidaceae 2.
Excipulaceae 3. Nectrioidaceae (Zythiaceae ) 4. Leptostromataceae

Family : 1. Sphaeropsidaceae

Pycnidia are flask shaped or globose, thin or thick walled, dark coloured,

ostiolate, hard texture. Eg. Phoma, Phomopsis, Macrophomina, Phyllosticta,

Septoria, Diplodia , Botryodiplodia.

DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA:

Phoma:

Pycnidia - small, dark coloured, immersed or semi immersed in the host tissue.
Globose or flask shaped, thin walled, and ostiolate. Wall consisting of dark
pseudoparenchymatous cells. Conidiophores / conidiogenous cells are short, hyaline
lining the inner pycnidial wall producing conidia in succession.

Conidia -hyaline, aseptate, guttulate( oil globules ) , pyriform to globose and ooze out
in long thread like cirrhus through the ostiole.

Eg. Phoma lingam – black leg of crucifers

P. vexans – blight and fruit rot of brinjal
Phomopsis:
Pycnidia- brown to black, globose, papillate ostiole, with one or more locules.
Conidiophores / conidiogenous cells- simple or branched.
Conidia of 2 types. (a)alpha conidia- hyaline , ovoid, 1 celled, (b) beta conidia –
hyaline, filiform, straight or curved, , 1 celled.

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Eg. Phomopsis vexans- fruit rot and blight of brinjal
Phyllosticta :
Pycnidia dark, ostiolate , globose, immersed in host tissue, erumpent or with a short
beak. Conidiophores are short and obsolete.Conidia are small, one celled,
hyaline,ovoid to elongate.

Phyllosticta and Phoma are differentiated on the basis of plant organs attacked.
Phyllosticta principally occurs on leaves causing leaf spots and shot holes While,
Phoma occurs mainly on stem, twigs and fleshy roots. Eg: P. gingeberis – leaf spot
of ginger

Phoma Phomopsis

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Conidia – hyaline , aseptate, cylindrical to fusiform
Sclerotia- more common in cultures, black, smooth, hard.
Eg. Macrophomina phaseolina – charcoal rot, canker, damping off, of jowar, maize,
ground nut.
Septoria:
Pycnidia – immersed in host tissue, globose, brown, thick walled, papillate and
ostiolate. Wall consists of pale brown cells.
Conidiophore / conidiogenous cells – hyaline, broad and round at base and narrow
above or barrel shaped.
Conidia – hyaline, many septate, filiform.
Eg. Septoria nodorum- glume blotch of wheat
S. lycopersici- leaf spot of tomato

Diplodia :
Pycnidium - black, globose, papillate, ostiolate,
Conidiophore/ conidiogenous cells - slender, hyaline

Conidia – brown, 2 celled, ovoid , apex obtuse ( round ) and base truncate ( shorten )
.
Eg. Diplodia natalensis - Diplodia gummosis of citrus

Botryodiplodia:
Pycnidium – carbonaceous, dark brown or black, no ostiole,
Conidiophores- simple and short.
Conidia – dark brown, 2 celled, ovoid.
Eg. Botryodiplodia theobromae – Flat limb of sapota

Septoria Diplodia Botryodiplodia

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 23.IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY EXCIPULACEAE

Pycnidia are cup shaped.

Ephelis:
Pycnidium – cup shaped,
Conidia – hyaline, 1 celled, acicular ( needle shaped ).
Eg. Ephelis oryzae- udbatta disease of rice .
Ephelis

(A= Stroma and pycnidia, B= Pycnidia (cup shaped), C= Conidia)

FAMILY 3. NECTRIOIDACEAE ( ZYTHIACEAE ):

Pycnidia resemble perithecia of Nectria and hence the Family name Nectrioidaceae .

Zythia:

Pycnidia - flask shaped, coloured, soft textured ( fleshy ) , ostiolate.

Conidia – hyaline, aseptate, oblong, rounded at each end.

Eg. Zythia fragariae- leaf blotch and stem end rot of straw berry

Family 4. Leptostromataceae :

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Pycnidia are shield shaped or elongated or flattened.

Leptostroma

Shield shaped pycnidia Conidiophores and conidia

Leptothyrium:

Pycnidium – shield shaped, dark, dimidiate ( one half smaller than other ).

Conidiophores- simple.

Conidia – hyaline, 1 celled, falcate ( curved like sickle ) .

Eg. Leptothyrium pomi- fly speck of apple

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IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIS OF ORDER
MELANCONIALES, FAMILY MELANCONIACEAE:
All the members of this order are grouped into a single family Melanconiaceae. The
fungi producing asexual fruiting bodies are called Acevulus. Acervulus is a mycelial
mat not having wall of its own and produces a cavity with in which closely packed
short conidiophores forming a bed like mass are produced.
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENERA:
Colletotrichum:
Cushion shaped acervulus is seen below epidermis or cuticle with dark setae.
Macrophomina:
Pycnidia- globose, dark brown, papillate ostiole.
Conidiogenous cells- barrel shaped, hyaline.

Setae – septate, stout at base and pointed at tip, dark brown, long, present in the
periphery or in between the conidiophores.
Conidiophores – simple, elongate, septate, hyaline to brown,
Conidia- sickle shaped, , guttulate ( oil globule ), hyaline, single celled.
Eg. Colletotrichum capsici- fruit rot and die back of chillies
C. lindemuthianum- anthracnose of bean
C .falcatum- red rot of sugarcane

Gloeosporium:
This genus is differentiated from Colletotrichum based on absence of setae in
acervulus.
Eg. Gloeosporium ampelophagum - anthracnose or bird’s eye disease of grapes. G.
musarum – anthracnose of banana

Pestalotiopsis:
Acervuli are formed below the epidermis.
Conidiophores- hyaline, branched, septate, cylindrical.

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Conidia - fusiform , 5 celled , basal cell hyaline with a single appendage, apical cell
hyaline with 2 or more apical , simple or branched appendages , middle cells dark
brown and thick walled.
Eg. Pestalotiopsis palmarum – grey blight of coconut and palmyra
P. mangiferae- leaf spot of mango

Pestalotia:
Acervulus- sub epidermal.
Conidiophores- short, simple or branched,
Conidia- similar to conidia of Petalotiopsis except 6 celled conidia.
Eg. Pestalotia psidi- grey blight, scab and fruit spot of guava.

Colletotrichum Gloeosporium Pestalotia

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24.IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS HYPHOMYCETES
Conid ia and conidiophores are borne directly on hyphae. Conidiophores bearing
conidia may be separate or in aggregates arising from the mycelium. There are
certain fungi which lack conidial formation and forming mycelial structures such as
scretotial bodies. The members are identified based on morphology of conidia.

Hyphomycetes is divided into 4 form orders.

1. Hyphomycetales/ Moniliales/ Hyphales
2. Tuberculariales
3. Stilbellales
4. Agonomycetales.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER MONILIALES:
Conidia are produced on unorganized, .hyaline conidiophores or directly from
hyaline hyphae. This order is divided into 2 families 1. Moniliaceae 2. Dematiaceae.
FAMILY MONILIACEAE ;
Produce free conidiophores or conidiogenous cells from somatic hyphae. Mycelium,
conidiophores and conidia are hyaline or light coloured but not brown or black.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENERA:
Aspergillus :
Well known saprophyte, grown on all types of substrate and also a weak
parasite. commonly called as “ weed of the laboratory” Mycelium- septate,
branched, with multinucleate cells .
Conidiophore-The hyphal cell that gives rise to conidiophore is called foot cell.
Conidiophores arise singly on somatic hyphae, long, erect, non septate and bears at
its tip a spherical structure called vesicle, which bears two layers of bottle shaped
structures called sterigmata or phialides on which conidia are produced in chains.The
sterigmata of first layer ( lower most ) are called primary sterigmata and the second
layer ( upper most) are called secondary sterigmata.

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Conidia: globose, one celled, multinucleate, thick , rough walled and black.
Eg. Aspergillus niger- collar rot of groundnut

Aspergillus

Penicillium :
The conidial apparatus technically is called “ penicillus” because it resembles a small
brush or broom, hence the name penicillium Mycelium: highly branched, septate.
Conidiophore: arise from any cell of hyphae (not from foot cell), branch once or
twice about 2/3 of the way to the tip in a characteristic symmetric or asymmetric
broom like fashion. The first generation branches are called primary branches or
rammi, on which whorls of second generation branches called metulae are produced.
Each metula ultimately bears bottled shaped phialides which bears conidia in chains
in basipetal succession. Conidia: globose, hyaline.
Eg. Penicillium notattum- citrus blue mold.

Conidia- hyaline, pyriform, broader at base and tapering towards apex , usually 3
celled.
Eg. Pyricularia oryzae- paddy blast.
Trichoderma:
The members are saprophytes, found in soil and several species are found to be
antagonistic by producing non-volatile antibiotics against a range of plant pathogens.
These are easily recognized by rapidly growing white, yellow or green colonies.

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Conidiophores: hyaline, erect,solitary or aggregated into tufts, much branched with
phialides in singles or in groups(non-verticillate).
Conidia- hyaline,grey, one celled,ovoid borne in small terminal clusters as balls on
phialides. Eg: Trichoderma viridi, T.harzianum – biocontrol fungi.

Botrytis:
Conidiophores- branched, septate, long, slender, hyaline . Apical cell of conidiophore
with swollen tips bearing clusters of conidia on short sterigmata. Conidia – hyaline, 1
celled, ovoid.
Entire structure resemble like grape bunch.
Eg. Botrytis cinerea- grey mold of gram, bean, apple and grape.

Verticillium :
Conidiophores- slender, septate ,branched, some of the branches bearing verticillate (
in whorls ) phialides that give rise to conidia.
Conidia- ovoid to ellipsoid, 1 celled, borne singly or in moist clusters( mucus )
apically.
Eg. Verticillium albo- atrum - wilt of cotton and tomato.
V. dahliae- wilt of tobacco and brinjal.

Pyricularia Botrytis Verticillium

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 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY DEMATIACEAE

The hyphae, conidiophores and usually the conidia are brown or black, but some
times the hyphae alone or the conidia only are dark.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENERA:

Alternaria :
Mycelium – branched, septate, dark brown.
Conidiophores – simple, straight or curved , 1-3 septate , dark coloured.
Conidia – dictyospore , brown, obclavate with a beak, 3-8 tranversely septate and 1-2
longitudinally or obliquely septate, conidia are produced acropetally in chains
(catenulate ) through the pores formed at the apex of the beak of conidia.
Eg. Alternaria solani- early blight on tomato and potato
A.brassicae- leaf spot of crucifers

Drechslera:
Mycelium- branched, septate, brown.
Conidiophores- emerge through stomata, erect, septate, simple or branched, dark
brown, geniculate (knee joints), indefinite in growth ( continue growth sympodially
even after production of conidia )
Conidia- dark brown, cylindrical, straight , several celled, many pseudoseptate,
germinate from any or all cells .
Eg. D. turcica- leaf blight of sorghum
D. nodulosum- seedling blight and foot rot of ragi

Helminthosporium :
Mycelium – dark.
Conidiophore- single or clustered, tall, brown, simple.
Conidia- develop laterally through pores beneath septa, often appear in whorls,
obclavate, brown, many pseudoseptate with prominent basal scar.
Eg. Helminthosporium maydis- southern corn leaf blight
H. victoriae- victoria blight of oat.

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Bipolaris :
Differentiated from Drechslera based on method of germination of conidia and shape
Conidia- germinate characteristically from two polar ( end ) cells only, fusoid and
slightly curved.
Eg. Bipolaris oryzae – brown spot of rice ;P.S:Cochliobolus miyabeanus (
old: Drechslera oryzae)

Cercospora ;
Mycelium : immersed in host tissue, branched, septate , pale brown
Conidiophore: emerge in clusters through stomata, brown, septate, simple or rarely
branched with knee joints ( sympodially extending ) marking the scars of fallen
spores
Conidia: terminal, arise singly from conidiophore, hyaline, filiform, severa celled ( 4
-12 septate ), a scar at the base.
Eg. . Cercospora arachidicola- tikka disease (early leaf spot)on groundnut
P.S:Mycosphaerella arachidicola

Phaeosariopsis ( Cercosporidium ) :
Mycelium : septate, intercellular with branched haustoria, pale brown, immersed
entirely in leaf tissue.
Conidiophores : emerging through ruptured epidermis in clusters, pale to olivaceous
brown, smooth, geniculate, septate , simple with prominenet conidial scars.
Conidia: light coloured, cylindrical, usually straight or slightly curved, rounded at
ends, base shortly tapered with a conspicuous hilum, mostly 3-4 septate.
Eg. Phaeoisariopsis personata ( Cercosporidium personatum ) tikka disease
(late leaf spot) on groundnut
P.S:Mycosphaerella berkeleyii

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Helminthosporium Alternaria Cercospora Drechslera

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER TUBERCULARIALES

FAMILY TUBERCULARIACEAE:
Include the fungi which produce sporodochium. Sporodochium is a cushion shaped
structure consisting of cluster of conidiophores with conidia woven together on a
mass of hyphae .

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENERA:

Fusarium:
Mycelium -superficial, cottony in culture, septate, hyaline, grouped into sporodochia
Conidiophore- slender,short,hyaline,simple, stout or branched irregularly bearing a
whorl of spore producing structures called phialides bearing conidia.
Two types of conidia - macroconidia ( several celled, slightly curved or bent, pointed
at the both the ends, sickle shaped with a foot cell, hyaline), microconidia( 1 or 2
celled, ovoid, single or in chains, hyaline) and also chlamydospores.
Chlamydospores : hyaline, thick walled, terminal or inter calary, produced singly or
in chains by the mycelial hyphae or macroconidia. formed by modification of
previous cell.
Eg. Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri- wilt of gram
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum – wilt of cotton
Fusarium oxysporum . sp . udum- wilt on redgram

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Myrothecium:
Sporodochia - cusion like, marginal hyaline setae.
Conidiophores- sub hyaline to coloured, repeatedly branched, bearing conidia on
phialides
Conidia- 1 celled, sub hyaline to dark, ovoid, gathering in slimy mass.
Eg. Myrothecium roridum- shot hole on leaves of tomato, bhendi

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS ORDER

STILBELLALES, FAMILY STILBELLACEAE:
Include fungi which produce synnemata. Synnemata ( sing. synnama ) is a structure
in which conidiophores are united together through out their length and free at their
tip producing slimy head of conidia at their tip or all around the aggregated
conidiophores. The whole structure resemble a long feather duster or brush.
Graphium:
Synnemata- tall, dark, bearing a rounded , terminal mass of conidia embedded in
mucus
Conidiophores- simple, hyaline , produced in abundance , bearing oblong conidia
Eg. Graphium ulmi- dutch elm disease

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS ORDER

AGONOMYCETALES, FAMILY AGONOMYCETACEAE

Includes the fungi which do not produce conidia, form sclerotial bodies i.e.,
modification of mycelium , reproduction is by random fragmentation of hyphae.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENERA:

Sclerotium
Spores lackin
Mycelium-white or light coloured, Sclerotia hard, dark brown, globose , compact, bigger
than sclerotial bodies of Rhizoctonia, ( more than 1 mm diameter in size), consisting of
colourless to light coloured , thin walled rectangular cells inside and brown to black ,
thick walled cells at the periphery.
Eg. Sclerotium rolfsii- root rot of groundnut

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Sclerotium oryzae- stem rot of paddy
Cross section of

Acute angle

Mycelium: brown, stout, septate branches arise at acute angles, hyphal cells barrel
shaped and long.
Sclerotia: black, variable in form ( globose, oval or irregular), loosely formed and
connected by mycelial threads,hard, frequently small (less than 1 mm diameter), no
differentiation of sclerotial tissue.
Eg.Rhizoctonia bataticola- charcoal rot of soybean and sheath blight of paddy
R. solani- black scurf of potato

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Bacteria and mollicutes: general morphological characters. Basic
methods of classification and reproduction in bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria (sing. bacterium) are simplest prokaryotic unicellular microorganisms having the
common chemical composition of DNA, RNA and protein. They are highly adaptable and can
survive extremes of temperatures, pH, oxygen tension, osmotic and atmospheric pressures, and
hence found in almost all natural conditions.

Morphological characters: Being unicellular organism, bacteria may form groups of cells as
filaments. They are either motile or non-motile and lack the definitely organized nucleus.
Bacterial cell possess five shapes- (i) spherical (Micrococcus), (ii) rod-like /bacilliform (E. coli)
and (iii) spiral-shaped (Spirillum) and (iv) curved-rod (Vibrio) and (v) club-shaped (Clavibacter).
Motile cells are having long, whip-like flagella which may arise from one or both ends of the cell
(polar) or from all over the cell (peritrichous). Based on flagellar arrangement bacteria is
classified into 6 groups:

(i) Monotrichous - single polar flagellum at one end (Xanthomonas)

(ii) Amphitrichous - single polar flagellum at both ends (Pseudomonas)
(iii) Cephalotrichous - several flagella at one end (P. fluorescens)
(iv) Lophotrichous - several polar flagella at both ends (Spirillum)
(v) Sub-polar - single sub-polar flagellum (Agrobacterium)
(vi) Peritrichous - all over the cells (Erwinia)

Many bacteria have filamentous appendages called fimbriae or pilli. The size of bacteria ranges
from 1-5 µm and normal range of volume of a structural unit lies within 5-50 µm.
Structurally, a bacterial cell can be divided into following 5 regions as follows:
i.Surface appendages: Flagella and pilli.
ii. Surface adherents: Capsules and slime layers. The capsule in the outer most layer and
composed of polysaccharide or disaccharide and in some cases polypeptides. When
polysaccharide is more fluid in consistency, it forms a gelatinous slime layer around the cell
wall.

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iii. Cell wall: It provides shape to the cell and protects underlying protoplasm having cytoplasm,
chromatin, vacuoles, globules etc. The bacterial cell wall is made up of mucopeptide (murein).
On the basis of two types of chemical composition of cell wall, bacteria are grouped into two as
Gram +ve (85% or more mucopeptide and rest is simple polysaccharide) and Gram -ve (only 3-
12% mucopeptide and rest are lipo-protein and lipo-polysaccharides)
iv. Cytoplasm and organelles: They contain soluble cytoplasmic constituents, nucleoid,
mesosomes, ribosomes, lamellae (thylakoid) or vesicles (=chromatophores, found in
photosynthetic bacteria) and some reserve materials like granules. Gas vacuoles or gas vesicles,
chlorosomes, carboxysomes and magnetosomes are also special type of organelles found in some
bacteria.
v. Special structures: Some bacteria form sporulation structures. Most characteristic spore
structures are endospores, exospores, conidia, spores(akinetes), myxospores, cysts, bdellocyst are
also formed by some genera of bacteria.
Morphological properties:
Genera Shape Size (µm) Motility
Xanthomonas Rod 0.4-1.0 x 1.2-3 Single polar flagellum
Pseudomonas Rod 0.5-1.0 x 1.5-4 One or many polar flagella
Erwinia Rod 0.5-1.0 x 1.0-3 Peritrichous
Sub-polar or peritrichous(1-
Agrobacterium Rod 0.8 x 1.5-3
4)
Non-motile/ motile with 1-2
Club-
Clavibacter 0.5-0.9 x 1.5-4 polar
shaped/Rod
flagella
Ralstonia Rod Single polar flagella
Streptomyces Filamentous 0.5-2 (dia) Non-motile
Xylella Rod 0.3 x 1-4 Non-motile

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Cultural characteristics:
Genera Characters

Agrobacteriu Colonies are non-pigmented, smooth, gram -ve, oxidative

m metabolism
Clavibacter Usually non pigmented, gram +ve, oxidative metabolism
Erwinia Usually non-pigmented, gram -ve, fermentative metabolism

Pseudomonas Green diffusible fluorescent, brown diffusible pigment or no pigment, gram -

ve, oxidative metabolism.

Xanthomonas Yellow, non-diffusible, gram -ve, oxidative metabolism

Ralstonia Non-pigmented, creamy white colonies, oxidative metabolism, gram-ve

Streptomyces Colonies are at first white coloured, small (1-10 mm dia), smooth, later
become powdery velvetty due to weft of aerial mycelium, gram -ve, produce
variety of pigments depending on the substrates, oxidative metabolism
Xyllela Produce long filamentous strand when cultured, gram-ve, colonies are small,
smooth or undulated margins, non-pigmented, arerobic/oxidative metabolism
Taxonomy, classification and nomenclature of bacteria: Taxonomy is the art of biological
classification which includes identification as well as description of the basic taxonomic units
(species) as completely as possible; it also determines the correct way of arrangement
(cataloguing) of these units.
Major divisions of bacteria on the basis of cell wall structure
Kingdom : Prokaryotae
Division I : Gracilicutes (thin skin/cell wall, gram negative bacteria)
Class : Scotobacteria
Anoxyphotobacteria
Oxyphotobacteria
Division II : Firmicutes (strong/durable cell wall, gram positive bacteria)
Class : Firmibacteria
Thallobacteria
Division III : Tenericutes( soft/tender cell wall, mycoplasma)

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Class : Mollicutes
Division IV : Mendosicutes (faulty cell wall)
Class : Archaebacteria
Division and groups based on Bergey’s Manual of Systematical Bacteriology (1984)
Kingdom : Prokaryotae
Division I : Cyanobacteria(blue green algae , myxophyceae)
Division II: Bacteria
Part 1 : Phototrophic bacteria : 1Order, 3 Family, 18 Genera
Part 2 : Gliding bacteria : 2 Orders, 8 Family,21 Genera
Part 3 : Sheathed bacteria : 17 Genera
Part 4 : Budding and Appendaged bacteria : 17 Genera
Part 5 : Spirochetes : 1 Order, 1 Family, 5 Genera
Part 6 : Spiral and curved bacteria : 1 Family, 2 Genera
Part 7 : Gram-negative Aerobic rods and cocci : 5 Family, 14 Genera
Part 8 : Gram-negative Facultative Anaerobic rods : 2 Family, 17 Genera
Part 9 : Gram-negative Anaerobic bacteria : 1 Family, 3 Genera
Part 10 : Gram-negative Cocci and Coccobacilli : 1 Family, 2 Genera
Part 11 : Gram-negative Anaerobic Cocci : 1 Family, 3 Genera
Part 12 : Gram-negative Chemolithotrophic bacteria : 2 Family, 17 Genera
Part 13 : Methane producing bacteria : 1 Family, 3 Genera
Part 14 : Gram-positive Cocci : 3 Family, 12 Genera
Part 15 : Endospore forming Rods and Cocci : 1 Family, 5 Genera
Part 16 : Gram- positive Asporogenous rod-shaped bacteria : 1 Family, 1 Genus
Part 17 : Actinomycetes and related organisms : 4 Genera not assigned to any family;
1 Family with 2 Genera; 1 Order with 8 Family and 31 Genera
Part 18 : Rickettsias : 2 Order, 4 Family, 18 Genera
Part 19 : Mycoplasmas : 1 Class, 1 Order, 2 Family, 2 Genera

Nutrition and effect of physiochemical factors on growth:

A. Nutrition: Many organic substrates are the sources, two nutrients viz. carbon (C) and energy
which are important for bacterial growth. Certain bacteria e.g. Pseudomonas can use more than

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90% organic compounds as a sole source of C and energy. Some bacteria can use two substrates
(methane and methanol by methane producing bacteria) or only one substrate (cellulose
decomposing bacteria). Bacteria need CO2 (5-10%) for satisfactory growth on organic media.
Thiamin (Vitamin B1) is also required for the growth of bacteria. However, the bacterial species
which can synthesise thaiamin, do not require any special compound.
While bacteria are grown on/in artificial medium, the medium should have balanced mixture of
necessary nutrients. Synthetic (ingredients are chemically known) and complex (ingredients are
chemically unknown) media are used for artifical culture of bacteria. Commonly used elements
in synthetic medium are K, Mg, Fe, Ca, Mn, Mo, Co, Zn, NH4 and glucose (for C). For nitrogen
fixing bacteria, N is not needed in media. Complex medium viz. nutrient medium contains
peptone and beef extract and is used to grow wide range of micro-organisms including those
microbes whose precise requirements (growth factors) are not known. Based on nutritional
requirement also bacterial classification is made using some specific terms like autotrophic,
heterotrophic, phototrophic, chemotrophic, lithotrophic and organotrophic.
B. Growth and Reproduction: In all cellular organisms, growth is achieved through cell
multiplication. Hence, multiplication of a multicellular organisms result in an increase in size,
while the multiplication of unicellular organisms results in increase in number. Growth in
bacteria takes place through multiplication where one bacterium doubles at regular intervals
(doubling time or generation time is 20-30 minutes) by binary fission (asexual reproduction).
Thus number of bacterial cells increases exponentially. Formation of endospores, cysts,
fragmentation, sporangiospores and conidia are some other means of asexual reproduction in
bacteria. The sexual reproduction in bacteria is represented by transformation, conjugation,
transduction and lysogenic conversions. The growth curve of bacteria can be plotted with four
phases viz. lag phase (slow growth), log phase (exponential growth), stationary phase (no
growth) and death phase (decline of living cells).
C. Effect of physical factors / forces on growth and reproduction:
(i) Temperature: Bacteria can survive temperatures of 0° to 85°C or even more
depending upon the species. On the basis of temperature requirement, bacteria are
divided into 3 catagories viz. psychrophilic (0-30°C, optimum 15°C), mesophilic
(min. 5-25°C , opt. 18-45°C, max.30-50°C) and thermophilic (min. 25-45°C, opt.
55°C,max.60-93°C).

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(ii) Moisture: Bacteria are more aquatic than terrestrial and can survive in presence of
high percentage of water.

(iii) Light: Ordinary visible light does not affect bacterial activity. But different spectrum
of light viz UV light, infra-red light have different effect on the activity of bacterial
species.

(iv) Pressure: Ordianary mechanical pressure can not affect bacterial cells. Principle of
osmosis is the best used pressure for destruction of bacteria.
(v) Hidrogen-ion concentration: Suitable pH range for bacterial growth and
reproduction is 5.0 to 9.0

Bacterial Genetics and Variability: Knowledge on the genetic system of bacteria was dull till
1940. Prior to this period, no definite nucleus had been demonstrated in bacteria although
variability in bacterial cells was recognized well before. Only the development of science in
Molecular Biology helped to recognize transfer of genetic material i.e. DNA to the daughter cells
at the time of binary fission.

Variability among bacteria is resulted from the following processes:

(i) Conjugation: Two compatible bacterial cells come into contact. Then the recipient
female cell (F-) receives the DNA from the donor male cell (Hfr). Thus genetic make
up of both the cells is changed.

(ii) Transformation: The bacterial cell absorbs DNA exuded by compatible cells or freed
by dissolution of the cell-wall into the external medium.

(iii) Transduction: This process is a “phage-mediated genetic transfer”. The bacterial

viruses (bacteriophages or phage) can acquire DNA from one cell and transfer it to the
other cells attacked by them. If attacked cell is not destroyed due to infection by the
phase, it reproduces to form new races with different genetic character.

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(iv) Lysogeny: It involves association of genetic material of a virus with that of bacterium.
Although it is different from above three processes, it also provides a permanent
genetic modification of the bacterial genome.

Mollicutes

Mollicutes is a class of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The word
"Mollicutes" is derived from the Latin mollis (meaning "soft" or "pliable"), and cutis (meaning
"skin"). Individuals are very small, typically only 0.2–0.3 μm (200-300 nm) in size and have a
very small genome size. They vary in form, although most have sterols that make the cell
membrane somewhat more rigid. Many are able to move about through gliding, but members of
the genus Spiroplasma are helical and move by twisting. The best-known genus in the Mollicutes
is Mycoplasma.

Mollicutes are parasites of various animals and plants, living on or in the host's cells. Many
cause diseases in humans, attaching to cells in the respiratory or urogenital tracts, particularly
species of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. Phytoplasma and Spiroplasma are plant pathogens
associated with insect vectors.

Whereas formerly the trivial name "mycoplasma" has commonly denoted any member of the
class Mollicutes, it now refers exclusively to a member of the genus Mycoplasma.

History of the classification

The classification of the Mollicutes has always been difficult. The individuals are tiny, and being
parasites, they have to be cultivated on special media. Until now, many species could not be
isolated at all. In the beginning, whether they were fungi, viruses, or bacteria was not clear. Also,
the resemblance to L-forms was confusing. At first, all members of the class Mollicutes were
generally named "mycoplasma" or pleuropneumonia-like organism (PPLO). Mollicutes other
than some members of genus Mycoplasma were still unidentified. The first species of
Mycoplasma/Mollicutes, that could be isolated was Mycoplasma mycoides. This bacterium was
cultivated by Nocard and Roux in 1898.

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In 1956, D.G. Edward and E.A. Freundt made a first proposal for classifying and naming PPLOs.
They left undecided, however, whether they belong to the bacteria (prokaryotes, in 1956 called
"Schizomycetes") or to the eukaryotes. As type species (name-giving species) of the
PPLOs/mycoplasmas, Edward and Freundt proposed Mycoplasma mycoides, being the causative
organism of bovine pleuropneumonia and referring to the pleuropneumonia-like organisms. Until
then, Mycoplasma mycoides was known as Asterococcus mycoides, but later that name was not
recognized as valid. In their publication of 1956, they described 15 species of Mycoplasma.[9] In
1967 the class Mollicutes, containing the order Mycoplasmatales, was proposed by the
Subcommittee on Taxonomy of the Mycoplasmata.[5] Now, the name Mycoplasma should
exclusively be used for members of the genus Mycoplasma, rather than the use as a trivial name
for any mollicute. As the trivial name has been used in literature for a long time, this is yet not
always the case.

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Viruses: nature, architecture, multiplication and transmission

Viruses
Matthew (1981) defined a virus as “a set of one or more nucleic acid template molecules,
normally encased in a protective coat, or coats of protein or lipoprotein, which is able to organize
its own replication within suitable host cells. Within such cells, virus production is (a) dependent
on the host’s protein synthesizing machinery, (b) organized from pools of the required materials
rather than by binary fission, and (c) located at sites which are non separated from the host cell
contents by a lipoprotein, bilayer membrane”.
Many plant diseases which are now known to be caused by viruses had been encountered long
ago. The causes of those diseases were not known. The first breakthrough was made by Adolf
Mayer in 1886, in the Netherlands, while studying the highly contagious, mysterious disease of
tobacco which he called “Mosaikkrankheit” i.e. mosaic like disease. He found that healthy plants
could be infected by injecting the sap of diseased plants. He also observed that the unknown
agent could be inactivated by boiling the sap. He concluded that the disease was the
manifestation of a bacterium. In 1892, Ivanovsky confirmed Meyer’s report and further showed
the sap to remain infections even after passage through bacteria-proof filter. However, he
claimed the incitant to be a microbe. But Martinus Beijerinck realized the causal agent to be
something novel. His results further confirmed the findings of Meyer and Ivanovsky and also
showed that the incitant could diffuse into an agar gel. Based on all these findings, Beijerinck, in
1898, concluded that the mysterious pathogen was not a bacterium, but a contagium vivum.
fluidum i.e. contagious infective material or infectious living fluid. He thought the contagium to
be able to reproduce itself in living plants and referred it as a virus.
Architecture of viruses and viriods

Morphologically, virus particles are (i) isometric (spherical, polyhedral) and (ii) anisometric
(rigid or flexuous rods, bacilliform or bullet-shaped). Many isometric viruses have symmetric
polyhedra which are either of three cubic symmetry i.e. tetrahedral, octahedral or icosahedral.
Isometric particles measure the diameter 17nm (satellite virus of tobacco necrosis virus) to 70nm
(reoviruses). The bacilliform viruses measure up to 300 nm length x 95 nm width (rhabdovirus
group). The rod-shaped viruses having short rigid rod measure 114-215 nm length x 23 nm width

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(the tobraviruses) and those with long flexuous particles measure up to 2,000 nm length x 10 nm
in width (the closteroviruses). The rod shaped particles of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) consist of
protein sub-units (capsomeres) built up in a regular, helical array, with the RNA chain compactly
coiled in a corresponding helix on the inside of the protein sub-units. The protein coat (capsid)
and RNA genome surround an axial hole or canal. In membrane-bound viruses, the inner
nucleoprotein core is called as nucleocapsid.
Viroids are smallest (1.1-1.3 x 105 mol. wt.), simplest and non-encapsidated RNA. They consist
of a single molecular species of circular or linear form.
Chemical composition: Plant virus particles consist of infectious nucleic acid (the genome),
which is encapsidated within a protective protein coat or shell. The genome, essential for virus
replication, is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA in most groups of viruses) and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA in the caulimovirus and geminivirus groups). The RNA and DNA
may be single stranded (ss) or double stranded (ds) Besides these two basic components, an
envelop of lipid or lipoprotein membrane is present in some plant viruses. Other components are
metallic ions and polyamines present in varying amounts. Some enzymes are found in reoviruses
and rhabdoviruses. Water constitutes 10-50 percent of the mass of virus particle.
The nucleic acid may be present as a single continuous strand (single molecular species) in a
particle. It is called mono-partite genome. Some nucleic acid genomes have two or more pieces
(molecular species) in different particles; usually they are not always encapsidated within
separate protein shells. Such genomes are termed as bi-, tri-, or multi-partite or the viruses with
divided genome.
In some RNA viruses, the genetic information is divided into two or more parts. They are called
multi-component viruses and the individual components are not infectious alone. Hence two or
more genomic elements are needed to cause infection and replication.
The genomic organization of viruses depicts structure and function of genes or cistrons. Some
triplet bases called codons are responsible for expression of genes. There are two types of
codons, (i) initiation codons (AUG, GUG) and (ii) termination codons (UAG, UAA, UGA) and
they control functions of genes and translation products.

Nomenclature of viruses and classification: A number of addition and deletion was made in
naming viral pathogens. Linnaean style of binomial nomenclature is not followed. Instead, plant

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pathogenic viruses are named based on the common or vernacular name of the affected host
plant such as tobacco mosaic virus, rice dwarf virus, caulimoviruses, potato virus X and Y etc.
Later, these vernacular names were further simplified by abbreviating them such as TMV for
tobacco mosaic virus, CMV for cucumber mosaic virus, potex virus for potato virus X, CaMV
for cauliflower mosaic virus etc. In addition to such names, a system of cryptogams was
introduced to give concise information on the properties (immediate summary) of one virus for
example:
TMV = R/1 : 2/5 : E/E : S/O
1st term : Type of nucleic acid (RNA, DNA)/number of strands of nuleic acid (1=ss, 2=ds)
2nd term : Molecular weight of nuleic acid in millions/ % of nuleic acid in infective
particle
3rd term : Outline of particle shape (E=elongate, S=spherical, B=bacilliform)/outline of
nuclear capsid (E, S, B)
4th term : Type of host infected (B=bacteria, F=fungus, I=invertebrate, S=seed plant)/ type
of vector (Ap=aphid, Au=leafhopper, Cl=beetle, Fu=fungus, Ne=nematode,
Th=thrips, W=whitefly, O=spread without vector, Se=seed transmitted)
A system of plant virus classification was introduced by International Committee on Taxonomy
of Viruses (ICTV) based on the characteristics such as morphology of virus particle, type and
quantity of nucleic acid, genomic structure and type of vector. For example
Classification based on particle morphology and type of nucleic acid:
I. Elongated, Helical, ss RNA
A. Rigid
(a) Monopartite
(b) Multipartite
B. Flexuous, all monopartite
II. Isometric
A. Single stranded RNA
(a) Monopartite
(b) Multipartite
(b1) With envelope
B. Double stranded RNA

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C. Single stranded DNA
D. Double stranded DNA
III Bacilliform
A. Without envelop
B. With envelop
Grouping of plant viruses
Like families and genera cited in the classification of fungi and bacteria, plant virologists have
been using “groups” for viruses. A total of 26 groups have been accepted by ICTV and some of
those are,
1. Alfalfa mosaic virus group
2. Bromoviruses
3. Carlaviruses
4. Caulimoviruses
5. Comoviruses
6. Dianthoviruses
7. Geminiviruses etc.
There are about 11 unclassified virus groups are known, e.g.
1. Barley yellow mosaic virus group
2. Carnation mottle virus group
3. Rice stripe virus group
4. Satellite virus group etc.

Criteria for identification of viruses

Viruses causing plant diseases can be identified correctly by number of ways:

1. Behaviour in host: Host range, symptoms and their types, tissue restriction, type and
location of intracellular inclusion bodies, seed transmissibility.
2. Vector relation: Taxa, acquisition and inoculation thresholds, persistence in vector,
multiplication in vector, modes of transmission (e.g. transovarial transmission).
3. Particle properties: Shape and symmetry, size, presence or absence of envelope,
capsomeric structure, sedimentation properties (number of components and

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sedimentation co-efficient); coat protein properties (no. of polypeptides and their
molecular weight); properties of nucleic acid (RNA, DNA, strandedness, no. molecules
and molecular weight, presence or absence of 5’-terminal M7 Gppp, 5’-terminal VPg, 3’-
terminal Poly (A)); electrophoretic mobility; isoelectric point, serological relationship.
4. In vitro properties in crude sap: This is determined by the tests viz. thermal inactivation
point (TIP), dilution end point (DEP), longevity of virus in vitro (LIV).
5. Cross-Protection tests: Virus identity and strain relationship can be done. However, this
sort of test is less applied now-a-days.
Important techniques for virus detection and identification:

1. Electron microscopy: used to know shape, symmetry, size, presence or absence of envelope
and capsomeric structure.
2. Immunosorbent electron microscopy (ISEM).
3. Serology: The technique includes
(i) Precipitin tests (precipitin-tube test, precipitin-ring test, microprecipitin test ).
(ii) Immunodiffusion tests (single, radial diffusion test, gel double-diffusion or
Ouchterlony test)
(iii) Agglutination test (slide-agglutination or chloroplast-agglutination test).
(iv) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): It includes indirect ELISA and
direct double antibody sandwich (DAS) ELISA.
(v) Dot immunobinding assay (DIBA)
(vi) Molecular hybridization analysis (spot hybridization or dot-blot technique)
(vii) Monoclonal antibodies (MAb)
Multiplication and infection nature of plant viruses: The events in virus infection involve
three steps: adsorption, penetration or entry and uncoating or disassembly. The initial contact
between virus particle and host cell is referred to as adsorption or entry. The process during
which the virion or its nucleic acid passes into the cytoplasm of the cell is known as penetration
or entry. Uncoating is the removal of various components of the mature virion and subsequent
release of viral genome and other constituents that plays a major role in establishing infection.

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(i)Multiplication of virus in plants: The replication of RNA and DNA plant viruses differ from
diffent groups of viruses or for individial viruses. The mechanism known for different groups of
plant viruses are – ssRNA virus- monopartite genomes, ssRNA virus-bipartite genome, ssRNA
virus- tripartite genome, dsRNA virus- monopartite genome, satellite viruses, helper viruses and
satellite RNAs, dsDNA viruses. The progeny RNA moves out to cytoplasm where the assembly
sythensized proteins and encapsidation of virion take place. The process continues till the host is
alive and a large number of new virus particles are formed.
(ii)Accumulation and movement of viruses in plant: The nascent virus appears in the cell
about 10 hours after infection. The concentration of virus varies based on the type of virus,
temperature, nutrition and duration of light. The virions are found aggregated in amorphous or
crystalline forms or they are dispersed in cytoplasm and nucleus.
In plant system, two stages of virus movement have been recorded. These are:
a. Cell to cell or short distance movement: This type of virus movement takes place through
protoplasmic bridges, the plasmodesmata. The plasmodesmata selectively allows passage
to the macromolecules and thus virus can move through it with the help of virus-coded
‘movement protein’ mechanism.
b. Movement from one part to another part of plant: This is a long distance movement of the
viruses taking place through vascular system. The movement is faster in elongated young
cells than in round and older cells. Moreover, virus moves fast at high temperature
because the protoplasmic streaming and cellular activities are higher at high temperature.
The nature of cells (parenchyma, xylem, phloem, sieve tubes) also determined rate
movement of viruses in plant.
As a result of the multiplication and distribution of the viruses in the plant system, the host
plant(s) are infected and exhibited varying degrees of disease symptoms.
Transmission of plant viruses: Viruses are distributed or transmitted from the infected plants to
the healthy ones in various ways in nature. As the plant viruses can not penetrate cuticle of their
hosts and hence they can enter into the host tissue through wounds only. The means of
transmission are:
1. Mechanical transmission: The sap of the infected plant is manually transferred to the
healthy plants. It is the easiest method of experimental inoculation.
2. Graft transmission: In this practice, if either the scion (shoot portion) or stock (root stock)

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is infected, the virus usually moves to the healthy partner which may later express visible
symptoms of disease.
3.Transmission through vectors
(i) Insects: Some insect species are the vector of plant viruses which can carry/ transmit
viruses from infected plants to the healthy plants e.g. aphid (potato virus Y, PLVR),
white flies (tobacco leaf curl), beetles (cowpea mosaic virus), mealy bugs (cacao
mottle leaf), thrips (tomato spotted wilt), lace bugs (sugar beet viruses), mites
(sterility mosaic of arhar), leaf hoppers (beet curly top, rice tungro etc.), planthoppers (maize
mosaic, maize rough dwarf), tree hopper (tomato pseudo curly top).
(ii) Nematodes: Five genera of nematodues viz., Xiphinema, Longidorus,
Paralongidorus, Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus can transmit plant viruses.
(iii) Fungi: Some species of fungi can also transmit viruses e.g. Olpiduim brassicae
(tobacco necrosis), O. cucurbitacearum (cucumber necrosis), Polymyxa graminis (oat
mosaic, wheat mosaic), P. betae (beet necrotic yellow vein) and Spongospora
subterranea (potato mop top) etc.
4. Dodder transmission: Many viruses can be transmitted through dodder (Cuscuta spp.).
Dodder transmission is used in the laboratory to transfer viruses from the hosts.
5. Transmission through seeds and pollens: Seed coat (testa), embryo, and also pollens of
some plants can transmit viruses. e.g. alfalfa mosaic, barley stripe mosaic, bean common
mosaic, lettuce mosaic are transmitted by both seeds and pollens of Medicago sativa,
Hordeum vulgare, Phaseolus vulgaris and Lactuca sativa, respectively.
Basic characteristics of insect transmission: Virus transmission, specially in case of the aphid
transmission, takes place by three ways viz. non-persistent (stylet borne), semi-persistant and
persistent (circulative). These modes of transmission have been distinguished on the basis of
acquisition feeding time, inoculation feeding period, latent period and multiplication or
nomultiplication of the viruses within their vector etc. Apart from aphids, semi-persistent mode
is recorded in mealy bug (Planococcoides njalensis - cacao swollen shoot virus) and leaf hopper
(Graminella nigrifrons - maize chlorotic dwarf virus; Nephotettix impicticeps - rice tungro virus)
and persistent mode is recorded in leaf hopper (N. cincticeps - rice dwarf virus; Agallia
constricta - wound tumer virus), plant hopper (Peregrinus maidis - maize mosaic virus), tree
hopper (Micrutalis malleifera - tomato pseudo curly top virus), beetles (Ceratoma trifurcata –

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cowpea mosaic virus; Phyllotreta sp. – turnip yellow mosaic virus) and thrips (Frankliniella
fusca – tomato spotted wilt virus).
Some viruses pathogenic to plant can be transmitted only in presence of a second virus (helper
virus) in the host and this type is called dependent transmission. For example, aphid (Myzus
persicae) transmits potato aucuba mosaic virus only.

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Nematodes: General morphology and reproduction, classification of
nematode Symptoms and nature of damage caused by plant nematodes
(Heterodera, Meloidogyne, Anguina etc.)
Introduction
Nematology is an important branch of biological science, which deals with a complex,
diverse group of round worms known as Nematodes that occur worldwide in essentially all
environments. Nematodes are also known as eelworms in Europe, nemas in the United States
and round worms by zoologists. Many species are important parasites of plants and animals,
whereas others are beneficial to agriculture and the environment. Nematodes that are parasites
of man and animals are called helm inthes and the study is known as Helminthology. The plant
parasitic forms are called nematodes and the study is known as Plant Nematology. The name
nematode was derived from Greek words nema (thread) and oides (resembling). Annual crop losses due
to these obligate parasites have been estimated to be about $ 78 billion wordwide and $ 8 billion for U.S.
growers. The estimated annual crop loss in Tamil Nadu is around Rs. 200 crores.
The soils in a hectare of all agro ecosystem typically contain billions of plant parasitic as well
as beneficial nematodes. The damage to plants caused by nematodes is often overlooked because the
associated symptoms, including slow growth, stunting and yellowing, can also be
attributed to nutritional and water related disorders.
Even though nematodes occupy nearly every habitat on earth, they are remarkably
similar in morphology and life stages. Despite their structural complexity, certain basic
principles are common to all nematodes. Nematodes are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical,
unsegmented, Pseudocoelomate, vermiform and colourless animals. The plant parasitic nematodes are
slender elongate, spindle shaped or fusiform, tapering towards both ends and circular in cross section.
The length of the nematode may vary from 0.2 mm (Paratylenchus) to about 11.0mm (Paralongidorus
maximus). Their body width vary from 0.01 to 0.05 mm. In few genera, the females on maturity assume
pear shape (Meloidogyne), globular shape (Globodera), reniform (Rotylenchulus reniformis) or saccate
(Tylenchulus semipenetrans). The swelling increases the reproductive potential of the organism. Radially
symmetric traits (triradiate, tetraradiate and hexaradiate) exist in the anterior region. The regions of
intestine, excretory and reproductive systems show tendencies towards asymmetry.
The nematodes have one or two tubular gonads which open separately in the female and into the rectum
in the male which also have the copulatory spicules.
The free living saprophytic nematodes are generally larger in size.
The animal and human parasitic helminthes may have length of few centimeters to even a meteer or
more. The helminth parasitising whale fish is about 27 feet long. The study on these animal and human
parasites are known as Helminthology.

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Nematode exhibits considerable variation in their external and internal structure. Despite this structural
complexity, certain basic principle is common to all nematodes

General shape & size

Nematodes : Triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented, colourless, pseudo coelomate,
vermiform and circular in cross section animals.

Fig: General Morphology of Nematode

Shape: Nematode show great variation in their morphological characters. The plant parasitic nematodes
are slender, spindle shaped or fusiform organisms. The nematodes when relaxed with gental heat either
lie straight (Pratilenchus) or slightly curved (Hoplolaimus) or curved in ‘C’ shaped (Tylenchorynchus) or
form a spiral (Helicotylenchus). Sexual dimorphism in few species. Lemon, pear, kidney, saccate shape.

Size: Their size may vary from 0.2 mm to about 12 mm length with an average of 0.01 mm and 0.5 mm
in breadth (1 to 15 % to length). Males are smaller than females.

Body regions: The nematode body is not divisible into definite regions as that of insects, however there
are certain subdivisions like anterior part of the body having the mouth, lips and stoma is called head and
it is continuous with main body. The portion between the head and the base of oesophagus is the neck.
The part of the body beginning from the anus or cloca and extending up to posterior extremity is the
‘tail’. Longitudinally, the body can divided into four zones: the ventral which bears the natural openings
like excretory pour, anus or cloaca and vulva; the side apposite to the ventral is dorasal. The other two
sides are right and left laterals.
Lip region: The lip region is also called as head exhibits great variation which may be used taxonomic
purpose.
Tail region: It is the post-anal elongation of the body present in all stages of nematodes.

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General structure of nematode:
The body of nematode is tubular which may be divided into three regions I) Outer body tube or
body wall
Inner body tube –Digestive system
body cavity– Reproductive system, Nervous system, Excretory
system
Outer body tube
Exoskeleton or cuticle,
Hypodermis and
Muscle layer.
Exoskeleton or cuticle:
It is outermost covering of body wall which is non-cellular, semipermeable
and tough layer secreted by the epidermal cells. It invades all natural opening of body including the
mouth, rectum, cloaca, vagina, excretory pore, amhids and phasmids.
The cuticle of many nematode species has markings on the surface. They are varied and complex and
often used by taxonomist in identification of nematode species. The cuticular lining/markings are
categorized in different types are as follows.
Cuticular lining or markings:
Punctations – They are commonly appearing as minute or round areas which are arranged in pattern. It
acts as a structure for strengthening cuticle and transport of proteins.
Transverse markings or Annules or Striations – There are several transverse lines present on the
surface of cuticle. These markings are exhibit on most of the plant parasitic nematodes and often used for
identification. Annulations give segmented appearance e.g. scales in Criconemoides & perineal pattern of
root-knot nematodes. Necessary for dorsoventral undulatory movement.
Longitudinal markings – These markings are the lines on the cuticle, which runs longitudinally
throughout the nematode body.
i) Ridges – These are raised areas, which run length of the body and occur on sub-median as well as
lateral surface.
ii) Alae – These are thickening or projections occur in lateral or sub-lateral region. They assist in
locomotion. There are three types of alae

Caudal alae – These are found in the posterior region and restricted to males as copulatory bursa.
Cervical alae – These are confined to anterior part of the nematode body. Cervical alae are found in
some species of marine nematodes.
Longitudinal alae – These are limits to the lateral fields. They are transverse by striations or furrows
varying in number from one to twelve which provide locomotion and may permit slight change in the
width of nematode.
Cuticular layering or covering:
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The nematode cuticle is basically three layer structure and composed of (a) Cortical layer, (b) Median
layer and (c) Basal layer.

Cortical layer – It is often divided into external cortical layer and internal cortical layer. The surface of
external cortical layer is exposed to the environment. This layer is very thin measuring about 25 to 40
mµ. The external layer has been considered to be kertatine (protein) chemically. In cyst nematode the
cuticle of the female on maturity becomes tough and leathery to form cyst which protect eggs under dry
conditions.
Median layer – The average thickness of the median layer is 0.1 µ in the larva of Meloidogyne and
Heterodera. Chemically the median layer consist of protein, which resembles collagen (Non osmophilic
collagen protein).
Basal layer – It consist of regularly arranged vertical rods or striations. It is composed of protein with
very close linkage between the molecules, resulting in resistant layer which protect the nematode from
outer environment. The thickness of basal layer varies from 125 to 500 mµ (Osmophilic protein close to
keratine)
Functions of cuticle:
Protects the nematode from harsh environment.
Serves as exoskeleton
Provide mechanism of movement of the nematode through the soil and plant tissue.
Hypodermis –
The hypodermis is cellular or partially cellular layer. It secretes the cuticle. It
lies between cuticle and somatic muscle layer. It is important metabolic active part of the nematode.
Forms 4 cords (dorsal, ventral and two lateral). Contains hypodermal glands
Muscle layer -
It is arranged in a single layer. The muscle cells are spindal shaped and attached to the hypodermis
throughout their length. It is well connected to the nervous system. The stimulation of the muscles by
dorsal and ventral nerves cause contractions in the dorso-ventral plane and result in the characteristic
scinusodial movement of nematode.
On the basis of arrangement of the basic cells, following three types are identified:
a. Holomyarian: Having two muscle cells in each zone.
b. Meromyarian: Two or five muscle cells in each interchordal zone.
c. Polymyarian: More than five muscle cells in each zone

1. Reproductive system of nematode:-

- The males are generally slightly smaller than females.
- The nematodes are dioecious or amphigonus having a separate male
and female within a species.
- Generally the males are lesser in number than females or even be
completely absent. This indicates a tendency towards hermaphroditism
and parthenogenesis.
A. Female Reproductive system:-
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• Monodelphic- The nematodes may have a single ovary the female is called as
monodelphic.

• Didelphic- The nematodes may have two ovaries then the female is called as
didelphic.

• Prodelphic- When a single gonad is present, it may be either directed

towards anterior to vulva then female is called as prodelphic.

• Opisthodelphic- The gonad either directed towards posterior to vulva then

female is opisthodelphic.

• Amphidelphic- The two ovaries are opposite to one another, such as one is
anteriorly directed and other posteriorly directed.

Fig. Prodelphic, Opisthodelphic and Amphidelphic

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The female reproductive system typically consists of ovary, oviduct, uterus, vagina
and vulva.

Vagina
Ovary

Vulva
Uterus

Fig. Female Reproductive System

(i) The ovary-
It is hollow elongate tube. The apical end of ovary has a cap cell at the tip
which is called as germinal or zone of multiplication in which rapid cell division takes
place to give rise germinal cells. This region is followed by growth zone which
constitutes the greater part of ovary. The oocytes or germ cells in this zone become
big and ripe which are generally arranged in single rows. After maturity they are
called oogonia.

(ii) Oviduct-
Next to growth zone of ovary the gonad has oviduct. The oocytes when ripe
they pass in to oviduct. Oviduct may serve as spermathica in some nematode.
However in others, the spermathica is in the proximal part of uterus or in the post-
vulvar sac at the distal end of gonad.
(iii) The uterus-
It is the largest and most complex part of the gonad, serves and function of
fertilization, egg shell formation and laying of eggs. As started above, the upper part
of uterus serves as spermathica in some nematodes.
(iv) Vagina-
The uterus entered in common vagina, which is a short, narrow and flattened
tube lined with cuticle and provided with muscles.

(v) Vulva-
The vagina opens through female gonopore, the vulva. The eggs are expelled
through a vulva which is normally situated middle of the body.
B. Male Reproductive system:-

• Monarchic- The nematode may have one testis are called monarchic.

• Diarchic- The nematode may have two testis are called diarchic.
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 The male reproductive system generally consists of three primordial parts: the
testis, seminal vesicle, and vas deference.
(i) The Testis-
In the testis the germinal and growth zone can be easily distinguished. In
germinal zone Spermatogonial division takes place, while in growth zone,
spermatocytes increases in size. The spermatocytes are arranged in single or double
rows.
(ii) Vas deference-
It consist of an anterior glandular region and posterior muscular region and
containing the ejaculatory duct at the posterior end.
(iii) Ejaculatory duct-

The ejaculatory duct helps in the ejection of sperms during fertilization. It

tapers gradually and opens ventrally into the cloca. The cloca is provided male
copulatory structures such as spicules, gubernaculums etc.

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 Classification of Nematodes

Class- Adenophorea Class- Secernentea

Sub-class: Enoplia Sub-class: Chromatorea

Super Order: Marenoplica Super Order: Terrenoplica

Order: Enoplida Order: Dorylaimida Order: Araeolaimida

Oncholaimida Isolaimida Chromadorida
Tripylida Mononchida Desmoscolecida
Stichosomida Desmodorida
Monhysterida

Class- Secernentea

Sub-class: Rhabditia Sub-class: Spiruria Sub-class: Diplogasteria

Order: Rhabditida Order: Ascaridida Order: Spirurida

Family Family Family
Heterorhabditidae Ascarididae Drocunculidae
Steinernrmatidae Dictophymatidae Filariidae

Order: Tylenchida Order: Diplogasterida

Family
Diplogasteridae

Sub-order: Tylenchina Sub-order: Aphelenchina Sub-order: Sphaerulariina

Family- Aphelenchina Family- Fergusobiidae

Super family: Tylenchoidae Super family: Criconematoidae

Family: Anguinidae, Belonolaimidae Family: Criconematidae
Dolichodoridae, Heteroderidae Tylenchulidae
Tylenchidae, Hoplolaimidae

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 Ecological classification of nematodes

There are two major classes

I. Above ground feeder
II. Below ground feeder

I. Above ground feeder

a. Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs

i) Seed gall nematode: Anguina tritici
ii) Leaf and bud nematode: Aphelenchoides
iii) Stem and bulb nematode: Dictylenchus
b. Feeding on tree trunk
i) Red ring nematode: Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus
ii) Pine wilt nematode: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

II. Bellow ground feeder

It is again classified in to three classes
I) Endoparasitic nematodes
II) Semiendoparasitic nematodes
III) Ectoparasitic nematodes

a) Endoparasitic nematodes

The entire nematode is found inside the root and the major portion of
nematode body found inside the plant tissues. They are two types
1) Migratory endoparasite:- These nematodes move in cortical parenchyma of
host root. While migrating they feed on cells, multiply and cause necrotic
lesion. Example, Pratylenchus spp., Radopholus spp. and Hirschmanniella spp.
2) Sedentory endoparasite: - the second stage larvae penetrate the root lets and
become sedentary throughout the life cycle, inside the root cortex. Examples,
Heterodera spp. and Meloidogyne spp.

b) Semiendoparasitic nematodes

The anterior part of nematode, head and neck being permanently fixed in the
cortex and the posterior part extends free into the soil. Examples, Rotylenchulus
reniformis and Tylenchulus semipenetrans.

c) Ectoparasitic nematodes

These nematodes live freely in the soil and move closely or on the root surface,
feed intermittently on the epidermis and root hair near the root tip. They are two types,
1) Migratory ectoparasites:- These nematodes spend their entire life cycle free in
the soil, feeding externally on the host plants, deposit eggs in soil. When the

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 roots are disturbed they detach themselves. Examples, Criconemoides spp.,
Paratylenchus spp. and s spp., etc.
2) Sedentory ectoparasites:- In this type of parasitism the attachment of
nematode to the root system is permanent but for this, it is similar to the
previous one. Examples, Hemicycliophora arenaria and Trichodorus spp., etc.

1) Root-knot Nematode, Meloidogyne spp.

Systematic Position:-
Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Tylenchoidea
Family - Heteroderidae
Sub family - Meloidogyninae
Genus - Meloidogyne
Species -
i) incognita
ii) javanica
iii) arenaria
iv) hapla

Parasitism & Habitat:-

i) Females and III & IV stage of larvae are Sedentory endoparasites.
ii) Males and II stage larvae are migratory.
Morphological characters:-
i) Body - Elongate larvae and male Typically saccate, spheroid with a distinct neck
in females.
ii) Stylet - In males, Strong with rounded knob & In females, more slender than
males.
iii) Oesophagous – With
large median bulb
followed by short
isthumus.
iv) Excretory pore - Often
seen with part of
excretory tube in the
area between posterior
part of stylet knobs and
opposite to median bulb.
v) Vulvas & anus -
Females typically
opposite to neck and
surrounded by a pattern
of fine lines like human
fingerprint.(Perennial
pattern)
vi) Spicule - Very near the
terminus of males Bursa is absent.
- Yellowing of leaves
- Stunted growth
- Reduced vigor

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- Reduced size & number of fruits
- Gall formation
- Multinucleate cell – Giant cell (Nurse cell)
- Hypertrophy – Enlargement of cell
- Hyperplasia – Multiplication of cell

Control:-
- Two to three deep Ploughing
- Rotation with cereal crops
- Apply carbofuron (Furdan 3G) @ 7 g/m2
- Resistant varieties of Tomato eg. Hisar Lalit, PNR 7

2) Reniform Nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis

Systematic Position:-
Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Hoplolaimoidea
Family - Hoplolaimidae
Sub family - Hoplolaiminae
Genus - Rotylenchulus
Species - reniformis

Parasitism & Habitat:- Females are Semiendoparasitic on many plants.

Morphological characters:-

i) Body - Males and immature

females are slender and small,
adult females are kidney
shaped
ii) Oesophagous - Dorsal
oesophageal glands opens
about one stylet length
posterior to stylet knobs.

Symptoms:-
Yellowing of leaves,
delayed germination, reduced
plant growth and vigor, stunted
growth, browning of roots due to
penetration of nematode are the
general symptoms of this
nematode. Young and tender
plants are more vulunerable to
nematode attack.

3) Root-lesion Nematode, Pratylenchus spp.

Systematic Position:-
Order - Tylenchida

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 Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Tylenchoidea

Family - Pratylenchidae
Sub family - Pratylenchinae
Genus - Pratylenchus
Species - i) coffeae - Citrus, Banana & coffee
ii) zeae - Maize
iii) thornei - Pulses

Parasitism & Habitat:-

- Migratory endoparasites
- Feeding on root cortex of many crop/plant
- All stages found in root or soil.

Morphological characters:-
i) Body length - 0.4-0.8 mm.
ii) Lip region - Slightly set-off from body.
iii) Stylet - Typically short, strong with massive knob.
iv) Ovary - Monodelphic
v) Vulva - Posterior fourth of the body (75-80%).
vi) Tail - Nearly round to pointed and in males, the tail has bursa.
vii)
Symptoms:-
Late emergence of seedlings, less germination and stunted growth with
necrotic lesions on the root surface which are initially small coalesce at the later stage
and cause death of the rootlets. Root system is reduced.

Control:-
- Raise nursery in nematode free soil
- Pull and burn infected plants
-
4) Spiral Nematode, Helicotylenchus spp.
Systematic Position:-
Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Tylenchoidea
Family - Hoplolaimidae
Sub family - Rotylenchoidinae
Genus - Helicotylenchus
Parasitism & Habitat:- Endoparasitic and ectoparasitic on many plants

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 5) Spiral Nematode, Helicotylenchus spp.
Systematic Position:-

Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Tylenchoidea
Family - Hoplolaimidae
Sub family - Rotylenchoidinae
Genus - Helicotylenchus
Parasitism & Habitat:- Endoparasitic and ectoparasitic on many plants

Morphological characters:-
i) Body - Arcuate to ‘C’ shape when relaxed
ii) Stylet - Moderately long, typically located more than one half stylet length
posterior to stylet knobs.
iii) Ovaries - Two (didelphic)
iv) Vulva - Posterior to middle of body (60-70%)
v) Tail - In females, rounded to nearly pointed often with short projection on ventral
side and In males, tail is short with bursa.
Symptoms:- The nematodes attack root cortex and produce necrotic lesions.

5) Cyst Nematode, Heterodera spp & Globodera spp.

Cyst means any abnormal membranous sac or blister like pouch containing
fluid.

Systematic Position:-
Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Tylenchoidea
Family - Heteroderidae
Sub family - Heteroderinae
Genus - i) Heterodera
ii) Globodera
Species of Heterodera -
i) avenae - Cereal cyst nematode(wheat & barley) found in north India
ii) zeae - Maize cyst nematode

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iii) cajani- Pigeon pea cyst nematode (tur, mung, Udid & cowpea)
iv) oryzicola - Rice cyst nematode (rice & banana) found in Kerala, M.P., Orissa &
West Bengal.

Species of Globodera -
i) rostochinensis- Potato cyst nematode or Golden nematode
ii) pallida

Host plants - Potato, Tomato & Brinjal

Parasitism & Habitat:-

Parasitic on many plants mostly in temperate zone (Notably potatoes, sugar
beets, oats & other grains, clover, soybean & various cruciferous)
Morphological characters:-

i) Body - Slender in males (1.0-2.0 mm) and larvae (0.3-0.6 mm) In females,
typically swollen, lemon shaped (0.5-0.8 mm)

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 ii) Colour - White or yellow, cyst dark brown, lemon shaped (0.8 mm long & 0.5

mm wide) or nearly same shape as that Meloidogyne female.

iii) Stylet - Short in males with rounded basal knobs & in larvae, more than 0.02 mm
long.
iv) Oesophagous - With well-developed median bulb & lobe extending back &
overlapping the intestine.
v) Spicule - Near the posterior end of males
Globodera - Similar to Heterodera spp. slight difference in adult females are globular
(rounded) in shape and hence the genus is named as Globodera.
Symptoms:-
Heterodera - The diseased plants show yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, reduced
tillering. Earheads if formed are very small known as ‘Molya’ disease’ Globodera -
Typical symptoms of heavy infestation are stunted plants with unhealthy foliage,
premature yellowing, poor development of root system, reduction in size and number
of tubers. Such plants exhibit temporary wilting during hotter part of the day.
Control:-
Heterodera
- Two- three summer ploughing at 10-15 days interval.
- Rotation with Mustard, chick pea
- Apply Carbofuron @ 1-2 kg a.i./ha.
Globodera
- Rotation with pea, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower during autumn season.
- Grow resistant varieties of potatoes - Kufri Swarna, Kufri Thenmalai

6) Daggar Nematode, Xiphinema spp.

Systematic Position:-
Order - Dorylaimida
Sub order - Dorylaimina
Super family - Dorylaimoidea
Family - Longidoridae
Sub family - Xiphineminae
Genus - Xiphinema
Parasitism & Habitat: - Migratory ectoparasites
Morphological characters:-
i) Body - Females elongate, cylindrical, forming open spiral with a greater curvature
in posterior half.
ii) Stylet - Typically long..
iii) Ovaries - Monodelphic or didelphic.
iv) Vulva - Situated at middle of body.
v) Tail - Bluntly rounded or with projections on ventral side in both males and
females.
vi) Males extremely rear, not essential for reproduction.
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vii) Males similar to females but more slender caudal alae subterminal.
Disease Caused:- Alfa disease of Rice.
Symptoms:-
At vegetative phase, yellowing or white splash pattern of leaf sheath where
margins become concorted. Later splash patterns develop brownish stains and
internodes and stems turn black.
At the reproductive phase, the nematode collects around the floral primordia and
feed upon the developing earheads. Earheads emerges as crinkled or twisted with
empty spiklets (ripe ufra) or does not emerge at all (swollen ufra).

8) Citrus Nematode, Tylenchulus

semipenetrans Systematic Position:-
Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Criconematoidea
Family - Tylenchulidae
Sub family - Tylenchulinae
Genus - Tylenchulus
Species - semipenetrans

Parasitism :- Endoparasitic on roots of citrus and other plants. Mature females are
semiendoparasitic.
Morphological characters:-
i) Body - Small all stages. Mature females swollen.
ii) Stylet - Small in larvaes and males, well developed in mature females.
iii) Oesophagous - With distinct posterior bulb in larvae young males and immature
females.
iv) Vulva - Prominent in posterior end of young and adult females.
v) Excretory pore - Typically situated posteriorly in protuberance just anterior to
vulva.
vi) Anus - Absent or difficult to see in immature stages.
vii) Bursa - Absent.
Symptoms:-
The diseased trees show reduction in growth and vigor with yellowing of
leaves. Such trees show gradual dieback symptoms starting from the uppermost
portion.
Roots of infected trees appear larger in diameter and darker than the healthy
trees mainly due to adherence of soil particles to the gelationous matrix excreted by
the adult females. Cortex of highy infested feeder roots decays and gets sloughed off
easily.

9) Burrowing Nematode, Radopholus similis

Order - Tylenchida
Sub order - Tylenchina
Super family - Tylenchoidea
Family - Pratylenchidae
Sub family - Pratylenchinae
Genus - Radopholus
Species - similus

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 Parasitism: - Endoparasitic on roots of Banana and citrus.

Morphological characters:-

i) Body - 0.4-0.9 mm in length.

ii) Lip - Rounded in females, set off and knob like in males.
iii) Stylet - Short and stout in females, slender and rudimentary in males.
iv) Oesophagous - Forming a lobe, dorsally overlaps to intestine.
v) Vulva - Located at middle of the body.
vi) Ovaries - Didelphic
vii) Tail - Blunt end in females and male long tail with bursa.
Symptoms:-

In banana, bearing plants show poor growth and small fruit size,
prone to toppling over under high wind pressure. The nematode causes
wounding of roots resulting in reddish brown cortical lesions which are
clearly visible by splitting the affected roots longitudinally. Purplish
streaks on the young roots. The lesions lead to the formation of tunnels and
cavities in the roots. The infection spreads to young suckers also in which
necrotic tissues develop.

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 Symptoms Caused by Nematodes
Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants
except Anguina spp, Aphelenchus spp, Aphelenchoides spp, Ditylenchus
spp, Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.
Nematode suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet and causes leaf
discolouration, stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits and lesions on
roots, galls, reduced root system and finally wilting.
Symptoms of nematode disease can be classified as

A) Symptoms produced by above ground feeder nematodes

B) Symptoms produced by below ground feeder nematodes

A) Symptoms produced by above ground feeder nematodes

i) Dead or devitalized buds – Nematode infection kills growing buds
e.g. Aphelenchoides fragariae on strawberry.
ii) Crinkled stems and foliage - e.g. Wheat gall nematode, Anguina
tritici Ulfa disease of rice, Ditylenchus angustus.
iii) Seed galls – e.g. Wheat gall nematode, Anguina tritici larva enter into
the flower primordium and develops in to a gall.
iv) Necrosis & discolouration – e.g. Red ring disease of coconut,
Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus. Due to the infestation, red coloured
circular area appear in the trunk of infested palm.
v) Leaf lesions - Symptom on broad-leafed foliage plants. e.g.
Chrysanthemum foliar nematode, Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi
vi) Twisting of leaves and stem: e.g. In onion basal leaves become
twisted when infested with Ditylenchus dipsaci.

vii) Leaf discolouration: The leaf tip become white in rice due to rice
white tip nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi.

B) Symptoms produced by below ground feeder nematodes

The nematode infest and feed on root portion and exhibit symptoms
on below ground plant part as well as on the above ground plants parts and
they are classified as
I) Above ground symptoms
II) Below ground symptoms

I) Above ground symptoms:-

i. Stunting: Reduced plant growth and the plant cannot able to withstand
in adverse conditions. Patches of stunted plants appears in the field. e.g.
Heterodera avenae – Molya disease in wheat & barley. Globodera
rostochiensis – Golden nematode in potato
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 ii. Discolouration of foliage: Also due to nutritional
deficiency e.g. Root lesion nematode,
Pratylenchus coffeae White tip
nematode, Aphelenchoids besseyi
Citrus nematode, Tylenchulus
semipenetrans

iii. Wilting: e.g. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp

iv. Decline and die back: eg. In banana decline and die back are caused
by Radopholus similis.

II) Below ground symptoms:-

i. Root galling: e.g. Meloidogyne spp. – Characteristic galls
on host roots Nacobbus spp – Larger
galls on beet & tomato Ditylenchus
radicicola – Small galls on cereals.
Hemicycliophora arenaria – Galling on
lemon roots Xiphinema diversicaudatum
- Galling on roses

ii) Reduced root system: Due to nematode feeding the root tip growth is
arrested and the root produced branches. This may be of various kinds such
as coarse root, stubby root and curly root.
a) Stubby roots – Stubby branches or rootlets arranged in cluster eg.
Trichodorus christiei on corn
b) Coarse root – Lateral roots stopped growth with no branches e.g.
Belonolaimus longicaudatus on corn.
c) Curly root – The nematode retard the elongation of roots and cause
curling of roots known as ‘Fish hook’ symptom. Eg. Injury caused by Xiphinema
spp.
iii) Root lesions – Necrotic lesions e.g. Pratylenchus spp (soybean),
Radopholus similis (citrus & banana), Helicotylenchus multicinctus (banana)
iv) Rotting – Nematode + Micro-organisms. e.g. Ditylenchus destructor – potato rot.
v) Excessive root branching – e.g. Meloidogyne hapla in tomato

Principles and metods of plant disease management

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Plant Disease Management
The word ‘control’ is a complete term where permanent ‘control’ of a disease is rarely
achieved
whereas, ‘management’ of a disease is a continuous process and is more practical in
influencing
adverse affect caused by a disease. Disease management requires a detail understanding of all
aspects of crop production, economics, environmental, cultural, genetics and epidemiological
information upon which the management decisions are made.
A. Principles of plant disease management: There is six basic concept or principles or
objectives lying under plant disease management.
1. Avoidance of the pathogen: Occurrence of a disease can be avoided by planting/sowing
a crop at times when, or in areas where, inoculum remain ineffective/inactive due to
environmental conditions, or is rare or absent.
2. Exclusion of the pathogen: This can be achieved by preventing the inoculum from
entering or establishing in a field or area when it does not exist. Legislative measures like
quarantine regulations are needed to be strictly applied to prevent spread of a disease.
3. Eradication of the pathogen: It includes reducing, inactivating, eliminating or
destroying inoculum at the source, either form a region or from an individual plant
(rouging) in which it is already established.
4. Protection of the host: Host plants can be protected by creating a toxin barrier on the
host surface by the application of chemicals.
5. Disease resistance: Preventing infection or reducing the effect of infection of the
pathogen through the use of resistance host which is developed by genetic manipulation
or by chemotherapy.
6. Therapy: Reducing severity of a disease in an infected individual.
The first five principles are prophylactic (preventive) procedure and the last one is curative.
B. Methods of plant disease management
1. Avoidance of the pathogen:
i. Choice of geographical area
ii. Selection of a field
iii. Adjustment of time of sowing.
iv. Use of disease escaping varieties
v. Use of pathogen-free seed and planting material
vi. Modification of cultural practices
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2. Exclusion of inoculum of the pathogen
i. Treatment of seed and plating materials
ii. Inspection and certification
iii. Quarantine regulations
iv. Eradication of insect vector
3. Eradication of the pathogen
i. Biological control of plant pathogens
ii. Eradication of alternate and collateral hosts
iii. Cultural methods:
a. Crop rotation
b. Sanitation of field by destroying/burning crop debris
c. Removal and destruction of diseased plants or plant parts
d. Rouging
iv. Heat and chemical treatment of diseased plants
v. Soil treatment: by use of chemicals, heat energy, flooding and fallowing
4. Protection of the host
i. Chemical control: application of chemicals (fungicides, antibiotics) by seed
treatment, dusting and spraying
ii. Chemical control of insect vectors
iii. Modifications of environment
iv. Modification of host nutrition
5. Disease resistance
Use of resistant varieties: Development of resistance in host is done by
i. Selection and hybridization for disease resistance
ii. Chemotherapy
iii. Host nutrition
iv. Genetic engineering, tissue culture
6. Therapy
Therapy of diseased plants can be done by
i. Chemotherapy
ii. Heat therapy
iii. Tree-surgery

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Nature, chemical combination, classification of fungicides and
antibiotics.

Fungicides – definition
The word „fungicide‟ originated from two latin words, viz., „fungus‟ and „caedo‟. The
word „caedo‟ means „to kill.‟ Thus the fungicide is any agency/chemical which has the ability to
kill the fungus. According to this meaning, physical agents like ultra violet light and heat should
also be considered as fungicides. However, in common usage, the meaning is restricted to
chemicals only. Hence, fungicide is a chemical which is capable of killing fungi.
Fungistat
Some chemicals do not kill the fungal pathogens. But they simply arrest the growth of the
fungus temporarily. These chemicals are called fungistat and the phenomenon of temporarily
inhibiting the fungal growth is termed as fungistatis.
Antisporulant
Some other chemicals may inhibit the spore production without affecting the growth of
vegetative hyphas and are called as „Antisporulant‟. Eventhough, the antisporulant and
fungistatic compounds do not kill the fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide
because by common usgage, the fungicide has been defined as a chemical agent which has the
ability to reduce or prevent the damage caused to plants and their products. So, some of the plant
pathologists prefer the term „Fungitoxicant‟ instead of fungicide.
Characters of an ideal fungicide
1. It should have low phytotoxicity
2. It should have lonf shelf life
3. Stability during dilution
4. It should be less toxic to human being, cattle, earth worms , microorganisms etc.
5. It should be a broad spectrum in its action
6. Fungicide preparation should be ready for use
7. It should have compatibility with other agrochemicals
8. It must be cheaper one
9. It should be available in different formulations
10. It should be easily transportable

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Classification of Fungicides
Fungicides can be broadly grouped based on their (i) mode of action (ii) general use and
(iii) chemical composition.
I. Based on mode of action
Protectant
As the name suggests, protectant fungicides are prophylactic in their behaviour.Fungicide
which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called a protectant, eg., Zineb,
Sulphur.
Therapeutant
Fungicide which is capable of eradicating a fungus after it has caused infection and there
by curing the plant is called chemotherapeutant. eg. Carboxin, Oxycarboxin antibiotics like
Aureofungin. Usually chemo therapeutant are systemic in their action and affect the deep-seated
infection.
Eradicant
Eradicant are those which remove pathogenic fungi from an infection court (area of the
host around a propagating unit of a fungus in which infection could possibly occur). eg. Organic
mercurials, lime sulphur, dodine etc. These chemicals eradicate the dormant or active pathogen
from the host. They can remain effective on or in the host for some time.
II. Based on general uses
The fungicides can also be classified based on the nature of their use in managing the
diseases.
1. Seed protectants : Eg. Captan, thiram, organomercuries carbendazim, carboxin etc.
2. Soil fungicides (preplant) : Eg. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy chloride, Chloropicrin,
Formaldehyde Vapam, etc.,
3. Soil fungicides : Eg. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy (for growing plants) chloride, Capton,
PCNB, thiram etc.
4. Foliage and blossom : Eg. Capton, ferbam, zineb, protectants mancozeb, chlorothalonil etc.
5. Fruit protectants : Eg. Captan, maneb, carbendazim, mancozeb etc.
6. Eradicants : Eg. Organomercurials, lime sulphur, etc.
7. Tree wound dressers : Eg. Boreaux paste, chaubattia paste, etc.

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8. Antibiotics : Eg. Actidione, Griseofulvin, Streptomycin, Streptocycline, etc.,
9. General purpose spray and dust formulations.
III. Based on Chemical Composition
The chemical available for plant disease control runs into hundreds, however, all are not
equally safe, effective and popular.Major group of fungicides used include salts of toxic metals
and organic acids, organic compounds of sulphur and mercury, quinines and heterocyclic
nitrogenous compounds. Copper, mercury, zinc, tin and nickel are some of the metals used as
base for inorganic and organic fungicides. The non metal substances include, sulphur, chlorine,
phosphorous etc. The fungicides can be broudly grouped as follows and discussed in detail.
Groups of Fungicides – Copper Fungicides, Sulphur Fungicides and Mercury
Fungicides Copper Fungicides
The fungicidal action of copper was mentioned as early as 1807 by Prevost against wheat
bunt disease (Tilletia caries), but its large scale use as a fungicide started in 1885 after the
discovery of Bordeaux mixture by Millardet in France. The mixture of copper sulphate and lime
was effective in controlling downy mildew of grapevine caused by Plasmopara viticola and
later, late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans).
Some other copper sulphate preparations later developed were Borduaux paste, Burgandy
mixture and Cheshnut compound which are all very effectively used in the control of several
plant diseases. In addition some preparations of copper oxy chloride preparations arev also
mused. These are all insoluble copper compounds very successfully used in managing several
leaf diseases and seeding diseases in nursery. Some of the important diseases controlled by
copper fungicides are listed below.
I. Copper sulphate preparations
Boreaux Mixture
In 1882, Millardet in France (Bordeaux University) accidently observed the efficacy of
the copper sulphate against the downy mildew of grapes caused by Plasmopara viticola. When
copper sulphate was mixed with lime suspension, it effectively checked the disease incidence.
The mixture of copper sulphate and lime was named as “Bouillie Bordelaise” (Bordeaux
Mixture). The original formula developed by Millardet contains 5 lbs of CuSO4 + 5lbs of lime +
50 gallons of water. The chemistry of Bordeaux mixture is complex and the suggested reaction
is:

159
CuSO4 + Ca (OH)2 Cu(OH)2 + CaSO4
The ultimate mixture contains a gelatinous precipitate of copper hydroxide and calcium
sulphate, which is usually sky blue in colour. Cupric hrdroxide is the active principle and is toxic
to fungal spores. In metric system, to prepare one percent Bordeaux mixture the following
procedure is adopted:
One kg of copper sulphate is powdered and dissolved in 50 litres of water. Similarly, 1 kg
of lime is powdered and dissolved in another 50 litres of water. Then copper sulphate solution is
slowly added to lime solution with constant stirring or alternatively, both the solutions may be
poured simultaneously to a third contained and mixed well.
The ratio of copper sulphate to lime solution determines the pH of the mixture. The
mixture prepared in the above said ratio gives neutral or alkaline mixture. If the quality of the
used is inferior, the mixture may become acidic. If the mixture is acidic, it contains free copper
which is highly phytotoxic resulting in scorching of the plants. Therefore, it is highly essential to
test the presence of free copper in the mixture before applied. There are several methods to test
the neutrality of the mixture, which are indicated below:
(i) Field Test: Dip a well polished knife or a sickle in the mixture for few minutes. If reddish
deposit appears on the knife/sickle, it indicates the acidic nature of the mixture.
(ii) Litmus paper test: The colour of blue litmus paper must not change when dipped in the
mixture.
(iii) pH paper test : If the paper is dipped in the mixture, it should show neutral pH.
(iv) Chemical test: Acid a few drops of the mixture into a test tube containing 5 ml of 10%
potassium ferrocyanide. If red precipitate appears, it indicates the acidic nature of the mixture.
If the prepared mixture is in the acidic range, it can be brought to neutral or near alkaline
condition by adding some more lime solution into the mixture. Bordeaux mixture preparation is
cumbersome and the following precautions are needed during preparation and application.
(i) The solution should be prepared in earthen or wooden or plastic vessels. Avoid using metal
containers for the preparation, as it is corrosive to metallic vessels.
(ii) Always copper sulphate solution should be added to the lime solution, reverse the addition
leads to precipitation of copper and resulted suspension is least toxic.

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(iii) Bordeaux mixture should be prepared fresh every time before spraying. In case, the mixture
has to be stored for a short time or a day, jaggery can be added at the rate of 100kg/100 litres of
the mixture.
(iv) Bordeaux mixture is sometimes phytotoxic to apples, peaches, rice varieties like IR8 and
maize varieties like Ganga Hybrid 3.
Bordeaux paste
Bordeaux Paste consists of same constituents as that of Bordeaux mixture, but it is in the
form of a paste as the quantity of water used is too little. It is nothing but 10 percent Bordeaux
mixture and is prepared by mixing 1 kg of copper sulphate and 1 kg of lime in 10 litres of water.
The method of mixing solution is similar to that of Bordeaux mixture. It is a wound dresser and
used to protect the wounded portions, cut ends of trees etc., against the infection by fungal
pathogens.
Burgundy mixture
It is prepared in the same way as Bordeaux mixture, except the lime is substituted by
sodium carbonate. So it is called as „Soda Bordeaux‟. It was developed Burgundy
(France) in 1887 by Mason. The usual formula contains 1 kg of copper sulphate and 1 kg of
sodium carbonate in 100 litres of water. It is a good substitute for Bordeaux mixture and used in
copper-sensitive crops.
Cheshunt compound
It is compound usually prepared by mixing 2 parts of copper sulphate and 11 parts of
ammonium carbonate. This formula was suggested by Bewley in the year 1921. The two salts are
well powdered, mixed thoroughly and stored in a air tight container for 24 hours before being
used. The ripened mixture is used by dissolving it in water at the rate of 3 g/litre. The mixture is
dissolved initially in a little hot water and volume is made up with cold water and used for
spraying.
II. Copper carbonate
preparation Chaubattia Paste
Chaubattia paste is another wound dressing fungicide developed by Singh in 1942 at
Government Fruit Research Station, Chaubattia in the Almora district of Uttar Pradesh. It is
usually prepared in glass containers or chinaware pot, by mixing 800g of copper carbonate and
800g of red lead in litre of raw linseed oil or lanolin. This paste is usually applied to pruned parts

161
of apple, pear and peaches to control several diseases. The paste has the added advantage that it
is not easily washed away by rain water.
III. Copper carbonate preparation
III. Cuprous oxide Fungimar, Perenox, Cuprous oxide is a
Preparation Copper Sandoz, Copper protective fungicide, used
4% dust, Perecot, mainly for seed treatment
Cuproxd, Kirt i copper. and for foilage application
against blight, downy
mildew and rusts.

IV. Copper oxychloride Blitox, Cupramar 50% It is a protective

Preparation. WP, Fytolan, Bilmix 4%, fungicide, controls
Micop D-06, Micop w-50, Phytophthora infestans on
Blue copper 50, Cupravit, potatoes and several leaf
Cobox, Cuprax, Mycop. spot and leaf blight
pathogens in field.

Sulphur fungicides
Use of sulphur in plant disease control is probably the oldest one and can be classified as
inorganic sulphur and organic sulphur. Inorganic sulphur is used in the form of elemental sulphur
or as lime sulphur. Elemental sulphur can be either used as dust or wettable sulphur, later being
more widely used in plant disease control. Sulphur is best known for its effectiveness against
powdery mildew of many plants, but also effective against certain rusts, leaf blights and fruit
diseases.
Sulphur fungicides emit sufficient vapour to prevent the growth of the fungal spores at a
distance from the area of deposition. This is an added advantage in sulphur fungicides as
compared to other fungitoxicants.

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Organic compounds of sulphur are now widely used in these days. All these compounds, called
as „carbamate fungicides‟, are derivatives of Dithiocarbamic acid, Dithiocarbamates are broadly
grouped into two, based on the mechanism of action.
Dithiocarbamates
Monoalkyl Dithiocarbamates Dialkyl Dithiocarbamates
Eg. Zineb, Maneb, Eg. Thiram, Ziram,
Mancozeb, Nabam, Vapam Ferbam

List of sulphur fungicides and the important diseases controlled by them are tabulated below:

Trade Name Diseases Controlled

Inorganic Sulphur Sulphur dust Sulphur is a contact and

1. Elemental Sulphur Cosan, Wetsulf, Microsul protective fingicide,
(i) Sulphur dust normally applied as
sprays or as dust. It is
generally used to control
powdery mildews of
fruits, vegetables,
flowers and tobacco.
This is also effective
against apple scab
(Venturia inaequallis)
and rusts of field crops.

2. Lime Sulphur (Calcium It can be prepared by boiling Lime Sulphur is

poly sulphide) 9 Kg or rock lime and 6.75Kg effective against
of sulphur in 225 litres of powdery mildews as a
water. protective fungicide.

Organic Sulphur Hexathane 75% WP, It is used to protect

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(Dithiocarbamates) Dithane Z-78, Funjeb, foliage and fruits of a
a. Monoalkyl Lonocol, Parzate C, wide range of crops

dithiocarbamate Du Pant Fungicide A, against diseases such as

1. Zineb (Zinc ethylene Polyram. early and late blight of
bisdithiocarbamate) potato and tomato,
downy mildews and
rusts of cereals, blast of
rice, fruitrot of chilly etc.

2. Maneb (Manganese Dithane M22, Manzate These two are protective

ethylene WP, MEB fungicide used to control
bisdithiocarbamate) many fungal diseases of
field crops, fruits, nuts,
ornamentals and
vegetables, especially
blights of potatoes and
tomatoes, downy
mildews of vines,
anthracnose of
vegetables and rusts of
pulses.

3.Mancozeb (Maneb + Dithane M45, Indofil

Zinc ion) M45, Manzeb.

4. Nabam (DSE) Chembam, Dithane A-40, Nabam is primarily used

(Di Sodium ethylene Dithane D-14, Parzate for foilar application
bisdithiocarbamate) Liquid against leaf spot
pathogens of fruits and
vegetables. Soil

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 applications were also
reported to have a
systemic action on
Pythium, Flusarium and
Phytophthora. It is also
used to control algae in
paddy fields.
5. Vapam (SMDC) Vapam, VPM, Chemvape, It is a soil fungicide and
(Sodium 4-S Karbation, Vita Fume. nematicide with
methyl dithiocarbamate) fumigant action. It is
also reported to have
insecticidal and
herbicidal properties. It
is effective against
damping off disease of
papaya and vegetables
and wilt of cotton. It is
also effective against
nematode infestation in
citrus, potato and root
knot nematodes in
vegetables.
b. Dialkyl Cuman L. Ziram, Ziride Ziram is a protective
Dithiocarbamate 80 WDP, Hexaazir 80% fungicide for use on fruit
1. Ziram (Zinc dimethyl WP, Corozate, Fukiazsin, and vegetables crops
dithiocarbamate) Karbam white, Milbam, against fungal pathogens
Vancide 51Z, Zerlate, including apple scab. It
Ziram, Ziberk, Zitox 80% is non phytotoxic except
WDP. to zinc sencitive plants.
It is highly effective
against anthracnose of

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 beans, pulses, tobacco &
tomato, and also against
rusts of beans etc.
2. Ferbam (Ferric Coromat, Febam, Ferberk, Ferbam is mainly used
dimethyl Femate, Fermate D, for the protection of
dithiocarbamate) Fermicide, Hexaferb 75% foliage against fungal
WP, Karbam Black, pathogens of fruits and
Ferradow. vegetables including
Taphrina deformans of
peaches, anthracnose of
citrus, downy mildew of
tobacco and apple scab.
3. Thiram (Tetra methyl Thiride 75 WDP, Thiride It is used for seed
thiram disulphide) 750, Thiram 75% WDP, treatment both as dry
Hexathir, Normerson, powder or as a slurry. It
Panoram 75, Thiram, is a protective fungicide
TMTD, Arasan, Tersan also suitable for
75, Thylate, Pomarsol, application to foilage to
Thiuram. control Botrytis spp. on
lettuces, ornamental, soft
fruits and vegetables,
rust on ornamentals and
Venturia pirina on pears.
It is also effective
against soilborne
pathogens like Pythium,
Rhizoctonia and
Fusarium.

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Mercury Fungicides
Mercury fungicides can be grouped as inorganic and organic mercury compounds. Both
the groups are highly fungitoxic and were extensively used as seed treatment chemicals against
seed borne diseases. Ignorance compounds show bactericidal property also. However, due to
their residual toxicity in soil and plants and their extreme toxicity nature to animal and human
beings, the use of mercury fungicides is beings discouraged. In most of the countries, the use of
mercury fungicides is banned and in countries like India, the use of mercury fungicides is
restricted only in seed treatment for certain crops. The list of diseases against which mercury
fungicides used are listed below

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

I. Inorganic Mercury It is used for treating potato

1. Mercuric chloride Merfusan, Mersil tubers and propagative materials
of other root crops
2. Mercurous chloride Cyclosan, M-C Turf Mercurous chloride is
fungicide. limited to soil application in crop
protection use because
of its phytotoxicity.

These are used mainly for

treatment of seeds and planting
II. Organomercurials Agallol, Aretan, Emisan, materials. These fungicides are
Methoxy ethyl mercury Ceresan wet (India) used for seed treatment by dry,
Chloride wet or slurry method. For seed
Ceresan Dry (India), treatment 1% metallic
Phenyl mercury chloride Ceresol, mercury is applied at 0.25%
Leytosan. concentration

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 Ceresan (USA)
Ethyl Mercury Chloride
Agrosan GN.
Tolyl mercury acetate

Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds, Quinones and Miscellaneous Fungicides

Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds
Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds are mostly used as foliage and fruits protectants. Some
compounds are very effectively used as seed dressers. Some of the commonly used fungicides
are listed below.

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1.Captan (Kittleson‟s Captan 50W, Captan 75 It is a seed dressing fungicide used

Killer) (N-trichloromethyl W, Esso Fungicide 406, to control
thio-4- cyclohexence-1,2- Orthocide 406, Vancide diseases of many fruits,
dicarboximide) 89, Deltan, Merpan, ornamental and vegetable
Hexacap. crops against rots and damping
off.
2. Captafol (Cis-N- Foltaf, Difolaton, Difosan, It is a protective
1,1,2,2-tetra chloro hexane Captaspor, Foleid, fungicide, widly used to
1,2- dicarboximide) Sanspor. control foliage and fruit
diseases of tomatoes,
coffee potato.

3. Glyodin Glyoxaliadine, Glyoxide, It has a narrow specrum of

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 Glyodin, Glyoxide Dry, activity. As a spray, it controls
Glyodex 30% liquid and apple scab and cherry leaf spot.
70% WP.
4.Folpet (Folpet) [N- Phartan, Acryptan, It is also a protective
(trichloromethyl-thi)] Phaltan, Folpan, fungicide used mainly for
phthalimide Orthophaltan. foliage application against
leaf spots, downy and powdery
mildews of many crops.

Benzene compounds
Many aromatic compounds have important anti-microbial properties and have been
developed as fungicides. Some important benzene compounds commonly used in plant disease
control are listed below.

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Quintozene (PCNB) Brassicol, Terraclor, It is used for seed and soil

Tritisan 10%, 20%, 40% D treatment. It is effective
and 75% WP, PCNB 75% against Botrytis, Sclerotium,
WP. Rhizoctonia and Sclerotinia
spp.
2. Dichloran Botran 50% WP and 75% It is a protective fungicide
WP, Allisan. and very effective against
Botrytis, Rhizopus and
Sclerotinia spp.
3. Fenaminsosuplh Dexon 5% G and 70% WP It is very specific in
(Sodiumpdimethylamino protecting germinating
benzenediazosulphonate seeds and growing plants
from seeds as well as soil-
borne infection of

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 Phythium, Aphanomyces
and Phytophthora spp.
4.Dinocap (2,4-dinitro-6- Karathane, Arathane, Itisanon-systemic
octyl phenylcrotonate) DNOPC, Mildex, acaricide and control
Crotothane, Crotothane fungicide recommended to
25% WP, control powdery mildews
Crotothane 48% Liq. on various fruits and
ornamentals. It is also used
for seed treatment.

Quinone Fungicides
Quinone areresent naturally in plants and animals and they exhibit anti-microbial activity
and some compounds are successfully developed and used in the plant disease control. Quinones
are very effectively used for seed treatment and two commonly used fungicides are listed below:

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Chloranil (2,3,5,6- Spergon Chloronil is mainly used as

tetrachlora- a seed protectant against
1,4-benzoquinone) smuts of barely and
sorghum and bunt of wheat.

Dichlone has been used

2. Dichlone (2,3-dichloro- Phygon, Phygon XL WP. widely as seed protectant.
1,4- napthoquinone) This is also used as a
foliage fungicide,
particularly against apple
scab and peach leaf curl.

Organo – Phosphorous It has a specific action

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fungicide against Pyricularia oryzae
Ediphenphos (Edifenphos) Hinosan 50% EC and 2% (Rice blast). It is also
(O-ethyl-SS- D. effective against Corticium
diphenyldithiophosphate) sesakii and Cochliobolus
miyabeanus in rice.

Organo Tin compounds

Several other organic compounds containing tin, lead, etc. have been developed and
successfully used in plant disease control. Among them, organo tin compounds are more popular
and effective against many fungal diseases. These compounds also show anti bactericidal
properties. Some of the organo tin compounds commonly used are listed below.

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Fentin hydroxide Du-Ter WP 20% or 50% It is a non-systemic fungicide

(TPTHTiphenyl WP. Du-Ter Extra-WP, recommended for the control
tin hydroxide) Farmatin 50 WP, Du- of early and late blight of
Terforte WP, Tubotin. potato, leaf spot of sugar beet,
blast of rice and tikka leaf spot
of ground nut.

It is a non systemic fungicide

recommended
2. Fentin acetate Brestan WP 40% and to control Ramularia spp.on
(TPTATriphenyl tin 60% WP. celeryand sugar beet
acetate) anthracnose and downy
mildew

It is effective against
Cercospora leaf spot of

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3. Fentin Chloride Brestanol 45% WP, sugarbeet and paddy blast
(TPTC- Triphenyl tin Tinmate.
chloride)

Systemic Fungicides and Antibiotics

Systemic Fungicides
Since the late 1960s there has been substantial development in systemic fungicides. Any
compound capable of being freely translocated after penetrating the plant is called systemic. A
systemic fungicide is defined as fungitoxic compound that controls a fungal pathogen remote
from the point of application, and that can be detected and identified. Thus, a systemic fungicide
could eradicate established infection and protect the new parts of the plant.
Several systemic fungicides have been used as seed dressing to eliminate seed infection.
These chemicals, however, have not been very successful in the cases of trees and shrubs. On the
basis of chemical structure, systemic fungicides can be classified as Benzimidazoles,
Thiophanates, Oxathilins and related compounds, pyrimidines, morpholines, organo-phosphorus
compounds and miscellaneous group.
I. Oxathilin and related compounds
Oxathalins were the earliest developed compounds. This group of systemic fungicide is
also called as carboxamides, carboxyluc acid anillides, carboxaanillides or simply as anillides
which are effective only against the fungi belong to Basidiomycotina and Rhizoctonia solani.
Some of the chemicals developed are (i) Carboxin (DMOC: 5,6 - dithydra-2-methyl-1, 4-
oxathin-3-carboxanillide) and (ii) Oxycarboxin (DCMOD- 2,3-dihydro-5-carboxanillido-6-
methyl-1, 4 oxathilin-4, 4, dioxide). The diseases controlled by these chemicals are listed below.
Common Name
Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Carboxin (5,6-dinydro- 2- Vitavax 10% D, Vitavax It is systemic fungicide

methyl-1-4-oxanthin-3- 75% WP, used for seed treatment of
carboxanlido) Vitavax 34% liq. cereals against bunts and
Vitaflow. smuts, especially loose smut
of wheat

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2. Oxycarboxin (5,6- Plantvax 5G, Plantvax It is a systemic fungicide
dihydro-2-methyl- 1,4- 5% liq. Plantvax 1.5 EC, used for the treatment of
oxathin-3-carboxianilid- 10% dust, 75 WP. rust diseases of cereals,
4,4- dioxide) pulses, ornamentals,
vegetables and coffee

Sicarol. It controls rusts, smuts of

3.Pyracarbolid (2-methyl- many crops and
5,6-dihydro- 4H-Pyran-3- Rhizoctonia solani, but is
carboxylic acid anilide). slightly more effective than
carboxin

II. Benzimidazoles
The chemicals of this group show a very broad spectrum activity against a variety of
fungi. However, they are not effective against bacteria as well as fungi belongs to
Mastigomycotina. Two types of fungicidal derivates of benzimidazoles are known. The first type
of derivates includes fungicides such as thiabendazole and fuberidazole. The fungicidal moiety
of the second type is methyl-2-benzimidazole carbamate (MBC). The fungicides of this group
may be simple MBC such as carbendazim or a complex from such as benomyl, which transforms
into MBC in plant system. Some of the important diseases controlled by these compounds are
shown below:

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1.Benomyl (Methyl - 10 Benlate 50 WP, Benomyl. It is a protective and

(butly carbomyl)-2 Bavistin 50 WP, MBC, eradicative fungicide with
benzimidazole carbamate) Dersol, B.Sten 50, Zoom, systemic activity, effective
Tagstin, Agrozim, against a wide range of fungi

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2. Carbendazim (MBC) Jkenstin. affecting field crops, fruits and
(Methyl -2- ornamentals.It is very effective
benzimidazole against rice blast, apple scab,
carbamate) powdery mildew of cereals,
rose, curcurbits and apple and
Diseases caused by
Verticillium and Rhizoctonia.
It is also used as pre-and
postharvest sprays of dips for
the control of storage rots of
fruits and vegetables.
Carbendazim is a systemic
fungicide controlling a wide
range of fungal pathogens of
field crops, fruits, ornamentals
and vegetables. It is used as
spray, seedling dip, seed
treatment, soil drench and as
post harvest treatment of
fruits. It is very effective
against wilt diseases
especially, banana wilt. It
controls effectively the
sigatoka leaf spot of banana,
turmeric leaf spot and rust
diseases in many
crops.
3. Thiabendazole (TBZ) Thiabendazole, Mertect, It is a broad spectrum systemic
(2,4-thiazoyl Tecto, Storite. fungicide effectivel against
benzimidazole) many major fungal diseases.
Pathogenic fungal control

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 includes species of
Botrytis, Ceratocystis,
Cercospora, Colletotrichum,
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia,
Sclerotinia, Septoria and
Verticillium. It is also
effective for the post
harvest treatment of fruits
and vegetables to control
storage diseases.

Voronit. It is used for the treatment

of seeds against diseases
4.Fuberidazole (2, (2- caused by Fusarium,
buryl) - benzimidazole). Particularly F.nivale on rye
and F.culmorum of peas

III. Thiophanates
These compounds represent a new group of systemic fungicides based on thiourea. They
are the derivatives of thioallophanic acid. These fungicides contain aromatic nucleus which is
converted into benzimidazole ring for their activity. Hence, thiophanates are often classified
under benzimidazole group and the biological activity of thiophanates resembles of benomyl.
Two compounds are developed under this group are discussed.

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Thiophanate(1,2 - bis Topsin 50 WP, Cercobin It is a systemic fungicide

(ethyl carbonyl-2- 50 WP, Enovit. with a broad range of
thioureido) benzene) action, effective against

175
 Venturia spp., on apple
and pear crops, powdery
mildews, Botrytis and
Sclerotinia spp. On various
crops.

It is effective against a wide

range of fungal pathogens,
2. Thiophanate - methyl Topsin-M70 WP, including Venturia spp. on
(1,2 bis (3 methoxycarbonyl- Cercobin-M 70 WP, apples and pears,
2-thioureido) Envovit-methyl, Mycosphaerella musicola
benzene.) Mildothane. on bananas, powdery
mildews on apples,
cucurbits, pears and vines,
Pyricularia oryzae on
rice, Botrytis and
Cerospora on various
crops.

IV.Morpholines

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

Tridemorph (2-6 - dimethyl- Calixin 75 EC, Bardew, It is an eradicant fungicide

4-cyclo - tridecyl Beacon with systemic action, being
morpholine) absorbed through foilage
and roots to give some
protective action. It controls
powdery mildew diseases of

176
 cereals, vegetables and
ornamentals. It is highly
effective against
Mycosphaerella,
Exobasidium

V. Pyrimidines, Pyridines, Piperidines and Imidazole

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Triadimefon Bayleton, Amiral It is very effective against

(1-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3, powdery mildews and rusts
3-dimethyl-1-(1-2-triazol- of several crops.
1yl) butan-2-one)
It is also very
2. Triadimenol Baytan effective against
(1-(4-Chlorophenoxyl-3, powdery mildews
3-dimethyl-1(1,2,4-triazol-1- and rusts of several
yl) butan-2-ol) crops.

It is highly effective against

3. Bitertanal Baycor rusts and powdery mildew
(B-(1-1-biphenyl-4-yloxy-a- of a variety of crops. It is
(1-1-dimethyl-ethyl-1-H-1,2- also used against Venturia
and Monilinia on fruits and
Cereospora leafspots of
groundnut and banana.
4- triazole-1-ethanol)
Terrazole 30% WP,
Terrazole 95% WP,

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 Terrazole 25% EC, Koban,
Pansol EG, Pansol 4% DP, It is very effective
Turban WP, Terracoat against
4. Etridiazole Aaterra. Phytophthora and
(5-ethaoxy-3- Pythium spp. and
trichloromethyl, 1,2- seeding diseases of
4-thiadiazole) cotton, groundnut,
vegetables, fruits
and ornamentals

VI. Hydroxy Pyrinidines

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Ethirimol (5-butyl 2- Milliatem 80 WDP, It is effective against

ethyl amino-4-hydrop-6- Milcurb Super, powdery mildew of cereals
methyl pyrimidine) Milgo and other field crops. It is
also effective against
powdery mildews of
cucumber and ornamentals.

2. Dimethirimol (5-butyl It is very effective against

2-dimethylamino-4- Milcurb powdery mildews of
hydroxy-6-methy chrysanthemum and
pyrimidine) cucurbits.

VII. Furan derivatives It is used as seed or soil

1. Furcarbanil application, It systemically
(2-5-dimethyl-3- controlled bean rust and is
furanilide) being used as a seed

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 dressing fungicide against
loose smut of wheat and
barley.

It is effective against
bunts, smuts and rusts of
2. Cyclafuramid cereals, coffee rust, blister
(N-cyclohexyl-2,5- blight of tea, smut and red
dimethyl firamide) rot of sugarcane, Fusarium
wilt of tomato, Rhizoctonia
on tomato, potato,
groundnut, rice as well as
Armillaria sp. On rubber.

It is effective against
yellow rust on wheat and
barley (P. striiformis) and
brown rust on barley (P.
VIII.Benzanilide hordei). It is also having
derivative direct fungitoxic activity
1. Mebenil against Sclerotium rolfsli
(2-methyl benzanilide) and Rhizoctonia.

IX. Organo phosphorous compounds

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Pyrazophos (2-0-0- Afugan, Curamil, WP, It is used to control

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Diethylthionophosphoryl) Missile EC. powdery mildews of
-5- methyl-6-carbethoxy cereals, vegetables, fruits
pyrazolo-(1- 5a)pyrimidine) and ornamentals.

2. Iprobenphos (IBP) Kitazin 48% EC, Kitazin It is used to control

(S-benyzl-0-0- 17G, Kitazin 2% D. Pyricularia oryzae and
bisisopropylphosphorothiate) sheath blight of rice.

X. Piperazine Saprol-EG, Fungitex. It is effective against

1.Triforine(N,N-bis-(1- powdery mildew, scab and
foramido-2,2,2- other diseases of fruits and
trichloroethyl- piperazine) rust on ornamentals and
cereals.

XI. Phenol derivative Demonsan 65 WP, Tersan It is also active against

1. Choloroneb (1-4-dichloro- SP, Turf storage diseases of fruits.
2,5-dimethoxy fungicide It is highly fungistatic to
benzene) Rhizoctonia spp.,
moderately so to Pythium
spp. and poorly to
Fusarium spp. It is used
as a supplemental seed
treatment for beans and
soyabeans to control
seedling disease

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XIII. Other systemic fungicides

Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled

1. Metalaxyl (methyl-DLN-(2,6- Apron 35 SD, It is a systemic fungicide

dimethylphenyl-N-)2- Ridomil and highly effective for
methoxyacetyl Ridomil MZ 72 WP specific use as seed dressing
(8% Metalaxyl + 64% against fungal pathogens of
Mancozeb) the order Peronosporales.
Beam, Bim
Alliette 80 WP It is a fungicide with
2. Metalaxyl + Mancozeb systemic and contact action
and effective against
damping-off, root rots, stem
rots, and downy mildew of
grapes and millets.

It is a specific fungicide
used against paddy blast
3. Tricyclazole (5-methyl- fungus, P. oryzae
1,2,4 triazole(3,4b)-
benzothiazole) It is a very specific
Fungicide for Oomycetous
fungi, especially against
4. FosetylAI. Pythium and
(Aluminium - Trisaluminium Phytophthora

Antibiotics
Antibiotic is defined as a chemical substance produced by one micro-organism which is
low concentration can inhibit or even kill other micro-organism. Because of their specificity of

181
action against plant pathogens, relatively low phytotoxicity, absorption through foliage and
systemic translocation and activity in low concentration, the use of antibiotic is becoming very
popular and very effectively used in managing several plant diseases. They can be grouped as
antibacterial antibiotics and antifungal antibiotics. Most antibiotics are products of several
actinomycetes and a few are from fungi and bacteria.
I. Antibacterial antibiotics
1. Streptomycin sulphate
Streptomycin is an antibacterial, antibiotic produced by streptomyces griseus.
Streptomycin are streptomycin sulphate is sold as Agrimycin,-100, Streptomycin sulphate,
Plantomycin, Streptocycline, Paushamycin, Phytostrip, Agristrep and Embamycin, Agrimycin -
100 contains 15 per cent streptomycin sulphate + 1.5 percent terramycin (Oxy tetracycline).
Agristerp contains 37 percent streptomycin sulphate. Phytomycin contains 20 percent
streptomycin. Streptocycline and paushamycin contains 9 parts f streptomycin and 1 part of
tetracycline hydrochloride.
This group of antibiotics act against a broad range of bacterial pathogens causing blights,
wilt, rots etc. This antibiotic is used at concentrations of 100-500 ppm. Some important diseases
controlled are blight of apple and pear (Erwinia amylovora), Citrus canker (Xanthomonas
campestris p.v. citri), Cotton black arm (X.c. p.v. malvacearum), bacterial leaf spot of tomato
(Pseudomonas solanacearum), wild fire of tobacco (Pseudomonas tabaci) and soft rot of
vegetables (Erwinia carotovora).
In addition, it is used as a dip for potato seed pieces against various bacterial rots and as
an disinfectant in bacterial pathogens of beans, cotton, crucifers, cereals and vegetables.
Although it is an antibacterial antibiotic, it is also effective against some diseases caused by
Oomycetous fungi, especially foot-rot and leaf rot of betelvine caused by Phytophthora
parasitica var. piperina.
2. Tetracyclines
Antibiotics belonging to this group are produced by many species of Streptomyces. This
group includes Terramycin or Oxymicin (Oxytetracycline). All these antibiotics are
bacteriostatic, bactericidal and mycoplasmastatic. These are very effective against seed-borne
bacteria. This group of antibiotic is very effective in managing MLO diseases of a wide range of
crops. These are mostly used as combination products with Streptomycin sulphate in controlling

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a wide range of bacterial diseases. Oxytetracyclines are effectively used as soil drench or as root
dip controlling crown gall diseases in rosaceous plants caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
II Antifungal antibiotics
1. Aureofungin
It is a hepataene antibiotic produced in sub-merged culture of Streptoverticillium
cinnamomeum var. terricola. It is absorbed and translocated to other parts of the plants when
applied as spray or given to roots as drench. It is sold as Aurefungin-Sol. Containing 33.3%
Aureofungin and normally sprays at 50-100 ppm. The diseases controlled are citrus gummosis
caused by several species of Phytophthora, powdery mildew of apple caused by Podosphaera
leucotricha and apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), groundnut tikka leaf spot, downy mildew,
powdery mildew and anthracnose of grapes, potato early and late blight. As seed treatment it
effectively checked are Diplodia rot of mango, Alternaria rot of tomato, Pythium rot of cucurbits
and Penicillium rot of apples and citrus. As a truck application/root feeding, 2 g of aureofungin-
sol+1g of copper sulphate in 100 ml of water effectively reduce. Thanjavur wilt of coconut.
2. Griseofulvin
This antifungal antibiotic was first discovered to be produced by Penicillium
griseofulvum and now by several species of Penicillium, viz., P.patulum, P.nigricans, P.urticae,
and P.raciborskii. It is commercially available as Griseofulvin, Fulvicin and Grisovin. It is
highly toxic to powdery mildew of beans and roses, downy mildew of cucumber. It is also used
to control Alternaria solani in tomato Sclerotinia fructigena in apple and Botrytis cinerea in
lettuce.
3. Cycloheximide
It is obtained as a by-product in streptomycin manufacture. It is produced by different
species of Streptomyces, including S.griseus and S. nouresi. It is commercially available as
Actidione, Actidione PM, Actidione RZ and Actispray. It is active against a wide range of fungi
and yeast. Its use is limited because it is extremely phytotoxic. It is effective against powdery
mildew of beans (Erysiphe polygoni), Bunt of wheat (Tilletia spp.) brownnot of peach
(Sclerotinia fructicola) and post harvest rots of fruits caused by Rhizopus and Botrytis spp.
4. Blasticdin
It is a product of Streptomyces griseochromogenes and specifically used against blast
disease of rice caused by Pyricularia oryzae. It is commercially sold as Bla-s.

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5. Antimycin
It is produced by several species of Streptomyces, especially S. griseus and S.
Kitasawensis. It is effectively used against early blight of tomato, rice blast and seedling blight
of oats. It is commercially sold as Antimycin.
6. Kasugamycin
It is obtained from Streptomyces kasugaensis. It is also very specific antibiotic against
rice blast disease. It is commercially available as Kasumin.
7. Thiolution
It is produced by Streptomyces albus and effectively used to control late blight of potato
and downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables.
8. Endomycin
It is a product of Streptomyces endus and effectively used against leaf rust of wheat and
fruit rot of strawberry (Botrytis cinerea).
9. Bulbiformin
It is produced by a bacterium, Bacillus subtills and is very effectively used against wilt
diseases, particularaly redgram wilt.
10. Nystatin
It is also produced by Streptomyces noursei. It is successfully used against anthracnose
disease of banana and beans. It also checks downy mildew of cucuribits. As a post harvest dip, it
effectively reduces brown rot of peach and anthracnose of banana in stroage rooms. It is
commercially marketed as Mycostain and Fungicidin.
11. Eurocidin
It is a pentaene antibiotic produced by Streptomyces anandii and called as pentaene G-8.
It is effectively used against diseases caused by several species of
Colletotrichum and Helminthosporium.
Methods of allocation of fungicides – Precautions and safety measures while handling
fungicides
Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time
are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an
application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will

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prevent the fungus damaging the plant. This is mostly achieved by spray, fog, smoke, aerosol,
mist, dust, or granules applied to the growing plant or by seed or soil treatment.
In addition, some trees and shrubs can be protected by injection of fungicide liquid into
the trunk or by brushing wounds with fungicide paints or slurries. In the case of sprays, mists,
aerosols and fogs, the fungicide is in of droplets of water of another fluid. In the case of smokers,
the solid particles of the fungicide are carried by the air. In the case of dusts and granules, the
fungicide is straightly mixed with an inert carrier, impregnated into it coated on the particles,
which are applied mechanically.
The object of spraying or dusting is to cover the entire susceptible surface of hostwith a
thin covering of a suitable concentration of the fungicide before the pathogen has come into
contact with the host. However, these practices may not effectively eradicate the inoculum
present on the surface of the seeds or deep-seated in the seed. So, the application of chemicals as
seed dressing is highly essential.
In addition, soil harbours several pathogens which cause root diseases in several crop
plants. So treatment of soil with chemicals is also highly useful in reducing the inoculum load
present in the soil. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part
diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly
adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed.
1. Seed treatment
The seed treatment with fungicides is highly essential because a large number of fungal
pathogens are carried on or in the seed. In addition, when the seed is sown, it is also vulnerable
to attack by many common soil-borne pathogens, leading to either seed rot, seeding mortality or
produce diseases at a later stage. Seed treatment is probably the effective and economic method
of disease control and is being advocated as a regular practice in crop protection against soil and
seed-borne pathogens. Seed treatment is therapeutic when it kills pathogens that infect embroys,
cotyledons or endosperms under the seed coat, eradicative when it kills pathogens that
contaminate seed surfaces and protective when it prevents penetration of soilborne pathogens
into the seedling. There are various types of seed treatment and broadly they may be divided into
three categories (a) Mechanical, (b) Chemical and (c) Physical.

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A. Mechanical method
Some pathogen when attack the seeds, there may be alteration in size, shape and weight
of seeds by which it is possible to detect the infected seeds and separate them from the healthy
ones. In the case of ergot diseases of cumbu, rye and sorghum, the fungal sclerotia are usually
larger in size and lighter than healthy grains. So by sieving or flotation, the infected grains may
be easily separated. Such mechanical separation eleminates the infected grains may be easily
separated. Such mechanical separation eliminates the infected materials to a larger extent. This
method is also highly useful to separate infected grains in the case of „tundu‟ disease of wheat.
Eg. Removal of ergot in cumbu seeds.
Dissolve 2kg of common salt in 10 litres of water (20% solution). Drop the seeds into the
salt solution and stir well. Remove the ergot affected seeds and sclerotia which float on the
surface. Wash the seeds in fresh water 2 or 3 times to remove the salts on the seeds. Dry the
seeds in shade and use for sowing.
B. Chemical methods
Using fungicides on seed is one of the most efficient and economical methods of
chemical disease control. On the basis of their tenacity and action, the seed dressing chemicals
may be grouped as (i) Seed disinfectant, which disinfect the seed but may not remain active for a
long period after the seed has been sown and (ii) Seed protectants, which disinfect the seed
surface and stick to the seed surface for sometime after the seed has been sown, thus giving
temporary protection to the young seedlings against soil borne fungi. Now, the systemic
fungicides are impregnated into the seeds to eliminate the deep seated infection in the seeds. The
seed dressing chemicals may be applied by (i) Dry treatment (ii) Wet treatment and (iii) Slurry.
(i) Dry Seed Treatment
In this method, the fungicide adheres in a fine from on the surface of the seeds. A
calculated quantity of fungicide is applied and mixed with seed using machinery specially
designed for the purpose. The fungicides may be treated with the seeds of small lots using simple
Rotary seed Dresser (Seed treating drum) or of large seed lots at seed processing plants using
Grain treating machines. Normally in field level, dry seed treatment is carried out in dry rotary
seed treating drums which ensure proper coating of the chemical on the surface of seeds. In
addition, the dry dressing method is also used in pulses, cotton and oil seeds with the

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antagonistic fungus like Trichoderma vitide by mixing the formulation at the rate of 4g/kg of the
seed.
Eg. Dry seed treatment in paddy.
Mix a required amount of fungicide with required quantity of seeds in a seed treating
drum or polythene lined gunny bags, so as to provide uniform coating of the fungicide over the
seeds. Treat the seeds atleast 24 hours prior to soaking for sprouting. Any one of the following
chemical may be used for treatment at the rate of 2g/kg : Thiram or Captan or Carboxin or
Tricyclazole.
(ii) Wet seed treatment
This method involves preparing fungicide suspension in water, often at field rates and
then dipping the seeds or seedlings or propagative materials for a specified time. The seeds
cannot be stored and the treatment has to be done before sowing. This treatment is usually
applied for treating vegetatively propagative materials like cuttings, tubers, corms, setts
rhizomes, bulbs etc., which are not amenable to dry or slurry treatment.
a. Seed dip / Seed soaking
For certain crops, seed soaking is essential. Seeds treated by these methods have to be
properly dried after treatment. The fungicide adheres as a thin film over the seed surface which
gives protection against invasion by soil-borne pathogens. Eg. Seed dip treatment in paddy.

Prepare the fungicidal solution by mixing any of the fungicides viz., carbendazim or
pyroquilon or tricyclazole at the rate of 2g/litre of water and soak the seeds in the solution for 2
hrs. Drain the solution and keep the seeds for sprouting. Eg. Seed dip treatment in Wheat.

Prepare 0.2% of carboxin (2g/litre of water) and soak the seeds for 6 hours. Drain the
solution and dry the seeds properly before sowing. This effectively eliminates the loose smut
pathogen, Ustilago nuda tritici.
b. Seedling dip / root dip
The seedlings of vegetables and fruits are normally dipped in 0.25% copper oxychloride
or 0.1% carbendazin solution for 5 minutes to protect against seedling blight and rots.

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c. Rhizome dip
The rhizomes of cardamom, ginger and turmeric are treated with 0.1% emisan solution
for 20 minutes to eliminate rot causing pathogen present in the soil.
d. Sett dip / Sucker dip
The sets of sugarcane and tapioca are dipped in 0.1% emisan solution for 30 minutes. The
suckers of pine apple may also be treated by this method to protect from soilborne diseases.
(iii) Slurry treatment (Seed pelleting)
In this method, chemical is applied in the form of a thin paste (active material is
dissolved in small quantity of water). The required quantity of the fungicide slurry is mixed with
the specified quantity of the seed so that during the process of treatment slurry gets deposited on
the surface of seeds in the form of a thin paste which later dries up.
Almost all the seed processing units have slurry treaters. In these, slurry treaters, the
requisite quantity of fungicides slurry is mixed with specified quantity of seed before the seed lot
is bagged. The slurry treatment is more efficient than the rotary seed dressers. Eg. Seed pelleting
in ragi.
Mix 2.5g of carbendazim in 40 ml of water and add 0.5g of gum to the fungicidal
solution. Add 2 kg of seeds to this solution and mix thoroughly to ensure a uniform coating of
the fungicide over the seed. Dry the seeds under the shade. Treat the seeds 24 hrs prior to
sowing.
(iv) Special method of seed treatment
Eg. Acid - delinting in cotton
This is follows in cotton to kill the seed-borne fungi and bacteria. The seeds are treated
with concentrated sulphuric acid @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes. The seeds are then
washed 2 or 3 times thoroughly with cold water and shade dried. After drying, they are again
treated with captan or thiram @ 4g/kg before sowing.
II. Soil treatment
It is well known that soil harbours a large number of plant pathogens and the primary
sources of many plant pathogens happens to be in soil where dead organic matter supports active
or dormant stages of pathogens. In addition, seed treatment does not afford sufficient protection
against seedling diseases and a treatment of soil around the seed is necessary to protect them.

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Soil treatment is largely curativ in nature as it mainly aims at killing the pathogens in soil and
making the soil „safe‟ for the growth of the plant.
Chemical treatments of the soil is comparatively simple, especially when the soil is
fallow as the chemical is volatile and disappears quickly either by volatilization or
decomposition. Soil treating chemicals should be non-injurious to the plants in the soil adjacent
to the area where treatment has been carried out because there may be standing crop in adjacent
fields. The soil treatment methods involving the use of chemicals are
(i) Soil drenching, (ii) broadcasting, (iii) furrow application, (iv) fumigation and
(v) chemigation.
(i) Soil drenching
This method is followed for followed for controlling damping off and root rot infections
at the ground level. Requisite quantity of fungicide suspension is applied per unit area so that the
fungicide reaches to a depth of atleast 10-15 cm.
Eg. Emisan, PCNB, Carbendazim, Copper fungicides, etc.
(ii) Broadcasting
It is followed in granular fungicides wherein the pellets are broadcasted near the plant.
(iii) Furrow application
It is done specifically in the control of some diseases where the direct application of the
fungicides on the plant surface results in phytotoxic. It is specifically practiced in the control of
powdery mildew of tobacco where the sulphur dust is applied in the furrows.
(iv)Fumigation
Volatile toxicants (fumigants) such as methyl bromide, chloropicrin, formaldehyde and
vapam are the best chemical sterilants for soil to kill fungi and nematodes as they penetrate the
soil efficiently. Fumigations are normally done in nursery areas and in glass houses. The
fumigant is applied to the soil and covered by thin polythene sheets for 5-7 days and removed.
For example, Formaldehyde is applied at 400 ml/100 Sq.m. The treated soil was irrigated and
used 1 or 2 weeks later. Vapam is normally sprinkled on the soil surface and covered. Volatile
liquid fumigants are also injected to a depth of 15-20 cm, using sub-soil injectors.
(v) Chemigation
In this method, the fungicides are directly mixed in the irrigation water. It is normally
adopted using sprinkler or drip irrigation system.

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III. Foliar application
A. Spraying
This is the most commonly followed method. Spraying of fungicides is done on leaves,
stems and fruits. Wettable powders are most commonly used for preparing spray solutions. The
most common diluent or carrier is water. The dispersion of the spray is usually achieved by its
passage under pressure through nozzle of the sprayer.
The amount of spray solution required for a hectare will depend on the nature of crops to
be treated. For trees and shrubs more amount of spray solution is required than in the case of
ground crops. Depending on the volume of fluid used for coverage, the sprays are categorised
into high volume, medium volume, low volume, very high volume and ultra low volume.
The different equipments used for spray application are: Foot-operated sprayer, rocking
sprayer, knapsack sprayer, motorised knapsack sprayer (Power sprayer), tractor mounted sprayer,
mist blower and aircraft or helicopter (aerial spray).
B. Dusting
Dusts are applied to all aerial parts of a plant as an alternative to spraying. Dry powders
are used for covering host surface. Generally, dusting is practicable in calm weather and a better
protective action is obtained if the dust is applied when the plant surface is wet with dew or rain
drops. The equipments employed for the dusting operation are: Bellow duster, rotary duster,
motorised knapsack duster and aircraft (aerial application).
IV. Post – harvest application
Fruits and vegetables are largely damaged after harvest by fungi and bacteria. Many
chemicals have been used as spray or dip or fumigation. Post harvest fungicides are most
frequently applied as aqueous suspensions or solutions. Dip application has the advantage of
totally submerging the commodity so that maximum opportunity for penetration to the infection
sites.
Systemic fungicides, particularly thiabendazole, benomyl, carbendazim, metalaxyl,
fosety-AI have been found to be very effective against storage diseases. In addition,
dithiocarbamates and antibiotics are also applied to control the post-harvest diseases. Wrapping
the harvested products with fungicide impregnated wax paper is the latest method available.

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VI. Special method of applications
1. Trunk Application / Trunk Injection
It is normally adopted in coconut gardens to control Thanjavur wilt caused by
Ganoderma lucidum. In the infected plant, a downward hole is made to a depth of 3-4” at an
angle of 450C at the height of 3‟ from the ground level with the help of an auger. The solution
containing 2g of Aureofungin soil and 1 g of copper sulphate in 100 ml of water is taken in a
saline bottle and the bottle is tied with the tree. The hose is inserted into the hole and the stopper
is adjusted to allow the solution in drops. After the treatment, the hole is covered with clay.
2. Root Feeding
Root feeding is also adopted for the control of Thanjavur wilt of coconut instead of trunk
application. The root region is exposed; actively growing young root is selected and given a
slanting cut at the tip. The root is inserted into a polythene bag containing 100 ml of the
fungicidal solution. The mouth of the bag is tied tightly with the root.
3. Pseudostem Injection
This method is very effective in controlling the aphid vector (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
of bunchy top of bannana. The banana injector is used for injecting the insecticide.Banana
injector is nothing but an Aspee baby sprayer of 500 ml capacity. In which, the nozzle is
replaced by leurlock system and aspirator needle No. 16. The tip of the needle is closed and two
small holes are made in opposite direction.
It is for free flow of fluid and the lock system prevents the needle from dropping from
the sprayer. One ml of monocrotophos mixed with water at 1:4 ratio is injected into the
pseudostem of 3 months old crop and repeated twice at monthly intervals. The same injector can
also be used to kill the bunchy top infected plants by injecting 2 ml of 2, 4-D (Femoxone) mixed
in water at 1:8 ratio.
4. Corn Injection
It is an effective method used to control Panama will of banana caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Capsule applicator is used for this purpose. It is nothing but an iron
rod of 7 mm thickness to which a handle is attached at one end. The length of the rod is 45 cm
and an iron plate is fixed at a distance of 7 cm from the tip.

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The corm is exposed by removing the soil and a hole is made at 45) angle to a depth of 5 cm.
One or two gelatin capsules containing 50-60 mg of carbendazim is pushed in slowly and
covered with soil. Instead of capsule, 3 ml of 2% carbendazim solution can also be injected into
the hole.
5. Paring and Pralinage
It is used to control Fusarium wilt and burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) of
banana. The roots as well as a small portion of corm is removed or chopped off with a sharp
knife and the sucker is dipped in 0.1% carbendazim solution for 5 minutes.
Then, the sucker is dipped in clay slurry and furadan granules are sprinkled over the corm @ 40
g/corm.

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 FUNGICIDES MODE OF ACTION TABLE

FRAC MODE OF ACTION CHEMICAL FAMILY ACTIVE

GROUP (GROUP) INGREDIENTS
1 Mitosis and cell division benzimidazoles thiabendazole

1 thiophanates thiophanate-methyl

2 Respiration iprodione
vinclozolin
3 Sterol synethesis imidazoles Imazilil
3 piperazines Triforine
3 pyrimidines Fenarimol
3 triazoles bitertanol
cyproconazole
difenoconazole
fenbuconazole
flusilazole
ipconazole
metconazole
myclobutanil
propiconazole
prothioconazole
tebuconazole
tetraconazole
triadimefon
triadimenol
triticonazole

4 Nucleic acid synethesis acylalanines metalaxyl

metalaxyl-M
(=mefenoxam)
7 Respiration boscalid
carboxin
flutolanil

9 Protein synthesis cyprodinil

11 Respiration methoxyacrylates azoxystrobin
picoxystrobin

11 methoxy-carbamates pyraclostrobin
11 oximino acetates kresoxim-methyl
trifloxystrobin
11 oxazolidine-diones famoxadone
11 dihydro-dioxazines fluoxastrobin
11 imidazolinones fenamidone
12 Signaling fludioxonil
13 Signaling quinoxyfen
14 Lipids and membranes chloroneb
dicloran
quintozene (PCNB)
14 1,2,4-thiadiazoles etridiazole
17 Sterol synthesis fenhexamid

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 FUNGICIDES MODE OF ACTION TABLE

FRAC MODE OF ACTION CHEMICAL FAMILY ACTIVE

GROUP (GROUP) INGREDIENTS
19 Cell wall synthesis peptidyl pyrimidine polyoxin
nucleoside
21 Respiration cyanoimidazole cyazofamid
22 Cell division zoxamide
24 Protein synthesis kasugamycin
25 Protein synthesis streptomycin
27 Unkown cymoxanil
28 Cell membrane permeability propamocarb
29 Respiration 2,6-dinitro-anilines fluazinam
30 Respiration tri phenyl tin compounds fentin hydroxide
33 Unkown ethyl phosphonates fosetyl-Al
33 phophorous acid and salts
40 Cell wall synthesis cinnamic acid amides dimethomorph
40 mandelic acid amides mandipropamid
41 Protein synthesis oxytetracycline
P Host plant defense induction benzo-thiadiazole BTH acibenzolar-S-methyl
M Multi-site contact activity inorganic copper
inorganic sulphur
dithiocarbamates and ferbam
relatives mancozeb
maeb
metiram
thiram
ziram
phthalimides captan
chloronitriles chlorothalonil
(phthalonitriles)
guanidines dodine
NC Not classified diverse mineral oils, organic oils,
potassium bicarbonate

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 Mode of action and formulations of fungicides

A fungicide’s formulation has a big impact on a fungicide’s activity. For example the more
finely ground the sulfur particles, the more effective as a powdery mildew fungicide but also the
more likely that phytotoxicity can occur! Unfortunately, pesticide formulations can be almost as
confusing as pesticide classes, to know what pesticide formulation will work best for your specific
purposes you should know the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of the different
formulations and adjuvants.

What is a formulation: The pesticide formulation is a mixture of the active and inert ingredients in
the pesticide. The active ingredients are the chemicals that affect the target pest. The inert
ingredients are all other ingredients in the pesticide, and are also called inactive ingredients. Inert
ingredients are used to dilute the active ingredient or make it safer, easier to handle, and more
effective. Some formulations are ready to use, others must be further diluted by air (air-blast
sprayer), water, or a petroleum-based solvent. A single active ingredient is often sold in multiple
formulations - you must choose the formulation that works best for you.

How to choose the formulation: There are several questions that you must answer while choosing
the formulation.
1. Do you have the equipment needed for this type of formulation?
2. Can the formulation be applied safely under the conditions of the application area?

3. Will the formulation reach the target and stay there long enough for control?

4. Is there a possibility the formulation will harm the surface on which it is applied? To answer
these questions, you must know the characteristics of the formulations and the advantages and
disadvantages of each type. The most common formulations found in grape disease control are:

Liquid Formulations

Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E) – contains a liquid active ingredient, one or more

petroleum-based solvents, and an agent that allows the product to be mixed with water to form an
emulsion. An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are not soluble in one another. Each
gallon of EC usually contains 25 to 75% (2 to 8-lbs) active ingredient.
These are among the most versatile formulations and are adaptable to many application equipment
types from small, portable sprayers to hydraulic sprayers, low- volume ground sprayers, and mist
blowers.

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Advantages:
• Relatively easy to transport, handle, and store.
• Little agitation required (will not settle or separate when equipment is running).
• Non-abrasive.
• Does not plug nozzles or screens.
• Little visible residues on treated surfaces.
• Highly concentrated, making it easy to over- or under-dose by mixing and
calibration errors.
• May cause phytotoxicity.
• Easily absorbed through skin.
• Solvents may damage rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets, pump parts, and metal or painted
surfaces.
• May cause pitting or discoloration of painted surfaces.
• Flammable – must be stored away from open flame or heat.
• May be corrosive.

Solutions (S) – pesticide active ingredients that readily dissolve when mixed with a
solvent such as water or a petroleum-based solvent. These formulations form a solution
that will not settle out or separate once mixed. Solutions usually contain the active
ingredient, the solvent, and one or more inert ingredients. Solutions may be used in any
Type of sprayer.
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to transport, handle, and store.
• Little agitation required (will not settle or separate when equipment is running).
Disadvantages:
• Easily absorbed through skin.
Concentrate solutions (C or LC) – solutions sold as concentrates that must be
further diluted with a liquid solvent. The solvent may be water but more often is refined oil
or petroleum-based.
Advantages:
• No agitation
needed. Disadvantages:
• Less formulations of this type.
Other advantages and disadvantages vary depending on the solvent used, the concentration of the
active ingredient, and the type of application.
Flowables (F or L) – finely ground active ingredients (in this case, soluble solids)
are mixed with liquid along with inert ingredients to form a suspension. A suspension is a
substance that contains undissolved particles mixed throughout a liquid. Flowables are
mixed with water for application and are similar to EC or WP formulations for case of handling and
use.

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Advantages:
• Seldom clogs nozzles.
• Easy to handle and apply.
Disadvantages:

• Requires moderate agitation to maintain solids in suspension.

• May leave a visible residue.

Dry Formulations

Dusts (D) – ready to use formulations containing a low percentage of active ingredient (0.5 to
10%), combined with a fine, dry inert carrier made from talc, chalk, clay, nut hulls, or volcanic ash.
The size of the dust particle is variable. A few dust formulations are available as concentrates,
containing a high percentage of active ingredient, which must be mixed with inert carriers before they
are applied. Dusts easily drift onto non-target areas.

Advantages:
• Usually ready to use with no mixing involved.
• Effective where moisture from a spray may be harmful.
• Requires simple equipment.

• Easily drifts off target during application.

• May irritate eyes, nose, throat, and skin.
• Does not stick to surfaces as well as liquid formulations do.
• Difficult to achieve even distribution of particles on surfaces.

Granules (G) – similar to dust formulations except granules have larger and heavier
particles. These coarse particles are composed of absorptive materials such as clay, corn
cobs, or walnut shells. The active ingredient either coats the outside of the granules or is

absorbed into them. The amount of active ingredient in this formulation is relatively low,
typically ranging from 1 to 15%. Granular pesticides are most often applied to control
weeds, nematodes, and soil insects.
Advantages:
• Ready to use with no mixing involved.
• Drift hazard is low because heavier particles quickly settle.
• Fewer hazards to the applicator (no spray, little dust).
• Requires simple application equipment such as seeders or fertilizer spreaders.
• May break down more slowly than WP’s or EC’s by slow release coating.
Disadvantages:

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 • Does not stick to foliage or other non-level surfaces.
• May need to incorporate into soil.
• May require moisture to start pesticide action.
• May be hazardous to nontarget species that mistake granule for grain or seed.

Pellets (P or PS) similar to granular formulations, the terms are often used interchangeably.
However, in a pellet formulation all the particles are the same weight and shape. This uniformity
allows pellets to be applied by precision applicators such as those used for precision planting of
pelleted seed.

Wettable Powders (WP or W) – dry, finely ground formulations that look like

dusts. Wettable powders are usually mixed with water for application as a spray. A few
products are available that may be applied as dusts or as a spray. Wettable powders
contain 5 to 95% active ingredient (usually 50% or more). The powder particles do not
dissolve in water, and settle out quickly unless constantly agitated. This is one of the most
widely used pesticide formulations, useable for most pest problems and with most types of
spray equipment if agitation is available.

Advantages:
• Easy to transport, store, and handle.
• Less likely to cause phytotoxicity than EC’s and other petroleum-based pesticides.
• Easily measured and mixed.

• Less skin and eye absorption than EC’s and other liquid formulations.
Disadvantages:
• Inhalation hazard when handling the concentrated powder.

• Requires good and constant agitation (usually mechanical agitation in the spray tank).
• Abrasive on many pumps and nozzles.
• Difficult to mix in hard or alkaline water.
• Often clogs nozzles and screens.
• Residues may be visible.

Soluble Powders (SP or WSP) – looks like wettable powders; however, when mixed with
water dissolves readily and forms a true solution. After soluble powders are mixed thoroughly no
additional agitation is necessary. The amount of active ingredient in soluble powders ranges from 15
to 95% (usually 50% or more). Soluble powders have all the advantages of wettable powders and
none of the disadvantages except an inhalation

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hazard while mixing. Few pesticides are available in this formulation because few active
ingredients are water soluble.

Water-Dispersible Granules or Dry Flowables (WDG or DF) – like wettable powders except
the active ingredient is prepared as granule-sized particles. Water-dispersible granules must be mixed
with water to be applied. In the water, the granules break into fine particles. This formulation requires
constant agitation to keep the solids in suspension. Water-dispersible granules have the same advantages
and disadvantages of wettable powders except that WDGs are more easily mixed and measured and have
less
inhalation hazard to the
handler. Form ulation A bbreviations
Adjuvants
A = Aerosol

AF = Aqueous Flowable
Aqueous Solution of Aqueous
An adjuvant is a chemical AS = Suspension
B = Bait
added to the pesticide formulation or
C = Concentrate
tank mix to increase the safety or CM = Concentrate Mixture
CG = Concentrate Granules
efficacy of a pesticide. Most
D = Dust
pesticide formulations are composed DF = Dry Flowable
DS = Soluble Dust
of a small percentage of adjuvants.
E = Em ulsifiable Concentrate
Common adjuvants are: EC = Em ulsifiable Concentrate
F = Flowable
• Surfactants or surface active

G = Granules
ingredients – alter the H/A = Harvest Aid
L = Flowable
dispersal, spreading, and
LC = Liquid Concentrate or Low Concentrate
wetting properties of spray LV = Low Volatile

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 droplets. M = Microencapsulated
MTF = Multiple Tem perature Form ulation
• Wetting agents – allow P = Pellets
wettable powders to be mixed
PS = Pellets
RTU = Ready To Use
with water. S = Solution
SD = Soluble Dust
• Emulsifiers – allow
SG = Soluble Granule
petroleum-based pesticides SP = Soluble Powder
(EC’s) to mix with water. ULV = Ultra Low Volum e
Ultra Low W eight or Ultra Low W
ULW = ettable
• Invert emulsifiers – allow WS = W ater Soluble
W SG = W ater-Soluble Granules
water-based pesticides to be
W SL = W ater-Soluble Liquid
mix with a petroleum carrier. W = W ettable Powder
W SP = Soluble Powder
• Spreaders – allow pesticides

to form a uniform layer on the treated surface.

• Penetrants – allow the pesticide to get through the outer surface to the interior of the treated
area (e.g. a leaf).
• Stickers – allow pesticides to stay on the treated surface.
• Foaming agents – reduce drift.
• Thickeners – reduce drift by increasing droplet size.

• Safeners – reduce toxicity of a pesticide formulation to the handler or treated surface.

• Compatibility agents – aid in combining pesticides.

• Buffers – allow pesticides to be mixed with diluents or pesticides of different acidity or

alkalinity.

• Anti-foaming agents – reduce foaming of spray mixtures that require vigorous

agitation.

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