Unit-2

GSM and other 2G Architectures: GSM-services and system architecture, Radio interfaces of
GSM, Protocols of GSM, Localization, Call handling, GPRS system architecture. Wireless
medium access control, CDMA, 3G, 4G and 5G Communication: Modulation, Multiplexing,
Controlling the medium access,Spread spectrum, Coding methods, IMT-20003G wireless
communication standards, WCDMA 3G communication standards, CDMA 3G communication
standards, Broadband wireless access, 4G networks,5G Networks.

1.1. GSM : Mobile services, System architecture, Radio interface, Protocols, Localization and
calling,Handover,Security,and Newdataservices.
1.1.1. GSM Services: GSM is the digital mobile telecommunication system in the world today. It is
used by over 800 million people in more than 190 countries. GSM permits the integration of different
voice and data services and the interworking with existing networks. Services make a network
interesting for customers. GSM has defined three different categories of services: bearer, tele and
supplementary services.
Bearer services: GSM specifies different mechanisms for data transmission, the original GSM

allowing for data rates of up to 9600 bit/s for non-voice services. Bearer services permit
transparent and non-transparent, synchronous or asynchronous data transmission.
Transparent bearer services: Transfer of data using physical layer is said to be transparent when the
interface for service uses only physical layer protocols. Physical layer is the layer which transmits
or receives data after formatting or multiplexing or insertion of forward error correction(FEC) using
a wired (fiber) or wireless (radio or microwave) medium.
Forward error correction (FEC) bits: The physical layer protocol in a GSM bearer service also
provides for FEC. Bluetooth also provides FEC. The FEC bring out redundant bits along with the
data to be transmitted. This redundant data allows the receiver to detect and correct errors.
• Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layers two and three to implement error
correction and flow control. These services use the transparent bearer services, adding a
radio link protocol (RLP). This protocol comprises mechanisms of high-level data link
control (HDLC), and special selective-reject mechanisms to trigger retransmission of
 erroneous data.
• Synchronous and asynchronous data transmission:
o Synchronous means data is transmitted from a transceiver at a fixed rate with
constant phase differences are maintained b/w two devices. It means establish a
constant clock rate b/w receiver and sender. (i.e not using handshaking technique).
o Asynchronous means data is transmitted by the transceiver at variable rate b/w two
devices. It means, first set the bandwidth and provide the clock rate b/w two
devices.
GSM specifies several bearer services for interworking with PSTN, ISDN, and packet switched
public data networks (PSPDN) like X.25, which is available worldwide. Data transmission can be
full-duplex, synchronous with data rates of 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6 kbit/s or full-duplex, asynchronous
from 300 to 9,600 bit/s.

Tele services: GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services. These services encrypted (such
as voice transmission, message services, and basic data communication) with terminals and send to
/ received from the PSTN or ISDN (e.g., fax).

The primary goal of GSM was the provision of high-quality digital voice transmission. Special
codes (coder/decoder) are used for voice transmission, while other codes are used for the
transmission of analog data for communication with traditional computer modems used in, e.g., fax
machines.

Another service offered by GSM is the emergency number (eg 911, 999). This service is
mandatory for all providers and free of charge. This connection also has the highest priority, possibly
pre-empting other connections, and will automatically be set up with the closest emergency center.

It also offers the Short Message Service (SMS) for message transmission up to 160 characters. The
successor of SMS, the Enhanced Message Service (EMS), offers a larger message size, formatted
text, and the transmission of animated pictures, small images and ring tones in a standardized way.
But with MMS, EMS was hardly used. MMS offers the transmission of larger pictures (GIF, JPG,
WBMP), short video clips etc. and comes with mobile phones that integrate small cameras.
Supplementaryservices: GSMproviderscan offer supplementary services. Theseservicesoffer various
enhancements for the standard telephony service, and may vary from provider to provider. Typical
services are user identification, call redirection, or forwarding ofongoing calls, barring of
incoming/outgoing calls, Advice of Charge (AoC) etc. Standard ISDN features such as closed user
groups and multiparty communication may beavailable.

1.1.2. GSM Architecture: A GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio sub system
(RSS), the network and switching subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS).
Network Switching Subsystem: The NSS is responsible for performing call processing and
subscriber related functions. The switching system includes the following functional units:
 • Home location register (HLR): The HLR has a database that used for storage and management
of subscriptions. HLR stores
all the relevant subscriber data
including a subscribers service profile
such as call forwarding, roaming,
location information and activity
status.
• Visitor location register (VLR):
It is a dynamic real-time
database that stores both
permanent and temporary
subscribers data which is
required for communication
b/w the coverage area of MSC
and VLR.
• Authentication center (AUC): A
unit called the AUC provides
authentication and encryption
parameters that verify the users
identity and ensure the
confidentiality of each call.
• Equipment identity register
(EIR): It is a database that
contains information about the
identity of mobile equipment
that prevents calls from stolen,
unauthorized or defective
mobile stations.
• Mobile switching center (MSC):
The MSC performs the
telephony switching functions
of the system. It has various other functions such as 1. Processing of signal. 2.
Control calls to and from other telephone and data systems. 3. Call changing, multi-way
calling, call forwarding, and other supplementary services. 4. Establishing and terminating
the connection b/w MS and a fixed line phone via GMSC.
Radio Subsystem (RSS): The radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., the
mobile stations (MS) and the base station subsystem (BSS). The figure shows the connection
between the RSS and the NSS via the A interface (solid lines) and the connection to the OSS via
the O interface (dashed lines).
• Base station subsystem (BSS): A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by
a base station controller (BSC). The BSS performs all functions necessary to maintain radio
connections to an MS, coding/decoding of voice, and rate adaptation to/from the wireless
network part. Besides a BSC, the BSS contains several BTSs.
• Base station controllers (BSC): The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links
between the MSC and BTS. It is a high capacity switch that provides functions such as
handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in BT“.
A number of BSC’s are served by and MSC.
 • Basetransceiver station(BTS):The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. A
BTS can form a radio cell or, using sectorized antennas, several and is connected to MS via
the Um interface, and to the BSC via the A BTS interface. The Um interface contains all the
mechanisms necessary for wireless transmission (TDMA, FDMA etc.). The BTS is the radio
equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A group
of BTS’s are controlled by an BSC.
Operation Service Subsystem (OSS): The OSS facilitates the operations of MSCs. The OSS also
handles the Operation and maintenance (OMC) of the entire network.

Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC): An OMC monitors and controls all other network
entities through the 0 interface. The OMC also includes management of status reports, traffic
monitoring, subscriber security management, and accounting and billing. The purpose of OSS is to
offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional and local operational and
maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network. OSS provides a network overview and
allows engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot every aspect of the GSM network.
The mobile station (MS) consists of the mobile equipment (the terminal) and a smart card called
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can
have access to subscribed services irrespective of a specific terminal. By inserting the SIM card
into another GSM terminal, the user is able to receive calls at that terminal, make calls from that
terminal, and receive other subscribed services.
The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the International Mobile Equipment
Identity (IMEI). The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used
to identify the subscriber to the system, a secret key for authentication, and other information. The
IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby allowing personal mobility. The SIM card may be
protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.
1.1.3. Radio Interface The most interesting interface in a GSM system is the radio interface, as it
contains various multiplexing and media access mechanisms.

Electric signals are given to antenna. The antenna radiates the electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves propagate b/w the transmitter and receiver. Two electrical signals of two
sources are not have same frequency at the same time. GSM TDMA Frame, Slots and Bursts

In the below figure, the GSM implements SDMA using cells with BTS and assigns an MS to
a BTS. The diagram shows GSM TDMA frame. A frame is again subdivided into 8 GSM time
slots, where each slot represents a physical TDM channel and lasts for 577 μs. Each TDM channel
occupies the 200 kHz carrier for 577 μs every 4.615 ms. Data is transmitted in small portions, called
bursts. As shown, the burst is only 546.5 μs long and contains 148 bits. The remaining 30.5 μs are
used as guard space to avoid overlapping with other bursts due to different path delays and to give
the transmitter time to turn on and off.
 The first
and last three
bits of a normal
burst (tail) are
all set to 0 and
can be used to
enhance the
receiver
performance.
The training
sequence in the
middle of a slot
is used to adapt
the parameters
ofthe receiver to thecurrent pathpropagation characteristics and to select thestrongest signal in case
ofmulti-pathpropagation. A flag S indicateswhetherthe data field contains user or network control
data.

Apart from the normal burst, ETSI (1993a) defines four more bursts for data transmission:
a frequency correction burst allows the MS to correct the localoscillator to avoid interference with
neighbouring channels, a synchronization burst with an extended training sequencesynchronizes
the MS withthe BTS in time, an access burst is used for the initialconnectionsetupbetween MS and
BTS, andfinallya dummyburst is used if no datais available for aslot.
Physical, logical channels and frame hierarchy:Twotypes ofchannels,namelyphysicalchannels
andlogicalchannelsarepresent.
Physical channel: channel defined by specifying both, a carrier frequency and a TDMA timeslot
number.
Logic channel: logical channels are multiplexed into the physical channels. Each logic channel
performs a specific task. Consequently the data of a logical channel is transmitted in the
corresponding timeslots of the physical channel. During this process, logical channels can occupy
a part of the physical channel or even the entire channel.
Frame hierarchy:TDMA frames are grouped into two types of multiframes:

 26-frame multiframe (4.615ms x 26 = 120 ms) comprising of 26 TDMA frames. This

multiframe is used to carry traffic channels and their associated control channels.
 51-frame multiframe (4.615ms x 51 235.4 ms) comprising 51 TDMA frames. This
multiframe is exclusively used for control channels.
The multiframe structure is further multiplexed into a single superframe of duration of
6.12sec. This means a superframe consists of
 51 multiframes of 26 frames.
 26 multiframes of 51 frames.
The last multiplexing level of the frame hierarchy, consisting of 2048 superframes (2715648
TDMA frames), is a hyperframe. This long time period is needed to support the GSM data
encryption mechanisms. The frame hierarchy is shown below:

GSM Frame Hierarchy

There are two different types of logical channel within the GSM system: Traffic channels (TCHs),
Control channels (CCHs).

Traffic Channels: Traffic channels carry user information such as encoded speech or user data.
Traffic channels are defined by using a 26-frame multiframe.
Two general forms are defined:
i. Fullratetrafficchannels(TCH/F), at a grossbit rateof22.8 kbps(456bits / 20ms)
ii. Half rate traffic channels (TCH/H), at a gross bit rate of 11.4 kbps.
Uplink and downlink are separated by three
slots (bursts) in the 26-multiframe structure.
This simplifies the duplexing function in
mobile terminals design, as mobiles will not
need to transmit and receive at the same
time. The 26-frame multiframe structure,
shown below multiplexes two types of
logical channels, a TCH and a Slow
Associated Control CHannel (SACCH).
However, if required, a Fast
Associated Control CHannel (FACCH) can
steal TCH in order to transmit control
information at a higher bit rate. This is
usually the case during the handover
process. In total 24 TCH/F are transmitted
and one SACCH.

Control Channels: Control channels carry system signaling and synchronization data for control
procedures such as location registration, mobile station synchronization, paging, random access
etc. between base station and mobile station. Three categories of control channel are defined:
Broadcast, Common and Dedicated. Control channels are multiplexed into the 51-frame
multiframe.
 Broadcast control channel (BCCH): A BTS uses this channel to signal information to all
MSs within a cell. Information transmitted in this channel is, e.g., the cell identifier, options
available within this cell (frequency hopping), and frequencies available inside the cell and
in neighboring cells. The BTS sends information for frequency correction via the
frequency correction channel (FCCH) and information about time synchronization via the
synchronization channel (SCH), where both channels are sub channels of the BCCH.
 Common control channel (CCCH): All information regarding connection setup between
MS and BS is exchanged via the CCCH. For calls toward an MS, the BTS uses the paging
channel (PCH) for paging the appropriate MS. If an MS wants to set up a call, it uses the
random access channel (RACH) to send data to the BTS. The RACH implements multiple
access (all MSs within a cell may access this channel) using slotted Aloha. This is where a
collision mayoccur with other MSs in a GSM system. TheBTSusestheaccessgrant channel
(AGCH) to signalanMS that it canuse a TCH or SDCCH for further connection setup.
 Dedicated control channel (DCCH): While the previous channels have all been
unidirectional, the following channels are bidirectional. As long as an MS has not
established a TCH with the BTS, it uses the stand-alone dedicated control channel
(SDCCH) with a low data rate (782 bit/s) for signaling. This can comprise authentication,
registration or other data needed for setting up a TCH. Each TCH and SDCCH has a slow
associated dedicated control channel (SACCH) associated with it, which is used to
 exchange system information, such as the channel quality and signalpowerlevel. Finally, if
moresignaling informationneedsto be transmittedand a TCH already exists, GSM uses a
fast associated dedicated control channel (FACCH). The FACCHusesthe timeslotswhich are
otherwise used by the TCH. This is necessary in the case of handovers where BTS and MS
have to exchange larger amounts of data in less time.
1.1.4. GSM Protocols: The signaling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers
depending on the interface, as shown below.
Layer 1 is the physical layer that handles all radio-specific functions. This includes the creation of
bursts according to the five different formats, multiplexing of bursts into a TDMA frame,
synchronization with the BTS, detection of idle channels, and measurement of the channel quality
on the downlink.
The main tasks of the physical layer
contain channel coding and error
detection/ correction, which are directly
combined with the coding mechanisms.
Channel coding using different forward
error correction (FEC) schemes.
Signaling between entities in a GSM
network requires higher layers. For this
purpose, the LAPDm protocol has been
defined at the Um interface for layer
two. LAPDm has been derived from link
access procedure for the D-channel
(LAPD) in ISDN systems, which is a
version of HDLC.
The network layer in GSM contains several sub-layers. The lowest sub-layer is the radio
resource management (RR). The functions of RR’ are supported by the BSC via the BTS
management (BTSM). The maintasks of RR are setup, maintenance, and release of radio channels.
Mobility management (MM) contains functions for registration, authentication, identification,
location updating, and the provision of a temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).
Finally, the call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC), short
message service (SMS), and supplementary service (SS).
SMS allows for message transfer using the control channels SDCCH and SACCH, while
SS offers the services like user identification, call redirection, or forwarding of ongoing calls.

CC provides a point-to-point connection between two terminals and is used by higher

layers for call establishment, call clearing and change of call parameters.
Data transmission at the physical layer typically uses pulse code modulation (PCM)
systems. LAPD is used for layer two at Abis, BTSM for BTS management.
Signaling system No. 7 (SS7) is used for signaling between an MSC and a BSC. This
protocol also transfers all management information between MSCs, HLR, VLRs, AuC, EIR, and
OMC. An MSC can also control a BSS via a BSS application part (BSSAP).
1.1.5. Localization and Calling: The fundamental feature of the GSM system is the automatic,
worldwide localization of users for which the system performs periodic location updates. The HLR
always contains information about the current location and the VLR currently responsible for the MS
informs the HLR about the location changes. Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability is called
roaming.
Roaming can take place within a network of one provider, between two providers in a country
and also between different providers in different countries.
To locate and address an MS, several numbers are needed:
 Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN):- The only important number for a user of
GSM is the phone number. This number consists of the country code (CC), the national
destination code (NDC) and the subscriber number (SN).
 International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique
identification of a subscriber. IMSI consists of a mobile country code (MCC), the mobile
network code (MNC), and finally the mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN).
 Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): To hide the IMSI, which would give away
the exact identity of the user signalling over the air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte TMSI for
local subscriber identification.
 Mobile station roamingnumber(MSRN): Another temporary address that hides the identity
and location of a subscriber is MSRN. The VLR generates this address on request from the
MSC, and the address is also stored in the HLR. MSRN contains the current visitor country
code (VCC), the visitor national destination code (VNDC), the identification of the current
MSC together with the subscriber number. The MSRN helps the HLR to find a subscriber
for an incoming call.
For a Mobile Terminated Call(MTC),thefollowingfigureshowsthedifferentstepsthattake place:

Step 1: User dials the phone number of a GSM

subscriber.
Step 2: The fixed network (PSTN) identifies the
number belongs to a user in GSM network
and forwards the call setup to the Gateway
MSC (GMSC).
Step 3: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the
subscriberandsignalsthecallsetupto HLR
Step 4: The HLR checks for number existence and
its subscribed services and requests an
MSRN from the current VLR.
Step 5: VLR sends the MSRN to HLR
step 6: Upon receiving MSRN, the HLR determines the MSC responsible for MS and forwards the
information to the GMSC
Step 7: The GMSC can now forward the call setup request to the MSC indicated
Step 8: The MSC requests the VLR for the current status of the MS
Step 9: VLR sends the requested information
Step 10: If MS is available, the MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible for.
Step 11: The BTSs of all BSSs transmit the paging signal to the MS
Step 12: Step 13: If MS answers, VLR performs security checks
 Step 15: Till step 17: Then the VLR signals to the MSC to setup a connection to the MS

1.1.6. Handover: Cellular systems require handover procedures, as single cells do not cover the
whole service area. However, a handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop.
GSM aims at maximum handover duration of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a handover:
1. The mobile station moves
out of the range of a BTS,
decreasing the received
signal level increasing the
error rate thereby
diminishing the quality of
the radio link.
2. Handover may be due to
load balancing, when an
MSC/BSC decides the
traffic is too high in one cell
and shifts some MS to other cells with a lower load.
The four possible handover scenarios of GSM are shown below:
• Intra-cell handover: Within acell, narrow-band interference could maketransmission at a
certain frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency
(scenario
• Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The mobile station
moves from one cell to another, but stays within the control of the same BSC. The BSC then
performs a handover, assignsanewradiochannelinthenewcellandreleasesthe old one.
• Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover: As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM also
has to perform handovers between cells controlled by different BSCs. This handover then has to
be controlled bythe MSC.
• Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells belonging to
different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover together

1.2. Security: GSM offers several security

services using confidential information stored in
the AuC and in the individual SIM. The SIM
stores personal, secret data and is protected with a
PIN against unauthorized use. Three algorithms
have been specified to provide security services
in GSM.
Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5 for
encryption, and A8 for the generation of a cipher
key. The various security services offered by GSM
are:
Access control and authentication: The first step
includes the authentication of a valid user for the
SIM. The user needs a secret PIN to access the SIM. The next step is the subscriber authentication.
This step is based on a challenge-response scheme as shown in figure.
Confidentiality: All user-related data is
encrypted. After authentication, BTS and MS
apply encryption to voice, data, and signaling as
show below fig.
Anonymity: To Provide user anonymity, all data
is encrypted before transmission, and user
identifiers are not used over the air-instead, GSM
transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is
newly assigned by the VLR after each location
update. Additionally, the VLR can change the
TMSI at any time.

1.3. New Data Services: To enhance the data transmission capabilities of GSM, two basic
approaches are possible. As the basic GSM is based on connection-oriented traffic channels, e.g., with
9.6 kbit/s each, several channels could be combined to increase bandwidth. This system is called
HSCSD {high speed circuit switched data}. A more progressive step is the introduction of packet-
oriented traffic in GSM, i.e., shifting the paradigm from connections/telephone thinking to
packets/internet thinking. The system is called GPRS {general packet radio service}.
HSCD: A straightforward improvement of GSM’s data transmission capabilities is high speed circuit
switched data (HSCSD) in which higher data rates are achieved by bundling several TCHs. An MS
requests one or more TCHs from the GSM network, i.e., it allocates several TDMA slots within a
TDMA frame. This allocation can be asymmetrical, i.e. more slots can be allocated on the downlink
than on the uplink. A major disadvantage of HSCD is that it still uses the connection-oriented
mechanisms of GSM, which is not efficient for computer data traffic.
GPRS: The next step of data transmission is GPRS. It also avoids the problems of HSCSD. The
general packet radio service (GPRS) providespacket modetransfer for applicationsthat exhibit traffic
patterns such as frequent transmission of small volumes (e.g., typical web requests) or infrequent
transmissions of small or medium volumes (e.g., typical web responses) according to the requirement
specification
1.4. GPRS Overview: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a Mobile Data Service accessible to
GSM and IS-136 mobile phones users. This service is packet-switched and several numbers of users
can divide the same transmission channel for transmitting the data.

General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step toward internet
access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile Communications Internet
Protocol as it keeps the users of this system online, allows to make voice calls, and access internet on-
the-go. Even Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) users benefit from this system as it provides
packet radio access. GPRS also permits the network operators to execute Internet Protocol (IP) based
core architecture for integrated voice and data applications that will continue to be used and expanded
for 3G services.

The packet radio principle is employed by GPRS to transport user data packets in a structure way
between GSM mobile stations and external packet data networks. These packets can be directly
routed to the packet switched networks from the GPRS mobile stations.

GPRS also permits the network operators to execute Internet Protocol (IP) based core architecture for
integratedvoice and data applications that will continue to be used and expanded for 3G services.
In the current versions of GPRS, networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) like the global internet
or private/corporate intranets and X.25 networks are supported.
Who owns GPRS ?
The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute
(ETSI), the European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI).
Key Features
Following three key features describe wireless packet data:
⚫ The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only one
click away.
⚫ An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment; rather,
GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.
⚫ An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for 3G
systems EDGE and WCDMA.
Goals of GPRS
GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the following
goals:
Open architecture
Consistent IP services
Same infrastructure for different air interfaces
Integrated telephony and Internet infrastructure
Leverage industry investment in IP
Service innovation independent of infrastructure
Benefits of GPRS
Higher Data Rate: GPRS benefits the users in many ways, one of which is higher data rates in turn of
shorter access times.
Easy Billing: GPRS packet transmission offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered by
circuit switched services. In circuit switched services, billing is based on the duration of the
connection. This is unsuitable for applications with bursty traffic. The user must pay for the entire
airtime, even for idle periods when no packets are sent (e.g., when the user reads a Web page).
The advantage for the user is that he or she can be "online" over a long period of time but will be
billed based on the transmitted data volume.

GPRS Applications:
GPRS has opened a wide range of unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber. Some
of the characteristics that have opened a market full of enhanced value services to the users. Below
are some of the characteristics:
Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on
the move.
Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of
location and without a lengthy login session.
Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current
location.
Using the above three characteristics varied possible applications are being developed
to offer to the mobile subscribers. These applications, in general, can be divided into
two high-level categories:
Corporation
Consumer
 These two levels further include:
Communications - E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/internet access, etc.
Value-added services - Information services and games, etc.
E-commerce - Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading, etc.
Location-based applications - Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules
and location finder, etc.
Vertical applications - Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force
automation.
Advertising - Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a
mall can receive advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.
Along with the above applications, non-voice services like SMS, MMS and voice
calls are also possible with GPRS. Closed User Group (CUG) is a common term used after
GPRS is in the market, in addition, it is planned to implement supplementary services,
such as Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), and Call Forwarding on Mobile subscriber
Not Reachable (CFNRc), and closed user group (CUG).
GPRS Architecture: GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has
additional entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-
generation GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along
with the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air
interface resources concurrently.
Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

Figure: GPRS Architecture

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software
upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does not require
hardware enhancements.

When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over the air
interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call.
However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over
a Frame Relay interface.
GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP
based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects
charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet
filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration
of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on charging for the
use of the air interface.
Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR or
EIR is done using SS7.
Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in GSM,
except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than location areas,
less radio resources are used while broadcasting a page message.
GPRS Protocol Stack:
The flow of GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message from MS to the GGSN is
displayed in the below diagram. GTP is the protocol used between the SGSN and GGSN using
the Gn interface. This is a Layer 3 tunneling protocol.

Figure: GPRS Protocol Stack

The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for the
users both inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the application
communicates via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out through the
gateway GPRS. The packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN use the GPRS
tunneling protocol, this way the IP addresses located on the external side of the GPRS network do
not have deal with the internal backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.
Sub Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control (LLC)
combination used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to reduce the load
on the radio channel. A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by LLC and the same
 LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then,
the old LLC link is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN
X.25. Services areprovided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.

Wireless medium access control, CDMA, 3G, 4G and 5G Communication:

Multiple wireless systems communicate and access the medium between transmitter and
receiver. A number of methods are used by the communication systems:

Modulation : Introduction

 Modulation is the process of converting signals from one form into other form i.e. Analog
to Digital or Digital to Analog.

For Example : Consider an Analog transmission medium is available to transmit signals, but we
have a digital signal which needs to be transmitted through this Analog medium. This can be done
by converting the digital signal into analog signal. This process of conversion is called as
modulation.

 This can be classified into two types:

Modulation : Mobile Computing

Modulation : Digital Modulation

 Modulating a signal digitally, is a technique with the help of which digital signals/data can
be converted into analog signals i.e. base band signals.
 This can further be classified as:

search Modulation : Digital

1. Amplitude Shift Key(ASK)

 In Amplitude Shift Key as the name suggests, amplitude is represented by “1” and if the
amplitude doesn’t exists, it is represented by “0”.
 Use of Amplitude Shift Key is very simple and requirement of bandwidth is very low.
 ASK is vulnerable to inference or deduction.

Amplitude Shift Key

2. Frequency Shift Key(FSK)

 It uses different notations f1 and f2 are used for different frequencies.

 f1 is used to represent bit “1” and f2 is used to represent bit “0”.
 Frequency Shift Key is simple too, but due to use of different frequencies for different bits,
bandwidth requirement becomes high.

Frequency Shift Key

3. Phase Shift Key(PSK)

 In this, phase difference is used to differentiate between the bits i.e. “1” and “0”.
 If the bit is “1” , simple wave is drawn and if the bit becomes “0”, the phase of the wave is
shifted by “180 or π”
  PSK is more complex than ASK and FSK and is robust too.

Phase Shift Key

Modulation : Analog Modulation

 Analog search Modulation is a technique with the help of which analog data signals can be
transmitted into digital signals i.e. Broadband Signals.
 This can further be classified as :

Multiplexing : Introduction

 Multiplexing is a technique in which, multiple simultaneous analog or digital signals are

transmitted across a single data link.
 The concept behind it is very simple: Proper Resource Sharing and its Utilization.
 It can be classified into four types. These are:

Multiplexing : Mobile Computing

 Multiplexing : Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)

 In Frequency Division , the frequency dimension spectrum is split into bands of smaller
frequency.
 FDM is used because of the fact that, a number of frequency band can work simultaneously
without any time constraint.

Frequency Division

Advantages of FDM

 This concept is applicable on both analog signals as well as digital signals.

 Simultaneous signal transmission feature.

Disadvantages of FDM

 Less Flexibility.
 Bandwidth wastage is high and can be an issue.

For Example : Frequency Division Multiplexing can be used for radio station in a particular region
as every radio station will have their own frequency and can work simultaneously without having
any constraint of time.

Multiplexing : Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)

 Time Division is used for a particular amount of time in which the whole spectrum is used.
 Time frames of same intervals are made such that the entire frequency spectrum can be
accessed at that time frame.
 Time Division

Advantages of TDM

 Single user at a time.

 Less complex and more flexible architecture.

Disadvantages of TDM

Difficult to implement.

For Example : ISDN(Integrated Service for Digital Network) telephonic service.

Multiplexing : Code Division Multiplexing(CDM)

 In Code Division Multiplexing, every channel is allotted with a unique code so that each of
these channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously at same time.

Code Division
Advantages of CDM

 Highly Efficient.
 Less Inference.

Disadvantages of CDM

 Less data transmission rates.

 Complex in nature.

For Example : Cell Phone Spectrum Technology(2G, 3G etc.).

Multiplexing : Space Division Multiplexing(SDM)

 Space Division can be called as the combination of concepts of Frequency Division

Multiplexing and Time Division Multiplexing.
 In SDM, the goal is to pass messages or data parallelly with the use of specific frequency at
certain interval of time.
 It means, a particular channel for some amount of time will be used against a certain
frequency band.

Advantages of SDM

 High Data transmission rate.

 Optimal Use of Time and Frequency bands.

Disadvantages of SDM

 Inference Problems.
 High inference losses.
 For Example : GSM(Global Service For Mobile) Technology.

Controlling the medium access:

There may be collisions between signals from different sources. The problem, then, is to
control the access to the medium.
Access to the shared communication network channel can be coordinated and arbitrated using the
ALOHA system. It was created in the 1970s at the University of Hawaii by Norman Abramson and
his associates. The system was originally designed for ground-based radio broadcasting, but
satellite communication systems now use it.

When two or more systems seek to transmit on the same channel at the same time, a shared
communication system such as ALOHA needs a way to handle collisions. A node in the ALOHA
system transmits whenever data is ready to be sent. A collision takes place and the sent frames are
lost if the other node transmits at the same time. However, a node can check to see if the frames
were transferred by listening to broadcasts on the medium, including its own.
 ALOHA Means “Hello”

ALOHA is basically a multiple access protocol which describes how all the terminals can access a
medium without interfering at all with one another or even colliding. It operates at the data-link
layer. Roberts created a protocol in 1972 that would double the capacity of ALOHA. The Slotted
ALOHA protocol divides the time interval into discrete slots, each of which is equal to one frame’s
worth of time. To avoid collisions, this approach needs synchronisation between the sending nodes.

Versions of ALOHA

Pure ALOHA

The total time of transmission is continuous in pure ALOHA. A station sends a frame whenever
one is available. The sender waits for an arbitrary period of time before retransmitting the frame if
there is a collision and it is destroyed.

Slotted ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA increases the capacity of pure ALOHA while reducing collisions. Slots are
discrete time periods that are used to divide up the shared channel. Only at the start of each time
slot is the station able to transmit data. If multiple stations attempt to transmit at the start of the
same time slot, there may still be collisions.

CSMA:

CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA). CSMA is one of the network protocols
which works on the principle of ‘carrier sense’. CSMA is a protocol developed to increase the
performance of the network and reduce the chance of collision in the network.

 If any device wants to send data then the device first sense or listens to the network medium
to check whether the shared network is free or not. If the channel is found idle then the
device will transmit its data.
 This sense reduces the chance of collision in the network but this method is not able to
eliminate the collision.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a protocol that senses or listens to the medium
before any transmission of data in the medium.
 CSMA is used in Ethernet networks where two or more network devices are connected.

CSMA/ CA

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier transmission of
data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer. When a data frame is
sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the
station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been
successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which
the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel. Detects the collision
of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal.

Problems in CSMA or CSMA/CA:

Problems in the strategy of keep searching for silence continuously or waiting period and speak on
discovering the silence ,is that of consuming energy and spreading time in finding the silence

Medium Access Control in Exposed Terminals:

Hidden Terminal Problem:

A wireless network with lack of centralized control entity, sharing of wireless bandwidth among
network access nodes i.e. medium access control (MAC) nodes must be organized in decentralized
manner.
The hidden terminal problem occurs when a terminal is visible from a wireless access point (APs),
but not from other nodes communicating with AP. This situation leads the difficulties in medium
access control sub-layer over wireless networking.
In a formal way hidden terminals are nodes in a wireless network that are out of range of other
node or a collection of nodes.
Consider the scenario of wireless networking with three wireless devices(e.g. mobile phones)as
shown below.

he transmission range of access point A reaches at B, but not at access point C, similarly
transmission range of access point C reaches B, but not at A. These nodes are known as hidden
terminals. The problem occurs when nodes A and C start to send data packets simultaneously to the
access point B. Because the access points A and c are out of range of each other and resultant they
cannot detect a collision while transmitting, Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) does not work, and collisions occur, which then corrupt the data received by the
access point B due to the hidden terminal problem.
The hidden terminal analogy is determined as follows

 Terminal C wants to send data to B, terminal C senses a "free" medium (CS fails) and starts
transmitting
  Collision at B occurs, A cannot detect this collision (CD fails) and continues with its
transmission at B
 Terminal A is "hidden" from C and vice versa

Some other technology that can be employed to solve hidden node problem are: Increase
Transmitting Power from the Nodes. With the enhancement of the transmission power of access
point can solve the hidden terminal problem by allowing the cell around each mode to increase in
size, encompassing all of the the nodes.
Use Omni directional antennas: Since nodes using directional antennas are nearly invisible to nodes
that are not positioned in the direction the antenna is aimed at, directional antennas should be used
only for very small networks.
Use protocol enhancement software:: Pooling and token passing strategy should be used before
start data transformation

Exposed Terminal Problem::

In wireless networks, when a node is prevented from sending packets to other nodes because of a
neighboring transmitter is known as the exposed node problem
Consider the wireless network having four nodes labeled A,B,C and D, where the two receivers are
out of range of each other, yet the two transmitters (B,C) in the middle are in range of each other.
Here, if a transmission between A and B is taking place, node C is prevented from transmitting to
D as it concludes after carrier sense that it will interfere with the transmission by its neighbor node
B.However note that node D could still receive the transmission of C without interference because
it is out of range from B. Therefore, implementing directional antenna at a physical layer in each
node could reduce the probability of signal interference, because the signal is propagated in a
narrow band.
The exposed terminal analogy is described as follows:

 B sends to A , C wants to send to another terminal D not A or B

 C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy
  C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again
 But A is outside radio range of C, waiting is not necessary
 C is "exposed" to B


Hidden Vs Exposed Terminal Problem

 In the case of hidden terminal problem, unsuccessful transmissions result from collisions
between transmissions originated by a node such as node A which cannot hear the ongoing
transmissions to its corresponding node B. The probability of such a collision is
proportional to the total number of terminal hidden from node A
 In the case of exposed terminal, unsuccessful transmissions result from nodes such as node
A being prevented from transmitting because their corresponding node is unable to send a
CTS. Again such unsuccessful transmissions are proportional to the number of exposed
terminals. Both these events lead to degradation of node's throughput.
MOTIVATION FOR A SPECIALIZED MAC:
One of the most commonly used MAC schemes for wired networks is carrier sense
multipleaccess with collision detection (CSMA/CD). In this scheme, a sender senses the medium
(a wire or coaxial cable) to see if it is free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free.
If the medium is free, the sender starts transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium.
If the sender detects a collision while sending, it stops at once and sends a jamming signal. But
this scheme doest work well with wireless networks. The problems are:
a) Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
b) The sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
c) It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
d) Furthermore, CS might not work, if for e.g., a terminal is “hidden”

Hidden and Exposed Terminals

Consider the scenario with three mobile phones as shown below. The transmission range
of A reaches B, but not C (the detection range does not reach C either). The transmission range
ofC reaches B, but not A. Finally, the transmission range of B reaches A and C, i.e., A cannot
detectC and vice versa.
Hidden terminals
a) A sends to B, C cannot hear A
b) C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails) and starts transmitting
c) Collision at B occurs, A cannot detect this collision (CD fails) and continues with
itstransmission to B
d) A is “hidden” from C and vice versa

Exposed terminals
a) B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B) outside the range
b) C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.
c) C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again but A is
outsideradio range of C, waiting is not necessary
d) C is “exposed” to B

Hidden terminals cause collisions, where as Exposed terminals causes unnecessary delay.
Near and far terminals
Consider the situation shown below. A and B are both sending with the same transmission
power.
a) Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
b) So, B’s signal drowns out A’s signal making C unable to receive A’s transmission
c) If C is an arbiter for sending rights, B drown out A’s signal on the physical layer
makingC unable to hear out A.

CS8601-Mobile Computing
 The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals
should arrive at the receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power control
is to be implemented.

Space Division Multiple Access [SDMA]:

 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a

separated space to users in wireless networks.
 A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to
a mobile phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base
stations with different quality.
 A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is best,
taking into account which frequencies (FDM), time slots (TDM) or
code (CDM) are still available.

 The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and

sectorized antennas which constitute the infrastructure
implementing space division multiplexing (SDM).
 SDM has the unique advantage of not requiring any multiplexing equipment.
 It is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to
better utilize the individual physical channels.

CS8601-Mobile Computing
Frequency Division Multiple Access [FDMA]:

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the

frequency dimension into several non-overlapping frequency

Frequency Division Multiple Access is a method employed to permit several users to

transmit simultaneously on one satellite transponder by assigning a specific frequency within
the channel to each user. Each conversation gets its own, unique, radio channel. The channels
are relatively narrow, usually 30 KHz or less and are defined as either transmit or receive
channels. Afull duplex conversation requires a transmit & receive channel pair. FDM is often
used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station and mobile station in cellular
networks establishing a duplex channel. A scheme called frequency division duplexing (FDD)
in which the two directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are now separated using
differentfrequencies.

FDM for multiple access and duplex

CS8601-Mobile Computing

Page 4
 The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station to base
station or from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to
mobile station or fromsatellite to ground control. The basic frequency allocation scheme
for GSM is fixed and regulatedby national authorities. All uplinks use the band between
890.2 and 915 MHz, all downlinks use
935.2 to 960 MHz. According to FDMA, the base station, shown on the right side,
allocates a certain frequency for up- and downlink to establish a duplex channel with a
mobile phone. Up-and downlink have a fixed relation. If the uplink frequency is fu = 890
MHz + n·0.2 MHz, the downlink frequency is fd = fu + 45 MHz, i.e., fd = 935 MHz +
n·0.2 MHz for a certain channel
n. The base station selects the channel. Each channel (uplink and downlink) has a
bandwidth of200 kHz.
This scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast 24 hours a
day, mobilecommunication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time.
Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication scenario would be a
tremendous waste of (scarce) frequency resources. Additionally, the fixed assignment of
a frequency to a sender makes the scheme very inflexible and limits the number of
senders.
Spread spectrum:

 When transmitted signals of certain frequencies are varied slightly in

order to obtain greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth
is known as Spread Spectrum.
 Spread Spectrum technology helps in transmission of radio signals
because they can easily reduce the noise and other issues that are
data resistant.
 It can be broadly categorized into two:

Spread Spectrum
  The major reason of spectrum technology being used is because of its
proper bandwidth utilization ability.

Spread Spectrum : Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 The logic behind the use of Frequency hopping Spread spectrum is,
in order to utilize bandwidth properly, we need to divide the whole
available bandwidth into many channels and spread them between
channels which are arranged in a continuous manner.
 The selection of frequency slots is done on random basis and based
on their occupancy, frequency signals are transmitted.
 The transmitters and receivers keeps on hopping on channels
available for a particular amount of time in milliseconds.
 Hence, frequency division multiplexing and time division
multiplexing are implemented simultaneously in FHSS.
 FHSS can be classified as :

Frequency Hopping Spectrum

 Slow hopping : In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a

particular or same frequency.
 Fast Hopping : In fast hopping, individual bits are split and are
transmitted on different frequencies.

Advantages of FHSS

 Secure.
 Simple implementation as compared to DsSS.
 High efficiency.

Disadvantages of FHSS
  Less Robust.

Spread Spectrum : Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum is another type of spread

spectrum in which data that needs to be transmitted is split into
smaller blocks.
 Then, each data block is attached with a high data rate bit sequence
and is transmitted from sender end to receiver end.
 At the receiver’s end with the help of data rate bit sequence, data
blocks are recombined again to generate the original data which was
sent by the sender.
 If in case the data is lost, with the help of those data rate bits data
blocks can be recovered.
 This split of data into smaller blocks is done to reduce noise and
unintentional inference.

Direct Sequence Spectrum

Advantages of DSSS

 Signals are difficult to detect.

 Less chances of jamming.
 Less reluctant to noise.

Disadvantages of DSSS

 Slow in process.
 Requirement of wide-band channels.

Spread Spectrum : Applications

  LAN technology.
 Satellite communication technology.

Coding methods:
There are various types of codes and coding methods used in CDMA.
-Autocorrelation code
it is a multi bit code which , when used for coding the symbols before a
transmission , enables the receiver to automatically correlate and extract the
bits of each symbol by using the correlation method . An example of an
autocorrelation code is barker code .
In telecommunications technology, a Barker code or Barker sequence is a finite
sequence of digital values with ideal autocorrelation properties. Used as a
synchronization pattern between sender and receiver.
-orthogonal codes:
The orthogonal spreading codes used within CDMA play a vital role in ensuring
that the maximum efficiency and number of users can be gained. The use of
orthogonal codes against random codes provide a useful increase in
effectiveness of the system, reducing mutual interference between users. The
use of optical orthogonal codes enables a large number of asynchronous users to
transmit information efficiently and reliably. The thumbtack-shaped
autocorrelation facilitates the detection of the desired signal, and low-profiled
crosscorrelation re- duces interference from unwanted signals.
Walsh codes are orthogonal codes used extensively in cdmaOne and cdma2000.
Generation by Hadamard matrices Walsh codes are simply built from Hadamard
matrices as represented in figure 7.1. Hadamard matrices are built recursively,
starting from H1 = [0] and ∀n > 1.
IMT 2000 in Mobile Computing
The first radio technology that was introduced in 1940 was meant for
connecting mobile users to the public network. After that, the Bell labs launched
their new system called the IMTS or Improved Mobile Telephone Services and
improved the dialing and higher bandwidth. After that cellular systems were
developed in the places that divided the area into smaller cells and servers to
power the transmitter and receiver.
Then came the generation era, the first generation that was made for mobile
communication and the invention of the microprocessor helped to connect the
cell site.
The second generation was developed at the end of the 1980s and was able to
provide the voice signal facility and these new systems provided better and
higher quality and at a lower cost.
The third generation provides faster communication services that include fax
and the internet as well the voice at the same time anytime and anywhere. The
3g opened the world to the world wide web and progressed the development in
the innovative application services.

IMT 2000 ( International Mobile Telecommunication – 2000 )

If we talk about IMT 2000 then there was a time when we have recharge for
both data packets and voice calling separately but when the 3G services came
into play and IMT 2000 was introduced then only the recharge for both data and
the voice was coming in the same recharge.
The IMT 2000 is also known as the 3rd generation and the family of standards
belonged to the International Mobile Communication as they were defined by
the international telecommunication union which also included the technology
such as EDGE and UMTS as well as CDMA 2000 along with WiMAX as well
as DECT Technology
THE 3g provides simultaneous access to both voice telephone along with the
video calls and also wireless data and all these services with the same mobile
environment.
You are also able to provide the data services along with the speech services
with very higher data speed (and it can be up to 14 Mbit/s for the download and
5.8 Mbit/s for the uplink facility)
IMT 2000 also became a standard for all the 3G services that came into use.
Earlier the name was Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication System
FPLMTS.
The core of IMT 2000 was in a form of wireless interface standard and that
included the Radiofrequency bandwidth and also became one of the most
commercial applications. Also, IMT -2000 was able to make changes in the data
link layer and also for the greater use of the data services and it included the
medium as well as the link access control. It also offered the best delivery for
the data and the circuit-switched channel for the voice.
The successor for the IMT 2000 and CDMA 2000 was the UMB or the Ulta
Mobile Broadband but Qualcomm announces that it will be favoring the LTE
instead of the UMB for the development of their technology and hence the LTE
became the next commercialized used for the 4G.
 IMT 2000 VISION

Increase the data rate up to 2 Mbps

Enhance security and performance.
The IMT 2000 can provide a common worldwide spectrum
To provide multiple radio environment
It also provided worldwide roaming capability and you were able to call from
anywhere
Also, better security was provided by the IMT 2000
There was a small terminal that includes worldwide use for the call services
The Satellite, as well as the terrestrial system, were integrated to provide calls
from one part of the earth to another and thus the roaming came into play

IMT 2000 Family

IMT-DS is a direct spread technology and also a compromise of a wideband

CDMA system that is also used by the European provider. Also, the
specifications are provided by the UTRA FDD system.
IMT-TC is a time code that is provided by the ULTRA system and this also
provides time-division CDMA.
IMT-SC which was a single carrier technology that was provided by the and
that was originally promoted by the Universal Wireless Communications
consortium. Now the same is integrated into the 3GPP.
IMT-FT it is a frequency-time technology and is an enhanced version for the
cordless telephone standard or DECT
IMT-MC – CDMA 2000 which is a multi-carrier technology and that was
standardized by the 3GPP2, and this is also represented as the second
mainstream for the 3G technology.

WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access)

Wideband code division multiple access (WCDMA) is a standard third-

generation (3G) wireless communication technology that’s used for digital
mobile networks. Also known as wideband CDMA, it’s a channel-access
method that allows multiple transmitters to send both voice and data
 simultaneously over the same communication channel. WCDMA uses
spread spectrum technology, which allows multiple users to share
bandwidth with no interference. Users can also install WCDMA modems on
their portable tablets, laptops, and other devices.

The WCDMA system is part of the UMTS. It is developed by the 3G

Partnership Program, which is composed of evolved core cellular networks that
belong to the Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications networks
worldwide.

WCDMA features two modes:

 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separates users by employing both codes as

well as frequencies. One frequency is used for the uplink, while another is used
for the downlink.
 Time Division Duplex (TDD): Separates users by employing codes, frequencies
and time, wherein the same frequency is used for both uplink and downlink.

Although WCDMA is designed to operate on evolved GSM core networks, it

uses code division multiple access (CDMA) for its air interface. In fact, the
majority of the 3G systems in operation employ CDMA, while the rest use time
division multiple access (TDMA). The TDD mode of WCDMA actually
employs a combination of TDMA and CDMA.

CDMA allows multiple users to share a channel at the same time, while TDMA
allows users to share the same channel by chopping it into different time slots.
CDMA offers the benefits of multipath diversity and soft handoffs.

As an air interface technology, WCDMA is able to artificially increase a

signal’s bandwidth. It does so by modulating each baseband symbol with a
binary or quaternary signature with a much higher rate than that of the original
data symbol.

CDMA 3G communication standards:

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several protocols used

in second-generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) wireless communications.
As the term implies, CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous
signals to occupy a single transmission channel, optimizing the use of available
bandwidth. The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular
phone systems in the 800 megahertz (MHz) and 1.9 gigahertz (GHz) bands.
CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with
spread spectrum technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary elements.
The frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a
defined pattern code. This enables the signal to be intercepted only by a receiver
whose frequency response is programmed with the same code, following along
with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible frequency
sequencing codes, which enhances privacy and makes cloning difficult.

How does CDMA work?

Cell clusters form the cellular structure of wireless CDMA networks. Each cell
in a cell cluster has a transceiver with the necessary transmitting power and
mobile units distributed around the cell's coverage area. Every mobile unit runs
a transceiver, which consists of a low-power transmitter and a sensitive receiver
operating with a wireless cellular environment. The characteristics of the
cellular environment include multipath propagation, access interference and
fading.

The near-far (N-F) effect plays a significant role in the quality of service (QoS)
for CDMA systems. It refers to a phenomenon that occurs when a user near
the base station sends out a transmission that interferes with and overpowers a
weaker transmission signal coming from a user further away. To this end,
CDMA network providers use receivers that are resistant to the N-F effect; they
also use tight power control schemes.

The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide. CDMA networks use a
scheme called soft handoff, which minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes
from one cell to another. The combination of digital and spread spectrum modes
supports several times as many signals per unit of bandwidth as analog modes.
CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this enables nationwide
roaming. The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One, offers a
transmission speed of only up to 14.4 kilobits per second in its single channel
form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-channel form. CDMA2000 and Wideband
CDMA (W-CDMA) deliver data many times faster.
The CDMA2000 family of standards includes single-carrier Radio Transmission
Technology (1xRTT), Evolution-Data Optimized Release 0, EVDO Revision A
and EVDO Rev. B. People often confuse CDMA2000, which is a family of
standards supported by Verizon and Sprint, with CDMA, which is the physical
layer multiplexing scheme.

BroadBand Wireless Access:

Broadband wireless access (Wireless broadband, or WiBro) refers to inherent

network mobility in a geographical area and managed mobility between fixed
networks. Broadband wireless access facilitates and ensures mobile device
connectivity and communication.
Broadband wireless access ensures full signal coverage and functions, including
registration, routing, forwarding, and intersystem communication. Connected
wireless terminals or base stations that remain in the same antenna beam have
transport capability.

Managed mobility is nonexistent in fixed wireless networks. Thus, there are

issues with registration, call routing, call forwarding, and intersystem
communication.

4G Networks:

The Fourth Generation (4G) of broadband cellular network technology is based

on the capabilities defined by the ITU(International Telecommunication Union)
in IMT Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) which
supersede the 3G. It is popularly referred to as MAGIC, which is the acronym
for “Mobile multimedia, Any-where, Global mobility solutions over,
Integrated wireless and Customized services.” According to the ITU, a 4G
network requires a mobile device to be able to exchange data at 100 Mbps for
high mobility communication and 1 Gbps for low mobility communication.
Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP
telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D
television.

4G is much faster than 3G, and this has revolutionised the field of
telecommunication by bringing the wireless experience to a new level
altogether. 4G systems support interactive multimedia, voice, video, wireless
internet and other broadband services. Technologically, 4G is very different
compared to 3G.

4G introduction

 The fourth generation of mobile technology was introduced in 2010 in

order to meet out the need for faster speed and better connectivity.
 Airtel was the first company to have launched 4G services using TD-LTE
technology in Kolkata in 2012. It was followed by the launch of 4G in
Bangalore, Pune, Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula.
 Later, 4G services in India was launched by Aircel, Vodafone and RJIO.
 features of 4g
The features of 4G are :

 Better download speed

 Extremely high voice quality.
 Easy access to Internet, IM, social networks, streaming media, video
calling.
 Higher bandwidth.
 Much faster than 3G

different Network Standards of 4G

There are multiple 4G mobile technology standards used by different cellular
providers that conform to 4G requirements, namely,

1. LTE (pre – 4G),

2. LTE-Advanced,
3. WiMAX, and
4. Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB).
Note – LTE stands for Long Term Evolution (LTE).

classification of mobile communication technologies

Based on the architecture of the mobile network, mobile communication
technologies are classified into different generations identified as 1G, 2G, 3G,
4G, and 5G. The architecture of the mobile network has rapidly evolved over
the last few decades.

 The First Generation or 1G

 The first generation (1G) mobile network system came
around 1982.
 It was used to transmit only voice calls.
 The analog signals were used to carry voices between the caller
and receiver.
The Second Generation or 2G
 The second generation (2G) mobile network system came
around 1991.
 Instead of analog signals, voice calls were transmitted in digital
form, thus providing improved call quality.
  This increased capacity allowed more people to talk
simultaneously and led to improved security as the signals could be
encrypted. It also enabled an additional service to send SMS and
MMS (Multimedia messages).
The Third Generation or 3G
 The third generation (3G) mobile network technology was
developed during the late 90s, but it was introduced commercially
around 2001.
 It offered both digital voice and data services.
 3G provided Internet access via the same radio towers that provide
voice service to the mobile phone.
 It facilitated greater voice and data capacity.
 Therefore, more simultaneous calls could happen in the same
frequency range and also a significantly faster data transfer speed.

difference between 4g and 5g

The major differences between the 4G and 5G networks are listed below:

1. 5G network provides enhanced network coverage compared to the 4G.

2. Data bandwidth of 5g is above 1gbps, whereas for 4G it lies between
2mbps to 1gbps.
3. The latency of the 5G network is smaller compared to 4G.

advantages of the 5g network

 5G network will allow faster uploading and downloading.

 The high data speed of the 5G Network would work in favour of cloud
systems to enhance software updates, music, and navigation.
 The Fifth Generation or 5G is expected to be a milestone development for
the success of IoT and Machine to Machine (M2M)
communications. Machine to machine (M2M) is direct communication
between devices — wired and wireless.
 5G is expected to allow data transfer in Gbps, which is much faster than
4G. It is expected to be able to support
all the devices of the future, such as connected vehicles and the Internet
of Things.
5G Network:
5G is the fifth generation of wireless cellular technology, offering higher upload
and download speeds, more consistent connections, and improved capacity than
previous networks. 5G is much faster and more reliable than the currently
popular 4G networks and has the potential to transform the way we use the
internet to access applications, social networks, and information. For example,
technologies like self-driving cars, advanced gaming applications, and live
streaming media that require very reliable, high-speed data connections are set
to benefit greatly from 5G connectivity. The capabilities of 5G can support
innovation and improved customer experiences for business. Here are some
areas to look out for.
Autonomous mobility solutions
Previously, fully autonomous cars have not been considered viable because of
the length of time it takes for a vehicle to send and receive information.
However, the low latency of 5G means we could see self-driving cars become
more commonplace, with roads connected with transmitters and sensors that
send and receive information to vehicles in 1/1,000 of a second. The reduced
time is critical for AI and radar technology to interpret what they see (other
cars, pedestrians, stop signs) and control the car accordingly.
Smart factories
5G mobile networks are an opportunity for manufacturers to create hyper-
connected smart factories. 5G supports the Internet of Things, meaning factories
can wirelessly connect several thousands of smart devices like cameras and
sensors to automatically collect data in real-time. The factories can analyze and
process this data to make operations more efficient and cost-effective. For
example, smart sensor technology can make accurate predictions about
equipment lifecycles, inform planning decisions, and predict when machines
need maintenance.
Virtual reality
Virtual reality and augmented reality technology (VR/AR) allows mobile
phones, headsets, smart glasses, and other connected devices to add digital
overlays to live views. VR/AR has a host of use cases including guided
maintenance, repairs, operations in industrial facilities, workplace training, sales
and marketing, and real-time collaboration. The low latency and high bandwidth
of 5G mobile technology will make VR/AR accessible to more businesses and
use cases.
 Edge computing
Edge computing is the process of delivering data storage and analysis
capabilities closer to your endpoints. You can build high-performance
applications that can process and store data close to where it is generated,
enabling ultra-low latency, intelligent, and real-time responsiveness. With the
ever-increasing quality of edge computing use cases and data requirements, a
high-speed network is necessary to satisfy the need for near real-time
responsiveness. As such, 5G network infrastructure supports and enables the
increasing complexity and specialization of edge computing.
The growth of 5G networks is predicted to create trillions of dollars in
economic value and millions of jobs, but there are also many areas where it
could benefit society.
Smart cities
Smart cities rely on IoT devices to collect data from traffic, people, and
infrastructure in real-time. By analyzing that data, city planners make better
informed decisions, cut emissions, improve public services, cut traffic, and
improve air quality. The emergence of 5G could be the catalyst for the world's
major cities to become truly connected.
Healthcare
5G networks can add great value to healthcare technology. For example, the low
latency will allow real-time information to be shared over HD video, potentially
making remote surgery more commonplace. Wearables and ingestibles are also
predicted to become more common and provide healthcare professionals with
feedback data. Real-time monitoring will result in increasingly personalized
healthcare for patients and help doctors spot signs of disease earlier.
Environment
There is the potential for 5G to help reduce global emissions. One of the
benefits of 5G is the efficiency of transmissions and the low power it uses
compared with previous networks. It will also support real-time monitoring of
emissions, air quality, water quality, and other environmental indicators. 5G
will also help drive electric vehicle development, smart building, smart grid
projects, and remote work, all of which will benefit the planet through efficient
resource usage and reduced pollution.
5G technology work
As with previous cellular networks, 5G technology uses cell sites that transmit
data through radio waves. Cell sites connect to networks with wireless
technology or wired connection. 5G technology works by modifying how data
is encoded, significantly increasing the number of usable airwaves for carriers.
OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is an essential part of 5G
technology. OFDM is a modulation format that encodes high-band airwaves
incompatible with 4G and offers lower latency and improved flexibility
compared with LTE networks.
Smaller towers
5G technology also uses smaller transmitters placed on buildings and other
infrastructure. 4G and previous cellular technology relied on standalone mobile
towers. The ability to run the network from small cell sites will support many
devices at superior speeds.
Network slicing
Mobile network operators use 5G technology to deploy multiple independent
virtual networks over the same infrastructure. You can customize each network
slice for different services and business cases, such as streaming services or
enterprise tasks. By forming a collection of 5G network functions for each
specific use case or business model, you can support different requirements
from all vertical industries. The service separation means users benefit from a
more reliable experience and improved efficiency on their devices.