Lesson Two

1
 Contents
• Piston Engine Design and Construction Introduction
• The Crankcase
• Engine Mounting Points
• Crankshafts
Main bearing journal
Crankpin
Crank cheek (crank web)
Dynamic Dampers
Crankshaft Types
• Bearings
Plain Bearings
Ball Bearings
Roller Bearings
• Connecting Rods
Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly
Plain-Type Connecting Rods
Fork-and-Blade Rod Assembly
2
Piston Engine Design
and Construction
Introduction

3
 Introduction
• As an aviation maintenance technician, you must be
familiar with an engine's components in order to understand
its operating principles. Furthermore, having an
understanding of an engine's basic construction greatly
enhances your ability to perform routine maintenance
operations.
• In the construction of an aircraft reciprocating engine,
reliability of the working parts is of primary importance.
• This need generally requires the use of strong, and at times
heavy, materials which can result in a bulky and heavy
engine.
4
 Introduction

• A major problem in the design of aircraft engine

components lies in constructing parts strong enough to be
reliable but light enough for use in an aircraft. Moving parts
are carefully machined and balanced in an effort to
minimize vibration and fatigue.
• In the construction of an aircraft engine, individual
components must be designed and constructed in order to
obtain a powerplant which has good reliability, weighs little,
and is economical to operate.

5
 Introduction

• This chapter describes the major components and

construction principles of an aircraft reciprocating engine.
• The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the
crankcase, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, valves,
valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft.
• The valves, pistons, and spark plugs are located in the
cylinder while the valve operating mechanism, crankshaft,
and connecting rods are located in the crankcase.

6
 Introduction

• Although a number of engine configurations have had their

place in aircraft development, the horizontally opposed and
static-type radial designs represent the vast majority of
reciprocating engines in service today.
• Because of this, the discussion on engine components
centers on these types.

7
The Crankcase

8
 The Crankcase
• The crankcase is the foundation of a reciprocating engine. The
crankcase of an engine is the housing that encloses the various
mechanisms surrounding the crankshaft; therefore, it is the
foundation of the engine.
• Crankcases come in many sizes and shapes and may be of
one-piece or multipiece construction.
• Most aircraft engine crankcases are made of cast or forged
aluminum alloys because they are both light and strong. Some
are cast in a sand mold, and others use a permanent mold
process that results in thinner walls.

9
 The Crankcase
• The functions of the crankcase are as follows:
It must support itself,
It contains the bearings in which the crankshaft revolves,
It provides a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil,
It supports various internal and external mechanisms of
the powerplant,
It provides mountings for attachment to the airplane,
It provides support for the attachment of the cylinders, and
By reason of its strength and rigidity, it prevents the
misalignment of the crankshaft and its bearings.

10
 The Crankcase
• The shape of the nose or front of the crankcase section
might either be tapered or round.
• If the propeller is driven directly by the crankshaft, less area
is needed for this component of the engine.
• If the propeller is driven by reduction gearing (gears that
slow down the speed of the propeller less than the engine),
more area is required to house the reduction gears.
• A tapered nose section is used quite frequently on direct-
drive, low-powered engines, because extra space is not
required to house the propeller reduction gears

11
 The Crankcase

• Although the variety of crankcase designs makes any

attempt at classification difficult, they may be divided into
three broad groups for discussion:
Opposed-engine crankcases,
Radial-engine crankcases, and
In-line and V-type engine crankcases.

12
 Opposed Engine Crankcase
• A typical horizontally opposed engine crankcase consists
of two halves of cast aluminum alloy that are
manufactured either with sand castings or by using
permanent molds. Crankcases manufactured through the
permanent mold process, or permamold, as it is called by
some manufacturers, are denser than those made by sand
casting.
• This denser construction allows molded crankcases to have
somewhat thinner walls than a sand cast crankcase and
exhibit less tendency to crack due to fatigue.
Permanent mold casting; casting made in a reusable
metal mold. The walls of permanent-mold castings, can be
made thinner than similar walls made by sand casting.
13
Opposed Engine Crankcase

14
Figure; In addition to the transverse webs that support the main bearings, a
set of camshaft bosses are typically cast into a crankcase. These bosses
support the camshaft which is part of the valve operating mechanism.
15
 Opposed Engine Crankcase
• Most opposed crankcases are approximately cylindrical,
with smooth areas machined to serve as cylinder pads. A
cylinder pad is simply a surface where a cylinder is
mounted to a crankcase.
• To allow a crankcase to support a crankshaft, a series of
transverse webs are cast directly into a crankcase parallel
to the case's longitudinal axis. These webs form an integral
part of the structure and, in addition to housing bosses and
the bearings that support the crankshaft and the camshaft,
the webs add strength to the crankcase.

16
 Opposed Engine Crankcase

• The parting surfaces are machined smooth so the two

halves will seal without the use of any gaskets.
• Pads are machined for mounting the cylinders, and holes
are drilled for the through bolts that mount the cylinders
and hold the two halves together.
• To ensure that internal pressures are approximately equal
to the surrounding atmospheric pressure, a crankcase
breather is fitted.

17
 Opposed Engine Crankcase-Crankcase Oil
Seals
• The crankcase is also an integral part of the lubrication system.
Oil passages are drilled throughout the case halves to allow
lubricating oil to be delivered to the moving parts housed within
the crankcase.
• In addition, oil galleries are machined into the case halves to
scavenge, or collect, oil and return it to the main oil tank or
sump.
• The crankcase of an aircraft engine receives the oil that has
been forced through the bearings and splashed onto the
cylinder walls. The oil supply is held in the wet sump which is
attached to the bottom or the crankcase.
• The joints in the case are sealed, and all of the rotating shafts
ride in spring-loaded flexible seals to prevent the loss of oil.
18
 Opposed Engine Crankcase-Crankcase Oil
Seals
• Most crankcase halves split vertically and are aligned and
held together with studs and bolts. Through bolts are
typically used at the crankshaft bearings while smaller bolts
and nuts are used around the case perimeter.
• Since the oil supply in most modern horizontally opposed
engines is carried inside the crankcase, provisions are
made to seal the case to prevent leakage.

19
 Opposed Engine Crankcase-Crankcase Oil
Seals
• To ensure that the seal does not interfere with the tight fit
for the bearings, most crankcase halves are sealed with a
very thin coating of a non-hardening gasket compound.
• In addition, on some engines a fine silk thread extending
around the entire case perimeter is imbedded in the
compound.
• With this type of set up, when the crankcase halves are
bolted together with the proper torque, the gasket material
and silk thread form an effective oil seal without interfering
with bearing fit.

20
 Opposed Engine Crankcase-Crankcase Oil
Seals

• The crankshaft and accessory drive shafts are sealed with

spring-loaded seals like the one in Figure below. The seal
rides on a hardened and polished shaft, and the spring
holds the flexible seal against the shaft to prevent oil
flowing past it.

21
Opposed Engine Crankcase-Crankcase Oil
Seals

Figure; A spring-loaded flexible

seal is used around rotating
shafts to prevent the loss of
oil.

22
 Radial Engine Crankcase

• The crankcase for a radial engine is very small when

compared with the ones used by other types of engines.
Unlike opposed engine crankcases, radial engine
crankcases are divided into distinct sections.
• The number of sections can be as few as three or as many
as seven depending on the size and type of engine.
In general, a typical radial engine crankcase has four basic
sections, the nose section, the power section, the
supercharger section, and the accessory section.

23
Radial Engine Crankcase

24
Figure; The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are the
nose section, power section, supercharger section, and accessory
section. 25
 Radial Engine Crankcase

The Nose Section

• A typical nose section is made of an aluminum alloy that
is cast as one piece with a domed or convex shape.
• The nose section usually houses and supports a
propeller governor drive shaft, the propeller shaft, a cam
ring, and a propeller reduction gear assembly if
required.
• In addition, many nose sections have mounting points
for magnetos and other engine accessories.
26
 Radial Engine Crankcase

The Power Section

• This represents the section of the crankcase where the
reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted to the rotary
motion of the crank shaft.
• Like an opposed engine crankcase, the power section
absorbs intense stress from the crankshaft assembly and
the cylinders.
• The power section is made of cast or forged aluminum, or
in some or the larger engines, forged steel.

27
 Radial Engine Crankcase

The Diffuser Or Supercharger Section

• It is generally made of cast aluminum alloy or magnesium.
A supercharger is an engine accessory that is used to
compress air and distribute it to the engine's cylinders.
• This compression increases the air density so the engine
can operate at high altitudes and still produce the same
amount of power as it would at sea level.
• The supercharger section also incorporates mounting lugs
to secure the engine assembly to the engine mounts.

28
 Radial Engine Crankcase
The Accessory Section
• It is usually cast of either an aluminum alloy or
magnesium. On some engines, it is cast in one piece and
then machined to provide a means for mounting
accessories such as magnetos, carburetors, fuel pumps,
oil pumps, vacuum pumps, starter, generator, tachometer
drive, etc., in the various locations required to facilitate
accessibility.
• A typical accessory section houses gear trains containing
both spur- and bevel-type gears that drive various engine
components and accessories.
29
 In-Line and V-Type Engine Crankcases

• Large in-line and V-type engine crankcases usually

have four major sections:
i. The front, or nose section
ii. The main, or power section
iii. The fuel induction and distribution section and
iv. The accessory section.

30
Engine Mounting Points

31
 Engine Mounting Points(Mounting Lugs)
• For opposed engines, mounting points, sometimes called
mounting lugs, are typically cast as part of the crankcase.
However, some mounting lugs may be a bolt-on addition.
• As a general rule, lower-horsepower engines use mounting lugs
that are cast into the crankcase, while higher-powered engines
employ mounting lugs that are bolted to the crankcase.
• On all engines, the mounting arrangement supports the entire
power plant including the propeller and, therefore, must be
designed to withstand various engine, centrifugal, and g-loading
conditions.
• Mounting lugs for radial engines are spaced about the
periphery of the super charger section to attach the engine to
the engine mount. The mounting lugs may either be integral
with the diffuser section or detachable.
32
 Engine Mounting Points(Mounting Lugs)
In-class Discussion
• How is the reciprocating engine mounted on the
airframe of a single engine and twin engine light
aircraft?

33
Crankshafts

34
 Crankshafts
• The crankshaft is the backbone of the reciprocating
engine. It is subjected to most of the forces developed
by the engine.
• The crankshaft is the strongest and heaviest component
in an aircraft reciprocating engine.
• It is the component that transforms the reciprocating
motion of the pistons into a rotating motion for rotation
of the propeller.
• The crankshaft, as the name implies, is a shaft composed
of one or more cranks located at specified points along its
length.
35
 Crankshafts

• The cranks, or throws, are formed by forging offsets into a

shaft before it is machined. Since crankshafts must be very
strong, they generally are forged from a very strong alloy,
such as chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel.
• Crankshafts for horizontally opposed engines are forged of
chromium nickel- molybdenum steel with an offset throw
and A bearing journal for each connecting rod.
• A crankshaft may be of single-piece or multipiece
construction.

36
 Crankshafts
Offset throw (crankshaft design); Crank arms on a
reciprocating engine crankshaft.
• The arms, or throws to which the connecting rods and
pistons are attached are offset from the center of the
crankshaft to move the pistons in and out of the cylinder.
• The amount of the offset determines the stroke of the
engine.

37
 Crankshafts

Figure; Crankshaft for a typical four-cylinder horizontally opposed engine

The centers of the main bearing journals and crankpins are hollow. Oil picked
up at the main bearings flows through drilled passages in the crank throws to
lubricate the connecting rod big-end bearings. Some engines have sludge
plugs pressed into each of the hollow crankpins.
38
 Crankshafts
 The crankshaft is carried in a position parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the crankcase and is generally
supported by a main bearing between each throw. The
crankshaft main bearings must be supported rigidly in the
crankcase.
 This usually is accomplished by means of transverse webs
in the crankcase, one for each main bearing. The webs
form an integral part of the structure and, in addition
to supporting the main bearings, add to the strength of
the entire case.

39
Crankshafts

Figure; Typical opposed

engine exploded into
component assemblies.
One-half of the main
bearing (and sometimes
camshaft bearings) are
carried in one section of
the case and the other
half in the opposite
section.

40
 Crankshaft Construction
• No matter how many throws it may have, each crankshaft
has three main parts;
i. Main bearing journal,
ii. Crankpin, and
iii.Crank cheek (crank web).
• NOTE; Counterweights and dampers, although not a
true part of a crankshaft, are usually attached to it to
reduce engine vibration.

41
 The main bearing journals, or main journals
• The main bearing journals, or main journals represent the centerline of a
crankshaft and support the crankshaft as it rotates in the main bearings. It
serves as the center of rotation of the crankshaft.
Journal (bearing); A hardened and polished surface on a rotating shaft
that rides in a plain bearing.
• All crankshafts require at least two main journals to
i. support the crankshaft,
ii. absorb the operational loads, and
iii.transmit stress from the crankshaft to the crankcase.
• To help minimize wear, most main bearing journals, or crank journals, as
they are sometimes called, are hardened through nitriding to resist wear.
It is surface-hardened to reduce wear. 42
 The Crankpin Or Connecting-rod Bearing
Journals
• The crankpin or connecting-rod bearing journals, serve as
attachment points for the connecting rods.
• Most crankpins are forged directly into a crankshaft
and are offset from the main bearing journal.
• It is the section to which the connecting rod is attached. It is
off-center from the main journals and is often called the
throw.
Cheek (crankshaft); the offset portion of a crankshaft that
connects the crankpin to the main bearing journals.

43
 The Crankpin Or Connecting-rod Bearing
Journals
• Two crank cheeks and a crankpin make a throw.
• When a force is applied to the crankpin in any direction
other than parallel or perpendicular to and through the
center line of the crankshaft, it causes the crankshaft to
rotate.
• The outer surface is hardened by nitriding to increase
its resistance to wear and to provide the required
bearing surface.

44
 The Crankpin Or Connecting-rod Bearing
Journals
• The crankpin is usually hollow.
This reduces the total weight of the crankshaft and
Provides a passage for the transfer of lubricating oil.
On early engines, the hollow crankpin also served as a
chamber for collecting sludge, carbon deposits, and other
foreign material.
Due to the use of ashless dispersant oils, newer engines no
longer use sludge chambers. On some engines, a passage is
drilled in the crank cheek to allow oil from the hollow
crankshaft to be sprayed on the cylinder walls.
45
 The Crank Cheek Or Crank Arm
• The crank cheek or crank arm connects the crankpin to the main
journal. Two crank cheeks, or crank arms, are required to connect
the crankpin to the crankshaft.
• In some designs, the cheek extends beyond the journal and
carries a counterweight to balance the crankshaft.
• The arrangement of the crankpins varies with the type engine
and allows each piston to be at a different position in the
cranking cycle as the crankshaft rotates.
• The position of the crankpins on a crank shaft in relation to each
other is expressed in degrees.
• In all cases, the type of crankshaft and the number of crankpins
must correspond with the cylinder arrangement of the engine.
46
 The Crank Cheek Or Crank Arm

Figure; On a four cylinder engine, the number one and four throws are
180 degrees apart from the number two and three throws.
47
 Crankshaft Balance
• Excessive vibration in an engine not only results in
fatigue failure of the metal structures, but also causes
the moving parts to wear rapidly.
• In some instances, excessive vibration is caused by a
crankshaft that is not balanced. Crankshafts are
balanced for static balance and dynamic balance.
• A crankshaft is statically balanced when the weight of the
entire assembly of crankpins, crank cheeks, and
counterweights is balanced around the axis of rotation.

48
 Dynamic Dampers
• A crankshaft is dynamically balanced when all the forces created by
crankshaft rotation and power impulses are balanced within
themselves so that little or no vibration is produced when the engine
is operating.
• Dynamic balance refers to balancing the centrifugal forces created by a
rotating crankshaft and the impact forces created by an engine's power
impulses.
• Radial engine crankshafts have a single throw for each row of cylinders,
and they must have a large heavy counterweight for static balance.
• Horizontally opposed engines, on the other hand, are built symmetrically
and do not need counterweights for static balance, but most of the larger
ones use counterweights for dynamic balance, to absorb torsional
vibrations.
49
 Dynamic Dampers
• Dynamic counterweights
are installed on blades that
are forged as integral parts of
the crankshaft. They are
retained by pins with
diameters smaller than the
holes in the bushings
through which they fit. The
Figure. Movable counterweights serve to small pin in the large hole
reduce torsional vibrations (dynamic
vibrations) as dynamic dampers to reduce
allows the weight to rock
the centrifugal and impact vibrations in an back and forth in a pendulum
aircraft engine. fashion. 50
 Dynamic Dampers
• An analogy of the functioning of a dynamic damper is shown in the
Figures below.
NOTE:
Fig; When pulses of energy at the When the frequency of
resonant frequency of the power pulses is the
pendulum are applied, pendulum same as the resonant
swings with a large amplitude. frequency of the
crankshaft, serious
torsional vibration can
Fig; if the weight of the pendulum is occur. Dynamic
divided with the components having counterweights
different lengths, pulses with the change the resonant
same energy will cause pendulum to
swing with a smaller amplitude.
frequency of the
crankshaft.
51
 Crankshaft Types

• The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine

depends on the number and arrangement of an
engine's cylinders.
• The most common types of crankshafts are the single-
throw, two-throw, four-throw, and six-throw
crankshafts.

52
 The Single-throw Or 360 Degree Crankshaft
• The simplest crankshaft is the single-throw or 360 degree crankshaft
used on single-row radial engines. As its name implies, a single-
throw crankshaft consists of a single crankpin with two main
journals that support the crankshaft in the crankcase.

Figure; with a one-piece,

single-throw crankshaft, the
entire crankshaft is cast as
one solid piece. However,
with a clamp type two-piece
crankshaft, the two pieces are
held together by a bolt that
passes through the crankpin.
53
 Two-throw Crank Shaft

• Twin-row radial engines require a two-throw crank shaft,

one throw for each bank of cylinders. The throws on a two-
throw crankshaft are typically set 180 degrees from each
other and may consist of either one or three pieces.
• Although they are not commonly encountered, two cylinder
opposed engines also use two-throw crankshafts.

54
 Four-throw Crankshafts
• Four cylinder opposed engines and four cylinder in- line engines use
four-throw crankshafts.
• The throws of some reciprocating engine with four-cylinder crankshaft
are paired with the two end throws together and 180° from the two
center throws.
• There is a main bearing journal at the propeller end, the center, and the
accessory end of the shaft.

55
Figure. A typical four-throw crankshaft used in a horizontally opposed engine is machined
as one piece with throws that are 180 degrees apart.
 Four-throw Crankshafts

• Furthermore, depending on the size of the crank- shaft and

power output of the engine, a four-throw crankshaft has either
three or five main bearings.
 Continental engines have a main bearing journal at the
propeller end, the center, and the accessory end of the shaft.
 Lycoming engines have two main bearings between the
propeller attachment and the front cheek. For these engines
they are numbered one and two, even though they are most
often combined in just two bearing shell halves.

56
 Six-throw Crankshafts
• Six cylinder opposed and in-line engines and 12 cylinder V-type
engines use six-throw crankshafts.
• Otto-cycle engines fire all the cylinders in two revolutions, or
720° of crankshaft rotation.
• A six-cylinder horizontally opposed Continental crankshaft
has six throws that are 60 degrees apart with four main
bearings, one at the propeller end, one between each pair of
throws, and one at the accessory end.
Figure; With a typical six-throw
crankshaft, the throws are 60
degrees apart. On the six throw
crankshaft pictured above, the
crank journals are numbered from
the flanged end.
57
 Six-throw Crankshafts

If you were to number each throw in 60 degrees

increments from the flanged end, the order would be 1, 4, 5,
2, 3, and 6.
Figure. The three pairs of
throws in a six-cylinder
horizontally opposed
crankshaft allows one
piston to be in firing
position each 120° of
crankshaft rotation.

58
 Eight-throw Crankshafts

• The Textron-Lycoming IO-720 eight-cylinder engine must

fire all cylinders in 720° of crankshaft rotation, or 90° of
rotation between firing impulses.
• An eight-cylinder, horizontally opposed crankshaft has four
pairs of throws with main bearings at the propeller end,
between each pair of throws, and at the accessory end.

59
 Eight-throw Crankshafts

• The pairs of throws are 90° apart, which allows two cylinders to
come to the top of their stroke every 90° of crankshaft rotation,
one at the beginning of the power stroke and the other at
the beginning of the intake stroke. See Figure below.

Figure; The four pairs of

throws in an eight-
cylinder crankshaft allow
one piston to be in firing
position each 90° of
crankshaft rotation.

60
 Crankshaft (Radial Engine)

Crankshafts of radial engines may be the single-throw,

two-throw, or four-throw type, depending on whether
the engine is the single-row, twin-row, or four-row type.
• The crankshaft or a single-row radial engine has a
single throw, as shown in Figure below. Some
crankshafts are made in a single piece of high-strength
forged steel, and use a two-piece master rod. Other
crankshafts are made in two pieces, and use a single-
piece master rod.

61
 Crankshaft (Radial Engine)
• Heavy counterweights are installed opposite the single throw for
static balance; some counterweights have large-diameter holes
that ride on small diameter pins so they can also act as dynamic
dampers.
• Almost all radial engines have splined crankshafts or
propeller shaft for attaching the propeller.
• Crankshafts used in two-row radial engines have two
throws 180° apart.
• The cylinders in the front row are attached to one throw, and the
cylinders in the rear throw are connected to the other.
62
Crankshaft (Radial Engine)

Figure; A two-piece crankshaft of a

single-row radial engine. The
forward counterweight is fixed and
the rear counterweight is mounted
on two pins so it can rock back
and forth and act as a dynamic
damper.

63
Bearings

64
 Bearings
• A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces
friction between two moving parts.
• Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft engine
include the
i. Main journals,
ii.Crankpins,
iii.Connecting rod ends, and
iv.Accessory drive shafts.
• The crankshaft is supported in the crankcase by plain
bearings. The main bearing bosses are line-bored to assure
that the bearing seats are all in perfect alignment, and bearing
inserts are fitted into each of the seats.
65
 Bearings

• The inserts have a steel backing and use a lead alloy as the
bearing material.
• The inserts are prevented from turning in their seats by
tangs on one end of the insert that fits into slots in the
bearing seat, or by dowel pins pressed into the bearing
seats that fit through a hole in the insert.
• Camshafts of horizontally opposed engines normally
ride in line-bored holes through the webs in the crankcase
and do not use any type of bearing insert or bushing.

66
Bearings

Figure; Bearing inserts

of the type normally
used to support the
crankshaft in a
horizontally opposed
engine.

67
 Bearings
• A good bearing must be composed of material that is
strong enough to withstand the pressure imposed on
it, while allowing rotation or movement between two
parts with a minimum of friction and wear.
• For a bearing to provide efficient and quiet operation, it
must hold two parts in a nearly fixed position with very
close tolerances.
• To accomplish this, and at the same time reduce friction of
moving parts so that power loss is not excessive,
lubricated bearings of many types are used.
68
 Bearings
• Bearings are required to take radial loads, thrust loads, or a
combination of the two.
• An example of a radial load would be a rotating shaft being held
or contained in one position on a radial plane.
• Thrust load would be the rotating shaft being contained from
moving axially along the shafts axis.

Fig; Radial and

thrust loads.

69
 Bearings
• There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move in
relation to each other.
One is by the sliding movement of one metal against
another (sliding friction), and
The second is for one surface to roll over another
(rolling friction).
• Reciprocating engines use bearings that rely on both types
of movement.

70
 Bearings
• The three different types of bearings typically used in aircraft
reciprocating engines include the plain bearing, the ball bearing,
and the roller bearing. [Figure below]

Fig; Bearings. Of the three most

common types of bearings used in
reciprocating engines;
• The plain bearing relies on the
sliding movement of one metal
against another,
• while both roller and ball bearings
have one surface roll over
another.
71
 Plain Bearings
• Plain bearings are generally used for the crankshaft main
bearings, cam ring, camshaft bearings, connecting rod end
bearings, and the accessory drive shaft bearings.
• Such bearings are usually subjected to radial loads only,
however, flange-type plain bearings are often used as thrust
bearings in opposed reciprocating engines.

Figure; Plain bearings.

72
 Plain Bearings
• Plain bearings are usually made of nonferrous (having no
iron) metals, such as silver, bronze, aluminum, and
various alloys of copper, tin, or lead.
• Master rod or crankpin bearings in some engines are thin
shells of steel, plated with silver on both the inside and the
outside surfaces and with lead-tin plated over the silver on the
inside surface only.
• Smaller bearings, such as those used to support various shafts
in the accessory section, are called bushings.
• Porous Oilite bushings are widely used in this instance. They
are impregnated with oil so that the heat of friction brings the
oil to the bearing surface during engine operation.
73
 Ball Bearings
• A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and outer
races, one or more sets of polished steel balls, and a bearing
retainer.
• The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept evenly
spaced by the bearing retainer, while the inner and outer
bearing races provide a smooth surface for the balls to roll over.

Figure; Ball bearing assembly

74
 Ball Bearings

• However, some races have a deep groove that matches the

curvature of the balls to provide more support and allow a
bearing to carry high radial loads.
• Because the balls of a ball bearing offer such a small contact
area, ball bearings have the least amount of rolling friction.
• Because of their construction, ball bearings are well suited to
withstand thrust loads and are, therefore, used as thrust
bearings in large radial and gas turbine engines.
• In applications where thrust loads are heavier in one direction, a
larger race is used on the side of the increased load.

75
 Ball Bearings
• It is used in gas turbine engines to support one end of a shaft
(radial loads) and to keep the shaft from moving axially (thrust
loads).
• Most of the ball are used in accessories such as magnetos,
alternators, turbochargers, and vacuum pumps. Many of
these bearings are prelubricated and sealed to provide trouble-
free operation between overhauls.
• However, if a sealed ball bearing must be removed or replaced,
it is important that you use the proper tools to avoid
damaging the bearing and its seals.

76
 Roller Bearings
• Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball bearings
except that polished steel rollers are used instead of balls.
• The rollers provide a greater contact area and a corresponding
increase in rolling friction over that of a ball bearing.

Fig; Roller bearings

77
 Roller Bearings
• Roller bearings are made in many types and shapes, but the two
types generally used in the aircraft engine are the straight roller and
the tapered roller bearings.
 Straight roller bearings are used where the bearing is subjected
to radial loads only.
 In tapered roller bearings, the inner- and outer-race bearing
surfaces are cone-shaped. Such bearings withstand both radial
and thrust loads.
• Straight roller bearings are used in high power reciprocating
aircraft engines for the crankshaft main bearings. They are also
used in gas turbine applications where radial loads are high.
• Generally, a rotating shaft in a gas turbine engine is supported
by a deep-groove ball bearing (radial and thrust loads) on one
end and a straight roller bearing (radial loads only) on the other
end. 78
 Bearings (Radial Engine)

• Radial engines use steel-backed plain bearings in the

master rod and bronze bushings pressed into both
ends of the link rods.
• Ball bearings are installed on either end of the
crankshaft, and the thrust bearing is a deep-groove ball
bearing that can take both radial and thrust loads.

79
Connecting Rods

80
 Connecting Rods
• The connecting rod is the link that transmits forces between the
piston and the crankshaft.
• Connecting rods must be strong enough to remain rigid under load
(resist bending during the power stroke) and yet be light enough to
reduce the inertia forces that are produced when the rod and piston
stop, change direction, and start again at the end of each stroke. i.e.
changes direction twice in each stroke.
 Most connecting rods are made of a forged durable steel alloy
(chrome-nickel-molybdenum steel); however, aluminum can be used
with low horsepower engines.
 The lighter a connecting rod is, the less inertia it produces when the
rod and piston stop and then accelerate in the opposite direction at the
end of each stroke. 81
 Connecting Rods
• A typical connecting rod is forged and has a cross-sectional shape
of either an "H" or an "I." However, there are a few connecting
rods that are tubular.
• One end of a connecting rod connects to the crankshaft and is called
the crankpin end, while the other end connects to the piston and is
called the piston end.
• The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a free floating
piston or gudgeon pin to distribute the wear around the pin and is
referred to as the small end. The crankpin end is referred to as the
big end.
The big end bearings are similar to the main bearings with shell
liners or inserts held by tangs or a short dowel pin.
The small end bearings may have a bronze bushing or insert.
82
 Connecting Rods

Figure; Typical forged connecting rod for a horizontally opposed engine

83
 Connecting Rods
• The big end of the connecting rod is split, and both the body
of the rod and the cap have cylinder identification numbers
stamped on them to prevent their being mismatched during
overhaul.
• High-strength nuts and bolts hold the cap onto the rod
body. The torque applied to the nuts on these bolts is
critical, because it must produce a tensile stress in the bolt
greater than the stress that will be applied by the hammering
action the rod receives in operation.

84
 Types Of Connecting-rod Assemblies
• There are three main types of connecting-rod assemblies
i. Plain
ii. Fork and blade
iii. Master and articulated rod (Solid type and Split type)

Fig; connecting
rod assemblies.

85
Types Of Connecting-rod Assemblies

Fig; connecting rod assemblies. 86

 Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly
• The master-and-articulated rod assembly is commonly used in
radial engines.
• With this type of assembly, one piston in each row of cylinders is
connected to the crankshaft by a master rod. The remaining
pistons are connected to the master rod by articulated rods.
• Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one master rod and
eight articulating rods, while a double row 18 cylinder engine has
two master rods and 16 articulating rods.
• Master rods are typically manufactured from a steel alloy forging
that is machined and heat-treated for maximum strength.
• Articulated rods are constructed of a forged steel alloy in either an I-
or H- cross-sectional profile. Bronze bushings are pressed into the
bores in each end of the articulated rod to serve as bearings.
87
 Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly

• Each articulated rod is hinged to the master rod by a

knuckle pin.

Figure; Articulated rods are

attached to the master rod
by knuckle pins that are
pressed into holes in the
master rod flanges during
assembly. A knuckle pin lock
plate is then installed to
retain the pins.

88
 Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly
• A master rod may be one piece or multiple pieces.
• As a general rule, a one piece rod is used on multiple piece
crankshafts while a multiple piece, or split type master rod is
used with single piece crankshafts.

Figure; with a single piece master rod, the

master-and-articulated rods are assembled
and installed on the crankpin before the
crankshaft sections are joined together. On
the other hand, with a multiple piece
master rod, the crankpin end of the master
rod and its bearing are split and installed
on the crankpin. The bearing cap is then
set in place and bolted to the master rod.
89
 Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly
• Since the flange holes on a master rod encircle the center of
the crankpin, the crankpin is the only portion of a master
rod assembly that travels in a true circle as the crankshaft
rotates. The remaining knuckle pins travel in an elliptical
path. [Figure below]
• The elliptical paths are symmetrical about a center line through
the master rod cylinder.
• It can be seen that the major diameters of the ellipses are not
the same. Thus, the link rods have varying degrees of
angularity relative to the center of the crank throw.

90
 Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly

Figure; Elliptical travel path of knuckle

pins in an articulated rod assembly. You
can see that each knuckle pin rotates in a
different elliptical path. As a result, each
articulated rod has a varying degree of
angularity relative to the center of the
crank throw.

 To minimize the effect of these factors on valve and ignition timing, the
knuckle pin holes in the master rod flange are not equidistant from the
center of the crankpin.
 Another method of minimizing the adverse effects on engine operation is to
use a compensated magneto.
91
 Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly
Knuckle Pins
• The knuckle pins are of solid construction except for the
oil passages drilled in the pins, which lubricate the
knuckle pin bushings.
• These pins may be installed by pressing into holes in the
master rod flanges so that they are prevented from turning
in the master rod.
• Knuckle pins may also be installed with a loose fit so that
they can turn in the master rod flange holes, and also turn
in the articulating rod bushings. These are called full-
floating knuckle pins.
• In either type of installation, a lock plate on each side
retains the knuckle pin and prevents a lateral movement.
92
 Plain-Type Connecting Rods
• Plain-type connecting rods are used in inline and opposed
engines.
• The piston end of a plain connecting rod is fitted with a bronze
bushing to accommodate the piston pin. The bushing is typically
pressed into the connecting rod and then reamed to the
dimension required by the piston pin.
• The crankpin end, on the other hand, is usually fitted with a
two-piece bearing and cap which is held on the end of the rod by
bolts or studs. In this case, the main bearing insert is typically
made of steel that is lined with a nonferrous alloy such as
Babbitt, lead, bronze, or copper.

93
 Plain-Type Connecting Rods
• To provide proper fit and balance, connecting rods are
often matched with pistons and crankpins. Therefore, if a
connecting rod is ever removed, it should always be
replaced in the same cylinder and in the same relative
position.
• To help do this, connecting rods and caps are sometimes
stamped with numbers to identify the cylinder and piston
assembly with which they should be paired.
• For example, a number "1" indicates the connecting
rod or cap belong with the number 1 cylinder and
piston assembly

94
 Plain-Type Connecting Rods

Fig; On a typical plain connecting rod, a two piece bearing shell fits tightly in the crankpin
end of the connecting rod. The bearing is held in place by pins or tangs that fit into slots
cut into the cap and connecting rod. The piston end of the connecting rod contains a
bushing that is pressed into place. 95
 Fork-and-Blade Rod Assembly

• The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily in V-

type engines and consists of a fork connecting rod and a
blade connecting rod.
• The forked rod is split at the crankpin end to allow space for
the blade rod to fit between the prongs.
• A single two-piece bearing is used on the crankshaft end of
the rod. This type of connecting rod is not used much on
modern engines.

96
 Fork-and-Blade Rod Assembly

Figure. A fork-and-blade rod assembly used in a V-type engine consists of a

blade connecting rod whose crankpin end fits between the prongs of the fork
connecting rod.

97
 Connecting Rods (Radial Engines)
• In order to attach nine cylinders to one throw of a
crankshaft, a master rod and link rods like those in Figure
below are used.
• A plain bearing in the big end of the master rod rides on the
polished bearing journal on the throw of the crankshaft.
• The small end of the master rod is attached to the piston in
one cylinder with a wrist pin.
• Link rod; the rod in a radial engine that connects one of the
piston wrist pins to a knuckle pin on the master rod. Also
called articulating pin

98
Connecting Rods (Radial Engines)

Fig; In a nine-cylinder radial engine, the

pistons in eight of the cylinders are
connected to the master rod with link, or
articulating, rods.
One end of these rods attaches to the
piston with a wrist pin and the other
connects to the master rod with a
knuckle pin.

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 END

NEXT
LESSON THREE

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