Review of Underground Mining M

energies
Review
Review of Underground Mining Methods in World-Class Base Metal
Deposits: Experiences from Poland and Chile
Krzysztof Skrzypkowski 1,* , René Gómez 2,3 , Krzysztof Zagórski 4 , Anna Zagórska 5 and Roberto Gómez-Espina 2
1 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, AGH University of Science and Technology,
Mickiewicza 30 Av., 30-059 Kraków, Poland
2 Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile
3 Advanced Mining Technology Center, Santiago 4070371, Chile
4 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza 30 Av.,
30-059 Kraków, Poland
5 Research Centre in Kraków, Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy of Science, Senacka 1,
31-002 Kraków, Poland
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: There are several massive deposits around the world with different geological characteris-
tics. Thus, different mining methods and strategies are applied based on the particularity of each
method and mine experience. Particularly, in this work, we review and summarize the underground
exploitation of some world-class base metal deposits based on Poland and Chilean experiences. Here,
the main geological and mining parameters of Poland and Chilean mines applied in massive deposits
are reported and analyzed. In Poland, mainly room and pillar methods (and variants) have been
applied in massive deposits. Here, back-filling is required to maintain the mine’s stability due to the
large deposit size and open areas. In Chile, the block caving method is commonly used in massive
underground deposits where less development is required. Here, the cave is naturally filled with
broken material and a large subsidence zone is generated. In this review, it has been observed that
different underground methods and strategies can be effectively used in massive deposits. Some
parameters that influenced the method selection are mainly related to rock mechanics, ore recovery
and dilution, subsidence zone, extraction rate, and mining experience. Here, key mining variables
Citation: Skrzypkowski, K.; Gómez, and parameters such as productivity, support, and equipment, as well as various issues related to the
R.; Zagórski, K.; Zagórska, A.;
world-class deposit are studied. Additionally, a comparison between both experiences is presented,
Gómez-Espina, R. Review of
highlighting the main geological and mining parameters. This study can be used as a reference to
Underground Mining Methods in
evaluate the different option of underground mining methods to be applied in future massive mine
World-Class Base Metal Deposits:
projects with similar geological characteristics.
Experiences from Poland and Chile.
Energies 2023, 16, 148. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16010148
Keywords: block caving; massive deposit; mine design; room and pillar; underground mining;
world-class deposit
Academic Editor: Sergey Zhironkin
Received: 14 November 2022

Revised: 9 December 2022
Accepted: 19 December 2022 1. Introduction
Published: 23 December 2022 The technical and economic progress in the exploitation of ore deposits consists of the
introduction of modern technologies, mechanization, and automation of processes while
meeting the requirements of occupational safety and protection of the deposit and the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
human environment. In the mining process, in terms of deposit protection, underground
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
mining methods are of particular importance, for which the increase in extraction, labor
This article is an open access article
efficiency, and lower extraction costs should be accompanied by a reduction in operating
distributed under the terms and losses. Mass mining is frequently applied worldwide, related commonly to low-grade
conditions of the Creative Commons deposits, large depths, water tables, and high capital costs. In particular, in underground
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// mining, these deposits are related to several challenges that have to do with the mining
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ method, ventilation, and drainage requirements, mine support, and mine planning. Mass
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010148 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 148 2 of 24
mining is defined as that with production greater than 10 kt/day or 3 Mt/year [1]. Mass-
mining methods are commonly applied to low-grade, high-tonnage deposits, so the size
and shape of the deposit are relevant characteristics in determining the suitability of a
mass-mining deposit [2].
The characteristics of the rock mass are of vital importance to determine the most
suitable mining method based on the stress deformations that occur according to the chosen
method [3]. In addition, it is necessary to select the extractive method considering the
operational costs [4]. To face these challenges, a methodology is proposed based on an
algorithm to choose the optimal method for the development of deposits, considering the
geological, technical, and operational factors of the deposit [5].
Ladinig et al. [2] mainly identify two typologies of deposits favorable for these ex-
ploitation techniques: narrow tabular deposits of large area extent, as might be the case
with some coal deposits and thick tabular deposits and massive deposits, characterized
by a large extension in all three spatial directions. In general, this last category adjusts
quite well to the so-called world-class deposits. Although the typologies and formation
processes of the deposit that this term encompasses are varied, these are characterized by
being large-tonnage and volumetrically extensive deposits. These characteristics are more
remarkable in the deposits of base metals compared to those of precious metals, presenting,
in addition to higher tonnages, higher grades.
Singer [6] defined world-class mineral deposits as the upper 10% of all deposits in
terms of the content of a given metal. The term world-class deposit is an informal term
applied to ore deposits with an exceptionally large tonnage of economically recoverable
ore [7]. This author points out that world-class deposits can be divided into giant and
supergiant, with an ore metal content in a deposit/metal greater than 1 × 1011 t and 1012 t
of average crust material, respectively. For example, in the case of gold, the resource in a
giant deposit is equal to or greater than 100 t Au, and supergiants are deposits that contain
equal to or greater than 1200 t [8]. For copper, supergiant deposits are defined as those with
more than 24 Mt Cu, and giants as having more than 2 Mt Cu; 2400 t of silver, 1.7 Mt of
zinc, or 1 Mt of lead are required to be considered a world-class deposit [6]. Although this
definition and the limits it uses are relatively old, taking into account the advancement
of exploration techniques and the continuous discovery of new large, mineralized ore
bodies, these ranges are still used today to categorize deposits as world-class, for example
in the works of [9–12], among others. Among the world-class deposits of base metals, there
are different typologies according to their genesis, ores, lithologies, etc. Porphyry copper
deposits stand out for their tonnage, these being the world’s principal source of Cu and
Mo [13]. Another important type of deposit that occasionally gives rise to world-class
mineralization is a sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposit. There is a low number
of known stratiform copper deposits, but with very attractive Cu and Ag grades and
tonnages [14]. Other types of deposits such as the manto type, Sedimentary Exhalative
deposits (SEDEX), Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS), iron oxide copper gold (IOCG),
and Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) are also main sources of base metals that occasionally
generate massive ore classifiable as world-class [15].
Different criteria can be used to define a world-class deposit. However, in this work,
we focus on the underground mine activities applied in large deposits using Poland and
Chilean large deposits as the example. A review of current underground mines within
massive deposits is a useful tool to identify the main methodologies used nowadays
that have shown good results and to identify the lessons learned in these environments.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze different underground mines in Poland
and Chile focusing on key parameters such as productivity, support, and equipment, as
well as main issues.
Energies 2023, 16, 148 3 of 24
2. Chilean and Polish World-Class Base Metal Deposits

In Chile, the most abundant deposits and the largest tonnages correspond to porphyry
copper deposits. Porphyry deposits occur in arc-related settings of various ages throughout
the world. However, giant systems are restricted to only a few mineral provinces and peri-
ods [16]. In accordance with reference [11] among the 31 largest porphyry copper deposits
discovered to date, 14 fall under the supergiant class (Chuquicamata, El Teniente, Los
Bronces, Escondida, Los Pelambres, Collahuasi, Pebble Copper, Safford, Morenci/Metcalf,
Continental/Butte, Almalyk, Grasberg, Oyu Tolgoi, and Bingham) of which 6 are in Chile.
The porphyry deposits are characterized by low-grade copper, gold, and/or molybdenum
mineralization developed within and around a porphyritic intrusive complex, where vein
stockworks and hydrothermal breccias are common [16].
The iron oxide copper gold deposits (IOCG) in north-central Chile form part of the
Andean IOA-IOCG belt, which extends from immediately north of Santiago to north of
Antofagasta. These IOCG deposits are commonly spatially associated with or hosted in
faults that form part of the Atacama fault system [17]. Among all the deposits associated
with this belt (El Espino, Montecristo, Mantoverde, etc.), the Candelaria–Punta del Cobre
district is the most important due to its size. It is within the range of world-class deposits.
The majority of the IOCG mineralization in the district is hosted in the upper part of the
lower andesite unit and the overlying volcanic-sedimentary and dacite units, all within
the Punta del Cobre Formation [17]. Mineralization is hosted in fault zones, breccias, and
specific lithologies.
Another type of common deposit in Chile that can reach large tonnages, although
they do not reach the magnitudes of porphyries, are the stratabound deposits, known as
manto type. These deposits are the third source of Chilean copper production after the
porphyry copper deposits and the IOCG deposits [18]. Similar deposits in North America
are named “volcanic red-bed” [19]. Within this manto-type located in Chile are the deposits
of Papomomo [20], Mantos Blancos, Cerro Negro, and El Soldado, among others. They are
mainly Cu–Ag mineralized bodies that are hosted in Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous
volcano sedimentary sequences along the Chilean coast from center to north [21]. They
originate in back-arc extensional basins associated with calc–alkaline volcanic belts in
the continental crust on an active convergent margin. The manto-type deposits in Chile
present very similar characteristics, with comparable geometries, mineralization controls,
and mineral paragenesis. They are considered epigenetic, hydrothermal, or metamorphic
fluid origins are suggested, and albite is the most common alteration. The main controls
are lithologic (permeable strata), structural (extensional faults), or intrusion-related [22].
Ore appears in andesitic lavas and occasionally in volcanoclastic and sedimentary rocks,
where it is commonly disseminated and associated with zones with organic matter. Pyro-
bitumen has been described in stratabound deposits in Chile, such as El Soldado [23] and
Papomomo [22]. These manto-type Cu deposits tend to display relatively high grades with
variable quantities of Ag and Au as a by-product [24].
Poland is a country with abundant mineral resources ranging from coal and copper to
other raw materials, such as rock salt or zinc, and lead ores. Regarding copper, the most
important source of this metal produced in the world in addition to porphyry copper deposits
involves sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits [25,26]. These copper deposits are an
important, economically attractive, world-class mineral deposit type, traditionally represented
by supergiants such as the Kupferschiefer of north-central Europe and the Copperbelt of
Central Africa [14]. In the New Copper district, located on the Polish side of Kupferschiefer,
resources were identified in 2018 totaling 32.62 Mt Cu and 97,938 kt Ag [27]. The Lubin,
Polkowice-Sieroszowice and Rudna mines are in this district. The principal host rock in the
Kupferschiefer deposit is shale, with 2 to 10% Cu content, and a thickness of up to 20 m [28].
Structurally it is located on a monocline dipping gently to the north-east (less than 12◦ ).
The morphology and distribution of mineralization in these deposits are markedly
different from that of the porphyries. Brown [14] affirms that sediment-hosted stratiform
copper deposits tend to be high-tonnage deposits because of their wide lateral extents
Energies 2023, 16, 148 4 of 24
along preferred stratigraphic units, and their copper grades frequently surpass those of
porphyry copper ores. In addition, they may contain significant amounts of other highly
desirable metals such as silver and cobalt.
The Upper Silesian ore district in south-central Poland is an important producer of zinc,
lead, and silver [28]. Five clusters of orebodies have been discovered: the eastern Olkusz
area (Pomorzany and Olkusz), the southern Chrzanów area (Trzebionka mine), the western
Bytom area, and two northern clusters in the Zawiercie and Klucze area [29]. These deposits
have been classified as Mississippi Valley Type [22,29,30]. The ore forms replacements,
cavity fillings, linings, veins, and mineralized breccias [31]. The lower and upper units
of the sequence enclosing the ores are marly or argillaceous sediments. The main ore
minerals include sphalerite, galena, pyrite, and marcasite, accompanied by the gangue
minerals dolomite, calcite, barite, chalcedony, and quartz. According to Sass-Gustkiewicz
and Kwiecinska [29], the host rock of the sulfide ores is a coarse-crystalline, ore-bearing
dolomite that tends to occur in the form of extensive, roughly tabular bodies in Triassic
sequences or bodies of various shapes in Devonian carbonates. The orebodies in Triassic
rocks occupy various positions within the ore-bearing dolomite and are tabular, lenticular,
or nestlike, except for a single, large, chimney-like body hosted in Roethian carbonates.
The Devonian orebodies occur as vertical, sub-vertical, and/or horizontal forms. The
vertical bodies contain abundant mineralized breccias, and higher in the sequence, grade
into horizontally disposed ores in both the Paleozoic and Triassic rocks [32]. The total
extractable metal content of the district is estimated at 30 Mt [28].
3. Chilean Study Cases

In this section, three Chilean underground mines that are currently in different stages
are reviewed. These mines are exploited using caving methods (block and inclined). The
caving methods are commonly applied in massive underground deposits, highlighting the
use of block and sub-level caving. Block caving is an underground method commonly ap-
plied in Chile [33], used in important copper deposits such as the El Teniente mine, Salvador
mine, Andina mine, and currently in transition from open pit mining, the Chuquicamata
underground mine is also included [34]. The Chuquicamata underground mine transition
to block cave mining is a consequence of the deepening of reserves [35], which also could
occur in other Chilean massive deposits (actually open pit mines), such as in the Escondida
mine, Collahuasi mine, Los Bronces mine, and Radomiro Tomic mine. Additionally, the
Papomono mine is a new underground mine project that will be exploited by the Inclined
Caving method [36].
Block caving is an underground method applied in massive ore deposits. This method
relies on gravity and induced mining stresses to cave the orebody which is known as caved
rock [37,38]. The caved or fragmented rocks are extracted using gravity by drawing them
from drawpoints located at the production level. The current challenges of this method, as
well as other underground methods, are related to deeper deposits, hard rock, high-stress
fields, higher production requirements, and uncertainties in ground conditions [39–41].
3.1. Copper Exploitation in the Coquimbo Region

The Papomono mine is in the Coquimbo Region (north-central, Chile). The Deposit
consists mainly of a sequence of andesite interbedded with pyroclastic rocks of the Que-
brada Marquesa Formation, N 40◦ W strike, dipping 15◦ to the SW. The deposit is 450 m
long and about 80 m wide.
Papomono mine reserves were calculated to be 2.68 Mt at 1.22% of recoverable Cu [36].
In Papomono, the favorable lithological horizons that served as fluid conduits were strongly
affected by a pervasive to sparse albitic alteration [22]. The lithologies have a thickness that
ranges from 2 to 50 m, up to 500 m strike extension and length along dip reaching 600 m.
In addition to the most common stratiform geometry, these deposits can present lenses,
breccia pipes, veins, or irregular shapes, sometimes all together in the same deposit [22].
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 26
reaching 600 m. In addition to the most common stratiform geometry, these deposits can
Energies 2023, 16, 148 present lenses, breccia pipes, veins, or irregular shapes, sometimes all together in the5same
of 24
deposit [22].
3.1.1. Underground Mining Method

The underground mine has two main access points, one located at 1429 m.a.s.l. and
The underground mine has two main access points, one located at 1429 m.a.s.l. and
another located at 1315 m.a.s.l. The selected mining method is Inclined Caving, which is
another located at 1315 m.a.s.l. The selected mining method is Inclined Caving, which is
currently under construction. The deposit inclination and poor rock strength are some of
currently under construction. The deposit inclination and poor rock strength are some of
the main reasons for the selected underground method. The production level is divided
the main reasons for the selected underground method. The production level is divided into
into four sub-level spaced 11 m in height and 13 m in width, with extraction drifts of 4 ×
four sub-level spaced 11 m in height and 13 m in width, with extraction drifts of 4 × 4 m.
4 m. Here, a total of 97 drawpoints were defined. A total of 5173 m of horizontal develop-
Here, a total of 97 drawpoints were defined. A total of 5173 m of horizontal development
ment and 182 m of vertical excavations (including ventilation and ore pass requirements)
and 182 m of vertical excavations (including ventilation and ore pass requirements) are
are required. Figure 1 shows an example of an inclined (front) caving design.
required. Figure 1 shows an example of an inclined (front) caving design.
Figure1.1.Example
Figure Example
of of inclined
inclined caving
caving design,
design, isometric
isometric view.
view.
Inthis
In thismine,
mine,there
there
is is
nono undercut
undercut level.
level. Then,
Then, drawbells
drawbells are drilled
are drilled and blasted
and blasted to
to start
start
the the caving.
caving. A small
A small hydraulic
hydraulic radiusradius
of 9 mofis9estimated
m is estimated tothe
to start start the caving
caving process.
process. This
This parameter
parameter was estimated
was estimated using anusing
MRMRan MRMR ofthis
of 20. In 20. In this method,
method, the drawthestrategy
draw strategy
is key tois
key to ensuring
ensuring interaction
interaction betweenbetween
drawpoints,drawpoints, increase
increase ore ore recovery,
recovery, and delayand delayHere,
dilution. dilu-
tion. Here, the drawpoint spacing is a critical parameter to ensure drawpoint
the drawpoint spacing is a critical parameter to ensure drawpoint interaction (flow zones) interaction
(flow
and zones) and
production production
pillar stability.pillar stability.
3.1.2.
3.1.2.Mining
MiningSupport
Support
The
The supportrequirements
support requirementsused usedininthis
thisproject
projectincluded
includedthe
thefollowing:
following:helical
helicalbolts
bolts
(2.6 m length; 22 mm diameter), self-drilling bolts, electro-welded mesh
(2.6 m length; 22 mm diameter), self-drilling bolts, electro-welded mesh (C-196) (C-196) and brained
and
steel mesh,
brained internal
steel mesh,anchoring with grouting,
internal anchoring resin and resin
with grouting, expansion pin, shotcrete
and expansion pin, with and
shotcrete
without
with and fiber (150 mm),
without fiber and
(150 reticulated frames. Theframes.
mm), and reticulated support design
The varies
support depending
design varies on
de-
the rock mass quality of each sector. Figure 2 shows an example of the support
pending on the rock mass quality of each sector. Figure 2 shows an example of the support design
applied in a drift.
design applied in a drift.
3.1.3. Equipment
In the current construction phase, there has been different mining equipment such as
one dumper, two arm jumbos, one arm jumbo, one Simba, four mixer trucks, two LHD of
6 yd3 , two robotshots (equipment used for shotcrete projection), and one backhoe with a
hammer for scaling. The extraction equipment requirement is currently under study. These
probably will include one or two LHD due to the low production rate and the trucking
system to move the ore out of the mine.
3.2. Copper and Molybdenum Exploitation in the Antofagasta Region

The Chuquicamata deposit is in the foothills of the Atacama Desert, west of the modern
volcanic arc of the Andes Mountains. The deposit is of the porphyry copper type and is
related to intrusive magmatism of Eocene—Oligocene age (41–31 Ma), a porphyry copper
belt that extends for about 1400 km, from 18◦ S to 31◦ S [42,43]. The orebody geometry
is 3000 m north–south, 350 to 800 m east–west and the drilling campaign suggested the
existence of more than 900 m of mineable ore from the final pit bottom [44]. An important
Energies 2023, 16, 148 6 of 24
geological feature is the west fault observed in Figure 3. This fault separates the waste on
the western side from the ore body.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 2. Example of
2. Example of drift
drift support
support used
used in
in Papomono
Papomono mine,
mine, including
including Helical
Helical bolts
bolts (blue), 7 of 26
(blue), Shotcrete
Shotcrete
Figure
(red), and frames (yellow).
3.1.3. Equipment
In the current construction phase, there has been different mining equipment such as
one dumper, two arm jumbos, one arm jumbo, one Simba, four mixer trucks, two LHD of
6 yd3, two robotshots (equipment used for shotcrete projection), and one backhoe with a
hammer for scaling. The extraction equipment requirement is currently under study.
These probably will include one or two LHD due to the low production rate and the truck-
ing system to move the ore out of the mine.
3.2. Copper and Molybdenum Exploitation in the Antofagasta Region

The Chuquicamata deposit is in the foothills of the Atacama Desert, west of the mod-
ern volcanic arc of the Andes Mountains. The deposit is of the porphyry copper type and
is related to intrusive magmatism of Eocene—Oligocene age (41–31 Ma), a porphyry cop-
per belt that extends for about 1400 km, from 18° S to 31° S [42,43]. The orebody geometry
is 3000 m north–south, 350 to 800 m east–west and the drilling campaign suggested the
existence of more than 900 m of mineable ore from the final pit bottom [44]. An important
geological feature is the west fault observed in Figure 3. This fault separates the waste on
the western side from the ore body.
.
Figure 3.
Figure Chuquicamata transition
3. Chuquicamata transition project
project and
and west
west fault
fault [44],
[44], isometric
isometric view.
view.
This project is a transition from an open pit project that was transitioned to an under-
This project is a transition from an open pit project that was transitioned to an under-
ground mine due to the open pit depth (1.1 km). The underground method selection was
ground mine due to the open pit depth (1.1 km). The underground method selection was
block caving with macroblocks applying the El Teniente extraction level layout [44,45]. The
block caving with macroblocks applying the El Teniente extraction level layout [44,45].
ore column heights are 216 m for level 1, 432 m for level 2, and 216 m for level 3 [44]. The
The ore column
ore extraction heights
already are 216
started m for
at the level
first 1, 432 m for
macroblocks (inlevel 2, andof216
the center m for
level level level
1) while 3 [44].1
The ore extraction already started at the first macroblocks
continues to be under development, at the time of this writing. (in the center of level 1) while
level 1 continues to be under development, at the time of this writing.
In this project, preconditioning through hydraulic fractures and confined blasting is
applied in the rock mass over the production level to improve the caving process. The
holes were drilled from some drawbells, the undercut level, and a hydro-fracturing level.
The undercutting level is west–east oriented, with galleries of 4.2 m x 4.4 m. This size is
defined by the driller equipment and ventilation ducts.
Energies 2023, 16, 148 7 of 24
In this project, preconditioning through hydraulic fractures and confined blasting is

applied in the rock mass over the production level to improve the caving process. The
holes were drilled from some drawbells, the undercut level, and a hydro-fracturing level.
The undercutting level is west–east oriented, with galleries of 4.2 m × 4.4 m. This size is
defined by the driller equipment and ventilation ducts.
In Figure 4, the production level development is shown where three macroblocks are
completed (N2N3, N1S1, and S2S3). Different extraction layout spacing is used based on
the macroblocks (32 × 16 m and 32 × 20 m [46]). For example, two macroblocks (N2/N3)
include the following: 300 confinement walls, 278 drawpoints, 1278 Norwegian frames,
15 IE frames, 9689 m of horizontal development at the production level, and 469488mof
of 26
of
26
development at the undercut level. The production drifts are 5.0 × 4.5 m, by applying the
El Teniente layout.
Figure 4. Macroblocks development in level 1, Chuquicamata underground mine [47].

Figure4.4. Macroblocks
Figure Macroblocksdevelopment
developmentin
inlevel
level1,1,Chuquicamata
Chuquicamataunderground
undergroundmine
mine[47].
[47].
3.2.2. Mining Support

3.2.2. Support
3.2.2. Mining
Mining Support
The supportingelement
The element and structures used in this project are helical bolts, cable
Thesupporting
supporting element and
andstructures used
structures in this
used project
in this are helical
project bolts, bolts,
are helical cable bolts,
cable
bolts, shotcrete,
shotcrete, steel frames
steel frames (H type),
(H type), and confinement
and confinement walls.
walls. Confinement
Confinement walls walls are
are are
used used
to
bolts, shotcrete, steel frames (H type), and confinement walls. Confinement walls used
to reinforce
reinforce pillars,
pillars, which
which consist
consist of
of of a group
a group of concrete
ofofconcrete blocks reinforced with steel bars
to reinforce pillars, which consist a group concreteblocks
blocksreinforced
reinforcedwith
withsteel
steelbars
bars
with thepurpose
with purpose ofmaintaining
maintaining thepillar
pillar shapeandand assistingwith
with theresistance
resistance ofloadload
withthethe purposeof of maintainingthe the pillarshape
shape andassisting
assisting withthethe resistanceof of load
above theproduction
above production level[46].[46]. Figure 55shows
shows examples of of supportconstruction
construction atthe the
above thethe production level
level [46]. Figure
Figure 5 showsexamples
examples ofsupport
support construction at at the
production
production level (level 1).
productionlevel
level(level
(level1).
1).
Figure 5. Productionand
and extractiondrift
drift supportconstructions
constructions [47].
Figure5.5. Production
Figure Production andextraction
extraction driftsupport
support constructions[47].
[47].
3.2.3.
3.2.3. Equipment
Equipment
3.2.3. Equipment
Construction
Construction equipment
equipment usedused includes
includesJumbo
JumboandandSimba
Simbadrillers,
drillers,backhoes,
backhoes, exca-
excava-
vators,Construction
blindhole, equipment
hole,raise
raise used
borer,loaders, includes
loaders, Jumbo
scoops (LHD),and Simba drillers,
dumpers, mixer backhoes, excava-
tors, blind borer, scoops (LHD), dumpers, mixer trucks,
trucks, robotshot,
robotshot,
tors, blind
trucks hole, raise borer, loaders,production,
scoops (LHD), dumpers, 3 mixer trucks, arobotshot,
trucks of
ofexplosives,
explosives, and
and forklifts.
forklifts. In
In production, LHD
LHD ofof 77 yd
yd33 that
that dump
dump inin a primary
primary
trucks
crusher of explosives,
connected to and
an oreforklifts.
pass are In production,
currently LHD
being of
used. 7 yd that dump in a primary
crusher connected to an ore pass are currently being used.
crusher connected to an ore pass are currently being used.
3.3. Copper and Molybdenum Exploitation in the O’Higgins Region
The El Teniente mine is one of the largest underground copper mines in the world
The El Teniente mine is one of the largest underground copper mines in the world
with more than 3000 km of drifts. It is in the Andes range (Farellones formation) in the
with more than 3000 km of drifts. It is in the Andes range (Farellones formation) in the
central zone of Chile, about 70 km from Santiago, Chile. El Teniente is a porphyry Cu–Mo
central zone of Chile, about 70 km from Santiago, Chile. El Teniente is a porphyry Cu–Mo
deposit, anomalous in size, with over 94 million tonnes (Mt) of contained fine copper,
deposit, anomalous in size, with over 94 million tonnes (Mt) of contained fine copper,
where the principal host rocks are andesites [48]. The primary copper ore is very compe-
where the principal host rocks are andesites [48]. The primary copper ore is very compe-
tent and massive, with almost no open discontinuities [49]. The mine is subdivided into
tent and massive, with almost no open discontinuities [49]. The mine is subdivided into
Energies 2023, 16, 148 8 of 24

The El Teniente mine is one of the largest underground copper mines in the world with
more than 3000 km of drifts. It is in the Andes range (Farellones formation) in the central
zone of Chile, about 70 km from Santiago, Chile. El Teniente is a porphyry Cu–Mo deposit,
anomalous in size, with over 94 million tonnes (Mt) of contained fine copper, where the
principal host rocks are andesites [48]. The primary copper ore is very competent and
massive, with almost no open discontinuities [49]. The mine is subdivided into smaller
production units that are located around a sterile pipe. The deposit is formed by three main
lithologies called El Teniente Mafic Complex (CMET), Felsic Complex (SC), and Brecha 9 of 26
Braden Complex (Pipe). Figure 6 shows the sterile pipe (green) around which different
exploitation mines are located.
Figure 6. Location of different exploitation levels around

around Pipa
Pipa Braden
Braden [50].
[50].

The underground mines or sectors are exploited using the panel caving method with con-
The underground mines or sectors are exploited using the panel caving method with
ventional undercutting and advanced undercutting using crinkle cut, among other techniques,
conventional undercutting and advanced undercutting using crinkle cut, among other
to initiate the caving. The ore is collected at drawpoints by LHDs, which dump the ore in ore
techniques, to initiate the caving. The ore is collected at drawpoints by LHDs, which dump
passes to an intermediate transport level operated by trucks system. El Teniente also has an
the ore in ore passes to an intermediate transport level operated by trucks system. El Ten-
open pit operation called Rajo Sur, located between 2730 and 3240 m.a.s.l. Nowadays, the new
iente also has an open pit operation called Rajo Sur, located between 2730 and 3240 m.a.s.l.
mine level (Figure 6 bottom) has been constructed and divided into different mines or sectors.
Nowadays, the new mine level (Figure 6 bottom) has been constructed and divided into
In the El Teniente mine, there are different extraction layouts geometries, and dimensions.
different mines
However, the El or sectors.
Teniente In the
layout typeEl Teniente
is currentlymine,
usedthere
in allare different extraction layouts
sectors.
geometries, and dimensions. However, the El Teniente layout
Figure 7 shows an example of different levels required to apply type aispanel
currently used
caving in all
method
sectors.
in a large deposit. The first level is used to blast the deposit base and start the caving.
At the Figure 7 shows
production an example
level, the ore isofdrawn
different levels
using LHDrequired to apply
that dumps a panel caving
the material to ore
method in a large deposit. The first level is used to blast the
passes connected with the haulage level. From the undercutting and production deposit base and start the
levels,
preconditioning in the rock mass is commonly applied. At the haulage level, the ore to
caving. At the production level, the ore is drawn using LHD that dumps the material is
ore passes connected
commonly transportedwith theunderground
using haulage level. Fromtrucks.
mining the undercutting and production
The ventilation lev-
level consists of
aels, preconditioning
layout in the rockbymass
of galleries connected is commonly
chimneys applied.
to the other At the haulage level, the ore
levels.
is commonly transported using underground mining trucks. The ventilation level consists
3.3.2. Mining
of a layout of Support
galleries connected by chimneys to the other levels.
During the construction of the (originally called) new mine level in El Teniente, several
rock bursts occurred due to the competent rock and high-stress field. Thus, a precondition
was applied during drifts development using hydraulic fracturing and distress blasting
to decrease stress on the working front. In addition, a strong fortification was considered,
highlighting a minor use of shotcrete (due to the fall of concrete blocks) and an intensive
used of bolts, cable bolts, double galvanized mesh, shotcrete with fiber, and confining
Energies 2023, 16, 148 9 of 24
walls in production level pillars. Additionally, the use of mechanized and tele-commanded
equipment increased during development. These measures increased the safety during
development but also the cycle time.
Figure 8 shows an example of the support used during the new mine level construction.
The bolt layout is shown in blue, while the cable bolt layout is shown in pink. Bolts and
cable bolt adhered to rock mass with concrete and additives. Two shotcrete layers are
applied by dividing by two meshes. The bolts are pressed between both shotcrete layers.

Figure7.7.Isometric
Figure Isometricview
viewofofthe
theinitial
initialnew
newlevel
levelmine
mineproject,
project,ElElTeniente
Teniente[51].
[51].
3.3.2. Mining Support

During the construction of the (originally called) new mine level in El Teniente, sev-
eral rock bursts occurred due to the competent rock and high-stress field. Thus, a precon-
dition was applied during drifts development using hydraulic fracturing and distress
blasting to decrease stress on the working front. In addition, a strong fortification was
considered, highlighting a minor use of shotcrete (due to the fall of concrete blocks) and
an intensive used of bolts, cable bolts, double galvanized mesh, shotcrete with fiber, and
confining walls in production level pillars. Additionally, the use of mechanized and tele-
commanded equipment increased during development. These measures increased the
safety during development but also the cycle time.
Figure 8 shows an example of the support used during the new mine level construc-
tion. The bolt layout is shown in blue, while the cable bolt layout is shown in pink. Bolts
and cable bolt adhered to rock mass with concrete and additives. Two shotcrete layers are
applied by dividing by two meshes. The bolts are pressed between both shotcrete layers.
Figure 8. 8.
Figure Example of of
Example support used
support in in
used high seismic
high risk
seismic [52].
risk [52].
3.3.3. Equipment
Diverse mining equipment is used in this mine during construction and ore extrac-
tion. At the production level, LHD of 7 yd3 (~9.7 tonnes) CAT R1600H are commonly used,
with a productivity of around of 3000 tpd. In addition, other LHD models are used such
as the Sandvik lh410 and lh517 models, and the Caterpillar R1600H model. The haulage
level (Teniente 7) is an intermediate haulage level where underground trucks are used.
These trucks have commonly 40 t or 80 t of capacity (Volvo and Supra 012H model, re-
Energies 2023, 16, 148 10 of 24
3.3.3. Equipment
Diverse mining equipment is used in this mine during construction and ore extraction.
At the production level, LHD of 7 yd3 (~9.7 tonnes) CAT R1600H are commonly used, with
a productivity of around of 3000 tpd. In addition, other LHD models are used such as the
Sandvik lh410 and lh517 models, and the Caterpillar R1600H model. The haulage level
(Teniente 7) is an intermediate haulage level where underground trucks are used. These
trucks have commonly 40 t or 80 t of capacity (Volvo and Supra 012H model, respectively).
Then, the ore is transported by ore pass to the railway located in El Teniente 8 level. In the
new levels, conveyor belt will also be used in the new haulage level.
4. Poland Study Cases

Deposits with a thickness of more than 7 m are considered thick, this applies to
deposits located in Poland. Currently, the exploitation of thick copper ore deposits is
carried out only in the Legnica–Głogów Copper district at Rudna mine owned by KGHM
Polska Miedź S.A. A characteristic feature of the deposit is its horizontal deposition with
a small angle of inclination, about 8◦ . Exploitation is carried out at a depth of more than
1200 m in the sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits, Kupferschiefer-type.
The article also presents the methods of exploitation of thick zinc and lead ore deposits,
which were used in the Trzebionka mine (Chrzanów region) until 2009 and in the Olkusz
mine (Olkusz region) until 2020. The deposits in the form of nests and lenses were deposited
at shallow depths of 80 to 200 m. Both mines are already closed due to resource depletion.
Nevertheless, the presented mining methods indicate their evolution, especially in terms of
the future exploitation of zinc and lead ore deposits in the Zawiercie region, which were
identified by drilling holes from the ground surface and for which it is possible to protect
buildings with the use of hydraulic backfilling.
Due to the fact that copper ore deposits occur at a depth of less than 1000 m, they are
accessible only by means of vertical shafts. On the other hand, deposits of zinc and lead
ores lying at a small depth (about 100 m) are accessible by means of a decline and vertical
shafts. Regardless of the access method, one excavation is used to supply fresh air and 12 of 26
the
other to discharge used air. The output from the exploitation field was transported to the
surface by means of a vertical shaft. An exemplary transport route is shown in Figure 9.
Figure9.9.The
Figure Theway
wayof oftransporting
transporting the
the excavated
excavated material
material from
from the
the exploitation
exploitation field
field to
to the
the surface:
surface:
EF1—exploitationfield
EF1—exploitation fieldno
no1;
1;EF2—exploitation
EF2—exploitationfield
fieldno
no 2;
2; 1—haulage
1—haulage room;
room; 2—transportation
2—transportation drift;
drift;
3—discharge (chute) small shaft; 4—field rock drift; 5—main rock drift; 6—dump’s
3—discharge (chute) small shaft; 4—field rock drift; 5—main rock drift; 6—dump’s room; 7—storage room; 7—
storage reservoir; 8—measure reservoir; 9—skip hoist; A—passable dump; B—inclined
reservoir; 8—measure reservoir; 9—skip hoist; A—passable dump; B—inclined plane; C—steel plane; C—
steel membered
membered conveyor;
conveyor; D—jaw D—jaw crusher;
crusher; E—beltE—belt conveyors.
conveyors.
4.1. Zinc and Lead Exploitation in the Chrzanów Region

In Poland, in the Chrzanów region, until 2009, various variants of room and pillar
mining methods were used to select thick deposits, with the mining of the deposit with
rooms to the full thickness and the liquidation of the room with the use of hydraulic
Figure 9. The way of transporting the excavated material from the exploitation field to the surface:
EF1—exploitation field no 1; EF2—exploitation field no 2; 1—haulage room; 2—transportation drift;
3—discharge (chute) small shaft; 4—field rock drift; 5—main rock drift; 6—dump’s room; 7—
Energies 2023, 16, 148 11 of 24
storage reservoir; 8—measure reservoir; 9—skip hoist; A—passable dump; B—inclined plane; C—
steel membered conveyor; D—jaw crusher; E—belt conveyors.
4.1. Zinc and Lead Exploitation in the Chrzanów Region

In Poland, in the Chrzanów region, until 2009, various variants
variants of room and pillar
mining methods
methods were used to select thick deposits, with the mining of the deposit with
rooms to the full thickness and the liquidation of the room with the use of hydraulic
backfilling. The
The contoured area with exploration workings was divided into two mining
fields (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Figure Scheme of
10. Scheme of preparation
preparation of
of aa thick
thick orebody
orebody for
for exploitation.
exploitation.
In the
In the mining
mining field,
field, rooms
rooms with
with aa width
width ofof 10
10 m
m to
to 16
16 m
m and
and aa length
length ofof up
up to
to 70
70 m
m
were
were designed,
designed, asaswell
wellas
asinter-room
inter-roompillars
pillarswith
witha awidth
widthofof
3m3mtoto
4 m. InIn
4 m. thethe
deposit upup
deposit to
10 m thick, the deposit with the contour of the designed room was selected by dividing it
to 10 m thick, the deposit with the contour of the designed room was selected by dividing
into two layers. First, the 3 m thick roofing layer was exploited, and then the bottom layer
it into two layers. First, the 3 m thick roofing layer was exploited, and then the bottom
was as well. The preparation of the rooms for exploitation consisted of the construction
layer was as well. The preparation of the rooms for exploitation consisted of the
of a transportation roadway on the bottom of the deposit, located under the exploration
roadway, over-room roadways located in the axes of the designed rooms under the roof of
the deposit, and chute and breakthrough small shafts connecting the transporting roadway
with the over-room roadway (Figure 11).
In the first stage of exploitation, the over-room roadway was widened to the width
of the designed room. The deposit in the first layer was made with short blast holes. The
output was placed in the chute and breakthrough small shaft. The roof of the workings
was secured along the entire length with the rock bolt support with expansion heads or
with an application of resin cartridges. The length of the bolt support was at least 1.6 m.
The distance between the bolts did not exceed 1.2 m. The mining of the second layer began
with widening the small shaft chute to the width of the future room. The widening was
performed with short blast holes, leaving a 3 m wide retaining barrier pillar from the side
of the transporting roadway. Then the bottom layer was selected with the use of long blast
holes drilled from the top layer. During the exploitation of the bottom layer, 4 m wide and
4 m deep cut-rooms were made in the sidewall of the room from the side of the orebody.
The distance between the cut-rooms was 8 m. The cut-rooms were crossed by the designed
inter-room pillar, reducing operational losses. Finally, there were unselected rectangular
pillars with dimensions of 4 × 8 m between the rooms.
construction of a transportation roadway on the bottom of the deposit, located under the
exploration roadway, over-room roadways located in the axes of the designed rooms
Energies 2023, 16, 148 under the roof of the deposit, and chute and breakthrough small shafts connecting 12 the
of 24
transporting roadway with the over-room roadway (Figure 11).
Figure 11. Room and pillar mining method in an orebody with a thickness of up to 10 m.
Figure 11. Room and pillar mining method in an orebody with a thickness of up to 10 m.
Exploitation works were carried out simultaneously in several rooms, usually in three
rooms:In thethefirst
firststage of exploitation,
room—excavating thethe over-room
roof layer; theroadway was widened to the
second room—selecting the bottom
width
of
layer and cut-rooms in the pillar; the third room—building backfilling wooden dams inThe
the designed room. The deposit in the first layer was made with short blast holes. the
output
cut-rooms wasinplaced in the
the pillar. Thechute
rooms and breakthrough
were shaped intosmall shaft. The
a trapezoid as a roof
resultofofthetheworkings
deviation
was secured
of the sidewalls alongtowards
the entire thelength
orebody with at the rock bolt
an angle support
of about 5◦ .with
Theexpansion
deposit was heads
minedor
with an application of resin cartridges. The length of the
with the use of explosives such as dynamite, ammonite, and saletrol. The haulage of thebolt support was at least 1.6 m.
The distancematerial
excavated betweenwas thecarried
bolts did not
out exceed
with the 1.2
usem. of The
loadingmining andofhauling
the second layer
trucks. began
Wooden
with widening the small shaft chute to the width of the
dams and backfilling cloth were used to enclose the room. The room was supplemented future room. The widening was in
performed
two stages.with In theshort blast
first holes,
stage, theleaving
room was a3m wide retaining
extended to half its barrier
height.pillar from the side
Complementing
of the
the transporting
filling to the roof roadway.
took place Then the bottom
while filling thelayernextwas selected
room. In thewith
orethe use of up
deposits long toblast
15 m
holes
thick,drilled
layers fromup tothe 6 mtop layer.
thick were During
separatedthe exploitation
in the room,ofwhich the bottom layer, from
were mined 4 m wide and
the room
4tomthe
deep cut-rooms
bottom of thewereroommade (in thein case
the sidewall
of stableofrooms)
the room or infromthe the side offrom
direction the orebody.
the floor
The distance
to the roof (in between
the case theofcut-rooms
less stablewas 8 m.In
roofs). The thecut-rooms were crossed
case of mining layers in bythethe top-down
designed
inter-room
direction, the pillar, reducing
filling of the operational
rooms took losses.
place afterFinally, there the
selecting were unselected
orebody in the rectangular
room [53].
In the with
pillars case dimensions
of the reverse of order
4×8m ofbetween
selectingthe therooms.
layers, after mining the layer, backfilling
was Exploitation
performed, and worksthe next
werehigher
carriedlayer
out was selected along
simultaneously in the backfilling.
several rooms, The usuallyscheme in
of mining
three rooms: a deposit
the firstinroom—excavating
a 15 m high roomthe using
roofthree layers
layer; in the top-down
the second room—selectingdirection theis
shown layer
bottom in Figure and12. cut-rooms in the pillar; the third room—building backfilling wooden
dams in the cut-rooms in the pillar. The rooms were shaped into a trapezoid as a result of
4.2.deviation
the Zinc and Lead of the Exploitation
sidewalls in the Olkusz
towards the Region
orebody at an angle of about 5°. The deposit
Room and
was mined withpillarthe usemining methods with
of explosives suchthe as bottom
dynamite, discharge
ammonite, of theandoutput was used
saletrol. The
in the Olkusz
haulage of the region
excavated in the 1970s to
material wasextract
carrieda thick deposit
out with the ofusezinc and leadand
of loading ores with a
hauling
thickness
trucks. Woodenof 9 mdams to 15and m [54]. The exploitation
backfilling cloth werewas usedconducted
to enclose in thetwo
room.stages. In thewas
The room first
stage, rooms with a width of 10 m to 12 m were selected in
supplemented in two stages. In the first stage, the room was extended to half its height.the mining field and continuous
pillars 7 m wide were
Complementing left between
the filling the rooms
to the roof (Figure
took place 13). In
while the second
filling the next stage, the In
room. inter-room
the ore
deposits up to 15 m thick, layers up to 6 m thick were separated in the room, whichmining
pillars in the mining field were mined. It was assumed that after the simultaneous were
of the pillars
mined from the in the
room selection field, the
to the bottom ofexcavated
the room material
(in the case would be ejected
of stable rooms) to the rooms
or in the
and the roof rocks would fall. The material thrown into the
direction from the floor to the roof (in the case of less stable roofs). In the case of mining rooms was to be recovered
through
layers in discharge
the top-down openings madethe
direction, under theof
filling rooms. The elementary
the rooms took placefield afterwas contoured
selecting the
with exploration roadways in a 100 × 100 m grid, which was divided into two fields, and
the rooms were perpendicular to the longer edge of the field. Preparatory works in the field
were performed on two or three levels: under the orebody, under the roof of the orebody
and above the orebody. Above the roof of the orebody (about 5 m), over-pillar roadways
were made along the axis of the designed pillars. They were intended for drilling blast
Energies 2023, 16, 148 13 of 24
holes in the pillars and mining the pillars between the rooms. This concept was quickly
orebody
abandoned in and
the room [53].roadways
the pillar In the case
wereofreplaced
the reverse
withorder
pillarof selectingmade
roadways the layers, after
at the same
mining
level as the
the layer, backfilling
haulage roadways. was performed,
Under and
the roof of the next higher
orebody, layer wasroadways
over-room selected along
were
driven,
the located in
backfilling. Thethescheme
axis of of
themining
designed rooms or
a deposit in the
a 15corner
m high of room
the room.
usingThese
threeroadways
layers in
were connected
the top-down by a system
direction of preparatory
is shown workings with a ventilation level.
in Figure 12.
Figure 12.
Figure Room and
12. Room and pillar
pillar mining
mining method
method in
in an
an orebody
orebody with
with aa thickness
thickness of
of more
more than
than 10
10 m.
m.
4.2. Zinc and Lead Exploitation in the Olkusz Region

Room and pillar mining methods with the bottom discharge of the output was used
in the Olkusz region in the 1970s to extract a thick deposit of zinc and lead ores with a
thickness of 9 m to 15 m [54]. The exploitation was conducted in two stages. In the first
stage, rooms with a width of 10 m to 12 m were selected in the mining field and continuous
pillars 7 m wide were left between the rooms (Figure 13). In the second stage, the inter-
room pillars in the mining field were mined. It was assumed that after the simultaneous
mining of the pillars in the selection field, the excavated material would be ejected to the
rooms and the roof rocks would fall. The material thrown into the rooms was to be
recovered through discharge openings made under the rooms. The elementary field was
contoured with exploration roadways in a 100 × 100 m grid, which was divided into two
fields,
Figure13.
Figure and
13.Room theand
Room rooms
and pillarwere
pillarminingperpendicular
mining methodwith
method to the discharge.
withbottom
bottom longer edge
discharge. of the
Blasting
Blasting field.
holes
holes Preparatory
inred.
in red.
works in the field were performed on two or three levels: under the orebody, under the
They
roofThey were
of thewere
orebodyusedand
used todrill
to drill
abovelong
long cutting
thecutting
orebody.holes
holes Aboveanddischarge
and discharge
the roof ofthethe used
theused air. About
orebody
air. About
(about5.5 5.5
5 m),
mm
below the
over-pillar bottom
roadways of the
wereorebody,
made there
along was
the a transporting
axis of the level.
designed
below the bottom of the orebody, there was a transporting level. At this level, in the axes At this
pillars. level,
They in the
were
ofaxes
theoffuture
intended theforfuture
rooms,rooms,
drilling blast haulage in roadways
holesroadways
haulage the pillars
were were
and driven,
mining
driven, and and
the in
thethe
inpillars axesofofthe
between
axes thepillars,
the pillars,
rooms.
roadways
This concept
roadways for excavating
was quickly
for excavating the
the pillars
abandoned were
pillars were andalso driven.
thedriven.
also The
pillar roadways haulage
The haulage were roadways
replaced
roadways were
with
were driven
pillar
driven
at intervals
roadways of about 17 m. From the haulage roadways, the excavations were driven and
at intervalsmade at the
of about 17 same levelthe
m. From as the haulage
haulage roadways.
roadways, the Under the roof
excavations wereof the orebody,
driven and
used to
over-room discharge
roadways the output.
were driven,These were funnels made at intervals of 5.5 m, arranged
used to discharge the output. Theselocated in the axis
were funnels made of at
theintervals
designed ofrooms
5.5 m, or the corner
arranged in
in the
of a checkerboard
room. These pattern.
roadways The diameter
were of the
connected by funnels
a system inofthe upper partworkings
preparatory was 5 mwith and
a checkerboard pattern. The diameter of the funnels in the upper part was 5 m and they
athey undercutlevel.
ventilation
undercut
the bottom of the room on about 70% of the surface. A breakthrough small
the bottom of the room on about 70% of the surface. A breakthrough small shaft
shaft was constructed at the beginning of each room. It was an extension of the first funnel
was constructed at the beginning of each room. It was an extension of the first funnel and
and was connected with the over-room roadway using a short cut-off roadway, made
was connected with the over-room roadway using a short cut-off roadway, made
perpendicularly along the axis of the room.
perpendicularly along the axis of the room.
In the haulage roadways, scraper loaders were installed in order to place the output
In the haulage roadways, scraper loaders were installed in order to place the output
pouring out of the openings on the transporting roadway. The mining in the room was
pouring out of the openings on the transporting roadway. The mining in the room was
started until the breakthrough was completed, i.e., the small shaft was extended to the
started untilofthe
full width thebreakthrough was completed,
room. The breakthrough was i.e.,made
the small
withshaft
long wasblastextended
holes and to it
the fulla
was
width of the room. The breakthrough was made with long blast holes and it was a
compensation space in the case of the material blasted from the first advance (the distance
between the fans of the holes, was 2.5 m). The diameter of the blast hole in the fan was 70
mm, and the length of the holes was from 6 m to 15 m. The total length of the holes in the
fan was from 96 m to 115 m.
Energies 2023, 16, 148 14 of 24
compensation space in the case of the material blasted from the first advance (the distance
between the fans of the holes, was 2.5 m). The diameter of the blast hole in the fan was
70 mm, and the length of the holes was from 6 m to 15 m. The total length of the holes in
the fan was from 96 m to 115 m.
For the blasting, saletrol was used and injected into the holes using pneumatic injectors.
The maximum mass of the explosive in the fan was 350 kg. One or two fans were blasted
simultaneously. The output rolled down to the discharged chutes, which undercut the
bottom of the room. The first stage was related to the mining of the orebody in the rooms.
After mining the orebody in the selection field, the mining of the inter-room pillars was
started, which was the second stage. For this purpose, one row of long blast holes was
drilled from the over-pillar roadways and all the pillars were mined at the same time. After
blasting, only part of the excavated material was thrown toward the rooms. Most of the
output remained between the rooms and it could not be recovered through the discharge
openings made for the rooms.
In addition, the planned caving of the roof rocks did not take place. Maintaining
such a large underground void was dangerous. The aforementioned technological defects,
compared to the planned design assumptions, showed that the operating losses in this
method were very high—up to 40% and due to the second stage of operation, the system
was uneconomical. In the following fields, various attempts were made to improve the
technology in the second stage of operation. In some fields, all the pillars were abandoned
and only every second pillar in the field was mined. The attempts at improvement did
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWnot bring the expected economic effects, which prompted the discontinuation16ofofthis 26
exploitation mining method.
Later, successful attempts were made with the help of a sublevel caving method. This
method was used in the Olkusz region in Poland to extract zinc and lead ore deposits, the
roof of which was disturbed by the earlier exploitation of the higher layers, and to extract
roof of which was disturbed by the earlier exploitation of the higher layers, and to extract
the remains of the ore [55]. The sublevel caving method could also be used in a deposit
the remains of the ore [55]. The sublevel caving method could also be used in a deposit
that had not been affected by previous mining operations when the roof rocks showed a
that had not been affected by previous mining operations when the roof rocks showed a
high tendency to collapse. The method could not be used in the case of watered layers in
high tendency to collapse. The method could not be used in the case of watered layers in
the overburden or the upper layers. In the case of a thick orebody, 7 m thick layers were
the overburden or the upper layers. In the case of a thick orebody, 7 m thick layers were
separated in horizontal planes, and 8 m wide blocks in vertical planes (Figure 14).
separated in horizontal planes, and 8 m wide blocks in vertical planes (Figure 14).
Figure14.
Figure Sublevelcaving
14.Sublevel cavingused
usedin
inthe
theOlkusz–Pomorzany
Olkusz–Pomorzanymine
minein
inPoland.
Poland.
The layers
The layers were
were mined
mined with
with blocks/stopes
blocks/stopesexploited
exploitedfromfromtoptopto tobottom.
bottom.In Inthe
theaxis
axis
of each block, mining drifts with dimensions of 3 × 3 m were driven
of each block, mining drifts with dimensions of 3 × 3 m were driven on the floor of the on the floor of the
layer, and they were protected using rock bolt support. In the lower layers,
layer, and they were protected using rock bolt support. In the lower layers, the blocks the blocks were
moved
were by half
moved theirtheir
by half length between
length betweenthe the
axesaxes
of the drifts,
of the which
drifts, which ensured
ensuredthethe
recovery
recoveryof
the ore left in the leftovers between the mining drifts in the upper layer. The
of the ore left in the leftovers between the mining drifts in the upper layer. The length of length of the
exploitation
the blocks
exploitation diddid
blocks notnot
exceed 100100
exceed m. m.
The blast holes were drilled from
The blast holes were drilled from the the exploitation
exploitation drift
drift in
in aa fan
fan arrangement.
arrangement. The The
diameter of the holes ranged from 50 mm to 70 mm, and the distance
diameter of the holes ranged from 50 mm to 70 mm, and the distance between the fans between the fans
rangedfrom
ranged from 11 mmtoto1.8
1.8m.
m.About
About1212blast
blastholes
holeswere
weredrilled
drilledininone
onefan.
fan.The
Theore
orewas
wasblasted
blasted
with saletrol, which was loaded into the holes using a pneumatic injector. The blasted
with saletrol, which was loaded into the holes using a pneumatic injector. The blasted
material rolled down to the roadways and was loaded and set aside with self-propelled
material rolled down to the roadways and was loaded and set aside with self-propelled
machines—loaders. The main advantages of the method were the ability to safely select the
machines—loaders. The main advantages of the method were the ability to safely select
the deposit under the roof of rocks damaged by previous mining; the possibility of
recovering the ore left in the collapsed space of the upper layers; the ability to safely
extract the ore left in the inter-room pillars. The disadvantages of the method were the
dilution of the ore with rocks permeating from the caving space; enormous devastation of
Energies 2023, 16, 148 15 of 24
deposit under the roof of rocks damaged by previous mining; the possibility of recovering
the ore left in the collapsed space of the upper layers; the ability to safely extract the ore
left in the inter-room pillars. The disadvantages of the method were the dilution of the
ore with rocks permeating from the caving space; enormous devastation of the surface, as
the exploitation was carried out at shallow depths, about 60 m below the ground surface.
The above-mentioned disadvantages resulted in abandoning the exploitation of zinc and
lead ore deposits using the sublevel caving method. From 1990 to 2020, thick deposits
were mined from the bottom up, with horizontal layers 5–6 m high. In the first layer, a
room and pillar method was always used, while the subsequent layers were exploited
with a strip method with the liquidation of post-mining space with the use of hydraulic
backfilling [56,57].
4.3. Copper Exploitation in the Legnica–Głogów Copper District

Diversified strength parameters of rocks in the mining gate led to the development of
a two-layer method of extracting thick copper ore deposits in the Legnica–Głogów Copper
district in Poland, with the use of hydraulic backfilling. In the thick orebody, two layers are
separated—the roofing layer with a thickness of 4 m to 5 m and the bottom layer with the
remaining thickness of the deposit. The preparatory workings for both layers are made
in the roofing layer, in which the roof of the workings is made of carbonate layers with
high strength parameters. This enables the stability of these excavations to be maintained
despite the large depth of exploitation and the occurrence of induced seismicity. Attempts
to make and maintain the preparatory workings in the bottom layer, which are usually
sandstones
at with in
a certain time low strength
advance of parameters, failed.
each other. One Both layers
preparatory are minedmade
excavation at a certain time in
in the bottom
advance of each other. One preparatory excavation made in the bottom layer is the
layer is the inclined drift (ramp). This inclined drift connects the preparatory workings in inclined
driftroofing
the (ramp).layer
This inclined
with thedrift connects
bottom of thethe preparatory
rooms workings
in the lower in It
layer. theisroofing
used tolayer
haulwith
the
the bottom of the rooms in the lower layer. It is used to haul the output from the rooms of
output from the rooms of the lower layer [58].
the lower layer [58].
The room and pillar method with a two-layer deposit extraction (proper name Rudna
The room and pillar method with a two-layer deposit extraction (proper name Rudna 5)
5) was used in an orebody with a thickness of up to 15 m and an inclination angle of up◦
was used in an orebody with a thickness of up to 15 m and an inclination angle of up to 8 .
to 8°. The preparatory works consisted of the construction of double roadways and
The preparatory works consisted of the construction of double roadways and inclined
inclined drifts in the roof layer separating the exploitation fields with the following
drifts in the roof layer separating the exploitation fields with the following dimensions:
dimensions: field width from 150 m to 200 m; the length of the field was about 800 m,
field width from 150 m to 200 m; the length of the field was about 800 m, depending on the
depending on the geological and mining conditions. At the same time, mining was carried
geological and mining conditions. At the same time, mining was carried out in at least two
out in at least two fields of exploitation (Figure 15).
fields of exploitation (Figure 15).
Figure 15. Room and pillar mining method using two-layer orebody exploitation.
First, the roof layer with a thickness of about 4.5 m was selected [59]. It included
dolomites, shales, and sandstones. In this layer, 28 × 10.5 m pillars were separated by room
workings. The longer side of the pillar was parallel to the goal line. The rooms were about
7 m wide at the roof, and their sidewalls were inclined towards the whole body at an angle
of about 10°. There were three rows of pillars ahead of time. Preparation for the
Energies 2023, 16, 148 16 of 24
First, the roof layer with a thickness of about 4.5 m was selected [59]. It included
dolomites, shales, and sandstones. In this layer, 28 × 10.5 m pillars were separated by room
workings. The longer side of the pillar was parallel to the goal line. The rooms were about
7 m wide at the roof, and their sidewalls were inclined towards the whole body at an angle
of about 10◦ . There were three rows of pillars ahead of time. Preparation for the exploitation
of the bottom layer consisted of making inclined drifts from the top layer, giving them a
slope that enabled the movement of mobile machines (from 5◦ to 8◦ ). Flooring down the
inclined drifts was performed continuously, as the work front progresses. The selection of
the orebody in both layers took place simultaneously with the maintenance of appropriate
advance. In the top layer, the last row of pillars was selected and the maximum width of
the exposed roof was 17.5 m.
The selection of pillars proceeded on both sides from the inclined drifts toward the
center of the field. The mining of the bottom layer followed the selected pillars. A distance
of 12 m to 36 m was maintained between the face in both layers due to the blasting works
and the movement of machines. The lower layer was cut with long blast holes drilled from
the upper layer. After mining both layers, a room about 15 m high, 17.5 m wide at the roof,
and 150 m to 200 m long was created. The drilling of blast holes and loading and hauling of
the excavated material were performed with typical self-propelled machines. Full column
resin bolt support (2.6 m) was used, installed in a 1 × 1 m net bolting. In the upper layer,
the workings had a trapezoidal shape, while the inclined drifts and room workings 18 oval
of 26
shape. The rooms in the upper layer were ventilated until they were connected using
duct ventilation. In the perpendicular rooms of the upper layer, backfilling wooden dams
were built at
movement ofthe
theedge of the
mining room. In
machines, the inclined
wooden dams drifts for the
were built onmovement of the
the sand, after mining
the room
machines, wooden dams were built on the sand, after the room was
was backfilled up to the floor of the upper layer (Figure 16). When designing backfilled uptheto
the floor of the upper layer (Figure 16). When designing the excavation at
excavation at a distance of 15 m from the stream of air flow generated by the main fan, a distance
of
they15are
m ventilated
from the stream of air Excavations
by diffusion. flow generated by15
above themmain fan, theywith
are ventilated are separate
ventilated by
fans.
diffusion. Excavations above 15 m are ventilated with separate fans. The amount
The amount of fresh air introduced must ensure the appropriate composition, such as of fresh
air introduced
O2—min. 19%;must ensure the
CO2—max. appropriate
1.0% composition,
(10000 ppm); CO—max. such as O2 —min.
0.0026% 19%; CO
(26 ppm); 2 —max.
H2S—max.
1.0% (10,000 ppm); CO—max. 0.0026% (26 ppm); H2 S—max. 0.0007% (7 ppm); SO2 —max.
0.0007% (7 ppm); SO2—max. 0.000075% (0.75 ppm); NO2—max. 0.00026% (2.6 ppm).
0.000075% (0.75 ppm); NO2 —max. 0.00026% (2.6 ppm).
Figure 16. Backfilling in the inclined drift.
Mining
Mining ofof copper
copperoreoredeposits
depositsininthethe
area of LGOM
area of LGOM is carried out in
is carried outconditions of high
in conditions of
seismic activity of the rock mass. Therefore, in the blasting metric, apart
high seismic activity of the rock mass. Therefore, in the blasting metric, apart from from breakage,
mining,
breakage,and contouring
mining, holes, destress
and contouring holes, relief
destressholes areholes
relief oftenare
made,
oftenthe length
made, the of which
length of
are usually twice as long as the mining holes (Figure 17). Moreover, the
which are usually twice as long as the mining holes (Figure 17). Moreover, the diameterdiameter of the
destress blastingblasting
of the destress holes isholes
almost is twice
almostas twice
large. as
Forlarge.
example, for 30 holes,
For example, for the explosive
30 holes, the
load is 84 kg, and with destress holes with a diameter of 0.089 m, the maximum
explosive load is 84 kg, and with destress holes with a diameter of 0.089 m, the maximum explosive
load is 116load
explosive kg. is 116 kg.
The backfilling water was discharged to the field sedimentation reservoirs through
pipe channels (worn pipes with a diameter of 500 mm) laid in the backfilling at the level
of the bottom of the upper layer and through perforated tubing and wrapped with a
backfilling cloth laid on the bottom of the lower layer. Pipe channels were arranged in each
upper layer room and the end layer rooms of the bottom layer. The backfilling pipeline was
installed in the rooms of the upper layer. After backfilling the post-exploitation area, the
sand was removed from the inclined drifts (picked up with loading trucks) and the cycle
Figure 16. Backfilling in the inclined drift.
Mining of copper ore deposits in the area of LGOM is carried out in conditions of
Energies 2023, 16, 148 high seismic activity of the rock mass. Therefore, in the blasting metric, apart17from of 24
breakage, mining, and contouring holes, destress relief holes are often made, the length of
which are usually twice as long as the mining holes (Figure 17). Moreover, the diameter
of
wasthe destress
repeated in blasting
the field. holes is almost
Exploitation wastwice as large.
performed For example,
simultaneously in for 30 holes,
at least the
two fields
explosive load is 84 kg, and with destress holes with a diameter of 0.089 m, the maximum
of exploitation. The times of selection, liquidation, and preparatory works in both fields
explosive loadinissuch
were selected 116 kg.
a way as to ensure the continuity of the mining process.
Figure 17.
Figure Arrangement of
17. Arrangement of blasting
blasting holes
holes in
in the
the ore
ore forehead.
forehead.
The backfilling
The backfilling that is used
water was in mining excavations
discharged to the fieldis sedimentation
either dry or hydraulic. Inthrough
reservoirs the case
of dry backfilling, the rock material comes from preparatory and mining excavations
pipe channels (worn pipes with a diameter of 500 mm) laid in the backfilling at the level and
is delivered to the space selected by mine loaders. The hydraulic backfilling,
of the bottom of the upper layer and through perforated tubing and wrapped with a on the other
hand, is transported using pipelines with a diameter of 0.150 m and 0.185 m. Backfilling
backfilling cloth laid on the bottom of the lower layer. Pipe channels were arranged in
material may be non-combustible and non-toxic solids. Filling material can also be used:
each upper layer room and the end layer rooms of the bottom layer. The backfilling
sand; gravel; waste: slags; gang; industrial waste. It is worth noting that the maximum
pipeline was installed in the rooms of the upper layer. After backfilling the post-
dimension of grains should not be greater than 0.06 m; the content of particles of size less
exploitation area, the sand was removed from the inclined drifts (picked up with loading
than 0.1 mm are at most 20%; and the compressibility at pressure 15 MPa is at most 15%.
trucks) and the cycle was repeated in the field. Exploitation was performed
Water flowing into mine workings is discharged to the surface through drainage
simultaneously in at least two fields of exploitation. The times of selection, liquidation,
devices and special workings included in the mine drainage. In the vast majority of cases,
and preparatory works in both fields were selected in such a way as to ensure the
water runoff occurs automatically, by gravity, through transport headings in the direction
continuity of the mining process.
from the mining fields to the main mine drainage system. Due to the drainage of water,
it is advisable to drive a drift and roadways with an inclination of up to 3‰ towards the
shafts, and in the case of more polluted water up to 5‰. The whole of the main drainage
workings (Figure 18) consists of water reservoirs at the pump chamber; drifts and inclined
drifts supplying water to reservoirs; pump chambers; suction wells and water channels—
connecting water reservoirs with water wells; an access roadway connecting the pump
chamber with the bottom shaft; a pipe channel connecting the pump chamber with the
shaft and used to accommodate water pipelines and to ventilate the chamber.
Water reservoirs are mining excavations in the vicinity of the pump chamber of the
main drainage, designed to collect underground water from the natural inflow and from the
hydraulic backfilling. In Poland, the capacity of active water reservoirs should be sufficient for
at least a 12-h supply of water from natural inflow and backfilling to the excavations, where
main drainage systems are capable of discharging the highest daily water inflow in less than
20 h. The pump chamber is a mining excavation with built-in pump units for pumping water
directly to the surface or to a higher level of the mine. The chamber is located parallel to water
reservoirs and most often between water reservoirs. The size of the pump chamber depends
primarily on the number of installed pump units. In Poland, pump chambers of the main
drainage at levels with water inflow over 1 m3 /min are equipped with at least three pumps.
If the pump chamber is equipped with pump units, the number of pumps in these units shall
be at least: five pumps with two pumps working in a group; seven pumps with three pumps
working in a group. The following numbers of pumps should be in full operational readiness
at all times in the pump chamber of the main drainage: two pumps, in chambers equipped
with three pumps; two sets of pumps, in chambers equipped with sets of pumps. The devices,
together with the main drainage systems, should enable the discharge of the highest daily
water supply in no more than 20 h.
shafts, and in the case of more polluted water up to 5‰. The whole of the main drainage
workings (Figure 18) consists of water reservoirs at the pump chamber; drifts and inclined
drifts supplying water to reservoirs; pump chambers; suction wells and water channels—
connecting water reservoirs with water wells; an access roadway connecting the pump
Energies 2023, 16, 148 chamber with the bottom shaft; a pipe channel connecting the pump chamber with 18 the
of 24
shaft and used to accommodate water pipelines and to ventilate the chamber.
sets of pumps, in chambers equipped with sets of pumps. The devices, together with the
main drainage systems, should enable the discharge of the highest daily water supply in
no more than 20 h.
FigureDuring
18. Mainthe 1990s,
drainage due to1—bottom
workings: the increasing seismic
shaft; 2—pump risk and
chamber; rockchannel;
3—pipe bursts,4—pump
attempts were
Figure 18. Main drainage workings: 1—bottom shaft; 2—pump chamber; 3—pipe channel; 4—
made well;
suction to select
5—water a thick deposit
channels; 6—waterwith the use of pillars operating in the post-destruction
reservoirs.
pump suction well; 5—water channels; 6—water reservoirs.
phase, located perpendicular to the operational front line. The positive results of industria
During the 1990s, due to the increasing seismic risk and rock bursts, attempts were
research confirmedarethe
Water reservoirs legitimacy
mining of the
excavations introduced
in the vicinity ofgeometric
the pump chamberchangesofand the made i
made to select a thick deposit with the use of pillars operating in the post-destruction
possible
main to develop
drainage, designed a one-stage
to collect method with the from
liquidation of the space selected
from with a
phase, located perpendicular to theunderground
operational front waterline. Thethe natural
positive inflow
results ofand
industrial
the hydraulic
hydraulic backfilling.
filling (the In
properPoland,namethe capacity
of the of active
mining water
system
research confirmed the legitimacy of the introduced geometric changes and made it possible reservoirs
“Rudna should
7”) [60].beWith this
sufficient
method,
to for
developore at least a 12-h
depositsmethod
a one-stage supply
with awith of water
thickness from natural
of up toof18the
the liquidation inflow
mspace
and an and backfilling
inclination
selected to the
angle of up to 8°
with a hydraulic
excavations,
can be(the
filling where
mined.
proper Themain
nameroofdrainage
of conditionssystems
the mining are capable
should
system allow of
“Rudna thedischarging
7”) use thethe
[60].ofWith highest
rock
this bolt daily
method, support.
ore It is
water inflow
recommended
deposits in less than 20 h.
that thisofmethod
with a thickness The pump
up to 18be m usedchamber
and an when is a mining
rocks angle
inclination excavation
with ofincreased ◦
up to 8 can with built-in
strength parameters
be mined.
pump
The units for pumping water directly to of
thethe
surface or tosupport.
a higherItlevel of the mine. The
androofhigh conditions
rock burst should allow
tendency the
areusepresent rock bolt
in the exploitation isgate.
recommended thatphase o
In the first
chamber
this methodis located
be usedparallel
when to water
rocks reservoirs
with increased and most often between water reservoirs.
excavation works in the mining field, a 6 m strength
to 7 m wideparameters
room is andcuthigh
intorock
theburst
upper layer
The
tendency are present in the exploitation gate. In the first phase of excavation worksunits.
size of the pump chamber depends primarily on the number of installed pump in the
up to
Inmining
Poland,5 m high,
pump separating technological pillars with dimensions of 7–9 ×1 m3/minm (Figure
16–38
field, a 6 chambers
m to 7 m wide of theroom
mainisdrainage at levels
cut into the upperwith water
layer, up to inflow over separating
5 m high,
19).equipped with at least three pumps. If the pump chamber is equipped with pump
are
technological pillars with dimensions of 7–9 × 16–38 m (Figure 19).
units, the number of pumps in these units shall be at least: five pumps with two pumps
working in a group; seven pumps with three pumps working in a group. The following
numbers of pumps should be in full operational readiness at all times in the pump
chamber of the main drainage: two pumps, in chambers equipped with three pumps; two
Figure19.
Figure 19.AAtwo-layer
two-layer room
room andand pillar
pillar mining
mining method
method with awith a hydraulic
hydraulic backfillbackfill in of
in the case thethe
case of the
exploitationgate
exploitation gate conditions
conditions made
made of rocks
of rocks strongly
strongly proneprone
to rockto rock bursts.
bursts.
There
Therearearenono
less than
less twotwo
than rows of technological
rows pillarspillars
of technological in the front.
in theThe width
front. Theofwidth
the of the
rooms in the upper layer may be increased to 10 m as a result of induced seismicity
rooms in the upper layer may be increased to 10 m as a result of induced seismicity and and
falling rocks from the sidewalls. Before mining the bottom layer, a pillar adjacent to the
falling rocks from the sidewalls. Before mining the bottom layer, a pillar adjacent to the
backfill is partially mined, leaving residual pillars with a roof area ranging from 16 m2 to
backfill
25 is partially
m2 . Under mined,
favorable roof leaving residual
conditions, pillars with
it is permissible a roofthe
to select area ranging
pillar from 16 m2 to
completely,
25 m2. Under favorable roof conditions, it is permissible to select the pillar completely
without leaving any residual pillars. To the bottom of the layer in an elementary field with
one room and one technological pillar, there are inclined drifts with an inclination from
5° to 8° that allow the movement of mobile machines. The inclined drifts are used in
Energies 2023, 16, 148 19 of 24
without leaving any residual pillars. To the bottom of the layer in an elementary field
with one room and one technological pillar, there are inclined drifts with an inclination
from 5◦ to 8◦ that allow the movement of mobile machines. The inclined drifts are used
in successive elementary fields, but this requires constant flooring as the front of works
progresses. Then the bottom layer in the field is mined. The orebody is processed with
explosives. Blasting holes in the lower layer are drilled from the floor of the lower layer
(horizontal holes) or the floor of the upper layer (vertical holes).
The roofs of the excavations and the sidewalls are secured using rock bolt support.
After the bottom layer is mined in the elementary field, the filling dams are built in the
room leading to the field and the inclined drift (after partial backfilling), and the post-
exploitation space is filled with hydraulic backfill. The backfill water is discharged through
pipe collectors or workings fenced off in the filling to field settlers. The mining of the
deposit in the next field may take place after the entire scope of liquidation works in
the previous field has been completed. All these works are performed with the use of
self-propelled machines: blast holes are drilled with self-propelled drill trucks; loading
explosives such as saletrol or emulsion is carried out with blasting vehicles, while the
loading of the cartridge materials is carried out manually; the output is loaded and set
aside from the fronts with the use of loading and hauling trucks or cooperating with box
haulage vehicles; the filling material brought in during the selection works is loaded and
put away into the post-exploitation voids using loading and hauling trucks; mechanical
and resin rock bolts with a length of 1.6 m to 2.6 m are made with the use of self-propelled
machines; ripping off the roof and sidewalls is performed mechanically with the use of
trucks equipped with cutters.
5. Discussion
Mining in massive deposits has various challenges, mainly related to great depth,
hard rock, in-rush related to water, and mine stability. Additionally, the mine development
in these environments requires the planning and optimization of several activities to
improve the construction times, mining times, and support requirements. This work has
summarized different underground mining methods applied to massive deposits located
in Chile and Poland.
Underground mining of ore deposits in Chile and Poland is diversified due to the
geological conditions and the exploitation methods used. For the ore deposits located in the
Legnica–Głogów Copper district in Poland, copper and silver are mined together, as well as
zinc and lead (Chrzanow and Olkuski regions). A comparison of the basic geological and
mining parameters is presented in Table 1. Currently, the only exploitation of ore deposits
in Poland is carried out in the Legnica–Głogów Copper district. Mining of Cu–Ag ores in
this region in 2021 amounted to 30 million tonnes of ore with a content of 1.48% Cu and
50.73 g/t Ag, containing 0.443 million tonnes of metallic copper and 1.522 million tonnes
of silver. Exploitation of zinc and lead ore deposits in the Chrzanów region (Trzebionka
mine) and in the Olkusz region (Olkusz–Pomorzany mine) was completed in 2009 and 2020,
respectively. The annual output of zinc and lead ores in 2009 amounted to 2.349 million
tonnes, including 0.089 million tonnes of zinc and 0.034 million tonnes of lead. In 2020, it
was 1.435 million tonnes, including 0.043 million tonnes of zinc and 0.018 million tonnes of
lead. The content of zinc and lead in the ore was 2.6% and 1.3%, respectively.
On the other hand, the deposit in Chine are in different stages. The deposit located
in the Coquimbo region, is under development, and is being designed to mine 2000 tpd
of copper ore with a content of 1.22% Cu containing 2680 million tonnes of cooper. The
deposit located in the Antofagasta region is an open pit to underground transition project
(Table 1). Mining of Cu–Mo ores in this region has 1700 million tonnes of ore with a content
of 0.7% Cu and 450 ppm Mo. The deposit located in the O’Higgins region is a large block
caving project (Table 1) with more than 4500 km of drifts mined from 1905 to date. Mining
of Cu–Mo ores in this region has 2020 million tonnes of ore with a content of 0.86% Cu,
containing several underground exploitation areas including an open pit.
Energies 2023, 16, 148 20 of 24
According to reference [2], mass mining exploitation methods must consider the
mechanical behavior of the rocks and the depth of the deposits. Caving is more difficult to
initiate in competent rock masses and cave progression is typically slower. Furthermore,
the rock mechanics aspects in deep cave mines are more relevant due to the increasing
primary stress magnitudes. There is no common characteristic regarding the quality of
the rock in world-class deposits since their typology and genesis are varied and, therefore,
the host rocks and their characteristics are also varied. Particularly, the porphyry deposits
present their ore generally associated with granodiorites and andesites, on which different
types of alteration due to hydrothermal fluids are superimposed. This alteration implies
the presence of abundant clays, which decrease the resistance of the rock. The depth
at which the ore appears depends largely on the degree of erosion suffered by the rock
mass, although the location of the magmas that give rise to the hydrothermal fluids is
around 2–3 km and even more superficial. In any case, given the large dimensions of the
mineralized bodies, it is common for at least part of them to be found at a considerable
depth for their exploitation.
The mine development in these environments required the planning and optimization
of several activities to improve the construction times and support requirements. This
work summarized some of the activities for different mine deposits and underground
mine methods and designs. In particular, the caving method required minor development
compared with the deposit volume to be mined. However, the caving process implies high
induced stress that must be included in stability. Additionally, the crater of subsidence
generated in the surface due to caving involves an extensive zone. In Chile, a few studies
have evaluated the impact of refilling this zone [61], but to date they have not been
applied. Some of the current tendencies in the Block Caving method are focused on
decreasing the development required and proposed improvement in mine design [62–64].
For example, the last caving projects used wide space extraction level layouts as in the
Chuquicamata underground mine [44] and the Diamante sector of the El Teniente mine [65].
Additionally, in Cadia East in Australia, the undercut level has been omitted, so the caving
was started directly from the extraction level [62]. On the other hand, the Polish mines
described in massive deposits here use more selective underground methods. In these
methods, the development and mining activities are commonly carried out at the same time
(as well as caving propagation and undercutting). The mine planning then involved several
challenges. Additionally, a back-filling process must be used to control the mine stability in
thick deposits with these selective methods due to the large open areas.
For the underground copper ore mines in Poland in the area of LGOM in the coming
years, three fundamental issues will arise with which the mining staff will have to look for
and improve solutions. The first refers to the climatic hazard associated with the primary
temperature of the rock mass. The primary temperature of the rock mass at the level of the
mining excavations (Zechstein bottom level) ranges from 34 ◦ C to 47 ◦ C, with an average
of 39 ◦ C. On the other hand, the geothermal gradient ranges from 2.5 ◦ C to 3 ◦ C for every
100 m. Considering the greater depth of exploitation, the primary temperature of the
rocks will increase, which will make it necessary to ensure the appropriate temperature
for the mining crew by cooling the air temperature. The second issue is closely related
to the decreasing thickness of the selected deposit. For thin deposits below 2 m, mines
currently use split mining methods, trying to minimize dilution and operational losses.
Further reduction of the exploitation gate will be related to the introduction of low-profile
machines while maintaining the current level of extraction. The third issue relates to the
risk of rock bursts. The occurring tremors have a value of 109 J. Therefore, mines are
constantly improving the methods of rock bolt support, capable of absorbing as much
dynamic load energy as possible. In addition, in order to minimize the risk of the crew
staying in hazardous zones, methods for the remote control of mining operations are being
developed, including blasting and bolt hole drilling, as well as loading and haulage of ore
output. Further research works will be closely related to innovative mining technologies
for the increasing level of exploitation.
Energies 2023, 16, 148 21 of 24
Table 1. Comparison of mining and geological parameters for underground mining of selected ore
deposits (copper and silver, zinc and lead) in Chile and Poland.
Chile Poland
Parameter Unit Copper + Molybdenum Copper + Molybdenum
Copper + Silver Zinc + Lead
(Chuquicamata) (El Teniente)
Depth of 100–650
(m) ~1150 800–1300 80–120
exploitation (current level 1)
Annual production (mln tonnes) 50.4 (in regimen) 48.6 30 1.435
(%); 0.77 (copper); 1.28–2.3 (copper); 2.6 (zinc);
Metal content 0.86 (copper)
(g/Mg for silver) 450 (ppm Mo) 54.5–62.5 (silver) 1.3 (lead)
Thin up to 2 m;
~1200 (porphyry
Deposit thickness (m) 250 medium form 2 to 7 m; up to 30 m
diameter in surface)
Thick more than 7 m
The deposit
The form of the Massive with belongs to the type
Massive Lenses and nests
deposit mineralized veins. of stratoid deposits
(pseudo-seam)
Deposit inclination (◦ ) - - about 8 about 5
Decline and
Access Tunnels Tunnels Vertical shafts
vertical shafts
The shape of
Rectangular with a
preparatory and Horseshoe Horseshoe Trapezoidal
flat or oval roof
mining excavations
Rock burst; water;
rock and gas
Rock burst; Rck burst; outburst; roof falls;
Natural hazards Water
collapses; spalling collapses; mudrushes climatic (primary
temperature of rock
mass)
Block caving
Mining methods Block/panel caving Room and Pillar Room and Pillar
(Macroblocks)
Bending of roor
Liquidation of layers with further Hydraulic
Subsidence Subsidence
post-mining space caving; hydraulic backfilling
and dry backfilling
Cartridge (manually loaded); emulsion
Type of explosives ANFO and Emulsion ANFO and emulsion
materials (mechanically loaded)
Shotcrete, cement grout Mechanical and
Shotcrete, cement grout Resin (full column)
Support type rock bolt support (helical resin (full column)
rock bolt support, mesh rock bolt support.
and split set), mesh rock bolt support.
Cable up to 8 m;
Shotcrete over mesh, wooden cribs; arch Wooden cribs; arch
Shotcrete with syntetic
shotcrete with fibet, yieldig support; yieldig support;
Additional support fiber, concrete walls,
concrete walls, cable steel and wooden wooden props;
cable bolts, steel frames
bolts, steel frames props; geosynthetic steel grids
and steel grids
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S. and R.G.; methodology, R.G., K.Z. and A.Z.; formal
analysis, K.S., R.G. and K.Z.; investigation, K.Z., A.Z. and R.G.-E.; resources, K.S.; writing—original
draft preparation, R.G., K.Z. and R.G.-E.; writing—review and editing, K.S. and A.Z.; visualization,
R.G., K.Z. and A.Z.; supervision, K.S.; project administration, K.S. and R.G.; funding acquisition, K.S.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was partially funded by CONICYT/PIA Project AFB220002 and AGH
University of Science and Technology in Poland, scientific subsidy under number: 16.16.100.215.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2023, 16, 148 22 of 24
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energies

Received: 14 November 2022

Energies 2023, 16, 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010148 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

2. Chilean and Polish World-Class Base Metal Deposits

3. Chilean Study Cases

3.1. Copper Exploitation in the Coquimbo Region

3.1.1. Underground Mining Method

3.2. Copper and Molybdenum Exploitation in the Antofagasta Region

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 26

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

3.2. Copper and Molybdenum Exploitation in the Antofagasta Region

In this project, preconditioning through hydraulic fractures and confined blasting is

Figure 4. Macroblocks development in level 1, Chuquicamata underground mine [47].

3.2.2. Mining Support

3.3. Copper and Molybdenum Exploitation in the O’Higgins Region

Figure 6. Location of different exploitation levels around

3.3.1. Underground Mining Method

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26

3.3.2. Mining Support

4. Poland Study Cases

4.1. Zinc and Lead Exploitation in the Chrzanów Region

4.1. Zinc and Lead Exploitation in the Chrzanów Region

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 26

4.2. Zinc and Lead Exploitation in the Olkusz Region

4.3. Copper Exploitation in the Legnica–Głogów Copper District

Figure 16. Backfilling in the inclined drift.

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26

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