"Wild Fish Are A Blessing": Changes in Fishing Practices and Folk Fish Cuisine Around Laguna Lake, Northern Philippines
"Wild Fish Are A Blessing": Changes in Fishing Practices and Folk Fish Cuisine Around Laguna Lake, Northern Philippines
"Wild Fish Are A Blessing": Changes in Fishing Practices and Folk Fish Cuisine Around Laguna Lake, Northern Philippines
Abstract
Several coastal communities rely heavily on wild-caught fish for personal consumption and their livelihoods, thus
being sensitive to the rapid global change affecting fish availability. However, in the last century, aquaculture has
been increasingly adopted. To understand the uses and changes of wild-caught fish, we conducted 30 semi-
structured interviews with fishers of Laguna Lake, Philippines. Fishermen, with up to 60 years’ experience, reported
catching 31 fish species as a staple food. The taxa with the greatest variety of food uses were the farmed Oreochromis
aureus, and the wild Channa striata and Cyprinus carpio. Fish was boiled, fried, grilled and dried, and over 20 different
local dishes were reported. Fishers reported that local communities previously relied more on wild fish, while today
a greater proportion of consumed fish comes from aquaculture fish species such as Oreochromis aureus and Hypoph-
thalmichthys nobilis. Wild fish remains a crucial aspect of local gastronomic diversity, underpinning the biodiversity of
the Laguna Lake, while also representing an important element for food sovereignty. The study stresses the need to
sustain local ecological knowledge to ensure the ecological, social and economic sustainability of the communities.
Keywords: Ethnoichthyological knowledge, Freshwater fishes, Local ecological knowledge, Sustainable small-scale
fisheries
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Mendoza et al. J. Ethn. Food (2021) 8:31 Page 2 of 11
Fig. 1 Map of the study area. Mabato-Azufre Pangil, Laguna, Philippines. (Source: National Mapping and Resource Information Authority of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines.)
contexts in Europe [12]. However, Hahn and Boonstra Laguna Lake, Northern Philippines. The specific aims
[13] underlined the socio-ecological trap, a negative of the research were (a) to document from a diachronic
loop of resource degradation and livelihood depletion perspective the wild and farmed fish species commonly
in which many fishermen live in the Global South, and caught by local fishers, (b) to analyze the current uses of
revealed that economic diversification is not always effec- wild and farmed fish, and (c) to explore the advantages
tive in overcoming it. From a nutritional perspective, the and disadvantages of the use of wild and farmed fishes
crucial role of aquaculture has recently been highlighted according to the fishers of Mabato-Azufre.
by Gephart et al. [1] as a potential contributor to a nutri-
tionally secure future, yet Bené et al. [14] clarified that Materials and methods
the contribution of aquaculture to poverty alleviation is Study area
still debated. We focused our study on Laguna Lake, located on Luzon
To date, no studies have focused on changes in food Island, which is the largest freshwater lake in the Philip-
habits as a consequence of the transition from wild pines and the third largest inland water body in South-
caught to aquaculture fish. This is a relevant issue as it east Asia (Fig. 1). It is a eutrophic, extremely shallow
addresses nutritional and cultural adaptation to the new lake (average depth 2.7 m) with an area of 900 km2 and
ecological asset and can imply and reveal local impacts an elevation of approximately one meter above sea level.
of those changes. Therefore, we aimed to analyze, from Laguna Lake represents a vital freshwater watershed for
an ecogastronomic perspective, this shift from wild to the communities living along its coast and the nearby
farmed fish in a Filipino fishing community. Specifically, city of Metro Manila [15, 16], and it is connected to
we focused our study on the local ecological knowl- the marine waters of Manila Bay via a single outlet, the
edge regarding wild and farmed fish held by fishermen Pasig River. The lake is a water resource supporting mul-
of Mabato-Azufre, a village on the northeastern side of tiple uses, including various industries and agriculture,
Mendoza et al. J. Ethn. Food (2021) 8:31 Page 3 of 11
livestock and poultry production. Local people depend of tilapia, milkfish and carp in fish pens and fish cages
on traditional fishing for both commercial and nutri- [30]. The expansion of fish pens and cages for fish was
tional purposes. There is a total of 11, 814 fishers (11,556 not regulated until the 1990s, leading to 40 years of
men and 258 women) on Laguna Lake and 318 pen and controversy between fishers and pen operators [28, 31,
3,002 fish cage structures (in 2018) [17]. The lake and its 32]. Currently, the Fisheries Code of the Philippines
watershed also serve as a sanctuary for migratory birds limits aquaculture to 10% of the suitable water surface
and are rich in faunal biodiversity [16], including a num- area, which compares to 30% at the peak of the indus-
ber of endemic fish species [18]. try [28, 31]. However, some fishers have also devel-
Ecological studies have classified Laguna Lake as “criti- oped strong economic ties with the aquaculture sector
cally endangered” [19] and in “need of restoration” [20]. and benefit occasionally from fish escaping from net
Striking signs of Laguna Lake’s ecological crisis include enclosures [20, 33]
the loss of fish biodiversity, low water quality and changes Mabato-Azufre is one of eight barangays, or primary
in fish productivity. In the 1960s, the natural fish popula- administrative units in the Philippines, in the municipal-
tion of the lake consisted of 17–24 freshwater and migra- ity of Pangil in the province of Laguna (Figs. 1, 2). The
tory fish species [20]. Migratory fish populations have municipality of Pangil is inhabited by the Tagalog people,
decreased, several native species have disappeared from who speak the Tagalog language, one of the largest eth-
the lake and non-native species have been introduced, nolinguistic groups in the country [34]. In the studied vil-
so that now an important proportion of fish species are lage, fishing and rice cultivation, followed by handicrafts,
introduced, non-native fish taxa [18]. The catches of cap- are the main activities of the local inhabitants.
ture fisheries declined sharply from about 80 tons in the
early 1960s to around 20 tons in the 1970s [21] and have Data collection
been fluctuating between 15 and 30 tons ever since [20, Thirty semi-structured interviews with fishers of Mabato-
22]. Several scholars have agreed that the decline in wild Azufre were conducted between September and Decem-
fish stocks available to the fisheries of Laguna Lake hap- ber 2019. First, the first author approached the head of
pened as a result of a combination of different factors. the village of interest to whom the research project was
Among these factors, overfishing in the past, increasing explained and written approval obtained. Then, fishery
levels of pollution [23, 24] and invasive species [25, 26] managers and community leaders, such as the head of the
stand out. village and the Barangay Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
However, what was lost in the wild is now produced Management Council (BFARMC1) [35] were informed
using aquaculture. Aquaculture is steadily grow- about the goals of the study. After an initial sampling
ing at a global level [27], and this is also occurring in of key informants among the most experienced fisher-
Laguna Lake. Aquaculture was introduced in the lake men indicated by community members, we followed the
in the 1970s as a promising economic resource for the snowball method, selecting in total 30 local fishers (29
local population [27]. It started with milkfish (Chanos men and one woman). There is only one woman fisher in
chanos) [28], but has developed rapidly, with other Mabato-Azufre and in the nearby villages. In the village
species, such as tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus and
Aristichthys nobilis), being introduced into the lake
1
[29]. At the national level, Laguna Lake and surround- Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils or FARMCs are cre-
ated at the national to municipal level to formalize the main roles of resource
ing areas within the CALABARZON (Cavite, Laguna, users including fishermen in developing policies and in the conservation,
Batangas, Rizal, Quezon) region are major producers management and sustainable development of aquatic resources including fish-
eries (BFAR, n.d); the BFARMC represents the one at the community level.
Mendoza et al. J. Ethn. Food (2021) 8:31 Page 4 of 11
aureus (90 use records) and the wild Channa striata (59
use records) and Cyprinus carpio (53 use records). Other
important fish species that were mentioned by more than
two thirds of the interviewees were the wild ethnotaxon
“biya” Oxyeleotris marmorata and Glossogobius giuris (45
use records), and the farmed Hypophthalmichthys nobilis
(40 use records).
Local food: adobo—marinated in soy sauce and vin-
egar; afritada—stewed with onions, tomatoes, bell pep-
pers and potatoes; escabetche—sweet and sour dish;
ginataan—cooked with coconut milk; ginataan sa
kamias—cooked with coconut milk and sour fruit kamias
(Averrhoa bilimbi); ginataan sa pinya—cooked with
coconut milk and pineapple; ginisa sa kamatis—stir fried Fig. 4 The drying of Arius spp. [Kanduli]: a and b the old way; c the
with tomatoes; lumpia—fish spring rolls; okoy—fried more recent method
shrimp cake; pinaksiw—stewed in vinegar; pochero—
stewed fish with vegetables and bananas; relyeno—
stuffed milkfish; sarsyado—cooked with tomato sauce;
sinigang—sour stew usually with tamarind as souring
ingredient; sinuam—fish sautéed with garlic and ginger;
tinola—stewed with either papaya or sayote; adobaksiw
(adobo-paksiw) —cooked with both soy sauce and vin-
egar with ginger added. **—based on Laguna Lake Devel-
opment Authority [38].
Fig. 9 a One of the common fishing practices at Mabato-Azufre—using a “Baklad” or fish corral. b A fisherman catching fish inside the corral with
the use of the scoop net
reported using fish cages for farming two species, namely generation should see these types of fish,” expressing his
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis and Oreochromis aureus. concern for the persistence of wild fish in Laguna Lake
They argued that in the past local fishers engaged in (Fig. 9).
aquaculture as an additional source of income because
of its high profitability due to the fast growth rate of Discussion
the fish. However, interviewees also reported that today Our results highlight the diversity and adaptability of
aquaculture is no longer so profitable, as fish take longer food preparation among small-scale fishers. Fishers liv-
to grow and the harvest is no longer so bountiful. None- ing in Mabato-Azufre recognized 31 fish ethnotaxa and
theless, local fishers still perceive the partial advantage one shrimp taxa in their catches, and prepared them in
of aquaculture because the facilities for fish farming can a variety of ways. With newly introduced species such as
be maintained using simpler boats (motorized or non- Chitala ornata, new preparations also appeared. In addi-
motorized) compared to wild fishing. Finally, fishers tion, fishermen reported that the community previously
mentioned that typhoons are a major problem for aqua- relied more on wild fish, while today a greater proportion
culture as they often destroy the poles and cages used. of consumed fish comes from farmed fish. However, fish
However, fishers of Mabato-Azufre agreed that from aquaculture had limitedly profitability at the time of
“wild fish are a blessing!” and this applies specifically the study and were perceived to be not as tasty as some
to Cyprinus carpio, Leiopotherapon plumbeus, Oxyele- wild species. Fishers reported that several wild fish that
otris marmorata and Glossogobius giuris. These species are diminishing and becoming rare hold crucial value for
are considered special because they are now becoming food preparations, which in some cases was prevailing on
increasingly rare. They are also the most profitable as its economic value (thus selling). Biological and gastro-
they can be sold for a good price in the market. Addition- nomic diversity, as an element of biocultural diversity, are
ally, they are perceived to be tastier than other fish spe- inextricably linked [e.g., 39]; thus, a decrease in biodiver-
cies. A local fisher also mentioned Liza subviridis as “one sity will lead to a decrease in gastronomic diversity and
of the tastiest fish in the world” and added that is now related knowledge. Since aquaculture will increasingly
almost extinct as saltwater is no longer entering Laguna be responsible for the global food supply of fish in the
Lake. future, such economic and socio-cultural effects will play
Finally, a fisher discussed with us and his wife the value an important role in its further spread.
of wild fish. While the woman underlined the profit- Of the 1 million fishers in the Philippines, over 25%
ability of those fish in the market, the husband asked her lived below the poverty line in 2018 [40]. While this trend
not to sell them because Leiopotherapon plumbeus and is negative, approximately 35% of fishers were classified
Cyprinus carpio are rare and extremely good for cooking as extremely poor in 2015 [40], wild-caught fish play a
adobo and pochero. Another fisherman added “The next crucial role in ensuring local food security by introducing
Mendoza et al. J. Ethn. Food (2021) 8:31 Page 9 of 11
nutrients into people’s diets [41]. The Philippines still making in agriculture, fisheries and forestry sectors is
faces major social and environmental issues (e.g., [42–44] imperative in addressing economic disparity and enhanc-
stemming from the high annual growth rates of both ing women’s access to resource governance, such as that
the general population (1.4%) and the urban population seen in Nepal and India, where empowering women in
(1.9%) as of 2015 [45]). Fish is a key nutritional and cul- decision-making with respect to the local conservation of
tural resource as a typical Filipino meal includes rice, fish fisheries and forests has led to better resource conserva-
and vegetables [46]. In the Philippines and other coun- tion and efficiency [51].
tries in Asia, freshwater fish species represent a signifi- In addition, processing local fish to guarantee a longer
cant portion of per capita fish consumption [47, 48]. The shelf-life could contribute to the integrated management
main component of the Filipino diet primarily comes of local resources, including the fisheries in the region.
from plant sources (72.8%) and animal sources (22.4%), For instance, in case of the nearby town of Pila, Chitala
and includes mostly carbohydrates (68.8%), then fats ornata is considered undesirable (many fishers said it
(18.8%) and a small percentage of protein (12.4%). Spe- causes problems to other species, e.g., Chitala ornata
cifically, regarding household food consumption, fish eats fingerlings of Tilapia and other native fishes), but it
and fish products, including dried fish, processed fish, can be processed as sausages and dumplings, as well as
fresh fish (such as tilapia) and molluscs and crustaceans, fish balls, nuggets and burger patties [52]. In the same
make up 11% of total food intake, or 392 g per day [49]. way, Tamayo and Brunal [53] explored the potential of
In Mabato-Azufre, as in most of the Philippines, fish is utilizing the very popular but inexpensive Chitala ornata
part of the daily diet, providing nutrition to the local peo- in developing value-added products, which could be used
ple. Wuyun et al. [50] demonstrated that over 70% of the as input for sustainable food production. Similarly, fish-
residents in the Laguna Lake watershed area consumed ers also adapted an application for the use of the invasive
fishes such as Oreochromis niloticus, Arius dispar and Pterygoplichthys pardalis as fertilizer. Other studies have
Chanos chanos. This is true especially for residents living shown the potential of using the skin of Pterygoplichthys
nearest to the lake due to the ease access to the freshwater pardalis to produce leather, which has been considered
resources. As the fish are not equally available through- one way to address the issues of the deterioration of fish
out the year, their preservation may not only increase species and the degradation of local water sources in the
their market value, but also provide food security to the Philippines [54].
residents of the area. Yet, drying fish was among the uses Finally, our research found that aquaculture contrib-
that was least cited, despite its great potential to improve utes to local livelihoods only to a limited extent as global
the livelihoods of local fishers if there is diversification challenges, including climate change, are threatening the
with regard to the usual method of drying fish in the profitability of this activity. Fishers of Mabato-Azufre
village. Our study showed that currently abundant fish also underlined the importance of wild fish to their cul-
species such as those considered invasive, like Chitala ture in terms of taste and relevance to their gastronomic
ornata, or the farmed species Hypophtalmichthys nobilis heritage. This underlines the importance of a holistic
and Oreochromis aureus, could be processed into other approach as the loss of some wild fish species (as part of
food products to help diversify the livelihoods of local biological diversity) will affect the local ecological knowl-
inhabitants by adding value to freshwater species. This edge regarding their gastronomic preparation (but also
could valorize the current biodiversity while ensuring the fishing) as an expression of local identity and part of
economic stability. cultural diversity. In several areas of the world, freshwater
It is worth noting that among our interviewees, the lakes represent reservoirs of cultural and biological diver-
only woman was the one proposing some kind of inno- sity (see [55]) and such richness should be regarded as a
vation to the current system of fish production. In the key element for ensuring the food security of communi-
village of Mabato-Azufre, women are commonly con- ties living by lakes. In addition, fish populations not only
sidered as contributors to the fishing activity, following ensure that communities receive the necessary nutrition
their husbands and fathers, but not sufficiently independ- but also fulfill ecosystem services which may not be rep-
ent, especially to drive the boat. Nevertheless, our study licable with technology, e.g., maintenance of genetic, spe-
unexpectedly reported innovative processes promoted cies and ecosystem biodiversity [56]. While we are aware
by a woman that could contribute to the resilience of that it is extremely difficult to compare the ecosystem
the whole community. In relation to this, women play a services generated by native species with those of non-
major role throughout the chain of adding value to fish by native species [57], the ecological impacts of introduced
serving as small-scale entrepreneurs, providing their ser- species are often documented, but there is a lack of inter-
vices in commercial and artisanal fisheries [2]. Besides, disciplinary studies that monetize these impacts and cal-
the integration of gender and age concerns into policy culate the trade-offs between the ecosystem services of
Mendoza et al. J. Ethn. Food (2021) 8:31 Page 10 of 11
non-native species [58]. This would allow management in writing—original draft preparation; RS and AP participated in writing—
review and editing all the authors and supervision. All authors have read and
authorities to make informed decisions about whether agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
fisheries and aquaculture should be based on native or
introduced species [58]. Funding
This research received no external funding.
The transmission of local ecological knowledge related
to fishing appears to be endangered. Intergenerational Availability of data and materials
knowledge transmission from father to son is challenged The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from
the first author, JNM.
by the advancement of new fishing techniques and sys-
tems, but also by rural emigration which does not present
the requisite conditions for inheriting local ecological Declarations
knowledge. However, such local ecological knowledge Competing interests
could be valuable in providing fishers with diverse tools The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
and copying strategies to face current ecological chal- Author details
lenges and secure the supply of fish for food, which is a 1
Tagalog Fisher Community of Mabato-Azufre Pangil, Pangil, Laguna, Philip-
staple for communities living by Laguna Lake. pines. 2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics,
Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Venice, Italy. 3 Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater
Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany. 4 Kabulusan Integrated National
High School, Pakil, Laguna, Philippines. 5 University of Gastronomic Sciences,
Conclusions Pollenzo, Bra, Italy. 6 Department of Medical Analysis, Tishk International Uni-
versity, Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq.
We documented the use of 31 fish species and one shrimp
genus by the fishers of the Mabato-Azufre community of Received: 18 March 2021 Accepted: 30 September 2021
Laguna Lake, Philippines. The most commonly reported
food preparations for fish species were frying, grilling,
sour stew, stewing in vinegar and cooking with coconut
milk. While food preparations such as drying and fish References
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