AS GLOBAL CLASSES

CHAPTER- PROPERTIES IMPROVEMENT PROCESSES: HEAT TREATMENT

What is Heat Treatment?
Heat treatment is defined as an operation involving the heating and cooling of a metal or an alloy in
the solid-state to obtain certain desirable properties without change composition. The process of heat
treatment is carried out to change the grain size, to modify the structure of the material and to relive
the stresses set up the material after hot or cold working.
• The heat treatment is done to improve the machinability.
• To improve magnetic and electrical properties.
• To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion and much more reason.
Heat treatment consists of heating the metal near or above its critical temperature, held for a
particular time at that finally cooling the metal in some medium which may be air, water, brine or
molten salts.
The heat treatment process includes annealing, case hardening, tempering, normalizing and
quenching, nitriding, cyaniding etc.
Types of Heat Treatment Processes
Eight different types of heat treatment processes are as follows:
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. hardening
4. Tempering
5. Nitriding
6. Cyaniding
7. Induction Hardening
8. Flame Hardening
Types of Heat Treatment
1. Annealing
Annealing is one of the most important processes of heat treatment. It is one of the most widely used
operations in the heat treatment of iron and steel and is defined as the softening process.
Heating of from 30 - 50°C above the upper critical temperature and cooling it at the very slow rate by
seeking it the furnace. The main aim of annealing is to make steel more ductile and malleable and to
remove internal stresses. This process makes the steel soft so that it can be easily machined.
1.1 Purpose of Annealing
• It softens steel and to improve its machinability.
• To refine grain size and remove gases.
• It removes the internal stresses developed during the previous process.
• To obtain desired ductility, malleability and toughness.
• It modifies the electrical and magnetic properties.

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1.2 Procedure for annealing
Depending on the carbon content, the steel is heated to a temperature of about 50° to 55°C above its
critical temperature range. It is held at this temperature for a definite period of time depending on the
type of furnace and nature of work. The steel is then allowed to cool inside the furnace constantly.
1.3 Application of annealing
• It is applied to castings and forgings.
• Work hardened materials such as sheet metal that has undergone a stamping process or cold-
drawn bar stock.
• Metal wire that has been drawn from one size to a smaller size may also undergo an annealing
process.
2. Normalizing
Normalizing: The main aim of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses developed after the cold
working process. In this, steel is heated 30 - 50°C above its upper critical temperature and cooling it in
the air.
It improves mechanical and electrical properties, machinability & tensile strength. Normalizing is the
process of heat treatment carried out to restore the structure of normal condition.
2.1 Purpose of Normalizing
• Promote uniformity of structure.
• To secure grain refinement.
• To bring about desirable changes in the properties of steel.
2.2 Procedure for Normalizing
The steel is heated to a temperature of about 40° to 50°C above its upper critical temperature. It is
held at this temperature for a short duration. The steel is then allowed cool in still air at room
temperature, which is known as air quenching.
2.3 Application of normalizing
• It is applied castings and forgings to refine grain structure and to relieve stresses.
• It is applied after cold working such as rolling, stamping and hammering.
3. Hardening
Hardening: The main aim of the hardening process is to make steel hard tough. In this process, steel is
heated 30° - 40°C above the upper critical temperature and then followed by continues cooling to
room temperature by quenching in water or oil. It is the opposite process of annealing.
3.1 Purpose of hardening
• By hardening, it increases the hardness of steel.
• To resist to wear
• Allows the steel to cut other metals
3.2 Procedure for hardening
The steel is heated above its critical temperature range. It is held at that temperature for a definite
period of time. The steel is then rapidly cooled in a medium of quenching.

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The quenching medium is selected according to the degree of hardness desired. The air, water, bring,
oils and molten salts are used as quenching mediums. A thin section such knife blades are cooled in air.
Water is widely used medium but it results in the formation of bubbles on the surface of the metal.
Hence brine solution is used to prevent this. Oil is used when there is a risk of distortion on cracks and
is suitable for alloy steels. The molten salts are used to cool thin section to obtain crack-free and
impact-resistant products.
3.3 Application of hardening
It is applied for chisels, sledgehammer, hand hammer, centre punches, taps, dies, milling cutters, knife
blades and gears.
4. Tempering
Tempering: When the hardening process hardens a steel specimen, it becomes brittle and has high
residual stress. It is an operation used to modify the properties of steel hardened by quenching for the
purpose of increasing its usefulness.
Tempering or draw results in a reduction of brittleness and removal of internal strains caused during
hardening. Steel must be tempered after the hardening process.
The tempering is divided into three categories according to the usefulness of steel required.
• Low-temperature tempering.
• Medium temperature tempering.
• High-temperature tempering.
4.1 Purpose of Tempering
• To relieve internally stressed caused by hardening.
• To reduce brittleness.
• Improve ductility, strength and toughness.
• To increase wear resistance.
• To obtain desired mechanical properties.
4.2 Procedure for tempering
The steel after being quenched in the hardening process is reheated to a temperature slightly above
the temperature range at which it is to be used, but below the lower critical temperature. The
temperature here varies from 100°C to 700°C.
The reheating is done in a bath of oil or molten lead or molten salt. The specimen is held in the bath for
a period of time till attains the temperature evenly, the time depends on the composition and desired
quality of steel. Now the specimen is removed from the bath and allow to cool slowly in still air.
4.3 Application of Tempering
It is applied to cutting tools, tool and gears, which are hardened by the hardening process.
5. Nitriding
Nitriding is the process of the case or surface hardening in which nitrogen gas is employed to obtain
hard skin of the metal. In this process, steel is heated in the presence of ammonia environment.
Due to this, a nitrogen atom is deposited and makes material hard. Induction hardening and Flame
hardening objects are heated by an oxy-acetylene flame.
5.1 Purpose of Nitriding

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• To harden the surface of the steel to a certain depth.
• Increase resistance to wear and fatigue.
• To increase corrosion resistance.
5.2 Procedure for Nitriding
It is done in the electric furnace where temperature varying between 450° and 510°C is maintained.
The part is well machined and finished and placed in an airtight container provided with outlet and
inlet tubes through which ammonia gas is circulated.
The container with the part is placed in the furnace and ammonia gas is passed through it while the
furnace is heated.
During the process of heating nitrogen gas is released from ammonia in the form of atomic nitrogen,
which reacts with the surface of the part, and forms iron nitrate.
The depth of entrance depends upon the length of time spent at the nitriding temperature. The part is
taken out and it does not require any quenching or further heat treatment.
5.3 Application of Nitriding
It is applied for hardening the surface of medium carbon alloy steels.
6. Cyaniding
Cyaniding: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of sodium cyanide environment. Due to this,
carbon and nitrogen atoms are deposited on the surface of steel and make it hard.
6.1 Purpose of Cyaniding
• This method is effective for increasing the fatigue limit of medium and small-sized parts such as
gears, shafts, wrist pins etc.
• To increase surface hardness.
• increase wear resistance.
• To give the clean, bright and pleasing appearance to the hardened surface.
6.2 Procedure for Cyaniding
The parts to be treated is dipped in a molten cyanide salt bath maintained at a temperature of 950°C.
The molten salts used are sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium cyanide and soda ash.
The immersed article is left in the molten cyanide salt at a temperature of 950°C for about 15 to 20
minutes. The decomposition of sodium cyanide yield nitrogen and carbon from carbon monoxide,
which is diffused into the surface resulting in hardening the surface. The part is then taken out of the
bath and quenched in water or oil.
6.3 Application of Cyaniding
It is applied to small articles like gears, bushing, screws, pins and small hand tools, which require a thin
and hard wear-resisting surface.
7. Carburizing
Carburizing is a heat treating process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon liberated when the metal is
heated in a carbon enriched atmosphere. The process leads to a hardening of the metal which allows
the product to be used in a wider variety of outputs due to the increased hardness.

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7.1 Purpose of Carburizing
Carburizing increases strength and wear resistance by diffusing carbon into the surface of the steel
creating a case while retaining a substantially lesser hardness in the core. This treatment is applied to
low carbon steels after machining.
7.2 Procedure for carburizing
The carburising process adds carbon to a metal’s surface. This is done by heating the metal in a carbon-
rich atmosphere. At higher temperatures, the carbon will either diffuse into the material’s solid
solution or form carbides. For both of these processes, high temperatures are necessary.
If the carbon only enters the solid solution, we need to carry out further heat treatment to increase the
metal’s hardness to its maximum level. The surface must be free of any contaminants, such as oil or an
oxide layer, for easy diffusion into the surface. Carbides, on the other hand, are naturally hard
materials with a high melting point.
To add carbon to a metal’s surface, four different mechanisms can be used. The difference lies in the
way the base material is exposed to the carbon-rich substance.
7.3 Application of Carburizing
• It is used extensively in the automotive and aerospace industries, where wear and corrosion
resistance are critical factors. Parts that are carburized often last longer and perform better than
non-carburized parts.
• It is used in gear teeth profile, crane wheels, crane cable drum and hydraulic clutch etc.
8. Case hardening or surface hardening
The main aim of this process is to make the only external surface of steel hard and inner core soft. It is
the process of carburisation i.e., saturating the surface layer of steel with carbon, or some other
process by which case is hardened and the core remains soft.
8.1 Purpose of Case hardening
• To obtain a hard and wear resistance to machine parts.
• By case hardening, it obtains a tough core.
• To obtain a higher fatigue limit and high mechanical properties in the core.
8.2 Process of Case Hardening
The case hardening process usually involves four steps:
Activation: By eliminating the passive oxide layer that stops the diffusion of nitrogen or carbon atoms
into the steel, the surface of the steel is activated.
Coating: To avoid repassivation and improve diffusion, a thin layer of nitrogen- or carbon-rich material
is placed on the active surface.
Diffusion: The steel component is heated for many hours at temperatures above 900°C in an
environment that contains nitrogen or carbon. A thin coating of hardened steel (the case) is created
when nitrogen or carbon atoms seep into the steel's surface layer.
Hardening: To acquire the necessary mechanical characteristics and microstructure of the case and the
core, the steel portion is quenched and tempered.

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8.3 Purpose of Case hardening
The main purposes for case hardening processes are:
• Case hardening boosts the metal and alloy's fatigue strength by creating compressive stresses on
the outer surface layer.
• The best wear resistance and toughness qualities are imparted by the union of a hard surface and
ductile core.
• Case hardening improves the parts' toughness and efficiency of use.
• Case hardening improves weldability in certain materials.
8.4 Application of Case Hardening
Some other application of case hardening are:
• Forging presses
• Fasteners
• Metal rolling equipment
• Camshafts
• Machine tools
• Rods
• Drivelines of mining equipment and heavy-duty transmissions
• Cutting tools
• Automobile spares
• Aerospace components
Difference between Annealing and Normalizing

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What is Induction Hardening?
Induction hardening is a surface hardening technique where a metal part is heated through induction
and subsequently quenched. This results in a martensitic transformation, which enhances hardness
and brittleness. It selectively hardens specific areas without impacting the overall part properties.
An intense alternating magnetic field is used to submerge a conductive substance, creating eddy
currents and heat inside the workpiece's surface layer. The frequency of the alternating field, the
power intensity, the material's permeability, and other variables all affect how thick this layer is. This
heated layer can be changed to create a martensitic structure, which is harder than the parent metal,
by quenching it in water, oil, or a polymer-based quench.
Purpose of Induction hardening
Induction hardening is used to increase the mechanical properties of ferrous components in a specific
area.These process is to increase a material's strength, and toughness; to achieve a desirable
microstructure; and to minimize distortion and excessive residual stress while avoiding cracking. For
example, consider the hardening process for steel.
Induction Hardening Process
Induction hardening is the process of rapidly heating a component surface that is properly positioned
within an electromagnetic field by passing a high-frequency alternating current through an adequately
shaped coil. The induction heating system's parameters, application duration, and material
hardenability all affect how far the material hardens. A variety of manipulation techniques, such as
"single-shot hardening," in which the entire area to be hardened is heated in one operation and then
quenched, and "progressive hardening," which involves relative movement between the heating coil,
quench head, and the workpiece, can be used to suit the geometry of the component. Therefore, by
combining appropriate coil construction and manipulation, selective area hardening can be
accomplished.
Application of Induction Hardening
The applications of induction hardening are as follows:
• Hardening surgical blades
• Hardening Seat Belt Parts
• Hardening the teeth of a large saw blade
• Case hardening a steel fitting (machined parts manufacturer)
• Surface hardening of steel screws
• Hardening teeth on a steel motorcycle gear
• Hardening steel screw threads
• Hardening the end of steel hand-held marking stamps

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Difference Between Induction Hardening and Case Hardening

Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is a surface-hardening method that involves heating a metal with a high-temperature
flame, followed by quenching. It is used on medium carbon, mild or alloy steels or cast iron to produce
a hard, wear-resistant surface.
Flame hardening uses direct impingement of an oxy-gas flame onto a defined surface area. The result
of the hardening process is controlled by four factors:
• Design of the flame head
• Duration of heating
• Target temperature to be reached
• Composition of the metal being treated
Flame Hardening Process Woking
The surface to be case hardened is heated by means of an oxyacetylene torch for sufficient time and
Quenching is achieved by sprays of water which are integrally connected with the heating device. The
heating is generally accomplished for sufficient time so as to raise the temperature of the surface of
the specimen above the critical temperature. As the temperature desired is achieved immediately,

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spraying of water is started. In mass production work, progressive surface hardening is carried out
where it is arranged to have the flame in progress along with quenching.
Applications of Flame-Hardening
Flame-hardening is used because-
• Parts are very large, making conventional heating and quenching impracticable, or uneconomical,
such as large gears, rolls, etc.
• Only a small region of the component needs heat treatment, or if the whole surface is heated, it
may be detrimental to the function of the part, such as wearing surfaces of cams.
• Exact dimensions or its control is impracticable or difficult by normal through hardening. For
example, flame hardening of teeth of very large gears shall not disturb the dimensions of gears.
Difference between Flame Hardening and Induction hardening

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Introduction to Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram | Structures in Fe-C Diagram
IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
The Fe-C equilibrium diagram in which various structure (obtained during heating and cooling),
phases and microscopic constituents of various kinds of steel and cast iron are depicted. The main
structures, significance of various lines and critical points are discussed as under.

Structures in Fe-C-diagram
The main microscopic constituents of iron and steel are as follows:
1. Austenite 2. Ferrite 3. Cementite 4. Pearlite
1. Austenite Austenite is a solid solution of free carbon (ferrite) and iron in gamma iron. On heating
the steel, after upper critical temperature, the formation of structure completes into austenite which
is hard, ductile and non-magnetic. It is able to dissolve large amount of carbon. It is in between the
critical or transfer ranges during heating and cooling of steel. It is formed when steel contains carbon
up to 1.8% at 1130°C. On cooling below 723°C, it starts transforming into pearlite and ferrite.
Austenitic steels cannot be hardened by usual heat treatment methods and are non-magnetic.
2. Ferrite Ferrite contains very little or no carbon in iron. It is the name given to pure iron crystals
which are soft and ductile. The slow cooling of low carbon steel below the critical temperature
produces ferrite structure. Ferrite does not harden when cooled rapidly. It is very soft and highly
magnetic.

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3. Cementite
Cementite is a chemical compound of carbon with iron and is known as iron carbide (Fe3C). Cast
iron having 6.67% carbon is possessing complete structure of cementite. Free cementite is found in
all steel containing more than 0.83% carbon. It increases with increase in carbon % as reflected in Fe-
C Equilibrium diagram. The brittleness and hardness of cast iron is mainly controlled by the presence
of cementite in it. It is magnetic below 200°C.
4. Pearlite
Pearlite is a eutectoid alloy of ferrite and cementite. It occurs particularly in medium and low carbon
steels in the form of mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite in the ratio of 87:13. When seen
with the help of a microscope, the surface has appearance like pearl, hence it is called pearlite.
Hard steels are mixtures of pearlite and cementite while soft steels are mixtures of ferrite and
pearlite.
As the carbon content increases beyond 0.2% in the temperature at which the ferrite is first
rejected from austenite drop until, at or above 0.8% carbon, no free ferrite is rejected from the
austenite. This steel is called eutectoid steel, and it is the pearlite structure in composition.
As iron having various % of carbon (up to 6%) is heated and cooled, the following phases
representing the lines will tell the about the structure of iron, how it charges.
Significance of Transformations Lines
Line ABCD
The line ABCD tells that above this line melting has been completed during heating the iron. The
molten metal is purely in the liquidus form. Below this line and above line AHJECF the metal is
partially solid and partially liquid. The solid metal is known as austenite. Thus the line ABCD
represents temperatures at which melting is considered as completed. Beyond this line metal is
totally in molten state. It is not a horizontal line the melting temperature will vary with carbon
content.
Line AHJECF
This line tells us that metal starts melting at this temperature. This line is not horizontal and hence
the melting temperatures will change with carbon content. Below this line and above line GSEC,
the metal is in solid form and having austenite structure.
Line PSK
This line occurs near 723°C and is a horizontal line and is known as lower critical
temperature line because transformation of steels starts at, this line. Carbon % has not effect on it
that means steel having different % of carbon will transforms at the same temperature. The range
above the line up to GSE is known as transformation range. This line tells us the steel having
carbon up to 0.8% up to 0.8% will starts transforming from ferrite and pearlite to austenite during
heating.
Line ECF
It is a line at temperature 1130°C which tells that for cast iron having % of C from 2% to 4.3%.
Below this line and above line SK, Cast iron will have austenite + ledeburite and cementite +
ledeburite.

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