STRETCHABLE STRAIN SENSORS BASED ON POLYPYRROLE

/THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANE BLENDS

By

Group No. 05

Mian Husnain Iqbal (2017-PE-21)

Shahroz Sarwar (2017-PE-28)
Mian Arslan Sarwar (2017-PE-37)

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BSc IN POLYMER ENGINEERING

in the Department of Polymer and Process Engineering

Nauman Aslam ([email protected])

Thesis Supervisor: Dr Rabia Nazar, Assistant Professor

July, 2021
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE
 STRETCHABLE STRAIN SENSORS BASED ON POLYPYRROLE
/THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANE BLENDS

By

Group No. 05
Mian Husnain Iqbal (2017-PE-21)
Shahroz Sarwar (2017-PE-28)
Mian Arslan Sarwar (2017-PE-37)

We have jointly examined the candidates today through viva voce examination
and evaluated thesis submitted by them. We jointly agree on the result of the
thesis examination and evaluation as follows:
1. Thesis is approved.
2. Thesis is rejected.
3. Thesis is returned to candidates for incorporating
additions/modification

Sign:
Internal Examiner Name: Dr Rabia Nazar

Sign:
Internal Examiner
Name: Dr. Faheem

Sign:
Chairman
Name: Prof Dr Asif Ali Qaiser

Dated: _______

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE

 iii

Thesis Supervisor: Assistant Professor Dr. Rabia Nazar (Ph.D.)

ABSTRACT
The advancement of stretchable strain sensors has capable applications in the human motion

detection, medical and soft robotics. For applications, highly stretchable, stable, and sensitive

strain sensors are required. Good stretch ability is the key features. Recently, the technique of

hybridization is applied to overcome the challenges associated with wide strain range and

sensitivity of strain sensors. In this research work, we propose a simple solution casting

technique to fabricate piezoresistive strain sensors by incorporating conductive materials

such as pyrrole as a conducting material. The development of thermoplastic

polyurethane(TPU)/polypyrrole(PPy) 4.5, 9, 18 wt% pyrrole based strain sensors are

synthesized in solution technique of in-situ polymerization of acid doped PPy with TPU in

different percentage. Different characterization techniques employed to monitor different

properties FTIR for amine and carbonyl group interaction, TGA heat stability

characterization, UTM for mechanical analysis and electrical properties by Multi-meter.

Keywords: Strain sensors, Pyrrole, TPU, solution casting, wearable sensors, piezoresistive
conductivity
 iv

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................. v
List of Glossary ............................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter: 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Applications............................................................................................................................. 6
1.1.1 Application of strain sensor in medical field ...................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Application in Sports ......................................................................................................... 9
Chapter: 2 Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 11
Chapter: 3 Experimental Methods .............................................................................................. 21
3.1 Materials Required ................................................................................................................ 21
3.2 Strain sensors prepared by in Situ Polymerization process ..................................................... 21
3.3 Characterization .................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter no 4 Results and Discussion.......................................................................................... 23
4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy .............................................................................. 24
4.3 Future Prospect ..................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter: 5 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 28
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It's always a joy to thank the wonderful folks at the University of Engineering and

Technology (UET) for their unwavering support in helping me maintain my

practical and laboratory polymer abilities. First and foremost, I want to express my

gratitude to my parents for their unwavering support, enthusiasm, and tremendous

assistance. I might not be able to finish this subject adequately if I don't have all of

this. Second, I'd want to express my gratitude to Dr. Rabia Nazar for allowing us to

participate in polymeric material testing and formulation. She also provides us with

his undivided attention and assistance. Finally, I'd like to convey my gratitude to all

Lab Attendants for their assistance with Polymer.Finally, I'd want to express my

gratitude to all Lab Attendants for their Polymer Department guidance, which has

really aided me in dealing with experimental training placement. They had backed

me up by demonstrating various methods for gathering data for the trial. In

addition, I'd like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Asif Ali Qaiser (Chairman and

Senior Professor/Department of Polymer and Process Engineering), who oversaw

the department's rules and regulations and met all of the laboratory's requirements,

as well as extending his friendship to the staff and creating a pleasant training

environment. A paper is insufficient to express my gratitude for their assistance and

direction throughout practically all of my work in the department. Finally, I

apologise to all those anonymous individuals that assisted me in various ways in

order for me to have a successful training.

 vi

List of Figures

Figure 1.1. Diverse functional, sensors composed of nanomaterials for human action measure. a)
Resistive-type sensors, and b) capacitive-type sensors.. .................................................................... 5
Figure 1.2 A conceptual schematic of strain sensors operating in the case of emergency by collecting
patients’ physiological information and then transferring the data to a medical Center through
wireless devices, thereby, alerting the physician medical assistant ................................................... 8
Figure 1.3 The operation of portable and skin attached - stretched sensors in the biomedical field: a)
A capacitive-kind strain sensor covered near the hreat. b) he astrain sensor's reply in blood
measurement. c) Strain sensor mounted on the chest for the breathing ........................................... 8
Figure 1.4 Implementation of wearable sensors for measuring physical performance on body joints.
a) Strain sensor attached on the wrist and elbow joints. b) The reply of skin-mountable strain
sensors to leveling and twisting movement of the hand and elbow joints c) .................................... 10
Figure 2.1Spray Coating process of the soft finger .......................................................................... 13
Figure 4.1 TGA curves for pure TPU and TPU/PPy.DBSA blends in PPy weight percentages of 4.5, 9,
and 18. respectively ........................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 4.2 FTIR/ATR spectra of pure TPU and TPU/PPy.DBSA blends in PPy weight percentages of 4.5,
9, and 18. respectively..................................................................................................................... 25
 vii

List of Glossary

TPU Thermoplastic Polyurethane

PPy Polypyrrole

DBSA Do decyl benzene Sulphonic Acid

APS Ammonium Per Sulphate

CB Carbon Black

PANI Polyaniline

GF Gauge Factor

FTIR Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy

SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy

EIS Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

DMTA Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis

GNPs Graphene Nano Platelets

CNT Carbon Nano Tubes

A Ampere

V Voltage

GNPs Graphene nan platelets

MWCNT Multi wall carbon nano tube

FLG Graphene composite fiber

 viii

PDMS Polydimethylsiloxane

PSS Polystyrene sulfonate

NBR Nitrile butadiene rubber

SWNT Single Wall Nano tube

LED Light emitting diode

∆R/RO Relative Change in Resistance

 2

Chapter: 1 Introduction
The incorporation of different nanoparticles and response of these advanced

nanomaterials into strain sensors have modernized the application of these

intellectual devices in various sectors [1]. Due to their innovative benefits in

numerous areas, the flexible and sensitive strain sensors have risen in popularity in

research for their use in many applications .i.e. structural health monitoring (SHM),

soft robotics, and pressure sensing etc [2]. The strain sensors function by perceiving

the human body motions triggered by mobility, breathing, and pulse, and are also

able to detect significant body stresses caused by joints twisting. Besides, These

sensing may be integrated into wearable electronic devices that connect to clothes

and the human tissue [3]. Moreover, they can also be utilized to measure the

movements of robotic joints and successfully record and improve the living

environment of human beings. The sensing mechanism is triggered upon stretching

the strain sensors that are followed by various processes, such as propagation of the

crack, tunnelling effect and increase in distance between the adjoining nanomaterial

[4]. Traditionally, metal-based strain gauges were fabricated but they exhibited

lower strain (<5%) due to low elongation at break. Therefore, elastomeric or

polymeric based materials were used because they exhibited much higher strains (10

to 800%) [4].

Flexible strain sensors necessitate the incorporation of several conductive

nanoparticles into the elastomeric substrate. To create sensors with a large level of

elasticity, the most common polymers employed are different elastomers such as:

NBR, EPDM etc. That sensing characteristic of strain sensors is activated by mixed

with conductive nanomaterial for example carbon black (CB),

 3

(CNTs) [5], (GNPs) [6] and (Ag-NWs) [7] etc. However, the majority of nano

particles communicate great sensitivity as sensors but are relatively costly. As a

result, hence the necessity to consider more affordable options. This can be resolved

by utilizing low resistance polymers such as : (PPY) and polyaniline (PANI). The use

of polyaniline, as a conductive filler, is gradually increasing due to its easy synthesis,

processability and cheapness. To improve its electrical conductivity, it is converted

(ES) through various form chemical means and doped it such as power acids HCl,

H2SO4, DBSA etc. [8] [9]. The conductivity of PANI can be tuned by doping it with a

certain amount of acid and thus falls into the category of metals and conductor.

Hence, it is an excellent choice of a conductive material for increasing the strain

sensor's effectiveness. However, it has a disadvantage of being incompatible with

different polymers. There are three different approaches to making polyaniline

compatible with different polymers such as molten blends, liquid polymerization

and in-situ polymerization are all methods of polymerization. The process of in-situ

polymerization, as compared to others, uniformly disperses the polyaniline into the

base matrix and improves the electromechanical properties of the strain sensors [10].

Though, to achieve a strain sensor with improved mechanical, thermal and electrical

properties, strong compatibility, and interaction is required between filler and

polymer. Some research have previously been published in which PANI was

utilized as a potential filler for stretch sensors Gong et al. created elastic strain

sensors out of PANI as a conducting polymer and integrated it into

polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), reporting a 50% strain value [11].

The required characteristics of the strain sensors such as flexibility, conductivity,

stability, sensitivity and mechanical properties of substrate for the application in

structural health monitoring must be considered. Therefore, to achieve these

requirements, higher interfacial bonding and compatibility between carbon

 4

nanomaterials and polymers are essential [4]. By integrating carbon nanotube (CNT)

thin films on piezoelectric materials, strain sensors with great ductility are created;

nevertheless, these strain sensors have limited responsiveness [12]. Although, the

limitation of low stretchability of the reported strain sensors rendered them

unsuitable for large motion detection application [13].

The electrical percolation network of fillers is highly dependent on the geometry,

size and structure of nanomaterial. As a result, the piezoresistive behavior of 2D

nanofill is higher than those of nanowires and enhances the sensitivity of the strain

sensors [14]. Due to graphene and CNTs are expensive, there is a limitation of cost

control for the manufacturing of sensors. Therefore, there remains a challenge in the

achieving strain sensors with high durability, accuracy, resilience, and cheap price

[2]. There are two types of approaches employed in the manufacturing of stretchable

strain sensors first is resistive-type and second is capacitive-type. The most

preferable is the resistive-kind sensors owing to its straightforward and easy

manufacturing procedure, operating principle and minimal energy usage under

application [15]. A huge number of research have been conducted on the

piezoresistive behavior of TPU nanocomposites including carbon-based

nanoparticles [16]. The results demonstrated that under tensile strain, the adjacent

neighboring fillers lose contact due to deformation of TPU matrix producing a

resistance-strain response.

Because of its intrinsic characteristics such as low aspect ratio, cheap price in

comparison to other carbonaceous nanoparticles such as graphene and CNT, and

high conductivity, zero-dimensional (0D) carbon black (CB) is a viable option as

conductive filler.The electrical and mechanical characteristics of the strain sensors

containing carbon black as a nanofiller are enhanced due to its reinforcing effect.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are also becoming attractive as a conductive candidate

due to their improved effect on the strain sensing performance. When AgNPs are
 5

hybridized with other conductive materials, they produce a synergic effect and are

prone to produce microcracks under tensile strain [16].

The electrical and mechanical properties of the strain sensors can be the filling level

in elastomeric substrates may be readily regulated by fine-tuning the loading rate.

The hybridization technique is attracting emphasis is drawn to the combination of

distinct filler characteristics, decreased filler loading, and improved electrically and

structural characteristics because of the synergistic impact of both additives The

physical and electric characteristics of a strain sensor are evaluated under statically

and kinetic circumstances to assess resistance fluctuation and to validate the strain

sensor's sensibility and endurance. Moreover, the testing findings allow the

constructed strain sensors to identify human actions such as thumb twisting, hand

rotation, and knee extension, as demonstrated. in Fig. 1.1 [17]

Figure 1.1. Diverse functional, sensors composed of nanomaterials for human

action measure. a) Resistive-type sensors, and b) capacitive-type sensors [2].
 6

1.1 Applications

Stretchable strain sensor has large number of applications in various fields. For

example, pressure measure gadgets , structural health-monitoring. Flexible and

stretchable strain sensor also used in electronic circuit and machine for the detection

human motion and convert data in the form of human readable information They

can be used as wearable gadgets that are directly attached to human body or

clothing for the body strain measured These ultra-sensitive sensors can detect

actions as small as breathing and heartbeat to huge strain-induced body joint

bending and straightening. Additionally, these sensitive strain sensors are beneficial

for the observing the robot activity and motion detection

1.1.1 Application of strain sensor in medical field

Human Healthcare and high -quality drugs are becoming more difficult and

complex as the population grows. Wearable electronics are gaining popularity due

to their ease of use and long-term monitoring capabilities. These individualized

health-monitoring technologies have promise for enhancing the capabilities of

present medical systems. systems [18].

Fig. 2.1 shows the conceptual illustration of health-monitoring devices using

wearable sensors [18]. These wearable strain sensors function by assembling the

health and physical information from the human body and is represented in the

form of heart rate , respiratory rate [19], pressure of blood and oxygen level [15],

human body temperature and movements etc. The sensors send the evaluated

statistics from wearing sensors to a smartphone or wireless accessible hotspot an

alert message is delivered to a call for assistance center for quick assistance. After a

patient has received adequate medical therapy, health-care providers can monitor

person Condition of health person the condition and make medical choices [20]. The

strain sensors may also be used in biological devices to check complicated and
 7

massive displacements of human skin or clothes, and their excellent detecting

capability allows them to detect small skin straining caused by breathing or pressure

of blood Fig. 1.2 (a) uses a stretchable capacitive-type sensor to measure blood

pressure in viva [2]. The sensors reacted to fluctuating heart rate with excellent

strains detecting capabilities in Fig. 1.2 (b). stimulate accurate, skin movable, and

wearable strain sensors that detect tiny body motion.by phonation, body posture,

skin, expansion, injury recovery, respiratory, and heartbeat rate [21]. The illustration

of a resistance-kind of sensor attached to the human body is shown in Fig. 1.2 (c)

exhibiting the response of the sensor to the motionless (black) and moving (red)

sates of breathing. The peak of the statistics shows expands and does not expand the

chest When breathing accordingly. Strain sensor implemented on the wrist to

measure heart rate is shown in Fig. 1.2 (d). The pulse numbers are 38 and 46 is

subjects were in the motionless (black) and activity (red) states of modes for 30 s

correspondingly [22]. Individualized health-monitoring systems can accurately

important role in human health indicators like long time. Measurement of vascular

circulation, pulse, and respiration, signaling initial disease diagnosis When a person

sat with a regularly stretched leg, an elastic capacitive-type strain sensor was

attached to the knees to perform a patellar reflex examination, as illustrated in Fig.

1.2. (e). During the bending state of the knee, the sensors measured a large strain.

The patellar knee ligament was tapped with a mallet during the leg reflex

examination. The striking motion led the leg to stretch and quickly return to its

original position Fig. 1.2 (f) illustrates that the capacitance decreased suddenly

during straightening and then back to original the bio-compatible and portable

strain sensors can be used in a variety of biomedical applications. Because of their

great sensitivity, conductive sensors are excellent for measured low-strain motions,

whereas detection systems function better for high-strain movements in aspects of

uniformity, minimal hysteresis, and quick reply.

 8

Figure 1.2 A conceptual schematic of strain sensors operating in the case

of emergency by collecting patients’ physiological information and then
transferring the data to a medical Center through wireless devices,
thereby, alerting the physician medical assistant [2]

Figure 1.3 The operation of portable and skin attached - stretched sensors in the
biomedical field: a) A capacitive-kind strain sensor covered near the hreat. b) he
astrain sensor's reply in blood measurement. c) Strain sensor mounted on the chest
for the breathing
 9

1.1.2 Application in Sports

Adjustable strain sensors connected to several body parts measure exercise ability.

The signals measured by the strain sensors wrapped around the wrist and elbow are

demonstrated in Fig. 2.3 (a) and 2.3 (b) [6]. The resistance of strain sensors increases

during the rotating action of the arm and hand. After the straightening of wrist and

elbow, the change in resistance It has regained its original value The body

movement analysis can be performed through the data measured by the w strain

sensors. A rosette-type stretchable strain sensor is fabricated from 3s self-runing

CBs, PDMS strain sensors at an angle of 120° of each other [13]. The function of

rosette-type strain sensors is to measure the principal strains under in-plane

directions of displacements [5]. The response of elongated sensor in the uniaxial

direction of S1 is shown in Figure 2.3 (c). In Fig. 2.3 (d), the change in resistance for

the S1 was larger than that of S2 and S3. The information reported from these

sensors can be used for body fitness analysis Fig. 2.3 (e) demonstrates another

application in which Flexible strain sensors were connected to the knee joint to study

different knee movement Moving, walking, and leaping from a seated posture are

examples of sequences [5]. As a result, skin launch, and portable strain sensors are

useful for large period structural human health observing reintegration and

evaluating players' athletic performance.

 10

Figure 1.4 Implementation of wearable sensors for measuring physical

performance on body joints. a) Strain sensor attached on the wrist and elbow
joints. b) The reply of skin-mountable strain sensors to leveling and twisting
movement of the hand and elbow joints c)

The use of elastic stretch sensors on robotic a) Measured signals from stretched

sensor to the sensors to leveling and twisting movement of hands joints. b)

Resistivity changes as the twisting position of the elastic strain sensor changes. c)

Strain sensor mounted on gloves to control the movement of a gripper robot flexible

sensors resulting in dummy electronic skin. e) The piezoresistive reply of the

dummy skin positioned on the top of the skin [2].

 11

Chapter: 2 Literature Review

A brief literature review is conducted, underlining the usage of different conductive

and sensing materials, various forms of additives, different building techniques and

performance characteristics such as sensitivity and stretch ability of strain sensors.

Due to the increasing demand for automation and lack of resources the industrialists

are demanding robots that can perform their tasks precisely and accurately. For their

accurate working, flexibility is needed in their manufacturing and sensors are their

most important parts so it needs some flexibility this requirement cannot be fulfilled

by using typical metallic strain sensors whose maximum strain sustainability is ~5%

but polymers can fulfill this requirement. S. Tadakaluru et al. [19] manufactured a

sensor made up of natural rubber having carbon nanotube and graphite films

sandwiched between its layers and measured their strain sustainability. Graphite

and carbon sensors give 246% and 620% strains which are ~50 and ~120 times

greater than a conventional metallic sensor respectively. R. Zhang et al. [23]

observed the strain sensing behavior of polyurethane- urea/ amino-functionalized

MWNTs composite prepared using a solution casting technique. Appreciable

recoverability was noticed in it at a 5% strain.

M. Kotal et al. [24] worked on the up-gradation of the high-temperature stability and

conductivity of the nano blends based on thermoplastic polyurethane and

polypyrrole (PPy) doped with dodecyl benzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) by adopting

two processing methods namely in situ (IS) and solution intercalation (SB) methods.

Increase in the conductivity was observed by incorporating DBSA doped PPy.

However, a sharp increase in the conductivity manifested by a specimen with 2.5

wt% of DBSA doped PPy by adopting in situ technique. The highest value of

electrical conductivity observed by utilizing the SB technique was 0.26 S cm-1 at 30

wt% of DBSA doped PPy. The decomposition temperature was observed to be about
 12

382 oC, 384 oC, and 414oC for TPU, DBSA doped PPy /TPU by IS technique, and

DBSA doped PPy /TPU by SB respectively. A.S. Kurian, H. Souri, V.B. Mohan et al.

[6] prepared stretchable sensors of polypyrrole (PPy) and silicone rubber (SR) which

are used to detect the movement of the humans by utilizing the solution casting

method. The gauge factor obtained with different amounts of PPy in SR was in

between 1.15 and 1.58. PPy/SR is more suitable for the strain in large values due to

their low hysteresis, sensitivity, and durability.

A.P. Tjahyono et al. [25] manufactured a strain sensor based on the conductive

polymer polypyrrole (PPy) and a matrix of natural rubber (NR) adopting vapor

phase polymerization method under evacuation. The gauge factor was appeared to

be 1.86 while hysteresis shown by the sensor was its major demerit.

J. Chen et al. [26] reported the stretching ability, flexibility, and quick self-healing

properties of flexible stretchable sensors of elastomer doped with polypyrrole

prepared by using in situ polymerization of pyrrole in the elastomer substrate

having abundant hydrogen bonding. The conductive filler PPy incorporation up to

7.5 wt. % gives 2.4% enhancement in the fracture resistance from 0.3 to 0.72 MPa

while on the other hand the stretchability was reduced by 18% from 500 to 410 %.

The electrical conductivity with 7.5 wt. % of PPy was about 0.88 Sm -1. High strain

sensitivity up to 300% elongation was observed and hence it is used for the detection

of motion. P. Cisell et al. [27] prepared a piezoresistive strain sensor based on

Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomer (EPDM)/ multi-wall carbon nanotubes

(MWNTs) composite by solution casting technique. The results show that its

conductivity is a linear function of strain up to 10% strain.

F. Martinez et al. [28] formulated a silicone/carbon nanofillers based flexible

standing strain sensor to measure electrical conductance. The electrical conductivity

 13

of 0.3-0.4 mS/cm is obtained from the different sensors having conductivities

between 0.03-5mS/cm.

Z. Levin et al. [29] prepared a polyaniline(PANI)/ poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) based

sensor using a solution casting method. 4wt.% PANI proved to be highly sensitive

and have a gauge factor between 6 and 8 approximately triple than any typical

metallic sensor. Y. Li et al. [30] reported a polypyrrole coated fiber strain sensor. Its

sensitivity and conductivity were tried to be enhanced by using different techniques

i.e. thin coating by a vapor deposition method, polymerization of pyrrole at low

temperature. The strain and electrical characterization suggest a high strain

sensitivity of ∼80 for 50% strain.V. Sencadas et al. [31] prepared an ultra-thin Multi-

walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) based

piezoresistive sensor for fingers skin used in robots. It gives a gauge factor of ∼1.

Figure 2.1Spray Coating process of the soft finger [15]

Zhou et al. [32] manufactured an exceptionally stretchable and super touchy strain

sensor utilizing single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) joined into the PDMS

substrate by scattering technique in methane sulfonic corrosive and acquired

greatest extending up to 50 % strain and bestow the worth of affectability i.e., 750.

Wang et al. [21] introduced a strain sensor that accomplished the good stretch ability

of 100% and high affectability up to 1020.2 dependent on bright/ozone (UV/O3)

beams broke and carbon nanotubes/elastomer (CNTs/PDMS). The revealed

 14

exceptionally touchy strain sensor has expected application in the recognition of

human body movement like eye squinting, wrist and beating.

Niu et al. [33] manufactured an adaptable based strain sensor comprised on

nanocomposite made up with graphene nan platelets (GNPs) and

polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS) elastomer as a base material and furthermore

appropriate for pressure recognition having a affectability up to 20% strain inferable

from high stretch ability and adaptability of PDMS elastomer. GNPs/PDMS

piezoresistive sensor likewise showed most extreme affectability of 140 at 5 wt %

fixation which could be constrained by the fuse of GNPs into PDMS elastomer.

GNPS/PDMS based adaptable sensors showed the diversion after bowing as well as

showed the identification of the finger movement and made it reasonable for fake

skin and wearable applications.

Wang et al. [18] manufactured a productive stretchable and exceptionally delicate

piezoresistive sort strain sensor comprised of polystyrene butadiene styrene (SBS) as

a conductive material with a couple of layers of graphene composite fiber (FLG)

utilizing a wet-turning measure. The revealed showed super strain range more

prominent than every available ounce of effort and super sensitivity esteem with a

(GF) 2546 up to 100% strain.

Wang et al.[5] made multi-walled carbon-nanotubes (MWCNTs)/(TPU) elastomer

fiber-shaped high stretchable sensor having a permeable structure by a cost-effective

wet twisted method that is possible as a continuous and large-scale preparation

process. MWCNTs/TPU based strain sensor showed better studied through the

tunneling theory and gave efficient balance in between the ultra-wide response

having a range for strain (320%) and the value of sensitivity having GF 97.1 as a

resistive type based stretchable strain sensor in the uniaxial stretching test.
 15

Zheng et al.[21] created a stable and exceptionally stretchable strain sensor i.e., a

conductive composite comprised of crossover carbon Nano fillers (CNTs–CB) with

polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomer substrate for powerful human movements

checking applications. This (CNTs - CB)/PDMS based strain sensor was

manufactured by utilizing the arrangement blending and projecting method and

displayed a high stretch ability up to 300% strain. Higher affectability with a

measure factor of 0.91 was gotten after extending from 0% - 100%, 100% - 225% with

a GF of 3.25 also, 225% - 300% showed a greatest measure factor of 13.1 separately.

Raju et al. [34] created two sorts of strain sensors dependent on graphene – polymer

(PDMS) composite coatings that displayed a wide reach strain sensor tested by

Raman spectroscopy i.e., substance fume statement (CVD) covering based example

and the dry changed precisely shed based example. In any case, the Raman two-

dimensional band having shift-pace of shed graphene are 35% more noteworthy

than CVD-graphene focusing on the previous high strain touchy. The shed graphene

covering on PDMS by Raman spectroscopy showed a GF of 2 while CVD graphene

covering on polydimethylsiloxane introduced a GF of 6.1 for an applied strain of

30% individually.

Knite et al.[35] manufactured a sensor-dependent on two kinds of fillers, one was

high construction carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) and second was multiwall carbon

nanotubes (MWCNTs) in polyisoprene lattice by arrangement blending technique.

The detailed sensor shown a greatest extending up to 40% with the check factor GF

of 6 for carbon nanotubes filler-based composite while 4 worth of GF for multi-

walled carbon nanotubes-based composite under 40% applied strain. Wichmann et

al.[36] announced the manufacture of a profoundly touchy also, stretchable strain

sensor dependent on multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)/Epoxy grid

nanocomposite by means of blending technique and showed a greatest extending

 16

worth of 500% strain and high affectability esteem with GF of 10 toward 900 or 2700

directions.

Martinez et al. [28] introduced a polymer based highly flexible strain sensor by

using smart materials (Electrical conducting liquid silicon rubber of Elastosil and

carbon nanotubes conductive fillers) achieving a maximum of elongation of 410% at

the time of breaking point of sample. The fabricated strain sensor was used for the

extent of biological signals such as joint position and its movement,

electrocardiogram, breathing and skin temperature. Sekitiani et al.[37] manufactured

a sensor as natural light discharged diode (LED) show by utilizing stretchable

dynamic grid covered on a printable flexible conductor through vacuum dissipation

and mechanical punching strategy or cutting cycle in which a light-radiating diode

was made out of graphene movies and single wall carbon nanotubes. This method

significantly improves the stretch ability and conductivity of the strain sensors.

Yu Chang et al. [38] created 3x3 dimensional adaptable strain sensor comprised of

conductive materials like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon nanofiber (CNF)

composite miniature dainty movies in the type of clusters that were implanted on

the thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) network by utilizing the designed surface

treatment and shifted drop measure. It reacted by estimating the measure factor in

the scope of 0.34 to 7.98 under the applied strain 3 to 7% individually. The proposed

creation strategy was equipped for making conductive sort polymer-based sensors

through profoundly troublesome plans, with more consistency just as exceptionally

productive for mass creation.

Ciselli et al.[27] made a composite kind strain sensor comprised of multi-walled

carbon nanotubes (CNTs) utilized as a conductive filler and inserted it on to the

ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) substrate. The manufactured strain

sensor displayed the upgrade in the mechanical properties when contrasted with the
 17

most perfect type of the EPDM. A high stretch ability of up to 10% of strain was

achieved and showed straight connection with the conductivity which worked on its

application towards the pressing factor sensor just as strain sensor.

Cochrane et al. [39] introduced an adaptable strain sensor that was manufactured

from conductive sort polymer-based composite (CPC) for deciding the size of the

parachute-shade bending. Evoprene, a class of thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), was

utilized as a polymer framework and calcium carbonate as a filler to assembling

profoundly stretchable strain sensors. The scattering of filler confers a high strain

rate from 10 to 1000 mm/min and twisted at a greatest extending of 9% during 15

testing on the parachute overhang.

Martinez et al.[28] detailed a polymer-based strain sensor having a self-flexing

capacity created from Elastosil, a fluid silicone elastic comprising of great

mechanical, electrical, maturing and vulcanization properties, built up with high

viewpoint proportion conductive-nanoparticles showed a decent conductivity of 0.3

to 0.4 mS/cm and most extreme strain of up to 410% lengthening at the hour of the

break with an elasticity of 5.4 N/mm2 .

Yamada et al. [40] manufactured a stretchable strain sensor comprised of the slight

movies of single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) covered on the canine bone shape

bits of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) polymer lattice for the movement recognition

of the human body. It reacted to a novel strain sensor that surrendered high

extending to 280% and 0.06 worth of check factor up to 200% of strain.

Ku-Herrera et al.[41] announced a piezo resistivity of carbon nanotube with vinyl

ester-based composites i.e., the utilization of strain sensor reacted in cyclic pressure

and strain mode in the versatile systems and showed affectability esteem with a

measure factor of 2.60 upon a normal extreme strain of 1.40% and showed a straight
 18

piezoresistive conduct in pressure and non-direct conduct in pressure up to the

break of the example.

Xiao Li et al.[42] manufactured a delicate and profoundly stretchable strain sensor

utilizing graphene woven textures (GWFs) layered onto a polydimethylsiloxane

(PDMS) polymer grid and came about with a most extreme malleable strain of 6%

with a check factor of 103 and for higher strain (>6%) the check factor esteem was up

to 106 because of its woven cross section design and crack conduct, showing higher

affectability under each extending cycle.

J. Lipomi et al. [43] detailed a pressure strain sensor grounded on straightforward,

versatile and biocompatible conductive carbon nanotubes CNTs films and

polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) material as a polymer substrate. The last shaped

strain sensor reacted high stretchability with a greatest strain up to 150% with high

conductivity of 2200S cm-1 in the full extended state. These straightforward and

biocompatible strain sensors are profoundly reasonable for human wearable

electronic applications.

Nanshu Lu et al.[44] introduced a skin mountable strain sensor that showed high

affectability what's more, was manufactured by utilizing polydimethylsiloxane

(PDMS) elastomer and exceptionally conductive carbonaceous materials like the

carbon dark CB and the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as detecting 16 materials in the

improvement of strain sensors. CB and CNTs were doped onto a PDMS polymer

substrate and gave great affectability having check factor (GF) 29 and the most

extreme extending estimated was in the middle of the scope of 11.2% to 22.6%.

Slobodian et al. [45] manufactured an electrically conductive composite dependent

on the interlaced organization of carbonbased nanotubes CNTs in thermoplastic

polyurethane (TPU) framework. This CNT/TPU based composite showed greatest

 19

prolongation through extending as 400% with multiple times more expansion in

opposition that empowered it to be material for exceptionally distorted strain

detecting component, electro-attractive field safeguarding and so forth.

P. Tjahyono et al. [25] created a profoundly adaptable strain sensor by utilizing slim

layers of polypyrrole as a conductive polymer covered on the regular elastic

substrate by means of fume stage polymerization strategy through a vacuum

climate. The came about strain sensor displayed better security with a greatest check

factor of 1.86 upon 20% strain of the last example. The created sensor was totally

applied to compression and expansion-based applications like an air muscle and can

likewise be executed for computing the huge twisting strain applications.

Hwang et al.[46] manufactured electromechanical strain sensor dependent on

crossover composite sheets that include carbon nanotubes CNTs and graphene

nanoplatelets GNPs impregnated on to polycarbonate PC through vacuum incited

filtration strategy. The subsequent half breed sensor exhibited a high flexural strain

of up to 2% with a measure factor in the scope of 0.56 – 0.64.

Ning Hu et al.[47] introduced a super delicate strain sensor created from carbon

nanofillers CNFs that was metal-covered in nature and epoxy lattice was utilized as

a polymer framework for making CNF/epoxy-based composite. The subsequent

sensor was produced using two sorts of nanofillers, one depended on fume

development carbon fiber (VGCFs) with silver or nickel coatings and different was

created by utilizing the metal-covered CNF. The created sensor showed high

affectability with a check factor of 155 for VGCFs with silver covering and around

multiple times expansion in the incentive for metal foil based strain checks upon

+6000 miniature strain level.

 20

Hoon Bae et al.[48] created a straightforward type strain sensor produced using

graphene as a detecting filler into the stretchable elastic substrate in a type of rosette

through particle carving and stepping strategies. The subsequent straightforward

strain sensor showed affectability as far as measure factor in the scope of 4 to 14

upon 7.1% applied strain. These outcomes were shown by utilizing a

straightforward glove every which way and their sizes were estimated by applying

the gloves on to fingers actuated by the movement of finger [99].

Cai et al. [22] introduced a very stretchable capacitive sort strain sensor comprised of

multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) inserted onto the polydimethylsiloxane

PDMS substrate that was straightforward and utilized for movement identification

of human joints. The subsequent strain sensor showed high stretchability with a

most extreme strain of 300% with the upgraded toughness even in the wake of

finishing many cycles.

 21

Chapter: 3 Experimental Methods

3.1 Materials Required

Materials which are required for the manufacturing of sensors are thermoplastic

polyurethane (TPU – hardness = 87 shore D - ester-based, China) as the base

polymer, Pyrrole monomer Tetrahydrofuran (THF Sigma – Aldrich chemicals,

Germany), Ammonium persulfate (APS Dae – Jung, chemicals China), Dodecyl

benzenesulfonic acid (DBSA)

3.2 Strain sensors prepared by in Situ Polymerization process

By in situ polymerization process TPU and PPy are and polymerized, first of all 4.1g

of TPU is added in 10mL THF and dissolved with continuous stirring for half or an

hour so TPU can dissolve completely in solvent. Then (4.5, 9 and 18) wt. percentage

of pyrrole with respect to of TPU was added in solution TPU solution, DBSA as a

dopant for pyrrole monomer is added in the solution meanwhile (0.005 mole) APS is

added drop wise through the burette and the solution is kept at 5oC for 12 hrs. under

stirring for the completion of polymerization. As the polymerization initiates the

color of the solution turns from greenish to black. After 12 hours of stirring the

polymer is precipitated out by adding the excess amount of methanol in solution

and washed several times with distilled water after precipitation. This washing will

remove the unreacted monomers. After the washing precipitated mass is filtered out

using filter paper and dried at 60-70 oC for 1 hour. Then the dried black colored mass

is dissolved in the THF, and solution was molded in the handmade tape molds on a

glass plate, the sample is subjected to [24].

 22

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of the in-situ polymerization and solution casting
technique resulting in the fabrication of PPy/TPU hybrid sensor.

3.3 Characterization

FTIR/ATR spectrum of TPU and its different blends with Polypyrrole were recorded

using FT/ IR-4100 infrared spectrometer (JASCO, Japan). The spectrum of the

specimens were obtained in the wave number range of 400–4000 cm−1.

Thermogravimetric Polymer Bulletin 1 3 analysis of pure TPU film, PANI.DBSA and

different blends of TPU/Aniline. DBSA was performed using thermogravimetric

analyzer TGA-50 instrument (Shimandzu, Japan) at heating rate of 20 °C/min under

nitrogen atmosphere and above ambient temperature 25–600 °C. Efect of

concentration of aniline was observed on the thermal degradation of the blends.

Samples were completely dried in a vacuum chamber before analysis.

 23

Chapter no 4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis

The Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) analysis of Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) and

Polypyrrole (PPy), TPU/PPy.DBSA blends at (4.5, 9, 18) PPy wt.% are shown in the Figure

4.1. All curves represent the three major regions of weight loss that are detected during TGA

study. The very first decay area up to 250 °C temperature is due to the drying up of the

water deposited on the surfaces. The next degradation area ranging from 250 °C to 450 °C

temperature shows the decay of Dodecylbenzene sulphonic acid (DBSA) and the and the

oxidized PPy and TPU polymers present in them. The last region ranges from 450 to 550 °C

temperature depicts the deprivation of hemmed in DBSA, PPy and TPU [49].

Figure 4.1 displays that the neat TPU sample remains stable up to 340 °C. The dip in the

Figure 4.1 TGA curves for pure TPU and TPU/PPy.DBSA blends in PPy
weight percentages of 4.5, 9, and 18. respectively
 24

weight prior to 340°C is due to the elimination of humidity from the TPU surface. The decay

initiates at 340 °C and then offsets at 430 °C. Total mass loss of neat TPU is 82% at the offset.

The blends of TPU/PPy.DBSA synthesized via in situ polymerization shows varying weight
loss values. The 4.5 PPy wt.% displays the beginning at 250 °C before the beginning point a

weight loss up to 4 % occurs due to the thermally volatile elements like contaminants and

humidity present in the blend. The onset started at 250 °C due to the presence of some

unreacted pyrrole monomers and solvent present in the blends. Blend is stable at higher

temperatures and the mass loss is up to 62% at the offset temperature of 410 °C. The trend in

the Figure 4,1 portrays the mass loss decreases with the increase in the PPy concentration,

Blend with PPy 9 wt. % shows the onset at 250 °C and offset at 395 °C. The blend is more

stable at higher temperatures. The mass loss is up to 58 % till the offset temperature. Blend
with PPy 18 wt. % shows the onset at 210 °C and offset at 375 °C. this blend is highly stable

at higher temperatures and shows the mass loss up to 50 % at its offset temperature.

For every blend, the region of 150–410 °C shows greater mass loss as in comparison to the

neat TPU. This mass loss portrays the lower thermal stability of urea linkages between

PPy.DBSA and TPU. Above 410 °C, the mass loss is higher for the TPU and lower for the
blends and the mass loss is dependent on the PPy added.

4.2 Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy

The infrared spectroscopy study is conducted to analyze the interaction PPy.DBSA
macromolecules with the Thermoplastic polyurethane matrix present within the in situ

polymerized blend. Literature reported that the FTIR analysis TPU blended with PPy shows

the interaction of TPU carbonyl groups with the PPy amine functional groups [12]. Figure

4.2 shows FTIR spectra of TPU and PPy.DBSA/TPU blends with varying percentages. The

peaks ranging 3000 to 3300 cm-1 shows the amine functional groups absorption and the

dominant peaks at 3335 cm-1 are linked to the stretching of the amine functional groups.

The peaks at the 2947 cm-1 shows the stretching of CH, CH2 and CH3 groups symmetrically

and asymmetrically.
 25

0 wt% PPy 1513 1220

1720
2947
3338 1080

1527 1160
4.5 wt Py
Absorbance

1720 1040
2947
3329

1527 1160
9 wt% PPy
2947 1720 10200
3324

1160
18 wt% PPy 1527
1720 1010
2947
3319

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000

1500 1000 500
-1
Wavenumber (cm )

Figure 4.2 FTIR/ATR spectra of pure TPU and TPU/PPy.DBSA blends in PPy weight
percentages of 4.5, 9, and 18. respectively

The absorption observed at 1720 cm-1 provide the information at about the

asymmetrical stretching of TPU carbonyl group. The FTIR bands of the in situ

polymerized blends exhibited that amine peak sharpness is displaced from 3338 cm−1

in 0 wt % PPy (neat TPU) to lesser wave number, i.e., 3329, 3324 cm−1, and 3319 cm−1

for 4.5 wt.% PPy, 9 wt.% PPy and, 18 wt.% PPy, respectively. This shift of amine

group peaks indicates that the existence of interacting bonding between the carbonyl

groups of TPU and amine groups of PPy. As the TPU is the matrix and higher in
 26

percentage so it is dominant, this behavior is indicated in the narrow peak

difference. The absorption peak at 1080 cm-1 indicates the aromatic C-H bending in

plane. The same peak is moved from 1080 to 1040, 1020, and 1010 cm -1 for 4.5 wt.%

PPy, 9 wt.% PPy and, 18 wt.% PPy, respectively with the increase in the loading of

PPy. The peaks are more sharpe in the case of blends. The existence of varied

morphologies and mutually free and bound carbonyl groups in both blends is

shown by the extent of the asymmetric carbonyl absorption peak at the 1732 cm-1

wave number in both blends [50].

4.3 Future Prospect

The aim and objectives our project were to fabricate the highly stretchable and sensitive

strain sensor based on Polypyrrole and thermoplastic urethane blend. But because of the
time constrains and COVID situation we would not do that. But soon our juniors will do

that.

In the future, we are aiming to synthesis Piezoresistive strain sensor based on PPy/TPU

blend. Piezoresistive strain sensor consist of the electrically conductive film on flexible

material and sense the change in resistance by change in geometry of sensor.

M. Kotal et al. [4] worked on the up-gradation of the high-temperature stability and

conductivity of the nano blends based on thermoplastic polyurethane and polypyrrole (PPy)

doped with dodecyl benzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) by adopting two processing methods

namely in situ (IS) and solution intercalation (SB) methods. Increase in the conductivity was

observed by incorporating DBSA doped PPy. However, a sharp increase in the conductivity

manifested by a specimen with 2.5 wt% of DBSA doped PPy by adopting in situ technique.
The highest value of electrical conductivity observed by utilizing the SB technique was 0.26

S cm-1 at 30 wt% of DBSA doped PPy. The decomposition temperature was observed to be

about 382 oC, 384 oC, and 414oC for TPU, DBSA doped PPy /TPU by IS technique, and DBSA

doped PPy /TPU by SB respectively. A.S. Kurian, H. Souri, V.B. Mohan et al. [9] prepared

stretchable sensors of polypyrrole (PPy) and silicone rubber (SR) which are used to detect
 27

the movement of the humans by utilizing the solution casting method. The gauge factor

obtained with different amounts of PPy in SR was in between 1.15 and 1.58. PPy/SR is more

suitable for the strain in large values due to their low hysteresis, sensitivity, and durability.
 28

Chapter: 5 Conclusion
In this research project, a facile fabrication route and characterization of hybrid

fillers-based flexible strain sensors has been presented to study the behavior of the

designed sensors. Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) has been selected as base

polymer because of its excellent characteristics such as good stretchability , excellent

mechanical properties and compatibility With polypyrrole (ppy) nanofillers.The

thermal stability of TPU/PPY blend sensor increases with the increasing conductive

nanofillers ( PPY) loading(0%,4.5%,9%,18%) in thermoplastic polyurethane matrix.

Which gives 80% to 50% loss in mass respectively. As we increase the loading of

nanofillers ( PPY) (0%,4.5%,9%,18%) we get more sharp peaks which indicates that's

interaction between TPU and PPy.DBSA increased. Because TPU carbonyl grou and

amine group from ppy interactions.These results confirmed by FTIR test.

 29

References
[1] G. M. N. Islam, A. Ali, and S. Collie, “Textile sensors for wearable
applications: a comprehensive review,” Cellulose, vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 6103–
6131, 2020, doi: 10.1007/s10570-020-03215-5.
[2] M. Amjadi, K. U. Kyung, I. Park, and M. Sitti, “Stretchable, Skin-Mountable,
and Wearable Strain Sensors and Their Potential Applications: A Review,”
Adv. Funct. Mater., vol. 26, no. 11, pp. 1678–1698, 2016, doi:
10.1002/adfm.201504755.
[3] M. Stoppa and A. Chiolerio, “Wearable electronics and smart textiles: A
critical review,” Sensors (Switzerland), vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 11957–11992, 2014, doi:
10.3390/s140711957.
[4] T. Yan, Z. Wang, and Z. J. Pan, “Flexible strain sensors fabricated using
carbon-based nanomaterials: A review,” Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci., vol.
22, no. 6, pp. 213–228, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.cossms.2018.11.001.
[5] X. Wang et al., “A highly stretchable carbon nanotubes/thermoplastic
polyurethane fiber-shaped strain sensor with porous structure for human
motion monitoring,” Compos. Sci. Technol., vol. 168, pp. 126–132, 2018, doi:
10.1016/j.compscitech.2018.09.006.
[6] A. S. Kurian, H. Souri, V. B. Mohan, and D. Bhattacharyya, “Highly
stretchable strain sensors based on polypyrrole-silicone rubber composites for
human motion detection,” Sensors Actuators, A Phys., vol. 312, p. 112131, 2020,
doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2020.112131.
[7] S. T. Patton, C. Chen, J. Hu, L. Grazulis, A. M. Schrand, and A. K. Roy,
“Characterization of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and Ag-carbon black
TPU nanocomposite for potential application in additive manufacturing,”
Polymers (Basel)., vol. 9, no. 1, 2017, doi: 10.3390/polym9010006.
[8] T. Jeevananda and Siddaramaiah, “Synthesis and characterization of
polyaniline filled PU/PMMA interpenetrating polymer networks,” Eur. Polym.
J., vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 569–578, 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0014-3057(02)00272-0.
[9] C. Xu et al., “Preparation and properties of flexible conductive
polydimethylsiloxane composites containing hybrid fillers,” Polym. Bull., vol.
76, no. 12, pp. 6487–6501, 2019, doi: 10.1007/s00289-019-02705-2.
[10] R. Jing et al., “Comparative study of posteriori decision-making methods when
designing building integrated energy systems with multi-objectives,” Energy
Build., vol. 194, pp. 123–139, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.04.023.
[11] Z. Zhao, J. Zhou, H. Xiao, Y. Liu, and M. Lu, “Creation of polyaniline-coated
 30

polyester fabrics with conductive, electrothermal and energy-storage

properties via micro-dissolution method,” Mater. Today Commun., vol. 24, no.
March, p. 101042, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.101042.
[12] C. Qian, S. Chen, J. Wang, J. Kan, Z. Zhang, and M. Yu, “A piezoelectric
hydraulic linear motor with velocity self-monitoring,” Sensors Actuators, A
Phys., vol. 306, p. 111962, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2020.111962.
[13] M. Amjadi, A. Pichitpajongkit, S. Lee, S. Ryu, and I. Park, “Highly stretchable
and sensitive strain sensor based on silver nanowire-elastomer
nanocomposite,” ACS Nano, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 5154–5163, 2014, doi:
10.1021/nn501204t.
[14] X. Shen et al., “A three-dimensional multilayer graphene web for polymer
nanocomposites with exceptional transport properties and fracture
resistance,” Mater. Horizons, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 275–284, 2018, doi:
10.1039/c7mh00984d.
[15] M. Amjadi, M. Turan, C. P. Clementson, and M. Sitti, “Parallel Microcracks-
based Ultrasensitive and Highly Stretchable Strain Sensors,” ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces, vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 5618–5626, 2016, doi: 10.1021/acsami.5b12588.
[16] P. Cataldi, A. Athanassiou, and I. S. Bayer, “Graphene nanoplatelets-based
advanced materials and recent progress in sustainable applications,” Appl. Sci.,
vol. 8, no. 9, 2018, doi: 10.3390/app8091438.
[17] W. Zhang, Q. Liu, and P. Chen, “Flexible strain sensor based on carbon
black/silver nanoparticles composite for humanmotion detection,” Materials
(Basel)., vol. 11, no. 10, pp. 1–13, 2018, doi: 10.3390/ma11101836.
[18] S. Neethirajan, “Recent advances in wearable sensors for animal health
management,” Sens. Bio-Sensing Res., vol. 12, pp. 15–29, 2017, doi:
10.1016/j.sbsr.2016.11.004.
[19] S. Tadakaluru, W. Thongsuwan, and P. Singjai, “Stretchable and flexible high-
strain sensors made using carbon nanotubes and graphite films on natural
rubber,” Sensors (Switzerland), vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 868–876, 2014, doi:
10.3390/s140100868.
[20] R. V. Tappeta, J. E. Renaud, and J. F. Rodríguez, “An interactive multiobjective
optimization design strategy for decision based multidisciplinary design,”
Eng. Optim., vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 523–544, 2002, doi: 10.1080/03052150214020.
[21] Y. Zheng et al., “A highly stretchable and stable strain sensor based on hybrid
carbon nanofillers/polydimethylsiloxane conductive composites for large
human motions monitoring,” Compos. Sci. Technol., vol. 156, pp. 276–286, 2018,
doi: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2018.01.019.
[22] L. Cai et al., “Super-stretchable, transparent carbon nanotube-based capacitive
strain sensors for human motion detection,” Sci. Rep., vol. 3, pp. 1–9, 2013, doi:
10.1038/srep03048.
 31

[23] R. Zhang et al., “Strain sensing behaviour of elastomeric composite films

containing carbon nanotubes under cyclic loading,” Compos. Sci. Technol., vol.
74, pp. 1–5, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2012.09.016.
[24] M. Kotal, S. K. Srivastava, and B. Paramanik, “Enhancements in conductivity
and thermal stabilities of polypyrrole/polyurethane nanoblends,” J. Phys.
Chem. C, vol. 115, no. 5, pp. 1496–1505, 2011, doi: 10.1021/jp1081643.
[25] A. P. Tjahyono, K. C. Aw, and J. Travas-Sejdic, “A novel polypyrrole and
natural rubber based flexible large strain sensor,” Sensors Actuators, B Chem.,
vol. 166–167, pp. 426–437, 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2012.02.083.
[26] J. Chen, J. Liu, T. Thundat, and H. Zeng, “Polypyrrole-Doped Conductive
Supramolecular Elastomer with Stretchability, Rapid Self-Healing, and
Adhesive Property for Flexible Electronic Sensors,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces,
vol. 11, no. 20, pp. 18720–18729, 2019, doi: 10.1021/acsami.9b03346.
[27] P. Ciselli, L. Lu, J. J. C. Busfield, and T. Peijs, “Piezoresistive polymer
composites based on EPDM and MWNTs for strain sensing applications,” E-
Polymers, no. 014, pp. 1–13, 2010, doi: 10.1515/epoly.2010.10.1.125.
[28] F. Martinez, G. Obieta, I. Uribe, T. Sikora, and E. Ochoteco, “Polymer-based
self-standing flexible strain sensor,” J. Sensors, vol. 2010, 2010, doi:
10.1155/2010/659571.
[29] Z. S. Levin, C. Robert, J. F. Feller, M. Castro, and J. C. Grunlan, “Flexible latex -
Polyaniline segregated network composite coating capable of measuring large
strain on epoxy,” Smart Mater. Struct., vol. 22, no. 1, 2013, doi: 10.1088/0964-
1726/22/1/015008.
[30] Y. Li, X. Y. Cheng, M. Y. Leung, J. Tsang, X. M. Tao, and M. C. W. Yuen, “A
flexible strain sensor from polypyrrole-coated fabrics,” Synth. Met., vol. 155,
no. 1, pp. 89–94, 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.synthmet.2005.06.008.
[31] V. Sencadas, R. Mutlu, and G. Alici, “Large area and ultra-thin compliant
strain sensors for prosthetic devices,” Sensors Actuators, A Phys., vol. 266, pp.
56–64, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2017.08.051.
[32] Q. Li, K. Wang, Y. Gao, J. P. Tan, R. Y. Wu, and F. Z. Xuan, “Highly sensitive
wearable strain sensor based on ultra-violet/ozone cracked carbon
nanotube/elastomer,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 112, no. 26, pp. 110–113, 2018, doi:
10.1063/1.5029391.
[33] G. Ye et al., “Total error compensation of non-ideal signal parameters for
Moiré encoders,” Sensors Actuators, A Phys., vol. 298, p. 111539, 2019, doi:
10.1016/j.sna.2019.111539.
[34] A. P. A. Raju et al., “Wide-area strain sensors based upon graphene-polymer
composite coatings probed by raman spectroscopy,” Adv. Funct. Mater., vol.
24, no. 19, pp. 2865–2874, 2014, doi: 10.1002/adfm.201302869.
[35] M. Knite, V. Tupureina, A. Fuith, J. Zavickis, and V. Teteris, “Polyisoprene-
 32

multi-wall carbon nanotube composites for sensing strain,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C,
vol. 27, no. 5-8 SPEC. ISS., pp. 1125–1128, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2006.08.016.
[36] M. H. G. Wichmann, S. T. Buschhorn, L. Böger, R. Adelung, and K. Schulte,
“Direction sensitive bending sensors based on multi-wall carbon
nanotube/epoxy nanocomposites,” Nanotechnology, vol. 19, no. 47, 2008, doi:
10.1088/0957-4484/19/47/475503.
[37] T. Sekitani et al., “Stretchable active-matrix organic light-emitting diode
display using printable elastic conductors,” Nat. Mater., vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 494–
499, 2009, doi: 10.1038/nmat2459.
[38] N. Hu et al., “Ultrasensitive strain sensors made from metal-coated carbon
nanofiller/epoxy composites,” Carbon N. Y., vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 202–212, 2013,
doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2012.08.029.
[39] C. Cochrane, V. Koncar, M. Lewandowski, and C. Dufour, “Design and
development of a flexible strain sensor for textile structures based on a
conductive polymer composite,” Sensors, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 473–492, 2007, doi:
10.3390/s7040473.
[40] T. Yamada et al., “A stretchable carbon nanotube strain sensor for human-
motion detection,” Nat. Nanotechnol., vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 296–301, 2011, doi:
10.1038/nnano.2011.36.
[41] J. J. Ku-Herrera and F. Avilés, “Cyclic tension and compression
piezoresistivity of carbon nanotube/vinyl ester composites in the elastic and
plastic regimes,” Carbon N. Y., vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 2592–2598, 2012, doi:
10.1016/j.carbon.2012.02.018.
[42] X. Li et al., “Stretchable and highly sensitive graphene-on-polymer strain
sensors,” Sci. Rep., vol. 2, pp. 1–6, 2012, doi: 10.1038/srep00870.
[43] D. J. Lipomi et al., “Skin-like pressure and strain sensors based on transparent
elastic films of carbon nanotubes,” Nat. Nanotechnol., vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 788–
792, 2011, doi: 10.1038/nnano.2011.184.
[44] N. Lu, C. Lu, S. Yang, and J. Rogers, “Highly sensitive skin-mountable strain
gauges based entirely on elastomers,” Adv. Funct. Mater., vol. 22, no. 19, pp.
4044–4050, 2012, doi: 10.1002/adfm.201200498.
[45] P. Slobodian, P. Riha, and P. Saha, “A highly-deformable composite composed
of an entangled network of electrically-conductive carbon-nanotubes
embedded in elastic polyurethane,” Carbon N. Y., vol. 50, no. 10, pp. 3446–
3453, 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2012.03.008.
[46] R. Eun, H. Byeong-Ung, K. Doil, K. Bo-Yeong, and L. Nae-Eung, “Stretchable,
Transparent, Ultrasensitive, and Patchable Strain Sensor for Human-Machine
Interfaces Comprising a Nanohybrid of Carbon Nanotubes and Conductive
Elastomers,” ACS Nano, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 6252–6261, 2015.
[47] Alamusi, N. Hu, H. Fukunaga, S. Atobe, Y. Liu, and J. Li, “Piezoresistive strain
 33

sensors made from carbon nanotubes based polymer nanocomposites,”

Sensors, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 10691–10723, 2011, doi: 10.3390/s111110691.
[48] S. H. Bae, Y. Lee, B. K. Sharma, H. J. Lee, J. H. Kim, and J. H. Ahn, “Graphene-
based transparent strain sensor,” Carbon N. Y., vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 236–242, 2013,
doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2012.08.048.
[49] I. A. Rashid et al., “Stretchable strain sensors based on
polyaniline/thermoplastic polyurethane blends,” Polym. Bull., vol. 77, no. 3,
pp. 1081–1093, 2020, doi: 10.1007/s00289-019-02796-x.
[50] P. C. Rodrigues and L. Akcelrud, “Networks and blends of polyaniline and
polyurethane : correlations between composition and thermal , dynamic
mechanical and electrical properties,” vol. 44, pp. 6891–6899, 2003, doi:
10.1016/j.polymer.2003.08.024.