SHADAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

STUDIES FOR GIRLS&BOYS

MBA I YEAR II SEM

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

SUB: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

(NEW SYLLUBUS)

FACULTY
MD.SAJEED & A. SWATI
 SHADAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
MBA I YEAR II SEM
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
SUB: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Unit-1
1.Explain about research design in detail

2.Define business research state its nature & significance discus features of good
research

3.How do exploratory descriptive casual research differ from each other

4.Explain various types of research

Unit-2

5.Explain in detail different types of data collection methods

6.Explain about the research process

7.What is questionaries explain steps in designing the questionaries

8.What are the methods of sampling explain briefly

Unit-3

9.What are the different scales used in business research explain and differentiate

10.What is data analysis what are different types of data analysis

11.What is attitude scale explain the classification of scales based on no of dimensions

Unit-4

12.What is hypothesis & discus the procedure followed in testing of a hypothesis

13.Explain about factor analysis and cluster analysis

14.One problem on chi square test /Anova /McNamar test

 Unit-5

15.Define report what are its objectives explain different types of reports

16.Discuss in detail contents of report and explain the role of audience in report writing

17.Explain plagiarism and essentials of referencing

Short Answers

1.Litrature review

2.Research objectives

3.Pilot study

4.Stratified random sampling

5.Editing

6.Validity

7.Type -I and Type -II errors

8.Types of research report

9.Subjectivity and Objectivity in research

10.Marketing information system

11. Interval scale

12. Ratio scale

 Unit-1

1)Explain about research design in detail.

“A Research Design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
Objectives of Business Research:

1) To carry out exploratory research.

2) To define the sources of gathering information.
3) To select objects of sample from population.

Significance of Research Design:

1) Research design assist in identifying the way to proceed and what exactly should be
done and how to be carried out at each phase.

2) Research design guides to move in right direction. It guides the research study.

3) It aids the researcher to plan his ideas in such a way that he can easily identify defects
and in competencies if any.

4) It helps the researcher in taking decision regarding level of accuracy to be maintained

in his or her study, so that his or her study prove to be worthy.

5) It makes sure that research study is carried out smoothly with reasonable prices.

6) Research design plays a significant role in social science research. It helps a researcher
in solving major social problems.

7) Research design study is carried out smoothly with reasonable prices.

Characteristics of a Good Research Design:

1) A Good Research Design minimizes experimental errors.

2) It provides maximum information and gives an opportunity for solving the different
aspects of problem.
3) It utilizes the resources efficiently.
4) It answers all the research questions.
5) The ability to generalize the research results is one of the desirable characteristic
features of a good research design.
6) It facilitates in testing of hypothesis.
7) It maximizes the reliability and flexibility in research.
8) It completely depends on objective rather than subjectivity.
 Research Design

Explanatory Research Design Conclusive Research Design

Descriptive Casual Diagnostic

Cross Sectional Longitudinal

1. Explanatory Research Design

Concerned with discovering general nature of the problem and the variables that are
related to it. Explanatory research is characterized by a high degree of flexibility and it
tends to rely on secondary data, judgement samples, expert surveys or simple
experiments, case studies and subjective evaluation of results.
2. Conclusive Research Designs

A Formal and large research that involves quantitative analysis. The results of this study
are used in decision making and hence they are conclusive. It can be classified into
descriptive research design, casual research design and diagnostic research design.

1. Descriptive Research

Aims at studying what, how, when, who, where of a topic under consideration.

Further divided into two,

(i) Cross Sectional Design

(ii) Longitudinal Design
2. Casual Research/ Design

Investigate the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. The design
of casual research is based on reasoning.
 3. Diagnostic Research Design

Diagnostic study is carried out at the time of social problems in order to identify
relationships between causes and then take diagnostic action. It is mainly related with
determining and monitoring of some variables in terms of their association or
disassociation.Diagnostic Study is motivated by hypothesis which is related to the source
of problem. A diagnostic research design will always have a rigid structure and
observational design.

Q2) Define Business Research and State its nature and significance. Discuss
the features of Good Research.
“Defining and Redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting;
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.”

Nature of Business Research:

1) Business Research answers the questions collected from different managers in the
organization.
2) It aims at investigating a research question with a view to generate knowledge.
3) It analyzes business problems and explores all the general issues.
4) It deals with different functional areas.
5) The researchers are identical to each other as they use same research methods for investigating
in different areas.
6) It is logical and goal oriented.
7) It supplies the accurate information to minimize the loss in decision making.
8) It depends on visible experience or on observed facts.
9) It assists the decision making to move towards systematic and objective method of
investigation rather than collecting initiative information.
10) It requires accurate observation and description.
Importance of Business Research:

1) Business Research assists the business organisations to increase its revenue, brand
value and market share.
2) It helps the companies to be aware of the market trends, demand and supply of market.
 3) It provides companies with tracking options which assists them to be one step ahead of
the competitors.
4) It enables business organization in understanding the target consumer preferences and
their buying behaviour.
5) It helps business organisation in organising opportunities and threats.
6) It enables the companies to identify the problems and helps them to take better
decisions.
7) It focuses on reducing the unnecessary costs and paying attention to areas which brings
customers to increase the profit.
8) It makes sure that companies can avoid failure, by providing ideas to launch the
product at the right time.
9) It enables the businesses to assess their reputation in the market.
10) It ensures that business organisation innovate their products according to the
customers’ needs to keep customers attached with their brand.
Features of Good Research:

1) Systematic: A Good Research is systematic in nature. It ascertains the truth or solution by

following systematic and sequential process.

2)Control: Good research always has a proper control on all variables. Variables are not allowed
to change or vary except those which are being tested or experimented.
3)Analytical: Good research is analytical. It evaluates present data and interprets the data
collected by all the researchers.
4)Objective and Logical: The observations and conclusions obtained from a good research are
objective logical based on empirical data.
5) Statistical Methods: A good research makes use of statistical methods. To determine the
usefulness or importance of data, the data is converted into numerical measures and is
statistically evaluated.
6)Original Work: A good research is carried out by an expert. The experts who goes through
rigorous training are capable of using the valid data, carefully designed processed and valid
research instruments.
7)Expert Work: A good research is carried out by an expert. The expert who goes through
rigorous training are capable of using the valid data, carefully designed processes and valid
research instruments.
8)Attention and Carefulness: A good research is conducted carefully and with complete
attention. Research which is carried out carelessly or in a hurry may lead to incorrect results.
9)Courage: A good research demands high level of courage in researchers. The researcher should
be confident enough to continue and complete the work which has been started.

Q3) How do exploratory descriptive casual research differ from each other?
BASIS EXPLAROTAORY DESCRIPTIVE CASAUAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH RESEARCH
MEANING Exploratory research is all Descriptive Research The name casual research
about understanding and describes the investigates the cause-and-
discovery ideas. characteristics of market effect relationship among
variables
PURPOSE: It is conducted for the Descriptive Research It is conducted for the purpose
purpose of developing aims at studying what, of understanding which
hypothesis, defining when, how, when, who variables are the cause and
problem more precisely, and where of a topic which effects, to determine
identifying alternative under construction. relationship between casual
course of action etc. variable effect.
STRUCTU It is informal, It is formal, pre-planned, It is planned and has structured
RED/UNST unstructured, flexible and structured and based on design.
RURED involves small samples large samples.
ANALYSIS It focuses on qualitative It focuses on quantitative It also focuses on quantitative
analysis. analysis. analysis.
RESULTS It produces uncertain It produces conclusive It also produces conclusive
results result. results.
USES It uses different methods It uses secondary data It uses experiment method.
such as, expert survey, sources, survey of large
pilot survey, secondary panel and distribution.
data analysis and
qualitative analysis
PROBLEM It is only in early stages of It is conducted only It is conducted to identify
: decision making, where when management is cause and effect relationship,
the researcher is uncertain aware of problem, but when the researcher problem is
about nature of the does not have complete narrowly defined
problem. knowledge
EXAMPLE If a researcher wants to Research or trends in the Research on new product to
: know the reason behind consumption of soft determine its sales potential in
the increase in the absence drinks in relation to the market.
of animals in the city, socio-economic
he/she may find some characteristics like age,
influencing factors like family, income,
increase in population. educational level and so
However, he/she may not on.
be able to reach a
conclusion.
Q4) Explain different types of Research.
1) Basic Research: Basic Research is also called as Pure or Fundamental Research.\It main aim
is to increase the present knowledge of a specific subject. It could either be in physical form such
as sales or abstract form like human behaviour. Generally people carry out basic research out of
curiosity for example Research carried out to find the

a) Relation between intelligence and creativity

b) Influence of advertisement on different media like television, newspaper and
magazine.

2) Applied Research: It is the type of research related to particular products service or system.
For example, A company may be interested in evaluating the impact of its advertising campaign.
The main objective of applied research is to solve many types of problem in scientific manner. A
Research is said to be applied research where on its applicability in a particular field such as,
Social and Behavioural science, Human Resource and development, etc.

3)Empirical Research: is a Research which does not consider any model. The other it is based on
evidence, experiment or observation. It uses only empirical data-based evidence to solve the
problem. For example, A Research on heavily bodies i.e. planets, stars, etc is based on data
collected about their movement.

Advantages of Empirical Usage:

1. Empirical Research is more reliable because it is based on real life experience and
observation.

2. There are chances that the data collected in empirical research is more accurate.

3. The empirical research is considered to be flexible and allows the researcher to make
some changes if required.

4. The empirical research helps in finding out the reasons behind the occurrence of
certain things. This will further help in preventing the happening of similar things in
future.

5. The empirical research helps in finding out the answers to a specific phenomenon. It
gives explanation as how something works.

Disadvantages:

1. The empirical research may consume a lot of time based on the subject of research.

2. It may not be cost effective, because of expensive methods used for data collection
purpose and also the cost involved in travelling between different locations.
 3. Acquiring information on sensitive topics may be a difficult task. It is also required
that the researcher should take the permission from the participants for using the data.

4. The result for the researcher may not be accurate, if there are no sufficient evidences to
support the research.

4) Cross Sectional Research:

Cross Sectional Research is observational research, where the data is collected on one or
more variables at one point of time. For example, medical research conducted to
determine the spread of cancer among a specific population.

Characteristic:

1. It gathers data of one particular time.

2. It does not affect or manipulate the variables on which study is being carried out.

3. It involves collecting data on one or more variables at a single moment of time.

4. It may show the correlation relationships between variables.

5. It is observational in nature. The research is not relational or casual ie cannot find out
the cause of something.

Merits of Cross-Sectional Research:

1. It is inexpensive to carry out the cross-sectional research.

2. The researcher can quickly collect the information under this research.

3. It encourages the researcher to conduct further research.

4. It enables the researcher to gather information from different variables. For example,
in one population survey, the researcher can collect information on education, age,
income and health.

Demerits of Cross-Sectional Research:

1) The information collected may be accurate or biased.

2) Using this research, it is not possible to observe behaviour over a period of time.
Because the research studies only one moment of time.

3. Establishing a cause-and-effect relationship is difficult using this research.

5) Time Series Research:

1) The data or observations are collected from same variable or variable across multiple
time points.

2) The time series data not only shows short term changes but also the long term trends.

Conducting research on country economic growth and energy consumption is the best
example of time series consumption.

Suitability of time series research:

1) Set a baseline data measure.

2) Predict trends in future.
3) Determine the impact of policy or program.
4) Get update of the trends.
5) Show the changes over time.

Merits of time research:

1) It is easy to collect and analyze data in time series.

2) It is easy to interpret the time series data when presented in tables or graphs.
 UNIT -2
Q5) Explain in detail different types of data collection methods.
Data Sources/Data Collection Methods:

Primary Data Secondary Data

1) Publication

2)Data Warehouse and Data Mining

Qualitative Quantitative 3) Internet

4) Project And Research Report

1) Personal Survey

2) Telephone Survey

3) Maid Survey

4) Electronic Media Survey

Observation

1.Participation Observation

2. Non-Participative Observation Interview

1) Structured
2) Semi Structured
3) Unstructured
4) Focus
5) Projective
Primary Data: ADVANTAGES
1) Availability of Multiple Sources
2) Accuracy
3) Coverage i.e. by covering huge population and covering each boundary by mails.
4) Providing the data up to the present situation available.
*Primary Data: DISADVANTAGES
1) Time and Cost
2) Specification
3) Difficulty in Designing Survey
4) Difficulty due to wide coverage
Personal Survey:

1) A Personal Survey interview survey also called as face to face survey, is a survey method that
is utilized when a specific target population is involved.

Telephone Survey:

A Telephone Survey also known as CATI is a research method where the researcher survey
responds over the phone.

Mailed Survey:

Electronic Media Survey:

A computer plays a major role in both the delivery of potential to respondents and the collection
of survey data from the actual respondents.

Participation Observation:

Typically used in qualitative research and ethnography.

Non-Participative Observation:

Observation of participant without actively participating but just to understand a phenomenon by

entering the community or social system.

Structured Interview:

Using the same interviewing methods to access candidates and applying for the same job.
Semi Structured Interview:

Method of research used most often in social sciences.

Unstructured Interview:

That relies on asking participants question to collect data on a topic.

Focus:

Managing the relationship between business partner and provider based on goals.

Projective:

Relating to unconscious transfer of one desire.

Secondary Data: Advantages

1) Quick Access

2) Inexpensive

3) Complements Primary Data

Secondary Data: Disadvantages

1) Difference in report units

2) Difference in measuring units

3) Accuracy is Questionable

4) Time Scope of the data

Publication:
The preparation and issuing of a book, journal or a piece of music for sale.

Data Warehouse and Data Machinery:

A Data warehouse is a type of data base which integrates copies of transaction data from
disparate source systems and provisions them for analytical use.

A Data Base is any collection of data organized for a storage, accessibility and retrieval

Internet:
A global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities
consisting of interconnected networks consisting of standards protocols.
Project and Research Report:
It mainly focuses on providing desired result of project. It mainly focuses on providing by
analysis of data and issues.
Q6) Explain about Research Process.
STEP 1: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION:
1) At the beginning researchers must define the research problem keeping in mind the
objectives of research.
2) Defining research problem includes describing the information needed and use of that
information in decision making.

STEP 2: Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary
of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a
Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or
the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting
and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must
be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are
similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great
help to the researcher at this stage

STEP 3: DEVELOPING AN APPROACH TO THE DEFINED PROBLEM:

1) For developing an approach to tackle the researcher problem, researchers should first
understand the need for research. Further, analytical models, research questions and
hypothesis for testing have to be developed. This calls for discussions with top
management and experts. Secondary data is analyzed and need for any explanatory
research is defined.

STEP 4: FORMULATING RESEARCH DESIGN:

1) A research design is a plan of oho to conduct research. It outline the procedures to be

carried out for the success of a research project in solving a research problem. It also
suggests hypothesis and alternative solutions to the research problem. It also suggests
hypothesis and alternative solutions to the research problem. Following are the objectives
of research design,

(a) To conduct the exploratory research.

(b) To define the sources of collection information.

(c) To select objects of sample from population (sample plan).

STEP 5: COLLECTION OF DATA AND ANALYSIS

(a) Once the data collection method is decided, data collection team is organised, trained
and supervised. The data collection team follows the guidelines of research design
and uses data collection methods that are regularly evaluated to reduce errors in
collection.
(b) Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations
such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data
through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data
should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding
the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure
wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can
be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is
tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to
study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

STEP 6: PREPARATION OF REPORT AND PRESENTATION:

(a) Finally, when the research is complete, researchers document the actual process
carried out for the research.

(b) Research results are formatted for easy understanding of the decision makers.

(c) Presentations are made about the research problems and the findings are discovered.

(d) It involves drawing of tables, charts, graphs, ratios and others

Q7) What is Questionnaires? Explain steps in designing Questionnaires?

“A Questionnaire is a formalized set of questions along with set of questions along with
space of answer”

“STEPS/DECISIONS IN DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE”

1) Preliminary Decisions:
(a) Before preparing the actual questionnaire, researchers must decide exactly what
information is to be collected and from which respondents and which techniques to be
used. (b)The researcher must begin with a precise statement of what information is
required to deal with management problem.
2) Decision about Question Content:
(a) It focuses on the nature of the question and its information. (b) It is designed to
produce the specific working of the question.

(c) Every question on a questionnaire should make a contribution to a questionnaire

should make a contribution to the information.

(d) Researcher has to find out how far the data is generated by the question is useful?
3) Decision About Question Phrasing:
(a) It is the translation of designing question content into works and phrases that can
be understood easily and clearly by the respondents.
(b) Questions should be simple and straight forward.
(c) There are five general issues involved in question phasing which are as follows:
[Are the words similar and understandable to the respondents?]
[Are the words biased in nature?]
[Are the alternatives involved?]
[Are any assumptions implied by the question clearly stated?]
[What frame of references is the respondent being asked to assume?]

4) Decisions about the response format:

(a) The decision on which format of question is to used depends on the objective of the
questionnaire.
(b) Each type of question has certain advantages and disadvantages.
3 Basic formats the questions can assume as follows:
(a) Open ended questions- Where no alternatives are provided and the respondent
answers within the implied limit.
(b) Multiple choice response format- Here the respondent selects from among three or
more pre-specified responses.
(c) Dichotomous questions- These are also called as closed questions with only two
options- Yes/No, True/False, Agree/Disagree, etc.
5) Decisions about Questions Sequence:
The order in which the respondents received the questions is also very essential to
avoid error. Guidelines to reduce various errors due to questions sequence are as
follows.
(a) The first question should be very simple, objective, interesting and easy to answer.
(b) The overall questionnaire should move from topic to topic in a logical manner.
(c) Questions should avoid providing a biased frame of reference.
 (d) The response quality decreases near the end of long questionnaire, appropriate
care must be taken to prevent such error.
• Guidelines/Essential to design a good questionnaire:
(a) Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple ie, the size of
questionnaire should not be lengthy.
(b) Questions should proceed in a logical sequence moving from easy to more
difficult questions.
(c) Personal and intimate questions should be included at the end.
(d) Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should
be avoided in questionnaire.
(e) Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice (alternative
answers listed) or open ended.
(f) There should be some questions in the questionnaire which indicates the
reliability of the respondent.
(g) Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.
(h) Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire.
(i) Brief instructions for filling up the questionnaire should be given in the
questionnaire itself.
(j) The quality of the paper along with its colour must be good so that it may attract
the attention of recipients.

Advantages/Merits of Questionnaire:
1) Questionnaires facilitates in both exploratory as well as problem identification research.
2) Actual values and views of the respondents can be analysed easily with help of questionnaire.
3) It is one of easiest data collection method.
Disadvantages/Demerits of Questionnaire:
1) The information given by respondents can be incorrect and it is very difficult to check the
accuracy.
2) This method is useful in case of educated respondents otherwise all efforts will go waste.
3) It is very difficult to obtain the cooperation of the respondents.
Types of Questionnaire:
(a) STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE: A Structured Questionnaire includes a
formal list of questions which are framed in order collect the facts.
(a) Structured Non Disguised:
(i) A structured non disguised questionnaire is one where the listings of questions
are in a prearranged order and where the objective of enquiry is revealed to the
respondent.
(ii) Most marketing research studies use this type of questionnaire.
 (b) Structured Design:
(i) The researcher does not disclose the objective of the survey.
(ii) He feels that if the respondent becomes aware of the objective of the survey,
he may not give the necessary information.
(iii) Therefore, researcher will be very particular in not disclosing the purpose of
the investigation.
NON STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE:
(i) A Non structured Questionnaire is one in which the questions are not
structured and the order in which they are asked completely depends on the
researcher.
(ii) He asks the questions in the manner which he may develop the questions at
the time of actual interview.
(iii) A non-structured questionnaire allows considerable freedom to the researcher
in choosing the order as well as specific content of questions.
(a) Non-Structured Non-Designed: Questionnaire are used when in depth
information is to be gathered from respondent by revealing objective of
enquiry.
(b) Non-Structured Disguised
(i) A non-structured disguised questionnaire is mostly suitable for
motivation research.
(ii) The interview is free to ask providing questions to get at key
motivations or factors.
(iii) Such questionnaire facilitates interviews in informal manner.

Q8) What are the methods of sampling? Explain.

Definition: A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from
a larger population by using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known as
sample points, sampling units, or observations. Creating a sample is an efficient method of
conducting research. In most cases, it is impossible or costly and time-consuming to research the
whole population.

Types of samples: Sample selection methodologies with examples

The process of deriving a sample is called a sampling method. Sampling forms an integral part of
the research design as this method derives the quantitative data and the qualitative data that can
be collected as part of a research study. Sampling methods are characterized into two distinct
approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling methodologies with examples

Probability sampling is a method of deriving a sample where the objects are selected from a
population-based on the theory of probability. This method includes everyone in the population,
and everyone has an equal chance of being selected. Hence, there is no bias whatsoever in this
type of sample. Each person in the population can subsequently be a part of the research. The
selection criteria are decided at the outset of the market research study and form an important
component of research.

Probability sampling can be further classified into four distinct types of samples. They are:

• Simple random sampling: The most straightforward way of selecting a sample is simple
random sampling. In this method, each member has an equal chance of being a part of
the study. The objects in this sample population are chosen purely on a random basis,
and each member has the same probability of being selected. For example, if a
university dean would like to collect feedback from students about their perception of
the teachers and level of education, all 1000 students in the University could be a part
of this sample. Any 100 students can be selected at random to be a part of this sample.
• Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a type of sampling method where the respondent
population is divided into equal clusters. Clusters are identified and included in a
sample based on defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex, etc. This
makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive practical inferences from the
feedback. For example, if the FDA wants to collect data about adverse side effects
from drugs, they can divide the mainland US into distinctive clusters, like states.
Research studies are then administered to respondents in these clusters. This type of
generating a sample makes the data collection in-depth and provides easy to consume
and act upon, insights.
• Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a sampling method where the researcher
chooses respondents at equal intervals from a population. The approach to select the
sample is to pick a starting point and then pick respondents at a pre-defined sample
interval. For example, while selecting 1,000 volunteers for the Olympics from an
application list of 10,000 people, each applicant is given a count of 1 to 10,000. Then
starting from 1 and selecting each respondent with an interval of 10, a sample of 1,000
volunteers can be obtained.
• Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method of dividing the
respondent population into distinctive but pre-defined parameters in the research
design phase. In this method, the respondents don’t overlap but collectively represent
the whole population. For example, a researcher looking to analyze people from
different socioeconomic backgrounds can distinguish respondents into their annual
salaries. This forms smaller groups of people or samples, and then some objects from
these samples can be used for the research study.

Non-probability sampling methodologies with examples

The non-probability sampling method uses the researcher’s discretion to select a sample. This
type of sample is derived mostly from the researcher’s or statistician’s ability to get to this
sample. This type of sampling is used for preliminary research where the primary objective is to
derive a hypothesis about the topic in research. Here each member does not have an equal chance
of being a part of the sample population, and those parameters are known only post-selection to
the sample.
We can classify non-probability sampling into four distinct types of samples. They are:

• Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling, in easy terms, stands for the

convenience of a researcher accessing a respondent. There is no scientific method of
deriving this sample. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting the sample
elements, and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not
representativeness.This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time
and cost limitations in collecting feedback. For example, researchers that are
conducting a mall-intercept survey to understand the probability of using a fragrance
from a perfume manufacturer. In this sampling method, the sample respondents are
chosen purely on their proximity to the survey desk and their willingness to participate
in the research.
• Judgemental/purposive sampling: The judgemental or purposive sampling method is a
method of developing a sample purely on the basis and discretion of the researcher
purely on the basis of the nature of study along with his/her understanding of the target
audience. In this sampling method, people who only fit the research criteria and end
objectives are selected, and the remaining are kept out.For example, if the research
topic is understanding what University a student prefers for Masters, if the question
asked is “Would you like to do your Masters?” anything other than a response, “Yes”
to this question, everyone else is excluded from this study.
• Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-
probability sampling technique in which the samples have traits that are rare to find.
This is a sampling technique, in which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit
samples required for a research study.For example, while collecting feedback about a
sensitive topic like AIDS, respondents aren’t forthcoming with information. In this
case, the researcher can recruit people with an understanding or knowledge of such
people and collect information from them or ask them to collect information.
• Quota sampling: Quota sampling is a method of collecting a sample where the
researcher has the liberty to select a sample based on their strata. The primary
characteristic of this method is that two people cannot exist under two different
conditions. For example, when a shoe manufacturer would like to understand from
millenials their perception of the brand with other parameters like comfort, pricing, etc.
It selects only females who are millennials for this study as the research objective is to
collect feedback about women’s shoes.

MERITS OF DIFFERENT SAMPLING METHODS:

Merits of Simple Random Sampling:

1. No possibility of personal bias affecting the results.

2. Random sample represents the population in a better way as the size increases.

3. The accuracy of the estimate can be easily assessed.

DEMERITS OF DIFFERENT SAMPLING METHODS:

1. The investigator needs to have up to date lists of all items of the population to be
sampled.

2. The task of preparing slips is time consuming and expensive.

3. Size of the sample required is usually large to ensure statistical reliability.

4. Units selected are often too widely dispersed geographically and so the time and
cost of collection are large.

5. The results may look non random.

2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING:

Merits of Stratified Sampling:

1. More representive.
2. More or greater accurancy.
3. Greater geographical concentration leading to saving of time and cost of data
collection.

Demerits of Stratified Sampling:

1. Random Selection from each stratum may be difficult to achieve in the absence
of skilled supervisors.
2. The population should be divided into strata of homogeneous items, which has to
be done carefully. This difficult task may consume time and money.

3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

Merits of Systematic Sampling:

1. It is more convenient to adopt.
2. Time and work involved in sampling is less.
3. Results obtained are generally satisfactory if no periodic features are related.
Demerits of Systematic Sampling:

1. Samples are not always random samples.

2. If the ordering of population matches the investigator’s interest, then it is possible
that more of that particular type will be included in the population.

3. MULTISTAGE OR CLUSTER SAMPLING:

Merits of Multistage Sampling:

1. Flexibility in sampling method.

2. Makes the field work concentrated and yet large area is covered.
3. Subdivision into second stage unit need to be out to be carried out for only.
Demerits of Multistage Sampling:
1. A multistage sample is general less accurate than sample containing the same
number of final stage units which have been selected by some suitable single
stage process.
2. It is a lengthy process.
*NON PROBABLITY SAMPLING METHOD:

1. Judgement Sampling:

Merits of Judgement Sampling:

(a) This Method is useful in acquiring more representative sample.
(b)It is useful in case of small number of sampling units which may be missed by
random sampling methods.
(c) Instant provides instant solution to problems which cannot wait for probability
sampling designs.
Demerits of Judgement Sampling:
(a) It is not a scientific method so it may involve personal prejudice or investigate
bias.
(b)If this method is used by person who is good not good at judgement then
outcomes based on sample will be wrong.
2. QUOTA SAMPLING:
Merits of Quota Sampling:
(a) It is useful in survey where identifying strata in advance is difficult.
(b)It utilizes stratification without incurring much costs.
Demerits of Quota Sampling:
(a) This method rarely provides satisfaction results.
(b) It requires complete alertness and conscientious representatives to use this
method.
3. Convenience Sampling:
Merits
(a) It is useful when some preliminary information has to be collected ie for pilot
studies.
(b) It saves time and cost as sampling as per convenience of investigator
Demerits
1) It usually offers biased and satisfactory results.
2) It is hardly representative.
 Unit-3
9.What are the different scales used in business research explain and
differentiate
In business research, the variables or numbers are defined and categorised using different scales
of measurements. Each level of measurement scale has specific properties that determine the
various use of statistical analysis. we will learn four types of scales such as nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio scale.
What is the Scale?
A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.
Levels of Measurements
There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the four
scales. The four types of scales are:

• Nominal Scale
• Ordinal Scale
• Interval Scale
• Ratio Scale

Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or
“labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric
variables or the numbers that do not have any value.
Characteristics of Nominal Scale

• A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement
mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
• It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
• The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of
numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.”
Example:
An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:
What is your gender?
M- Male
F- Female
Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data
without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.”
Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and also
ranked.
Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

• The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

• It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
• Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
• The interval properties are not known
• The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the identified
order of variables
Example:

• Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

• Ratings in restaurants
• Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
o Very often
o Often
o Not often
o Not at all
• Assessing the degree of agreement
 o Totally agree
o Agree
o Neutral
o Disagree
o Totally disagree

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other
words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the
presence of zero is arbitrary.
Characteristics of Interval Scale:

• The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
• It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
• To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between
the variables
• The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical
values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Example:

• Likert Scale
• Net Promoter Score (NPS)
• Bipolar Matrix Table

Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of variable
measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The ratio scale
has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.
Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

• Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

• It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
• It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the ratio
scale.
• Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.
Example:
An example of a ratio scale is:
What is your weight in Kgs?

• Less than 55 kgs

• 55 – 75 kgs
• 76 – 85 kgs
• 86 – 95 kgs
• More than 95 kgs

10.what is data analysis explain different types of data analysis

What Is Data Analysis?

Data analysis is the process of cleaning, changing, and processing raw data, and extracting
actionable, relevant information that helps businesses make informed decisions. The
procedure helps reduce the risks inherent in decision-making by providing useful insights and
statistics, often presented in charts, images, tables, and graphs.

What Is the Data Analysis Process?

The data analysis process, or alternately, data analysis steps, involves gathering all the
information, processing it, exploring the data, and using it to find patterns and other insights.
The process consists of:

• Data Requirement Gathering: Ask yourself why you’re doing this analysis, what type of
data analysis you want to use, and what data you are planning on analyzing.
• Data Collection: Guided by the requirements you’ve identified, it’s time to collect the
data from your sources. Sources include case studies, surveys, interviews, questionnaires,
direct observation, and focus groups. Make sure to organize the collected data for
analysis.
• Data Cleaning: This process is where you remove white spaces, duplicate records, and
basic errors. Data cleaning is mandatory before sending the information on for analysis.
• Data Analysis: Here is where you use data analysis software and other tools to help you
interpret and understand the data and arrive at conclusions. Data analysis
tools include Excel, Python, R, Looker, Rapid Miner, Chartio, Metabase, Redash,
and Microsoft Power BI.
• Data Interpretation: Now that you have your results, you need to interpret them and come
up with the best courses of action, based on your findings.
• Data Visualization: Data visualization is a fancy way of saying, “graphically show your
information in a way that people can read and understand it.” You can use charts, graphs,
maps, bullet points, or a host of other methods. Visualization helps you derive valuable
insights by helping you compare datasets and observe relationships.
Types of Data Analysis

• Diagnostic Analysis: Diagnostic analysis answers the question, “Why did this happen?”
Using insights gained from statistical analysis (more on that later!), analysts use
diagnostic analysis to identify patterns in data. Ideally, the analysts find similar patterns
that existed in the past, and consequently, use those solutions to resolve the present
challenges hopefully.
• Predictive Analysis: Predictive analysis answers the question, “What is most likely to
happen?” By using patterns found in older data as well as current events, analysts predict
future events. While there’s no such thing as 100 percent accurate forecasting, the odds
improve if the analysts have plenty of detailed information and the discipline to research
it thoroughly.
• Prescriptive Analysis: Mix all the insights gained from the other data analysis types, and
you have prescriptive analysis. Sometimes, an issue can’t be solved solely with one
analysis type, and instead requires multiple insights.
• Statistical Analysis: Statistical analysis answers the question, “What happened?” This
analysis covers data collection, analysis, modeling, interpretation, and presentation using
dashboards. The statistical analysis breaks down into two sub-categories:

1. Descriptive: Descriptive analysis works with either complete or selections of summarized

numerical data. It illustrates means and deviations in continuous data and percentages and
frequencies in categorical data.
2. Inferential: Inferential analysis works with samples derived from complete data. An
analyst can arrive at different conclusions from the same comprehensive data set just by
choosing different samplings.

• Text Analysis: Also called “data mining,” text analysis uses databases and data mining
tools to discover patterns residing in large datasets. It transforms raw data into useful
business information. Text analysis is arguably the most straightforward and the most
direct method of data analysis.

Data Analysis Methods

Some professionals use the terms “data analysis methods” and “data analysis techniques”
interchangeably.

Although there are many data analysis methods available, they all fall into one of two
primary types: qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis.

• Qualitative Data Analysis: The qualitative data analysis method derives data via words,
symbols, pictures, and observations. This method doesn’t use statistics. The most
common qualitative methods include:
• Content Analysis, for analyzing behavioral and verbal data.
• Narrative Analysis, for working with data culled from interviews, diaries, surveys.
 • Grounded Theory, for developing causal explanations of a given event by
studying and extrapolating from one or more past cases.

• Quantitative Data Analysis: Statistical data analysis methods collect raw data and process
it into numerical data. Quantitative analysis methods include:

1. Hypothesis Testing, for assessing the truth of a given hypothesis or theory for a data set
or demographic.
2. Mean, or average determines a subject’s overall trend by dividing the sum of a list of
numbers by the number of items on the list.
3. Sample Size Determination uses a small sample taken from a larger group of people and
analyzed. The results gained are considered representative of the entire body.

We can further expand our discussion of data analysis by showing various techniques, broken
down by different concepts and tools.
11.What is attitude scale explain the classification of scales based on no of dimensions

Meaning of Attitudinal Scale/Attitude Scale Attitudes are mental conditions which helps
the individuals to develop a frame work in which they perceive their environment and
support the way they react to it. A set of rating scales that measures one or more
dimensions of a respondents attitude towards an object is known as an attitude scale

1. Unidimensional Scaling unidimensional scaling refers to the scale of measurement

wherein only one dimension is used and represented by single number line. In other
words, it comprises of one or more items which are designed to evaluate a single
construct or attitude. It is further classified into three scales.

(a) Likert Scale Rensis Likert developed an attitude measurement scale with five or
seven response categories. The respondent has to describe how far do they agree or
disagree with the statements about the stimulus objects. For example, If a respondent is
asked, "how much satisfied are you with our brand and they are given a seven point
scale with the end responses as 'very dissatisfied' and 'very satisfied', the respondents are
required to choose the point on scale that matches their opinion. Likert scale is more
reliable and easy to compute. It gives more data in response to the respondent's time.
The data collected through this scale is interval data.

b) Thurstone Scale Thurstone scale was introduced to overcome the drawbacks of

Likert scale. It is also known as equal appearing interval. In this scale, 'weight' or
'attitudinal value' is calculated for each statement. Each statement is evaluated based on
ratings given by group of judges. Attitudinal score equal to attitudinal value is given to
statements with which respondents agree.

c) Guttman Scale Guttman scale is an attitudinal scale which is constructed by

arranging statements or items along a continuum based on level of intensity. It is also
known as 'Scalogram analysis'. It is sample dependent which is based on actual
responses of an investigation. Guttman scale must be prepared freshly everytime, it
cannot be re-applied in subsequent research.

2. Multidimensional Scaling A multidimensional scale developed for the purpose to

measure respondents' attitudes in different variables and represents it in the form of
points in geometric space. Researchers collect opinions of respondents about the
research product in terms of different variables. The responses are gathered in the form
of positions in the product space. Then, the researcher identifies each respondent's ideal
point in the product space for the research product.

Multidimensional data is analysed in various methods. Two major types of analysis are
attribute-based and non-attribute-based methods. Another way to classify
multidimensional scaling is metric and non-metric approach.

Attribute-based Method Under attribute-based method, attributes are measured. The

analysis provides quantitative responses as inputs, which are aggregated to obtain the
average responses. The average response shows how much importance is placed on
each critical attribute. It shows how the respondent scores each competing brand on
these critical attributes. The attributes are grouped into categories and are marked on the
two-dimensional spatial map.

Non-attribute-based Method When individuals do not perceive the object on the basis
of the underlying attribute and evaluate the object as a whole, the responses cannot be
described in terms of attributes. For example, respondents may be able to rank products
of different brands rather than describe them in attributes.

Metric Approach The metric approach treats the input data as interval scaled data and
solves by applying the statistical methods for the additive constant to minimize the
dimensionality of the solution space.

Non-Metric Approach In non-metric multidimensional scaling, the respondents' rank

order of all the possible pairs are transformed into some arbitrary metric space and then
the solution is obtained by reducing the dimensionality.
 Unit-4
12.What is hypothesis & discus the procedure followed in testing of an
hypothesis
Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world
using statistics. It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses,
that arise from theories.

There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:

1. State your research hypothesis as a null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis (Ho) and
(Ha or H1).

2. Collect data in a way designed to test the hypothesis.

3. Perform an appropriate statistical test.

4. Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.

5. Present the findings in your results and discussion section.

Step 1: State your null and alternate hypothesis

After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to
investigate), it is important to restate it as a null (Ho) and alternate (Ha) hypothesis so that
you can test it mathematically.

The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship between
variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables you are
interested in.

Example You want to test whether there is a relationship between gender and height. Based on
your knowledge of human physiology, you formulate a hypothesis that men are, on average,
taller than women. To test this hypothesis, you restate it as:

Ho: Men are, on average, not taller than women.

Ha: Men are, on average, taller than women.

Step 2: Collect data

For a statistical test to be valid, it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way
that is designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot
make statistical inferences about the population you are interested in.
 To test differences in average height between men and women, your sample should have an
equal proportion of men and women, and cover a variety of socio-economic classes and any
other control variables that might influence average height.

You should also consider your scope (Worldwide? For one country?) A potential data source
in this case might be census data, since it includes data from a variety of regions and social
classes and is available for many countries around the world.

Step 3: Perform a statistical test

There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison of
within-group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group
variance (how different the categories are from one another).

Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of data you collected.

Based on the type of data you collected, you perform any one test among (T-test / Z-
test/ANOVA/CHI-SQURE)

Step 4: Decide whether to reject or accept your null hypothesis

Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether to reject or
accept your null hypothesis.

In most cases you will use statistical test to guide your decision. And in most cases, your
predetermined level of significance will be 0.05 – that is, when there is a less than 5% chance
that you would see these results if the null hypothesis were true.

In some cases, researchers choose a more conservative level of significance, such as 0.01 (1%).
This minimizes the risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis (Type I error).

Step 5: Present your findings

The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of
your research paper.

In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results
of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means). In the
discussion, you can discuss whether your initial hypothesis was supported by your results or not.
13.Explain about cluster analysis and factor analysis

Cluster Analysis is the process to find similar groups of objects in order to form clusters. It is an
unsupervised machine learning-based algorithm that acts on unlabeled data. A group of data
points would comprise together to form a cluster in which all the objects would belong to the
same group.

Cluster:

The given data is divided into different groups by combining similar objects into a group. This
group is nothing but a cluster. A cluster is nothing but a collection of similar data which is
grouped together.

For example, consider a dataset of vehicles given in which it contains information about different
vehicles like cars, buses, bicycles, etc. As it is unsupervised learning there are no class labels like
Cars, Bikes, etc. for all the vehicles, all the data is combined and is not in a structured manner.

Now our task is to convert the unlabeled data to labelled data and it can be done using clusters.

The main idea of cluster analysis is that it would arrange all the data points by forming clusters
like cars cluster which contains all the cars, bikes clusters which contains all the bikes, etc.

Simply it is the partitioning of similar objects which are applied to unlabeled data.

Properties of Clustering:

1. Clustering Scalability: In order to handle extensive databases, the clustering algorithm should
be scalable. Data should be scalable, if it is not scalable, then we can’t get the appropriate result
which would lead to wrong results.

2. High Dimensionality: The algorithm should be able to handle high dimensional space along
with the data of small size.

3. Algorithm Usability with multiple data kinds: Different kinds of data can be used with
algorithms of clustering. It should be capable of dealing with different types of data like discrete,
categorical and interval-based data, binary data etc.

4. Dealing with unstructured data: There would be some databases that contain missing values,
and noisy or erroneous data. If the algorithms are sensitive to such data, then it may lead to poor
quality clusters. So, it should be able to handle unstructured data and give some structure to the
data by organizing it into groups of similar data objects.

5. Interpretability: The clustering outcomes should be interpretable, comprehensible, and usable.

The interpretability reflects how easily the data is understood.
Clustering Methods:

The clustering methods can be classified into the following categories:

1. Partitioning Method 2. Hierarchical Method

3.Density-based Method 4. Grid-Based Method

5.Model-Based Method 6. Constraint-based Method

1. Partitioning Method: It is used to make partitions on the data in order to form clusters. If “n”
partitions are done on “p” objects of the database then each partition is represented by a cluster
and n < p.

One objective should only belong to only one group.

There should be no group without even a single purpose.

2. Hierarchical Method: In this method, a hierarchical decomposition of the given set of data
objects is created. There are two types of approaches for the creation of hierarchical
decomposition, they are:

Agglomerative Approach: The agglomerative approach is also known as the bottom-up

approach. Initially, the given data is divided into which objects form separate groups. Thereafter
it keeps on merging the objects or the groups that are close to one another which means that they
exhibit similar properties. This merging process continues until the termination condition holds.

Divisive Approach: The divisive approach is also known as the top-down approach. In this
approach, we would start with the data objects that are in the same cluster. The group of
individual clusters is divided into small clusters by continuous iteration. The iteration continues
until the condition of termination is met or until each cluster contains one object.

One can use a hierarchical agglomerative algorithm for the integration of hierarchical
agglomeration. In this approach, first, the objects are grouped into micro-clusters. After grouping
data objects into micro clusters, macro clustering is performed on the micro cluster.

3. Density-Based Method: The density-based method mainly focuses on density. In this method,
the given cluster will keep on growing continuously as long as the density in the neighborhood
exceeds some threshold, i.e., for each data point within a given cluster. The radius of a given
cluster has to contain at least a minimum number of points.

4. Grid-Based Method: In the Grid-Based method a grid is formed using the object together, the
object space is quantized into a finite number of cells that form a grid structure. One of the major
advantages of the grid-based method is fast processing time and it is dependent only on the
number of cells in each dimension in the quantized space. The processing time for this method is
much faster so it can save time.

5. Model-Based Method: In the model-based method, all the clusters are hypothesized in order to
find the data which is best suited for the model. The clustering of the density function is used to
locate the clusters for a given model. It reflects the spatial distribution of data points and also
provides a way to automatically determine the number of clusters based on standard statistics,
taking outlier or noise into account. Therefore, it yields robust clustering methods.

6. Constraint-Based Method: The constraint-based clustering method is performed by the

incorporation of application or user-oriented constraints. A constraint refers to the user
expectation or the properties of the desired clustering results. Constraints provide us with an
interactive way of communication with the clustering process. The user or the application
requirement can specify constraints.

Applications Of Cluster Analysis:

It is widely used in image processing, data analysis, and pattern recognition.

It helps marketers to find the distinct groups in their customer base and they can characterize
their customer groups by using purchasing patterns.

It can be used in the field of biology, by deriving animal and plant taxonomies and identifying
genes with the same capabilities.

It also helps in information discovery by classifying documents on the web

Factor Analytics

Factor Analytics is a special technique reducing the huge number of variables into a few
numbers of factors is known as factoring of the data, and managing which data is to be present in
sheet comes under factor analysis. It is completely a statistical approach that is also used to
describe fluctuations among the observed and correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower
number of unobserved variables called factors.

The factor analysis technique extracts the maximum common variance from all the variables and
puts them into a common score.. The belief behind factor analytic techniques is that the
information gained about the interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to
reduce the set of variables in a dataset.

Factor analysis is a very effective tool for inspecting changeable relationships for complex
concepts such as social status, economic status, dietary patterns, psychological scales, biology,
psychometrics, personality theories, marketing, product management, operations research,
finance, etc. It can help a researcher to investigate the concepts that are not easily measured in a
much easier and quicker way directly by the cave in a large number of variables into a few easily
interpretable fundamental factors.

Types of factor analysis:

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) :

It is used to identify composite inter-relationships among items and group items that are the part
of uniting concepts. The Analyst can’t make any prior assumptions about the relationships
among factors. It is also used to find the fundamental structure of a huge set of variables. It
lessens the large data to a much smaller set of summary variables.

Similarities are:

Evaluate the internal reliability of an amount.

Examine the factors represented by item sets. They presume that the factors aren’t correlated.

Investigate the grade/class of each item.

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) :

It is a more complex(composite) approach that tests the theory that the items are associated with
specific factors. Confirmatory Factor Analysis uses a properly structured equation model to test a
measurement model whereby loading on the factors allows for the evaluation of relationships
between observed variables and unobserved variables.

As we know, the Structural equation modelling approaches can board measurement error easily,
and these are much less restrictive than least-squares estimation thus provide more exposure to
accommodate errors.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis allows an analyst and researcher to figure out if a relationship
between a set of observed variables (also known as manifest variables) and their underlying
constructs exists. It is similar to the Exploratory Factor Analysis.

The main difference between the two is:

Simply use Exploratory Factor Analysis to explore the pattern.

Use Confirmatory Factor Analysis to perform hypothesis testing.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis provides information about the standard quality of the number of
factors that are required to represent the data set. Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis, you can
define the total number of factors required. For example, Confirmatory Factor Analysis is able to
answer questions like Does my thousand question survey can able to measure accurately the one
specific factor. Even though it is technically applicable to any kind of discipline, it is typically
used in social sciences.

Multiple Factor Analysis :

This type of Factor Analysis is used when your variables are structured in changeable groups.
For example, you may have a teenager’s health questionnaire with several points like sleeping
patterns, wrong addictions, psychological health, mobile phone addiction, or learning disabilities.

The Multiple Factor Analysis is performed in two steps which are:-

Firstly, the Principal Component Analysis will perform on each and every section of the data.
Further, this can give a useful eigenvalue, which is actually used to normalize the data sets for
further use.

The newly formed data sets are going to merge into a distinctive matrix and then global PCA is
performed.

Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) :

The Procrustes analysis is actually a suggested way to compare then the two approximate sets of
configurations and shapes, which were originally developed to equivalent to the two solutions
from Factor Analysis, this technique was actually used to extend the GP Analysis so that more
than two shapes could be compared in many ways. The shapes are properly aligned to achieve
the target shape. Mainly GPA (Generalized Procrustes Analysis) uses geometric transformations.

Geometric progressions are :

Isotropic rescaling,

Reflection,

Rotation,

Translation of matrices to compare the sets of data.

PROBLEMS ON ANOVA/CHISQURE/MCNEMAR TEST
Mcnemar problem
 Unit-5

15. Define Report. What are the objectives? State the significance/importance of reports

Ans. Definition: The word report is organised from the latin word ‘report’ which implies to
‘carry back’. A report is logical presentation of facts and information. The information
generated by reports is required for reviewing and evaluating progress, for planning
future course of action and for taking effective decisions. Reports acts as a tool for
providing feedback to the managers related to various aspects of the organisation.

The compilation of information which has been sought out, collected, organised and
writted to convey a message is usually referred as a ‘report’.

Objectives of a Report

The objectives of reports are as follows,

1. To review performance.

2. To keep a check on a continuing activity

3. To survey the market

4. To plan future needs of the organization

5. To suggest a particular action

6. To keep a record of events to refer in future.

7. To present the information to management so that a direction can be decided for

business.

8. To provide information to management relating to activities, problems, plans and

progress of company.

Significance/Importance of a Report

The following points highlight the significance/importance of reports,

1. Tangible form of profesional’s Efficiency

All the professionals/experts record their efforts which they put in performing a
project/task in the form of reports. Reports exhibit the efficiency of the
professionals/experts such as engineers, academic experts, researchers in tangible form to
others.

2. Forms Basis for Decision Making

 Reports present the analysis of the data and proposes recommendations. It helps the
higher management in taking effective decisions and to resolve the complicated issues.

3. Helps in Planning New Projects and Evaluating Productivity.

Based on the feasibility reports provided by the professionals regarding the new project,
top management take decision whether to proceed with project or not. Similarly, reports
given by the supervisor/manager regarding any worker or equipment or a product helps
the manager in evaluating the efficiency or productivity of a person.

4. Important means of Information Transfer

Most of the routine reports acts as a prominent means to transfer/ciculate the information
within the organisation and outside the organisation.

5. Acts as an Information Repository.

Most of the organisations store the important reports for future reference. They use the
reports to identify the areas of improvement and there by to improve their performance.

Types of report

I. Routine Reports
II. Special report
III. Other report

Routine reports consists of forms in which blanks need to be filled in or multiple

choice statements are to be ticked. Report forms are prepared efficiently because it gives
complete information to management. The different types of routine reports are as
follows,

1. Progress Report

Progress Report provides information regarding progress of a long-term projects like

manufacture of products or implementation of a scheme, construction of a building etc.

2. Inspection Report

After the completion of inspection, Inspection Report is submitted. Inspection is

necessary for determining irregularities or deviation from standard practice in the daily
activities of the company. Audits and inspection of work are done to know whether the
work is carrying out properly or not.

3. Performance Appraisal Reports

 Performance Appraisal Report is prepared by the supervisor by filling a form
periodically. It helps in assessing the performance of an employee and in providing
feedback on their performance.

4. Periodic Report

Periodic Reports are prepared at regular intervals and provides information about the day-
to-day work. These reports are usually prepared by filling a form.

II. Special Reports

When a special information related to specific situation, problem or occasion, needs to be

conveyed to the management, special reports are prepared. Some of the special reports
are given as follows,

1. First Information Report (FIR)

FIR is always written by an individual. This report is needed for reasons including
disaster like fire, building collapse, robbery or accident in an organisation. It is prepared
soon after the incident occurs and is submitted to a higher authority to take necessary
action.

2. Investigation Report

Investigation Report is usually prepared after making thorough investigation of the problem
arised in the organisation. Investigation is usually done for the cases like falling sales,
declining deposits in a bank, customer complaints, losses in a branch etc. A committee is
appointed for assessing the problem and to provide an effective solution and also to
prevent that problem in future.

3. Feasibility or Survey Report

Feasibility Report is prepared when an organisation launches a new product in the

market, introduce a new service or any major changes which have their impact on
company’s customers. The purpose of conducting this report is to determine the
suitability of a site for a factory, to evaluate the feasibility and financial viability of a
proposal, to survey the market, to estimate damage etc.

4. Project Report

Project Report is written after the completion of the preliminary survey and shaping up of
a new proposal.

5. Audit report
Audit report is a special report which is prepared to make the organization more accountable to
specific standards. It involves evaluation of company’s finance and operations to check whether
the financial reports o company reflect true information

6. Problem-solving Report

Problem-solving Reports are prepared to help the decision maker in taking a right action
whenever a problem arises in an organization, For any type of problem in the organization, the
writer is supposed to collect facts related to problem, clearly describes it, look for solutions and
suggest an action which is suitable for solving the problem

Other Types

The various other types of reports are as follows,

1. Meeting Minutes When the activities and decisions of a group in a meeting are recorded
in a written form, it is called as meeting minutes. It also contains the historical information such
as announcements, important discussions, reports and decisions.

2. Market Research Report it is prepared after carrying out research related to markets and
customers. This report helps the promoters in determining how to market a new product

3. Production Report is a report that contains information related to production activities

such as time frame set for standard production, actual production, the time utilized etc. The main
aim behind preparing production report is to determine the efficiency of factory and to control
the expenditure and budget.

16.Discuss in detail contents of report and explain the role of audience in report writing

Contents of report

I. Prefatory parts

II. Text part

III. supplementary part

i. Prefatory Parts

The prefatory parts of a formal report are as follows

1. Cover

The cover page contains title of the report, the name of writer (optional) and the date of
submission (optional). The title of the report gives an idea of what exactly the report is about.

2. Title Fly and Title Page

Title fly contains only the report title. It is not necessary in many cases. The title page contains
information of the report title, the name, address of the person or organization which authorized
the report, the name, title, address of the person or organization which has prepared the report
and report submission date.

3. Letter of Authorization

The letter of authorization or memo of authorization is a written authorization given by an

organization or client. This letter can be included in report, if someone has given authorization to
prepare it.

4. Letter of Acceptance

The letter of acceptance is nothing but a written agreement to prepare report. This is written in
response to letter of authorization. It is a positive response to a business deal.

5. Letter of Transmittal

The letter of transmittal is a type of cover letter which introduces the report to the
receiver/person who authorized it. This letter is quite informal when compared to the content in
respect of the report.

6. Table of Contents

The "table of contents" or "contents" outlines the information sequence If the report is lengthy or
if it is divided into numerous parts, it is usually desirable to have a table of contents. The table of
contents is prepared based on the headings of the report content.

7. List of Illustrations

illustrations are provided when the report has many illustrations or if the writer to focus on
illustrations.

8. Synopsis/Executive Summary

A synopsis or executive summary gives a quick idea of the essence of report. It is also called
abstract and often it is included in reports related to academic, professional and technical
subjects

ii. Text Parts

The following three parts of the report are considered as the heart of the report,

1. Introduction
The introduction describes the report. It shows what the report is all about? how it is organized?
and why readers should know about it? A good report enables a reader to understand the text
clearly and continue reading it.

2. Body

In this section, the information which validates the conclusions and recommendations is
presented. It also contains the information which supports the logic, analysis and interpretation
of the text being provided.

3. Close

In this section, the writer includes a summary of key ideas, conclusions and recommendations

and a course of action.

iii. Supplementary Parts

This part is provided for the readers who want to know the more detailed discussion of the
report. Supplementary parts include,

1. Appendixes

Appendix provides the information which is not covered in the text. The purpose of the appendix
is to provide a place for those report items which do not fit the research report properly because
they are either too detailed or are too specific.

2. Bibliography

Bibliography provides the list of sources which the writer used while preparing the report. The

writer provides these sources as an ethical responsibility to credit the sources.

3. Index

An index contains the names and subjects used in the report in alphabetical order along with their
page numbers. A reader can quickly find the topic of his interest by going through the index.

Explain the role of audience in report writing

Audience have an important role to play in report writing. The audience of business researchers
generally include business practitioners, business media, other researchers in the same field of
study. The writer prepares a report by considering the audience for whom the report is being
prepared. The following points highlight the role of audience in report writing,
1.. Audience influences the objectives and style of the report

2.Without having audience in mind, a researcher can never produce a good report.

3.Knowing the audience in advance will help the researcher decide what elements should be
discussed in detail.

4.Keeping the audience in mind while writing the report will increase the readership.

5.The researcher can decide the preferred reading i.e., the reading level should be kept simple or
difficult.

6.Audience influence the presentation of the report.

7.The need and interests of the audience will actually determine the topic of the research report.

8.The process of writing becomes easier for the researcher if he/she knows their intended
audience.

9.The researcher can decide readability, specificity, comprehensibility and tone of the report
based on the type of audience.

17.Explain plagiarism and essentials of referencing

Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their
consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and
unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered

under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the
regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.

Work that can be plagiarised includes…

✓ Words (language)

✓ Ideas

✓ Findings

✓ Writings

✓ Graphic representations

✓ Diagrams
✓ Graphs

✓ Illustrations

✓ Lectures

✓ Printed materials / Electronic material

✓ Any other original works

Possible Reasons for Plagiarism

➢ Increased pressure to publish

➢ Ease of copying and pasting online work

➢ Difficulties in writing in English or another language

➢ Misplaced respect for other’s work

➢ Lack of suitable training

➢ Lack of awareness of the rules for acknowledgement of other’s work

Forms of Plagiarism

➢ Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement

➢ Cutting and pasting

➢ Paraphrasing

➢ Collusion

➢ Inaccurate citation

➢ Failure to acknowledge assistance

➢ Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons

➢ Auto-plagiarism.
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism is a term that describes the unacknowledged use of someone else's work. This
includes material or ideas from any (published or unpublished) sources, whether print, web-
based (even if freely available) or audiovisual. Using the words or ideas of others without
referencing your source would be construed as plagiarism and is a very serious academic
offence. At the end of the day, it is regarded as stealing intellectual property.
The following are considered forms of plagiarism:

• Passing off as your own a piece of work that is partly or wholly the work of another
student.
• Citing and referencing sources that you have not used.
• Quoting, summarising or paraphrasing material in your assignment without citing the
original source.
• 'Recycling' a piece of your own work that you have previously submitted for another
module or course (i.e. self-plagiarism).
How can you avoid plagiarism?
In many cases, students who find themselves accused of plagiarising often have done so
unintentionally. Poor organisation and time management, as well as a failure to understand
good academic practice, are often to blame. You might therefore find it helpful to:

• Manage your time and plan your work – ensure that you have enough time to prepare,
read and write.
• When paraphrasing an author's text, ensure that you use your own words and a
sentence structure sufficiently different from the original text.
• In your notes, highlight in colour/bold any direct quotations you want to use in your
assignment - this will help to ensure you use quotation marks with an appropriate
reference when you are writing up your work.
• Allow enough time to check your final draft for possible referencing errors or
omissions: for example, check that all your in-text citations have a corresponding
entry in your reference list, and vice versa.
• Save all your notes and files until you receive your final mark or grade.

What is referencing?
Referencing is the process of acknowledging the sources you have used in writing your
essay, assignment or piece of work. It allows the reader to access your source documents as
quickly and easily as possible in order to verify, if necessary, the validity of your arguments
and the evidence on which they are based.
Citations
You identify sources by citing them in the text of your assignment (called citations or in-
text citations) and referencing them at the end of your assignment (called the reference
list or end-text citations). The reference list only includes the sources cited in your text. It is
not the same thing as a bibliography, which uses the same referencing style, but also includes
all material (for example, background readings) used in the preparation of your work.
Referencing successfully
To reference successfully, it is essential that, as a matter of course, you systematically note
down full details of author, date, title and publication details of any material you use at the
time you use it. For web pages, e-journals and ebooks, write down the access url and the date
that you accessed the source. Besides being good academic practice, this ensures that you do
not have the problem of trying to find sources you may have used weeks or months
previously.
What's the benefit of accurate referencing?
By referring to the works of established authorities and experts in your subject area, you can
add weight to your comments and arguments. This helps to demonstrate that you have read
widely, and considered and analysed the writings of others. Remember, good referencing can
help you attain a better grade or mark (often between five and ten percent of the total). Most
importantly, good referencing is essential to avoid any possible accusation of plagiarism.

Short Answers
1.Litrature review

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses)
related to a specific topic or research question.

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, in order to situate your work
in relation to existing knowledge.

2.Research objectives

Research objectives describe what your research is trying to achieve and explain why you are
pursuing it. They summarize the approach and purpose of your project and help to focus your
research. Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper, at the end of
your problem statement

3.Pilot study

A pilot study, pilot project, pilot test, or pilot experiment is a small-scale preliminary study
conducted to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study
design prior to performance of a full-scale research project

Pilot studies are a crucial element of a good study design. Conducting a pilot study does not
guarantee success in the main study, but it does increase the likelihood of success. Pilot studies
fulfill a range of important functions and can provide valuable insights for other researchers.

4.Stratified random sampling

Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population
into smaller subgroups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, or stratification, the
strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or characteristics, such as income or
educational attainment. Stratified random sampling has numerous applications and benefits,
such as studying population demographics and life expectancy.

5.Editing

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing
involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to
assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation

6.Validity

Validity is the quality of being correct or true. When a statement is true and has a lot of evidence
backing it up, this is an example of a situation where the evidence supports the validity of the
statement.

The validity of a research study refers to how well the results among the study participants
represent true findings among similar individuals outside the study. This concept of validity
applies to all types of clinical studies, including those about prevalence, associations,
interventions, and diagnosis

7.Type -I and Type -II errors

a Type I error is a false positive conclusion, while a Type II error is a false negative
conclusion.

Example: Type I vs Type II errorYou decide to get tested for COVID-19 based on mild
symptoms. There are two errors that could potentially occur:

• Type I error (false positive): the test result says you have coronavirus, but you actually
don’t.
• Type II error (false negative): the test result says you don’t have coronavirus, but you
actually do.

8.Types of research report

Types of report

• Routine Reports

1. Progress Report

2. Inspection Report

3. Performance Appraisal Reports

4. Periodic Report

• Special Report

1. First Information Report (FIR)

2. Investigation Report

3. Feasibility or Survey Report

4. Project Report

5. Audit report

6. Problem-solving Report

• Other Report

1. Meeting Minutes

2. Market Research Report

3. Production Report
9.Subjectivity and Objectivity in research

The simplest definition of objectivity is a directional one. Objectivity is the perception or

experience of the external; subjectivity is the perception or experience of the internal.
Subjectivity and objectivity are both necessary pathways to knowledge and are dependent on
each other.

An objective piece of information, therefore, needs either to be the whole truth and at least be
unbiased or balanced, whereas a subjective point of view is biased because it is either not the
complete picture or it is merely a viewpoint or expression of feelings. It is a statement that is
completely unbiased.

10.Marketing information system

A marketing information system is a management information system designed to support

marketing decision making. "system in which marketing data is formally gathered, stored,
analysed and distributed to managers in accordance with their informational needs on a regular
basis.

A marketing information system (MkIS) is a set of procedures, frameworks and technology for
the continuous gathering of information that might affect the promotion and selling of a product
or service.

11. Interval scale

An interval scale can be defined as a quantitative measurement scale where variables have an
order, the difference between two variables is equal, and the presence of zero is arbitrary. It can
be used to measure variables that exist along a common scale in equal intervals

The interval scale has all the properties of ordinal and nominal scale plus the benefit that it
provides equal intervals among categories. The values in the interval scale can take positive or
negative values. This property enables the use of statistical analysis on data measured using
interval scale. Age, IQ, temperature and dates are few examples of an interval scale. Variables
measured at interval scale are called as interval variables and scaled variables. Likert scale is
most commonly used in the interval scale, especially when this scale is used in social science
research.

Advantages
• Thisscale has constant equal distances between each successive values.
• This scale has wide scope due to its characteristic that it can categorize the data in equal
intervals.
• Mean and standard deviation can be applied to data measured using this scale. The range
can also be calculated to obtain the data dispersion.
12. Ratio scale
A ratio scale is a quantitative scale where there is a true zero and equal intervals between
neighboring points. Unlike on an interval scale, a zero on a ratio scale means there is a total
absence of the variable you are measuring. Length, area, and population are examples of ratio
scales