Mediating Role of Psychological Flexibility between Optimism and Psychological

Well-Being among Defence Personnel in India

Work published in open access form Smarika Dalal1, and Sandeep Singh1
and licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution – NonCommercial
1
Department of Applied Psychology, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and
ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Technology, Hisar, Haryana, India

© Author (s)
E-ISSN 2724-2943
ISSN 2723-973X

Psychology Hub (2023)

XL, 3, 67-84

Article info Abstract

__________________________________________________________________

Submitted: 08 February 2023 Defence forces, worldwide, have undergone modernization while upgrading their
Accepted: 25 October 2023 weapon system and machinery. But, the most important weapon of defence forces
DOI: 10.13133/2724-2943/17997 are its human resources and their psychological strength in the face of challenges
and adversaries. The aim of positive psychology is to enhance and sustain human
psychological well-being. This study aims to explore the path mechanism and
expand the current research on the action pathway existing between optimism and
psychological well-being among defence personnel. The present research work also
explores the mediational role of psychological flexibility (PF) between optimism and
psychological well-being (PWB). To explore the relationship, a sample of Indian
defence personnel (n=102) was taken. The participants’ age ranged from 21 to 58
(M = 43.42, SD = 11.21). Instruments administered on defence personnel in the
study were Life Orientation Test – Revised (Scheir et al., 1994), Acceptance and
Action Questionnaire – II (Bond et al., 2011) and Ryff’s Psychological well-being
scale (Ryff, 1989). Correlational analysis revealed positive and significant correlation
between optimism and PWB, between optimism and PF as well as between PF and
PWB. Mediation analysis suggests that PF partially and significantly mediates the
relationship between optimism and psychological well-being. PF acted as partial
mediator between optimism and “personal growth”, “positive relations with others”
and “self-acceptance”. The mediatory function of PF in relationship between
optimism and “autonomy”, “environmental mastery” and “purpose in life” was not
significant. An alternative model was tested by adding age and gender as co-variate to
the mediation model. The relationships among the variables hold even when age and
gender were added to the model. Findings extenuate the importance of integrating
optimism and psychological flexibility while tailoring interventions to promote
psychological well-being among defence personnel.

Keywords: optimism, psychological flexibility, psychological well-being, mediation

analysis, defence personnel

*Corresponding author.
Smarika Dalal
Department of Applied Psychology,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science
and Technology, Hisar, Haryana, India
E-mail: [email protected]
(S. Dalal)

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68 Smarika Dalal, and Sandeep Singh

Introduction of positive psychology in the field of defence. The stressful

conditions, harsh environment and unpredictability of the job
Positive Psychology, launched as the “Manhattan Project” makes it a necessity that the defence personnel are not just
in 1998 by Martin Seligman aimed to focus on a deeper equipped with the best machinery but also with psychological
understanding of human psychology. The objective was to strength that can aid them during the war and peace, alike.
develop mental strength among individuals so that they In the study undertaken, the variables of interest are
are able to cope with stress and trauma, make their lives optimism as predictor variable, psychological flexibility as a
meaningful, and be satisfied (Weitzman, 2021). According to mediator variable and psychological well-being (and its sub-
Peterson (2006), “the scientific study of what goes right in life, scales) as criterion variable. Optimism plays a critical role in
from birth to death and at all stops in between” (p. 4) gives coping with stressful situations. In a study conducted by Lester
a clear idea about what positive psychology entails. Positive et al. (2022) on 908,096 U.S. army soldiers, optimism predicts
psychology highlights positive states, positive attributes, and awards for performance and heroism. According to research
positive institutions. It is about excellence and successful by Hassett et al. (2019), soldiers with low pre-deployment
adaptability in all facets of life. Positive psychology seeks to optimism may be more likely to have new post-deployment
strengthen inner resources, thereby assisting people to thrive symptoms, and they may benefit from scalable therapies
through their day-to-day ordeals and flourish despite the that aim to boost optimism. Bryan et al. (2013) found
challenges. Positive psychology is often referred to as the “study that optimism was significantly associated with less severe
of ordinary strengths and virtues” since it focuses on emotional depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideations in their studies
balance and productive thinking as opposed to symptomatic involving 97 active air force members seeking treatment. Also,
therapy and treatment (Sheldon & King, 2001). Happiness optimism was found to reduce the negative consequences of
and well-being are acknowledged by positive psychology as hopelessness on the sample. Optimism has also been found to
“essential human skills” (Davidson et al., 2005). predict traits like resilience in military personnel (Reyes et al.,
Well-being is one of the topics that has been discussed a 2020; Jaeschke, 2016), satisfaction in female military partners
lot in the past decade. Though, there is still no agreement on (Cabrera-Sanchez et al., 2017) and protects military veterans
any one definition of well-being, the aspects of well-being are against the negative impacts of wartime stress on their mental
expanding. Well-being now comprises physical well-being, health symptoms and ability to work (Thomas et al., 2011).
psychological well-being (PWB), and spiritual well-being Psychological flexibility can be defined as the “capacity to
(Stoewen, 2017). Numerous studies have been carried out to persist or to change behaviour in a way that includes conscious
establish that optimism and well-being are related (Conversano and open contact with one’s thoughts and feelings, appreciates
et al., 2010; Scheier & Carver, 1992). As evidenced from what the situation can afford and serves one’s goals and values”
academic literature, psychological flexibility (PF) is also linked (McCracken & Morley, 2014). Psychological flexibility has
to better well-being (Howell & Demuynck, 2021; Usubini et been found to significantly predict post-traumatic stress
al., 2021). But what still remains uncertain is the relationship disorder related resilience and the author(s) have suggested that
among the three variables, viz., optimism, PF, and PWB. The interventions that improve psychological benefits may benefit
investigations carried out have mostly been unidirectional, veterans (Meyer et al., 2018). Ebrahimabad and Mamizade
where the predictor-criterion relationship has been established (2018) found in their study on 162 soldiers that psychological
between two or more variables. As far as our knowledge goes, flexibility is a significant predictor of psychological well-being.
there have been few scientific studies conducted that study the Bryan et al. (2015) demonstrated in his study on 168 active duty
action mechanism between optimism and psychological well- Air Force personnel that psychological flexibility acts as a buffer
being (Ferguson & Goodwin, 2010; Sabouripour et al., 2021) against emotional distress and suicidal ideation and higher PF
and none that explore the action mechanism constituting PF as scores corresponded to reporting of lower post-traumatic stress
a potential mediator between optimism and PWB. The nature and depression. The role of psychological flexibility has been
of responsibilities in the defence sector requires psychological investigated with various mental health indicators (Abramson
flexibility (Bryan et al., 2015), since the conditions and et al., 1989; Ehring et al., 2008; Pettit et al., 2009) but its role
situations are more unpredictable (Mukherjee & Kumar, in improving the defence personnel goes largely unexamined.
2021). Among the defence personnel, the studies have not The studies on mental health and psychological well-being of
been conclusive regarding their psychological well-being. the defence personnel have reported that PTSD and depression
Furthermore, there is a dearth of scientific reporting regarding are commonly reported by soldiers returning from operational
mental health issues in the Indian Army (Sharma, 2015). deployment (Renshaw, 2011). Since 2008, the suicide rate
Investigating the mechanisms underlying the link between among U.S. Army personnel topped that of the adjusted
optimism and PWB among defence personnel in India, is the general population (Kuehn, 2009). According to news report,
aim of this study. The research aims to study how PF mediates over 800 servicemen have committed suicide over the past five
the relationship between optimism and PWB and all its sub- years, in India (“Over 800 suicide cases reported in Armed forces
scales. The defence sector is the backbone of every nation. The in last five years: Government”, 2022). The increasing cases of
overwhelming array of difficulties faced by defence personnel suicide among defence personnel in India as well as around
who face a higher psychological risk from exposure during the world is suggestive of the fact that the frequency of mental
combat challenges, including physical and mental fatigue, disorders is rising. The likelihood that escalating mental illness
demanding work environments, harsh climates, prolonged rates are a significant factor in the rise in suicide attempts is
separation from family and threat to life have led to the rise increased by the rising suicide rates among Army soldiers.

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(Bachynski et al., 2012). The alarming rates of depreciating as “the ability to change or persist with functional behavioural
mental health of the organization which is considered one of classes when doing so serves valued ends” and also stressed the
the strongest pillars of a nation and is imperative to national necessity of flexibility for one’s healthy functioning. Six basic
security is a reason enough to analyse the depth of the problem processes (“hexaflex”) have been recognised as being essential to
and come up with mental health policies and interventions psychological flexibility: acceptance, defusion, self-as-context,
that can assist in curbing the increasing rates of suicide and touch with the present moment, values, and committed action
psychological health issues faced by the defence personnel. (McCracken and Morley, 2014). Acceptance and defusion are
This paper aims to study the importance of two psychological examples of the “open response style,” which allows for the
variables, viz, optimism and psychological flexibility in enhancing adoption of a different response style in which one actively
the psychological well-being of defence personnel. participates in life and freely chooses pursuits that are significant
to oneself, even in the face of adverse emotions or stress
(Goubert & Trampetter, 2017). The “engaged response style” is
Optimism represented by the processes of values and committed action,
Optimism reveals how much hope people have for favourable while the “centred response style,” which is closely related to
outcomes in the future. Optimism encompasses two concepts mindfulness, is comprised of the processes of self-as-context and
that are related to each other: one is the propensity to hope, while touch with the present (Goubert & Trampetter, 2017).
the other is the propensity to believe that we live in the “best
of all possible worlds” (in the words of German philosopher
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). A higher level of optimism Psychological well-being
indicates better subjective well-being when faced with adversity Psychological well-being (PWB), according to Ryff (1989), is
(Mishra, 2013; Taylor et al., 1992; Scheier et al., 1989). Similar related to emotions and satisfaction in life. It can be explained
findings in other research link optimism to a higher engagement on the basis of the difference between “emotions” (positive
coping level, lower avoidance levels, or disengagement coping. and negative) and “life satisfaction” (Andrews, 1974; Bryant
Optimism has been conceptualised as an “attributional style” & Veroff, 1982; Stock et al., 1986). In 1995, Ryff created a
as well as “dispositional optimism” (Conversano et al., 2010). model of psychological well-being that synthesised several
It is considered that dispositional optimism is a rather stable theoretical viewpoints into a single, cogent theory. This model
component of personality. In their investigations, Scheier and had a significant scientific influence and stimulated a lot of
Carver (1985) proposed the “disposition” towards optimism, well-being-related research. In Ryff’s conceptualization (Keyes
also known as “dispositional optimism,” which they defined as et al., 2002; Ryff, 2018), psychological well-being focuses on
a quality of a balanced and stable personality that influences the realisation of human potential, human flourishing, growth,
how people process current, past, and future events in life. and self-realisation (i.e., eudaimonic well-being), rather than
Optimistic people have a positive attitude on daily events. In just the experience of positive affect and happiness (i.e.,
the study conducted from this perspective, positive correlations hedonic well-being). The operationalization of psychological
between optimism and physical and mental well-being have
well-being involves a multidimensional construct with six
been established. Positive people are more likely to develop more
distinct components: autonomy (the ability of an individual to
effective coping strategies, have protective attitudes, and be
keep their identity in a variety of contexts and circumstances
more stress-resistant. Studies by Peterson and Seligman (1987)
with tenacity, independence, and personal authority),
that were primarily focused on understanding the psychological
environmental mastery (the efficiency of a person in handling
underpinnings of pessimism led to the conception of its
and managing their everyday responsibilities), This aspect is
opposite, optimism, as an “attributional style”, characterised by
closely linked to the individual’s locus of control, sense of self-
the propensity to believe that negative events are not constant
efficacy, and ability to create circumstances that allow them to
(the event will not repeat itself ), external (the individual should
fulfil their wants and desires), purpose in life (the ability of a
not be blamed for the event), and specific (the event is “specific”
person to set goals, establish goals keep up their motivation to
and limited, thereby it would not have any impact on any other
attain them, and give their life meaning), positive relationships
aspect of the individual’s life). Positive events, in the opinion of
with others (the ability of an individual to uphold close and
optimists, are more reliable and common than negative ones.
stable relationships), personal growth (the ability of a person to
They believe they can prevent problems from occurring in their
change, realise their potential, and evolve through constructive
daily lives, and because of this, they are more able to handle
learning), and self-acceptance (cultivating a positive outlook on
stressful situations than pessimists (Aspinwall et al., 2001;
oneself ) (Ryff & Keyes 1995; Keyes et al., 2002), and is defined
Peterson & De Avila, 1995).
from a eudaimonic perspective as a state of optimal human
functioning that involves realising one’s own potential and true
self. Ryff’s six-factor model of well-being has drawn criticism
Psychological Flexibility
in research by Springer and Hauser (2006) because, even after
Psychological flexibility (PF) can be explained as a propensity removing many methodological sources of confounding, the
to act in various situations such that the response or action dimensions still showed significant overlap. Ryff and Singer
encourages the pursuit of activities that are goal-oriented. It is an (2006) analysed data from five different study types, including
important ability to have when facing challenges. In the words of factorial validity, psychological correlates, sociodemographic
Hayes et al. (2004a, 2004b), who originally conceptualised PF correlates, biological correlates, and intervention studies,

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70 Smarika Dalal, and Sandeep Singh

and concluded that the six dimensions are distinct. Despite between them. Arslan et al. (2021) found that psychological
having high intercorrelations, the dimensions’ distinctiveness inflexibility and optimism-pessimism mediated the effect of
(self-acceptance and environmental mastery [.76] and self- coronavirus stress on psychological health in their study on
acceptance and life purpose [.72]) was justified by the adults. Additionally, optimism-pessimism determined adult
differences in how they interacted with other dimensions and psychological health through psychological inflexibility.
how they changed as people aged. In-depth research is required to be conducted in this field.
Despite the controversies, research has claimed that PWB Towsyfyan and Hossein Sabet (2017) have emphasised how
is associated with more successful marriages (Kim & McKenry, effective acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has
2002), better income (Kaplan et al., 2008), more creative ideas been in increasing levels of optimism for people who have
(Ghorbani & Kazemi-zahrani, 2015), and stronger immunity major depressive disorders and also on the contribution of
(Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Psychological well-being can play a PF towards increasing optimism (Woldgabreal et al., 2016).
protective role in so many aspects of life that it becomes essential Higher is the level of psychological inflexibility, higher is the
to elucidate the mechanisms that affect our capacity to achieve level of pessimism (Masuda and Latzman, 2011).
and maintain PWB. This may be rather important to develop
effective strategies for the promotion of overall well-being and
preventing psychological disorders. The multi-dimensionality The relationship between psychological flexibility and psychological
of PWB needs to be further explored to confirm whether the well-being
six dimensions of PWB underlie the unidimensional PWB.
PF has been linked with well-being significantly across
populations, including breast cancer patients (Deledda et al.,
The relationship between optimism and psychological well-being 2015), the LGB group (Chan et al., 2021), and sexual minority
employees (Levin et al., 2015). It is closely linked to both
According to research, optimism is a predictor of well- “hedonic” and “eudaimonic” well-being (Howell et al., 2021).
being (Hochhausen et al., 2007, Rand et al., 2020). Optimism There is enough evidence to support the role of PF as a predictor
is an important predictor of changes in perceived stress, of PWB (Wersebe et al., 2018; Bohlmeijer et al., 2011; Fledderus
social support, loneliness, and depression (Scheier & Carver, et al., 2010). Through research studies, it was confirmed that
1992). It was revealed that optimism and PWB sub-scales are the role played by psychological flexibility in explaining PWB is
positively correlated, and an inverse relationship was found significant (Usubini et al., 2021). PF has been linked to positive
between pessimism and various sub-scales of PWB (Augusto- health outcomes in a number of clinical disorders (Powers et
Landa et al., 2011). A study on police officers suggested that al., 2009; Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010). PF also mediates the
optimism and PWB are significantly and positively correlated relationship between negative emotions and well-being during
(Padhy et al., 2015). The same was concluded in other studies pandemics (Wąsowicz et al., 2021). Among the diabetes-II
as well, where a positive correlation was confirmed between population, psychological flexibility was associated with greater
optimism and PWB (e.g., Parveen et al., 2016; Schweizer et al., well-being. Also, the positive perception of change contributes
1999). Dispositional optimism has also served as a significant
significantly to variance in well-being (Maor et al., 2021).
moderator between stress and PWB (Chang, 1998). Optimism
Psychological flexibility also had similar positive outcomes in the
and hope are significantly correlated, and optimism has a
obese population (Cattivelli et al., 2018). According to research
significant and positive correlation with PWB and is negatively
by Arslan and Allen (2021), developing psychological flexibility
linked to psychological distress (Jahanara, 2017). The results
is crucial for enhancing well-being in the face of adversity.
associating optimism with lower psychological distress have
Among the student population, PF has a major role in the
been confirmed in other research studies as well (e.g., Taylor
prediction of PWB (Imani et al., 2017). In a study conducted on
et al., 1992). Along with other variables (gratitude, hope,
the military population, it was demonstrated that psychological
and life satisfaction), optimism accounts for 51 percent of
flexibility had a significant association with psychological well-
the variance in PWB (Kardas et al., 2019). When a sample of
being (Ebrahimabad et al., 2018). It consistently moderates
parents of cancer-stricken kids was collected, it was found that
the association between stress and health outcomes, including
optimism had a significant correlation with satisfaction with
“physical health, mental health, and well-being” (Gloster et al.,
life, “subjective health perception, anxiety, and depression”.
2017). It was discovered that gains in psychological flexibility
Optimism interventions could even prove to be an effective
and well-being were maintained even after a one-year follow-
source of coping with adverse conditions within the population
up period during an eight-week programme based on ACT
(Fotiadou et al., 2008). In a research study conducted, it was
principles to reduce “burnout-related ill-being” and enhance
found that those with higher optimism levels and higher social
well-being. Furthermore, psychological flexibility mediated
support perceived their physical and psychological well-being
the changes in all factors, including “burnout, well-being, and
regardless of the levels of stress reported (Sumi, 1997).
psychological symptoms” (Puolakanaho et al., 2020).
Psychological flexibility in an individual does not just ensure
the well-being of the individual; rather, it has a major impact on
The relationship between optimism and psychological flexibility
others as well. Increased psychological flexibility has been linked
Despite the fact that it is significant to emphasise the link to better relationships because it increases positive affect and
between PF and optimism (Woldgabreal et al., 2016), only decreases negative affect (Twiselton et al., 2020). Levels of youth
a few researchers have actually studied the relationship “internalising and externalising” difficulties among the children

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are reduced by “parenting-specific psychological flexibility” Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship between
through “adaptive parenting techniques” (Brassell et al., 2016). optimism and personal growth; (h) Psychological flexibility
More support for psychological flexibility can be gained from the shall mediate the relationship between optimism and positive
research studies on psychological inflexibility, which is associated relations with others; (i) Psychological flexibility shall mediate
with various clinical disorders including “stress, depression, the relationship between optimism and purpose in life; and (j)
substance abuse, eating disorder, catastrophizing, job burnout Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship between
and work absenteeism” (Bluett et al., 2016; de Boer et al., 2014; optimism and self-acceptance.
Lloyd et al., 2013; Luoma et al., 2011).
Fig. 1b. Mediational function of PF between optimism and sub-scales of
PWB

The present study

The present study is exploratory in nature where the author(s)
have made an effort to research the mediation role of PF between
optimism and PWB (and its sub-scales). PWB has an influence
on several facets of life, so it is crucial to understand the factors
that may assist in achieving PWB. The study also aims to
expand the research on the action mechanism from optimism
to various dimensions of PWB. Thus, the study explores
how the various dimensions of PWB will be determined by
optimism as a predictor and PF as a mediator variable. The
relationship between some of the variables has been thoroughly
researched (psychological flexibility and psychological well- Method
being; optimism and psychological well-being), but there is a
lack of evidence for the relationship between optimism and Participants and Procedure
psychological flexibility. The research throwing light on the
In this research study, one hundred and two defence personnel
direction of the relationship between optimism and PF is still in
from all around India participated. The snowball sampling
its nascent stages, and thereby, no definitive conclusion can be
technique was employed to reach the respondents for the
reached. Thus, the model chosen is one of the many alternative
study. Ages lie in the range of 21 to 58, with M = 43.42
models present. The current study is limited to exploring
and SD = 11.21. The respondents, at the time the study was
the hypothesised model. The research evidence presented,
conducted, were serving in the Indian Defence Forces (Indian
on which we have based our hypothesised model (Fig. 1a),
Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force) and belonged to
studies the mediating role of psychological flexibility between
the commissioned officer rank. The personnel belonged to
optimism and PWB (Fig. 1a) as well as each component of
different units spread across India. The language of all the
PWB (Fig. 1b). Based on the research, the following hypotheses
instruments used in the survey was English. The administration
are formed: (a) Optimism shall be positively and significantly
of the questionnaires was done both offline and online. Data
associated with psychological flexibility; (b) Psychological
collection was done offline, where the participants could be
flexibility shall be positively and significantly associated with
reached in person. In the offline mode, the participants were
psychological well-being; (c) Optimism shall be positively
administered the questionnaire in paper-and-pencil format.
and significantly associated with psychological well-being; (d)
Data was also collected online by generating a questionnaire
Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship between
link and sending the link to the participants via e-mail
optimism and psychological well-being; (e) Psychological
and instant messaging apps. The demographic and service
flexibility shall mediate the relationship between optimism
characteristics of the sample are shown below in Table 1.
and autonomy; (f ) Psychological flexibility shall mediate the
relationship between optimism and environmental mastery; (g) Tab. 1. Participants’ demographic and service characteristics
N Valid %
Fig. 1a. Hypothesised model: Psychological flexibility mediates the Gender
relationship between optimism and PWB Male 95 93.1
Female 7 6.9
Wing
Indian Army 82 80.4
Indian Navy 7 6.9
Indian Air-force 13 12.7
Age
<= 25 13 12.7
26-35 12 11.8
36-45 20 19.6
46-55 43 42.2
>55 14 13.7

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72 Smarika Dalal, and Sandeep Singh

Self-report Measures: Ryff’s Psychological well-being scale

Life Orientation Test – Revised The psychological well-being scale (42-item version) given
by Ryff (1989) has six subscales, representing six factors, viz.,
The Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) given by Scheier
“autonomy”, “environmental mastery”, “personal growth”,
et al. (1994) is a 10-item scale, out of which 4 are filler items.
“positive relations with others”, “purpose in life,” and “self-
Items 3, 7, and 9 are reverse scored, or they may be scored
acceptance,” where each dimension is measured by seven items.
separately for measuring pessimism (e.g., “If something can go
On a six-point scale, from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 6 (“strongly
wrong for me, it will”), while items 1, 4, and 10 are measures
agree”), participants must rate each item. The questionnaire
of optimism (e.g., “In uncertain times, I usually expect the
has both positively and negatively worded items for each of the
best”). Items 2, 5, 6, and 8 are filler items. Before final scoring,
six dimensions. E.g., for “self-acceptance”, “When I look at the
items 3, 7, and 9 are to be reverse scored (0 = 4, 1 = 3, 2
story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out.”
= 2, 3 = 1, 4 = 0). For instance, if a participant responds to
and “In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements
item 9 (“I rarely count on good things happening to me”) with
in life.” (R). For “positive relations with others”, “people would
“Agree”, the respondent will be given a score of 3, but prior to
describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with
final scoring to get the score for dispositional optimism, the
others.” and “maintaining close relationships has been difficult
score of the participant will be changed to 1. The scores for
and frustrating for me.” (R). For “autonomy,”, “I have confidence
each of the six items are then added together to get the LOT-R
in my own opinions, even if they are different from the way
scores. Different levels of optimism are indicated by scores
most other people think.” and “I tend to be influenced by
between 0 and 24, with higher scores indicating greater levels
people with strong opinions.” (R). For “environmental mastery”,
of optimism. By calculating Cronbach’s alpha, reliability for
“In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live.”
the LOT-R was evaluated (.76), and test-retest reliability with
and “The demands of everyday life often get me down.” (R).
a four-week interval was tested (.79), indicating satisfactory
For “purpose in life”, “Some people wander aimlessly through
stability over time. The convergent and discriminant validity
life, but I am not one of them.” and “I sometimes feel as if I’ve
of LOT-R with neuroticism (measured by EPQ), self-mastery,
done all there is to do in life.” (R). For “personal growth”, “For
self-esteem, trait anxiety and original LOT were modestly
established. Differences in correlation between men and me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing,
women were negligible. and growth.” and “I gave up trying to make big improvements
or changes in my life a long time ago.” (R). The R in brackets
stands for items that are reverse-coded. The scores are added
together for individual dimensions, and the total psychological
Acceptance and Action Questionnaire – II
well-being score is achieved by summing up the scores for all
Acceptance and Action Questionnaire II (AAQII) given by six dimensions. Greater levels of psychological well-being are
Bond et al. (2011 consists of seven items that are answered indicated by higher scores. The six scales exhibit Cronbach alpha
on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (“Never true”) to (ranging from .86 to .93) and test-retest reliability (ranging
7 (“Always true”). It was originally designed to measure from .81 to .88) over a six-week period. The six dimensions
“experiential avoidance,” but the authors also suggested that it were correlated with the previous measures of well-being and
was a measure of psychological flexibility (or inflexibility). The ill-being to establish convergent and discriminant validity.
scoring is done by adding all the rated responses. The items All correlations of the scale with measures of well-being were
have been framed such that higher scores indicate higher positive and significant and with measures of ill-being were
psychological inflexibility (e.g., “My painful experiences negative and significant.
and memories make it difficult for me to live a life that I
would value,”, “Emotions cause problems in my life”). The
Cronbach’s alpha (.88) was calculated to assess reliability,
and the test-retest reliability (.81 and.79) was calculated at
three and twelve months, respectively. In the present study, Results
the authors have re-coded the questionnaire such that higher Before running the analysis, we must first examine our variables
scores indicate higher psychological flexibility and lower to determine if mediation is appropriate. The assumptions
scores on the test indicate lower psychological flexibility, for multiple regression also apply to mediation analysis in
for the ease of understanding of the readers. The validity of the present study. The assumptions for linearity, normality,
the tool was assessed by using other validated tools such as multicollinearity, homoscedasticity and homogeneity of
Beck Depression Inventory- second edition, Beck Anxiety variance were established before starting the research.
Inventory, Depression Anxiety Stress Scales, General Health
Questionnaire, Global Severity Index of the Symptoms
Checklist, White Bear Suppression Inventory, General job Descriptive statistics and correlational analysis
satisfaction scale and Marlowe-Crown social desirability scale.
The convergent validity was established by positive and high Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics (mean (M), standard
correlation with White Bear Suppression Inventory and its no deviation (SD), and standard error (SE)) for each variable and
significant association with social desirability establishes its also displays the correlations between various variables under
discriminant validity. study.

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Hypothesis a: Optimism would be positively and significantly Fig. 2. Standardized path1 coefficients for the relationship between
associated with psychological flexibility optimism and PWB as mediated by psychological flexibility
Hypothesis b: Psychological flexibility would be positively and
significantly associated with psychological well-being
Hypothesis c: Optimism would be positively and significantly
associated with psychological well-being
Pearson’s correlational analysis was conducted to investigate
the associations between optimism and PF. Correlational
analysis revealed a positive and significant relationship between
optimism and PF (r = 0.480, p<.01); between PF and PWB (r
= 0.451, p<.01) and between optimism and PWB (r = 0.562,
p<.01). Table 2 shows the correlational analysis between all the
variables in the study.

95% CI [.19, 1.45], p= .0117, s.e. = .3183). When c’ is

Hypothesis d: Psychological flexibility would mediate the relationship statistically closer to zero than c and both routes (a-path and
between optimism and psychological well-being b-path) in a model are statistically significant, the mediator
variable is regarded as a partial mediator of the link between
Baron and Kenny (1986) have specified that mediation X and Y. In the hypothesised mediation model, PF is a partial
is indicated when (1) a predictor variable correlates with the mediator of the association between optimism and PWB.
mediator variable and criterion variable, (2) the mediator The indirect effect for the hypothesised mediation model (B
variable should correlate with the criterion variable, and (3) = .1129, BootLLCI= .0199, BootULCI= .2038) is statistically
when the criterion variable is regressed on the predictor variable significant. Approximately 36% of the variance was accounted
and mediator variable together, the relationship between for by the predictors (F= 27.68; R2= .3587, p<.001).
predictor variable and criterion variable is significantly reduced Hyothesis e: Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship
but the relationship between mediator variable and criterion between optimism and autonomy
variable is not. If the relationship is reduced to zero between Hyothesis f: Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship
the predictor variable and the criterion variable, then it suggests between optimism and environmental mastery
complete mediation; otherwise, if the relationship is reduced Hyothesis g: Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship
but not to zero, it suggests partial mediation. The mediation between optimism and personal growth
model of psychological flexibility in the relationship between Hyothesis h: Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship
optimism and PWB (and its sub-scales) was determined by between optimism and positive relations with others
using SPSS 28.0.1.1 (14), Hayes’ macro PROCESS v4.2, Hyothesis i: Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship
Model 4 (Hayes, 2013). The indirect effect is tested using non- between optimism and purpose in life
parametric bootstrapping using 5000 bootstrap samples with a Hyothesis j: Psychological flexibility shall mediate the relationship
95% confidence interval. between optimism and self acceptance.
The association between optimism and PF was statistically Another hypothesised model of mediation was analysed to
significant (B = .4795, 95% CI [.53, 1.13], p <.001, s.e. = explore the mediational role of PF between optimism and each of
.1513). The association between optimism and PWB (total the components of psychological well-being. The mediation model
effect) was statistically significant (B = .5621, 95% CI [2.38, of psychological flexibility in the relationship between optimism
4.34], p <.001, s.e. = .4949 ). The direct effect of optimism on and sub-scales of PWB was determined by using SPSS 28.0.1.1
PWB (path c-prime) was statistically significant (B = .4491, (14) Hayes’ macro PROCESS v4.2, Model 4 (Hayes, 2013). The
95% CI [1.60, 3.78], p< 0.001, s.e. = .5488). The association indirect effect is tested using non-parametric bootstrapping using
between PF and PWB was statistically significant (B = .2355, 5000 bootstrap samples with 95% confidence interval.

Tab. 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation matrix (N = 102)

Correlational Analysis
M SE SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Age 43.42 1.110 11.21
1 Optimism 16.22 0.396 4.00
2 PF 16.12 0.683 6.90 .480*
3 PWB 199.02 2.372 23.96 .562* .451*
4 Autonomy 31.9 0.475 4.80 .406* .350* .809*
5 Environmental Mastery 32.36 0.495 5.00 .518* .342* .913* .692*
6 Personal Growth 33.7 0.436 4.40 .416* .391* .813* .521* .675*
7 Positive relations with others 34.09 0.493 4.98 .466* .420* .800* .545* .749* .574*
8 Purpose of Life 32.41 0.457 4.61 .400* 0.152 .785* .571* .667* .648* .478*
9 Self Acceptance 34.56 0.491 4.96 .591* .585* .874* .703* .761* .677* .628* .585*
Note: M: Mean; SD: Standard Deviation; SE: Standard error of mean; PF: Psychological Flexibility; PWB: Psychological well-being. * p<0.01 level, two-
tailed.

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Fig. 3. Standardized path coefficients for the relationship between optimism and sub-scales of PWB as mediated by PF

The association between optimism and PF was statistically The association between optimism and personal growth
significant (B = .4795, 95% CI [.53, 1.13], p <.001, s.e. = (total effect) was statistically significant (B = .4162, 95% CI
.1513). The association between optimism and autonomy [.26, .66], p <.001, s.e. = .0999). The direct effect of optimism
(total effect) was statistically significant (B = .4064, 95% CI on personal growth (path c-prime) was statistically significant
[.27, .70], p <.001, s.e. = .1094). The direct effect of optimism (B = .2971, 95% CI [.11, .55], p= .0041, s.e. = .1111). In the
on autonomy (path c-prime) was statistically significant (B hypothesized mediation model, PF acts as a partial mediator of
= .3097, 95% CI [.13, .61], p= .0033, s.e. = .1230). In the the association between optimism and personal growth. The
hypothesized mediation model, PF acts as a partial mediator association between PF and personal growth was statistically
of the association between optimism and autonomy. The significant (B = .2485, 95% CI [.03, .29], p= .0157, s.e. =
association between PF and autonomy was statistically not .0644). The indirect effect for the hypothesized mediation model
significant (B = .2017, 95% CI [-.0014, .28], p= .0523, s.e. (B = .1192, BootLLCI= .0217, BootULCI= .2440) is statistically
= .0713). The indirect effect for the hypothesized mediation significant. Approximately 22% of the variance was accounted
model (B = .0967, BootLLCI=-.0110, BootULCI= .1914) is for by the predictors (F (2, 99) = 14.03; R2= .2208, p<.001).
statistically not significant. Approximately 20% of the variance The association between optimism and positive relations
was accounted for by the predictors (F (2, 99) = 12.10; R2= with others (total effect) was statistically significant (B = .4662,
.1965, p<.001). 95% CI [.36, .80], p <.001, s.e. = .1101). The direct effect
The association between optimism and environmental of optimism on positive relations with others (path c-prime)
mastery (total effect) was statistically significant (B = .5182, was statistically significant (B = .3436, 95% CI [.19, .67], p=
95% CI [.43, .86], p <.001, s.e. = .1067). The direct effect .0007, s.e. = .1219). In the hypothesized mediation model, PF
of optimism on environmental mastery (path c-prime) was acts as a partial mediator of the association between optimism
statistically significant (B = .4601, 95% CI [.33, .81], p <.001, and positive relations with others. The association between PF
s.e. = .1213). In the hypothesized mediation model, PF acts and positive relations with others was statistically significant
as a partial mediator of the association between optimism (B = .2557, 95% CI [.04, .32], p= .0105, s.e. = .0707). The
and environmental mastery. The association between PF and indirect effect for the hypothesized mediation model (B =
environmental mastery was statistically not significant (B .1226, BootLLCI= .0333, BootULCI= .2483) is statistically
= .1211, 95% CI [-.05, .23], p= .2158, s.e. = .0704). The significant. Approximately 27% of the variance was accounted
indirect effect for the hypothesized mediation model (B = for by the predictors (F (2, 99) = 18.09; R2= .2676, p<.001).
.0581, BootLLCI=-.0342, BootULCI= .1597) is statistically not The association between optimism and purpose of life (total
significant. Approximately 28% of the variance was accounted effect) was statistically significant (B = .4004, 95% CI [.25, .67], p
for by the predictors (F (2, 99) = 19.23; R2= .2798, p<.001). <.001, s.e. = .1056). The direct effect of optimism on purpose of

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life (path c-prime) was statistically significant (B = .4255, 95% CI Fig. 4. Standardized path coefficients for the relationship between optimism
[.25, .73], p= .0001, s.e. = .1207). In the hypothesized mediation and PWB as mediated by PF in presence of co-variate age and gender
model, PF acts as a partial mediator of the association between
optimism and purpose of life. The association between PF and
purpose of life was statistically not significant (B = -.0523, 95%
CI [-.17, .10], p= .6188, s.e. = .0700). The indirect effect for the
hypothesized mediation model (B = -.0251, BootLLCI= -.1412,
BootULCI= .0625) is statistically not significant. Approximately
16% of the variance was accounted for by the predictors (F(2, 99)
= 9.60; R2= .1625, p= .0002).
The association between optimism and self-acceptance
(total effect) was statistically significant (B = .5906, 95% CI
[.53, .92], p <.001, s.e. = .0999). The direct effect of optimism
on self-acceptance (path c-prime) was statistically significant
(B = .4024, 95% CI [.29, .70], p <.001, s.e. = .1035). In the models compared the mediating effect of PF between optimism
hypothesized mediation model, PF acts as a partial mediator and PWB when the model was adjusted for co-variate, i.e., age
of the association between optimism and self-acceptance. The and gender.
association between PF and self-acceptance was statistically In the mediation model, where the relationship between
significant (B = .3924, 95% CI [.16, .40], p <.001, s.e. = .0600). optimism and PWB is assessed through mediating role of PF,
The indirect effect for the hypothesized mediation model (B the results revealed that age was a significant co-variate affecting
= .1882, BootLLCI= .0816, BootULCI= .2792) is statistically PWB when predicting PWB but had no significant effect
significant. Approximately 47% of the variance was accounted when predicting PF while gender had no significant effect.
for by the predictors (F (2, 99) = 43.43; R2= .4673, p <.001). The model also tested the relationship between optimism
and dimensions of PWB mediated by PF. The results revealed
that age was a significant co-variate affecting autonomy,
Alternative model environmental mastery and positive relations with others but
had no significant effect while predicting personal growth,
The purpose of adding an alternative model to our study was purpose of life and self-acceptance. Gender had no significant
to determine whether the association between optimism and effect while predicting any of the dimensions of PWB.
psychological well-being were modified by adding age and The main relationships hold when the co-variate (i.e., age
gender as co-variate to the mediation model. Also, the two and gender) are taken into account. For the alternative model,

Fig. 5. Standardized path coefficients for the relationship between optimism and sub-scales of PWB as mediated by PF in presence of co-variate age and gender

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76 Smarika Dalal, and Sandeep Singh

standardized path coefficients for PWB and its sub-dimensions In the study conducted by Woldgabreal et al. (2016), the
have been summarized in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 respectively. intercorrelation between LOT-R scores and AAQ-II scores was
positive and significant at p<.001.
In the present cross-sectional study, the author(s) have
examined the relationship among optimism, PF, and PWB
among Indian defence personnel. The hypothesis (d) claimed
Discussions that PF would mediate the relationship between optimism and
In the present study, we analyzed the relationship among PWB. By testing a mediation model, it was discovered that
the variables in two parts: First, correlational analysis was psychological flexibility partially but significantly mediates the
carried out between optimism and psychological well-being, relationship between optimism and PWB. This suggests that
psychological flexibility and psychological well-being, and dispositional optimism is related to psychological flexibility,
optimism and psychological flexibility. The hypotheses (a), and both of these variables interact in a way to enhance
(b), and (c) were accepted. Correlational analysis indicates psychological well-being. The results of the study agree with
that optimism and psychological flexibility are significantly the findings of previous research studies. The role of optimism
correlated with psychological well-being. Our research is in the enhancement of psychological well-being has been
strongly supported by the research evidence to date. This well supported (Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, & D’Zurilla,
implies that the more a person is an optimist, the better will 1997; Peterson, Seligman, & Vaillant, 1988). Better PWB
be his PWB (e.g., Chang et al., 1997; Carver et al., 2005; is important to how an individual copes and performs. The
Hochhausen, 2007). Optimism has been highly correlated negative perception of PWB is linked to less adaptive and
with “life satisfaction”, subjective health perception, anxiety coping behaviour (Chaturvedula & Joseph, 2007), while a
and depression”. (e.g., Hayes & Weathington, 2007; Leung et healthy level of PWB in soldiers enhances their commitment,
al., 2005; Bailey et al., 2007; Pais-Ribeiro et al., 2007; Zenger productivity, and efficiency in addition to their physical,
et al., 2010). The results have been found to be in the predicted psychological, and mental health (Greaves et al., 2019;
direction and supported by past research studies. Additionally, Mota et al., 2016). The analysis of the mediation model has
there is a significant and positive correlation between PWB evaluated the role of both dispositional optimism and PF in
and PF. The results of the study are consistent with the results the resulting outcome. This mediation analysis model allowed
of previous studies conducted on different populations. for a comprehensive evaluation of the variables and their effects
Psychological flexibility considerably explained psychological on the PWB. When co-variates age and gender were added to
well-being among the obese population (Usubini et al., 2021). the model, age had significant impact on PWB while gender
In adults, ACT interventions significantly increased emotional had no significant impact on PWB. The overall results in the
and PWB among the participants, and the improvement in alternative model remained consistent with the original model.
PF during intervention mediated the effects of intervention on For the hypotheses (e) to (j), while concluding the results
positive mental health (Fledderus et al., 2010). The relationship for the mediating function of PF between optimism and
between PWB and PF forms a vicious cycle. Many types of components of the PWB, it was observed that PF partially
psychopathology involve decreased psychological flexibility mediates the relationship between optimism and “personal
(Borkovec, 1994; Thayer et al., 1996; Iacono et al., 1999), but growth”, “positive relations with others” and “self-acceptance”
it is unclear whether this inflexibility is a cause or an effect and in the case of “purpose in life”, “autonomy” and
of psychopathology, a problem that is related to the causative “environmental mastery”, the relationship is not significant.
role of inflexibility as an indicator of well-being. Studies have Previous studies have pointed out that optimism raises the
shown that higher depression, anxiety and stress lead to lower level of environmental mastery and purpose in life (Kim,
psychological flexibility (Wąsowicz et al., 2021). People who Lee, & Lee, 2022), and dispositional optimism mediates the
struggle with stress and anxiety frequently interact with their relationship between locus of control and environmental
surroundings using a limited set of behavioral reactions or an mastery and purpose in life (Renaud et al., 2019). Also,
avoidant coping strategy, which limits their capacity to weigh studies have suggested that dispositional optimism successfully
several possibilities. On the other hand, findings also support predicts all the sub-scales of PWB (Zaheer & Khan, 2022;
that psychological flexibility is a crucial element for leading Belcher, 2009). Azkhosh et al. (2016) conducted experimental
a quality life and for psychological well-being (Biglan et al., research on a group, wherein it was found that the group that
2008). There are strong evidence for both the sides of the was given ACT showed significant differences in autonomy,
argument. It is necessary to do a thorough manipulation of personal growth, purpose in life, and self-acceptance between
PF process, ideally in a randomized controlled study, and see if the experimental group and the control group, but not in
there are any changes in psychological health as a result of the environmental mastery (which is consistent with the result
manipulation (Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010). Correlational of the present study) or positive relations with others. An
analysis showed a significant correlation between optimism autonomous individual is one who can make decisions based
and psychological flexibility. The results are in agreement on their own ideas, emotions, and personal convictions. ACT
with previous studies. Masuda and Latzman (2011) showed places a strong emphasis on recognising one’s own values and
that a greater level of psychological inflexibility is associated acting in accordance with them (Hayes, 2004). In order to
with a greater level of pessimism. The interventions that develop ACT and target therapeutic sessions in accordance
enhance psychological flexibility have also resulted in boosting with personal ideals, personal values are employed as criteria.
optimism in participants (Towsyfyan & Hossein Sabet, 2017). Similar studies (Forman et al., 2007; Dalrymple & Herbert,

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2007) have discovered that ACT enhances performance in Limitations and scope for future research
accordance with personal beliefs and purpose. In another study
While interpreting the findings, it is important to take into
by Calvo et al. (2020), psychological inflexibility negatively
account the limitations of this study. First, while collecting
and significantly predicted all six dimensions of PWB.
According to the limited body of literature available, optimism data, self-reporting instruments were used that are prone to
assuages psychological inflexibility and thereby enhances PWB bias. Second, the sample taken was limited for reasons of
and its dimensions. Thus, the results of the current study for confidentiality. Because of this, population-wide generalisation
hypotheses (e), (f ), and (i) do not concur with the previous of the findings is difficult. Third, a certain organisational
research findings, while the results for hypotheses (g), (h), group was considered while collecting the data. As a result,
and (j) are consistent with the previous research studies. The the findings cannot be applied to all organisational sectors.
reasons for the results in this case can be due to a small sample Fourth, due to our limited access to the sample, the additional
size or the presence of a confounding variable. This can be variables that might have confounded the association (e.g.,
explored further in future research. Further studies on different socio-demographic variables, etc.) between optimism and
populations and larger samples need to be conducted in order psychological well-being were not controlled. Fifth, the
to reach a definitive conclusion. research design is cross-sectional. It was not possible to
demonstrate a causal relationship between the variables, so
care should be used when interpreting the suggested paths.
Implications The model has to be studied longitudinally to explore the
dynamics of the relationship among the variables over time.
Optimism and psychological flexibility are important Experimental designs should also be employed to establish
predictors of the psychological health of the defence forces. cause and effect relationship among the variables. The virtuous
The relationship, though partially mediated, is significant, cycle in which psychological well-being may also sustain
which preludes our recommendations for designing an psychological flexibility and alternative models to ascertain
intervention that underpins the role of optimism and the direction of the causal relationships should be explored.
psychological flexibility, especially for the challenges that lie Sixth, the quantitative-only research design may limit the
on the personal and professional fronts of defence personnel. explanation of the outcomes. A qualitative analysis along with
This study is aimed at analysing the action pathways through a quantitative analysis could have given an in-depth and better
which optimism predicts PWB. The findings confirm the need explanation of the outcomes. Seventh, the macro PROCESS
to devise PWB interventions that have components of PF to has been used to test mediation, which does not allow
enhance their effectiveness. The effectiveness and efficiency of correlations between dependent variables to be considered
optimism interventions combined with interventions based in the model. More accurate results could be obtained by
on PF can play a very important role in enhancing PWB SEM. The scope for future research lies in further exploring
rather than using them as standalone intervention therapies. the relationship among the variables and also exploring other
Looking at the evidence in support of how optimism can possible action mechanisms that determine the psychological
enhance psychological well-being, the criteria for selection well-being of defence personnel. Future research can benefit
of defence personnel should include optimism as one of the from conducting longitudinal research while emphasising both
traits that should be possessed by the potential candidates for qualitative and quantitative data. SEM can be employed to test
being considered for selection. Dispositional optimism will the correlation among the dependent variables in the model.
accentuate their coping abilities and management of stressful While the research study presents a novel path mechanism
situations in adaptive and productive ways, which will between optimism and PWB, future studies should be
further enhance their psychological well-being. Psychological conducted by controlling for various socio-demographic
flexibility, in this research, partially mediates the relationship variables that may have confounded the results. In order to
between optimism and PWB, but that does not undermine its draw conclusions about the generalizability of the findings, the
importance in having a significant role to play in improving current study should be conducted among various cultures, age
psychological well-being. Interventions that aid in enhancing groups and organisational groups to evaluate the relationships
PF can be designed to further enhance the PWB. The among them. Also, as mentioned, the present hypothesised
ACT therapy, founded on the principle of psychological model is one of the many alternative models. Future research
flexibility (Hayes et al., 2004a, 2004b), was found to enhance can conduct more research studies on the alternative models,
psychological flexibility, resulting in greater emotional and and a comparative analysis can be presented.
PWB levels among the adult population. Psychological
flexibility also mediates the association between ACT and
positive mental health among adults (Fledderus et al., 2010). Conclusion
Given the research that suggests ACT-based interventions are
effective in improving mental health and well-being (Wersebe The defence forces are the face of every country’s strength.
et al., 2018), mental health professionals could create It is a specialised sector that deals with unpredictable and
prevention and intervention services that promote mental dangerous events. They are at a high risk of suffering from
health and well-being. These programmes could incorporate mental health issues due to unseen foes, be they in their
psychological flexibility, and these services could help people personal or professional lives. Due to the rough conditions,
improve their overall well-being. they are very vulnerable to suffering from psychological

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78 Smarika Dalal, and Sandeep Singh

health issues. They are at a disadvantage due to the uncertain in aggregate. Prior to administering the questionnaires,
and psychologically demanding job conditions. The life of participants were reminded of the anonymous and voluntary
defence personnel is challenging for several reasons, including nature of the research work where the participants are free
demanding job conditions, domestic issues, a stressful and to withdraw their participation at any point of time. Before
uncertain environment, residential mobility, uncaring and starting out, participants’ informed consent was obtained.
unproductive management (Kaur, 2018). Thus, it is important The study was conducted under strict adherence to the
to build the psychological well-being of the defence forces. Declaration of Helsinki, 1964. No human image or data that
Despite the limitations, the study has valuably contributed could compromise the confidentiality and anonymity of the
towards finding one of the many possible action mechanisms respondents has been presented in the study.
between optimism and PWB. These findings support the
growing body of research that contends that positive traits Data availability statement
like optimism and PF are crucial components of PWB. The data will be made available upon request for verifying or
These findings can be further investigated so as to tailor and reproducing results.
implement interventions that aim to promote psychological
well-being. If the potential of optimism and psychological
flexibility is appropriately harnessed, psychological well-being
can be consciously promoted. The following suggestions can be
made for future research projects and for creating interventions References
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Sitography
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