Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, Vol. 37, No.

1, 2015
DOI: 10.1515/sgem-2015-0013

ROCK STRENGTH ANISOTROPY IN HIGH STRESS CONDITIONS:

A CASE STUDY FOR APPLICATION
TO SHAFT STABILITY ASSESSMENTS

JULIAN MATTHEW WATSON

Geotechnical Engineering & Hydrogeology, KGHM International, Ltd.,

Suite 202 – 8105 Birch Bay Square St, Blaine, WA, USA 98230, e-mail: [email protected]

ABOUZAR VAKILI

Mining One Pty, Ltd., Level 9, 50 Market Street, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 3000, e-mail: [email protected]

MATEUSZ JAKUBOWSKI

Business Development Department, KGHM Polska Miedź S.A.,

ul. Marii Sklodowskiej-Curie 48, 59-301 Lubin, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Although rock strength anisotropy is a well-known phenomenon in rock mechanics, its impact on geotechnical design is
often ignored or underestimated. This paper explores the concept of anisotropy in a high stress environment using an improved uni-
fied constitutive model (IUCM), which can account for more complex failure mechanisms. The IUCM is used to better understand
the typical responses of anisotropic rocks to underground mining. This study applies the IUCM to a proposed rock shaft located in
high stress/anisotropic conditions. Results suggest that the effect of rock strength anisotropy must be taken into consideration when
assessing the rock mass response to mining in high stress and anisotropic rock conditions.

Key words: anisotropy, high stress, numerical modeling, constitutive model

1. INTRODUCTION Recent literature, such as that of Sandy et al. [20],

Vakili, et al. [25], Hadjigeorgiou et al. [8], and Vakili
et al. [24] outlines the typical response of anisotropic
The significance of rock strength anisotropy (anisot- rock masses to increasing stress levels and shows
ropy) in geotechnical design is often ignored or underes- examples of geotechnical design in these conditions.
timated when undertaking geotechnical analyses. This is This paper applies the recently developed IUCM and
partly due to most geotechnical design methods (whether illustrates how this methodology can more reliably
empirical, numerical or analytical) being largely devel- explain the rock mass response to mining under high
oped for isotropic rather than anisotropic rock mass con- stress and anisotropic conditions than do commonly
ditions. Therefore, there is a tendency to ignore its im- used geotechnical design methods.
pact, and to simplify the design process or apply
conventional design methods. However, anisotropy can
play a key role in the stability of underground excava-
tions and subsequent geotechnical design. Experience 2. CASE STUDY AND APPROACH
suggests that, in many cases, anisotropy can have a far
greater influence on failure mechanism than other factors
such as the orientation of principal stress vectors. Fur- The case study for this paper focuses on KGHM
thermore, anisotropy can significantly change the time International, Ltd.’s Victoria Project, located approxi-
dependent failure mechanism and progression of damage mately 50 km west of Sudbury, in the Sudbury
into the rock mass. Basin, Ontario, Canada. Access to the base metals

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
116 J.M. WATSON et al.

(Cu-Ni-TPM) orebody will be via a vertical shaft lo- (GSI) was calculated using equations suggested by
cated in the hangingwall lithological units. Hoek et al. [10] and Jr, Ja and RQD data from drill-
For this study, a section of metacrystal gabbro hole logs (see equation (1)).
(MXGB) located between 970 m and 1000 m below
surface was modelled using 3D numerical software 52Jr/Ja
GSI = + RQD/2 . (1)
and the IUCM. Shaft sinking parameters (including (1 + Jr/Ja)
sequence) and installation of a cementitious liner was
explicitly modelled.

4. FAR FIELD STRESS

3. INPUT DATA

While in-situ mini-frac stress estimates of far-field

The input data used in this case study are based on stress conditions were completed for the Victoria
logging and rock property testing information pro- Project, the reliability of the results was unclear.
vided by the Victoria Project (see Tables 1 and 2) and Therefore, the far-field stress boundary conditions for
associated with the proposed production shaft pilot this study are based on published data by Trifu and
bore hole (FNX1204). The geological strength index Suorineni [21] (see Table 3).

Table 1. Summary of input data used in this case study

Input Value Comments

Unconfined
4 tests were completed. 2 failed on foliation. The lower value of
compressive 150 MPa
tests which failed through intact rock matrix was chosen
strength (UCS)
The modulus associated with samples failed on intact rock matrix
Intact modulus (εi) 53 000 MPa
was chosen
No triaxial tests were available. Published values suggest mi
Hoek–Brown of 27 ± 3 for Gabbro but as demonstrated by Brown [4], a mi
8
constant mi value equal to UCS/UTS gives a closer estimate to real mi than
published data
Anisotropy This is the ratio between rock matrix UCS and lowest UCS when
2
factor beta angle is between 30°–45° (151 MPa/74 MPa)
Orientation
Dip = 63°
of foliation Obtained from structural interpretations
Azimuth = 283°
plane
GSI was calculated using equations suggested by Hoek et al. [10]
GSI 70
and Jr, Ja and RQD data from drillhole logs

Table 2. UCS values used in this case study

Sample depth Brazilian

(m) Young’s tensile
Results Rock Density UCS Poisson’s
modulus strength
sample ID type (g/cm3) (MPa) ratio
from to (GPa) (MPa and
range)
H817457 495.7 496.0 MXGB 3.07 191.6 56.5 0.10 –
H817458 812.0 812.3 MXGB 3.04 151 53.1 0.10 18.5 (14.7 – 23)
H817459 802.5 720.5 MXGB 2.72 87.1 (pf) 44.7 0.10 –
H817460 653.9 654.3 MXGB 3.01 74.2 (f) 51.1 0.11 –

Note: f = complete failure of laboratory test sample; pf = partial failure of laboratory test sample

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
 Rock strength anisotropy in high stress conditions: a case study for application to shaft stability assessments 117

Table 3. Far field stress regime assumed for this case study on a number of well-documented case histories, it was
Principal stress Magnitudes
shown that this unified model could forecast the ex-
(MPa) (after Trifu and Suorineni [21]) tent and severity of damage more accurately than
σ1 10.9 + 0.0407 Z other conventional methods. The key concepts and
σ2 8.7 + 0.0326 Z
components of the IUCM are presented in Fig. 1 and
σ3 0.029 Z
Table 4, respectively.
This constitutive model is implemented in the ex-
Note: Z = depth below surface (m) plicit finite difference code FLAC3D (ITASCA Con-
sulting Group [13]) and therefore uses a time-
stepping solution for calculations. As a result, pro-
5. THE IMPROVED UNIFIED gressive and time-dependent failure can be replicated
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL (IUCM) in this model through updating the material proper-
ties as a function of new confinement and strain lev-
els. The key input parameters used in the IUCM for
The IUCM was developed by Vakili et al. [23] as anisotropic rock are:
a result of previous work on rock damage processes • Elastic modulus of intact rock,
and review of previous literature. After being tested • UCS of intact rock (σcmax),

Fig. 1. A conceptual representation of different components of the IUCM (after Vakili et al. [23])

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
118 J.M. WATSON et al.

Table 4. Key components of the IUCM (after Vakili et. al. [23])

Component Derivation Comment

Peak failure Hoek–Brown (2002) failure criterion used to
These instantaneous parameters are updated in real time as the
envelope of determine the instantaneous Mohr–Coulomb
model runs and as new phases of confinement are formed due to
the rock ma- parameters (c and Phi) at each level of
nearby damage or geometrical changes.
trix confining stress.
A linear Mohr–Coulomb envelope is as- At low confinement levels, the linear nature of the residual enve-
signed. Properties of completely broken and lope replicates cohesion and friction softening. At high confinement
Residual state crushed rock are applied for the residual levels, it replicates cohesion softening and friction hardening. This
of the rock state of the material using a cohesion and feature of the model allows progressive failure to occur near the
matrix tensile strength of zero and a friction angle boundary of the excavation. At the same time, it limits the propa-
of 45° (as recommended by Lorig and gation of yield or plasticity zones away from the excavation
Varona [16]). boundaries (as observed in the field).
Critical strain values are determined based on model zone size and
Based on equations suggested by Lorig and
Critical strain the GSI values. This critical strain can also be adjusted when syn-
Varona [16].
thetic rock mass (SRM) testing results are available.
The non-linear nature of the peak failure envelope and the associ-
ated instantaneous friction angles in this model result in higher
dilation angles at lower confinement, and lower dilation angles at
Determined through a ratio (dilation angle/ higher confinement. This behaviour is similar to that observed in
friction angle) that is estimated as a function laboratory rock testing results. The dilation angle is also mobilised
Dilation angle
of the GSI of the rock mass and multiplied and softens with increasing plastic shear strain in the model and
by instantaneous friction angles in the model. drops to its residual value (30 per cent of the instantaneous friction
angle) when the critical strain limit is exceeded. The basis for the
dilation angle calculations is largely derived from Zhao and Cai
[26] and Lorig and Varona[16].
IUCM uses this relationship to update the elastic modulus values
Empirical relationship developed by Reyes-
Modulus according to new porosity levels. The porosity is calculated using
Montes et al. [19] between modulus drop
Softening the model volumetric strain outputs. The density in the model is
and the level of porosity in a rock mass.
also updated as a result of new porosity levels.
For anisotropic rocks, the model uses two
non-linear Hoek–Brown failure envelopes.
Explicitly included through a ubiquitous joint model, which ac-
Strength ani- One envelope defines the maximum strength
counts for both rock matrix strength and the lower strength associ-
sotropy and is related to the rock matrix strength. The
ated with the existence of an anisotropy plane.
other defines the minimum strength associ-
ated with the anisotropy plane.

• anisotropy factor (σcmax/σcmin), a positive value indicates dilation. Contraction occurs

• mimin, at high confinement levels, while dilation happens in
• mimax, lower confinement zones such as near the boundary of
• GSI. an excavation. The failure mechanism leading to
All of the above parameters can be determined breakout is most often controlled by a dilatational
from laboratory testing and core logging or structural volumetric strain induced near the boundary of the
mapping. excavation.
Figure 2 is a representation of various volumet-
ric strains with respect to degree of disintegration as
6. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS simulated in a fully discontinuum model through
modeling of uniaxial loading of a rock sample. Ex-
perience in numerical back analysis at several min-
In order to interpret results, a volumetric strain ing operations showed that a model volumetric
criterion was used to investigate the potential depth of strain of between 1% to 3% often generates similar
failure. Volumetric strain is the unit change in volume or close to overbreak/breakout volumes to those
due to a deformation (ΔV/V0) and is calculated by the obtained from actual underground excavations. Ex-
sum of the major, minor, and intermediate principal amples of some of these back analysis studies com-
strain components (ε1 + ε2 + ε3). A negative volumet- pleted on various underground excavations are
ric strain implies a contraction of the rock mass and shown in Fig. 3.

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
 Rock strength anisotropy in high stress conditions: a case study for application to shaft stability assessments 119

Fig. 2. Visual representation of degree of rock disintegration at various levels of volumetric strain
(after Vakili et al. [23])

Fig. 3. Examples of some of back analysis completed during development of the ICUM,
preformed on various underground excavations

7. STABILITY ASSESSMENT ple, by the maximum values of axial thrust and bending
OF SHAFT LINER moment that the support is allowed to withstand) is re-
ferred to as the thrust–bending moment interaction dia-
gram. Similar plots can be established to investigate the
For stability assessment of the cementitious liner, Thrust-Shear diagrams and the potential for shear failure.
liner displacement, and moment-thrust capacity dia- However due to time constraints the Thrust-Shear dia-
grams (and associated Factor of Safety) were used. grams were not included in this study.
Definition and analysis procedures of moment- These diagrams are useful tools for the design of
thrust capacity diagrams were presented by Carranza- cementitious liners, since they allow easy quantifica-
Torres and Diederichs [5]. Hoek et al. [11] also ap- tion of the performance of a support. For the particular
plied the technique for tunnel design. This approach values of compressive and tensile strength of liner the
provides an indicative measure of liner stability. thrust–moment interaction diagram can be used to
The graphical representation of induced axial thrust obtain the factor of safety (FS) for failure of the arch
and bending moment on a liner plotted together with the in tension or compression – for example if points cor-
corresponding “envelope of failure” (defined, for exam- responding to the loading state in the arch are

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
120 J.M. WATSON et al.

Fig. 4. (a) FS defined in terms of maximum and minimum axial stresses on a section of circular arch;
(b) graphical representation of results from the ground support interaction analysis,
in a thrust–bending moment interaction diagram (after Carranza-Torres and Diederichs [5])

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of thrust and bending moment distribution

in a liner consisting of shotcrete and steel sets (after Carranza-Torres and Diederichs [5])

bounded by the isoline FS = 1.0, it means that the televiewer data from the proposed production shaft pilot
support is able to withstand the thrust and bending hole (FNX1204). The identified breakout (Fig. 5) was
moment induced by excavation of the tunnel, without recorded in the same lithology as that being modelled for
exceeding the elastic limit of the material. the shaft (MXGB). Given the localised nature of the
breakout (only occurring at a short interval), no adjust-
ments were applied to the adopted rock properties. In-
8. MODEL CALIBRATION stead, a number of sensitivity models were completed to
investigate the possible failure mechanism that was in
place when the breakout was formed (Fig. 6). Other
The model was calibrated using borehole breakout sections of the pilot hole showed no signs of breakout.
information which was observed in the acoustic Therefore, it is not possible to rule out the derived

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
 Rock strength anisotropy in high stress conditions: a case study for application to shaft stability assessments 121

Fig. 6. Borehole break out noted in shaft pilot hole (FNX1204) between ~551 m and 557 m below surface (down hole)

Fig. 7. Sensitivity models were completed during calibration investigating the possible failure mechanism
that was in place when the breakout was formed. It was found that the model was most sensitive to modification
of GSI and UCS values and anisotropy (i.e., orientation and intensity of the foliation plane)

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
122 J.M. WATSON et al.

Fig. 8. Model and shaft geometry applied in 3D numerical model

Fig. 9. Mining geometry and sequence applied in 3D numerical model

expected properties. As can be seen in Figure 6, while 10. RESULTS

the model is influenced by changes to GSI and UCS
values, the greatest effect is associated with anisotropy
(i.e., orientation and intensity of the foliation plane). The 3D numerical modeling results for depth of
failure are presented in Fig. 9. The expected depth of
failure of the shaft wall is suggested to be less than 0.5 m
9. FORWARD-ANALYSIS (based on 3% volumetric strain) in the MXGB lithol-
ogy, at depths of around 1000 m below surface. The
maximum depth of failure under the same conditions
The forward analysis explicitly included sinking of
is anticipated to be ~1 m (based on 0.5% volumetric
the shaft (i.e., mining steps) and installation of a cemen-
strain).
titious liner. The associated assumptions are outlined in
Based on the shaft liner stability assessment ap-
Figs. 7 and 8, respectively.
proach outlined by Carranza-Torres and Diederichs
[5], the cementitious liner is assessed to be stable at
Table 5. Assumed inputs for of shaft liner stability assessment
a depth of approximately 1000 m below surface, with
Component Assumed value a FS of between 1.5 to 2, when the lag distance is
Shaft diameter (m) 8.3 greater than 9 m (see Fig. 10).
Shaft advance(1) (m) 3
Lag distance(2) (m) 9
Liner thickness (mm) 300 11. CONCLUSIONS
Shaft diameter (final) (m) 7.7
UCS(3) (MPa) 35
Liner strength This case study has enabled application of the
UTS(4) (MPa) 3
IUCM approach to assess the stability of a proposed
(1)
Vertical shaft sinking depth increment. rock shaft. The results suggest that while the influence
(2)
Minimum distance between shaft bottom and installation of of GSI and UCS values are significant, anisotropy has
shaft liner.
(3)
Unconfined compressive strength. the greatest control on rock mass response to mining
(4)
Unconfined tensile strength. (i.e., depth of failure) under high stress conditions.

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
Rock strength anisotropy in high stress conditions: a case study for application to shaft stability assessments 123

Fig. 10. 3D Numerical modelling results; expected and maximum depths of failure

Fig. 11. Shaft stability assessment (after Carranza-Torres and Diederichs [5])

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
124 J.M. WATSON et al.

This is significant, given that anisotropy is often ig- ics/Geomechanics Symposium, 23–26 June 2013, San Fran-
nored in common geotechnical design methods, in- cisco, California, USA.
[11] HOEK E., CARRANZA-TORRES C., DIEDERICHS M.S., CORKUM B.,
cluding calibration of and forecasting with numerical Integration of geotechnical and structural design in tunnel-
models. ling, Proceedings University of Minnesota 56th Annual
Geotechnical Engineering Conference, 29 February 2008,
pp. 1–53, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [12] HOEK E., CARRANZA-TORRES C.T., CORKUM B., Hoek–
Brown failure criterion – 2002 edition, Proceedings of the
The authors would like to thank Professor Ted Brown and Mr. Fifth North American Rock Mechanics Symposium
Mike Sandy for providing valuable feedback on this paper, along (NARMS-TAC), 7–10 July 2002, pp. 267–273, Toronto,
with KGHM International Ltd and KGHM Polska Miedź S.A. for Ontario, Canada.
allowing access to geotechnical data from the Victoria Project. [13] ITASCA Consulting Group, Inc. (2012) FLAC3D – Fast
Lagrangian Analysis of Continua in Three-Dimensions, Ver.
5.0. Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
REFERENCES [14] KAISER P.K., DIEDERICHS M.S., MARTIN C.D., SHARP J.,
STEINER W., Underground works in hard rock tunneling and
mining. Keynote lecture, Geo-Eng 2000 International Con-
[1] BARTON N., Shear strength criteria for rock, rock joints, ference on Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 19–24
rockfill and rock masses: Problems and some solutions, November 2000, pp. 841–926, Melbourne, Victoria, Aus-
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, tralia.
2013, 5(4), 249–261, DOI: 10.1016/j.jrmge.2013.05.008. [15] KAISER P.K., KIM B., Rock mechanics advances of under-
[2] BARTON N., PANDEY S.K., Numerical modelling of two ground construction and mining. Keynote lecture, Proceed-
stoping methods in two Indian mines using degradation of c ings Korean Rock Mechanics, Symposium, October 2008,
and mobilization of φ based on Q-parameters, International pp. 1–16, Seoul, South Korea: Korean Society for Rock
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2011, Mechanics.
48(7), 1095–1112, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2011.07.002. [16] LORIG L.J., VARONA P., Guidelines for numerical modelling
[3] BAHRANI N., VALLEY B., KAISER P.K., Discrete element of rock support for mines. Keynote lecture, Seventh Interna-
modeling of drilling-induced core damage and its influence tional Symposium on Ground Support in Mining and Under-
on laboratory properties of Lac De Bonnet granite, Proc. ground Construction, 13–15 May 2013, pp. 81–105, Perth,
45th US Rock Mechanics Conference, 26–29 June 2011, pp. 9, Western Australia, Australia: Australian Centre for Geome-
San Francisco, USA. chanics.
[4] BROWN E.T., Estimating the mechanical properties of rock [17] MARTIN C.D., KAISER P.K., MCCREATH D.R., Hoek–Brown
masses, Proceedings First Southern Hemisphere International parameters for predicting the depth of brittle failure around
Rock Mechanics Symposium, 16–19 September 2008, tunnels, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1999, 36(1), 136–151,
pp. 3–22, Perth, WA, Australia: The Australian Centre for DOI: 10.1139/cgj-36-1-136.
Geomechanics. [18] MARTIN C.D., Seventeenth Canadian geotechnical collo-
[5] CARRANZA-TORRES C., DIEDERICHS M.S., Mechanical analy- quium: the effect of cohesion loss and stress path on brittle
sis of a circular liner with particular reference to composite rock strength, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1997, 34(5),
supports – For example liners consisting of shotcrete and 698–725, DOI: 10.1139/cgj-34-5-698.
steel sets, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, [19] REYES-MONTES M., SAINSBURY B., ANDREWS J.R., YOUNG R.P.,
2009, 24(5), 506–532, DOI:10.1016/j.tust.2009.02.001. Application of cave-scale rock degradation models in the im-
[6] DIEDERICHS M.S., Instability of hard rockmasses: the role of aging of the seismogenic zone, Proceedings Sixth Interna-
tensile damage and relaxation, Unpublished doctoral disser- tional, Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining, Mass-
tation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Wa- min 2012, 10–14 June 2012, pp. 3–22, Sudbury, Ontario,
terloo, Waterloo, Canada, 1999. Canada.
[7] DIEDERICHS M.S., KAISER P.K., EBERHARDT E., Damage [20] SANDY M., SHARROCK G., ALBRECHT J., VAKILI A., Manag-
initiation and propagation in hard rock during tunnelling ing the transition from low-stress to high-stress conditions,
and the influence of near-face stress rotation, International Proceedings Second Australasian Ground Control in Mining
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2004, Conference, 23–24 November 2010, pp. 247–254, Sydney,
41(5), 785–812, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.02.003. New South Wales, Australia, The Australasian Institute of
[8] HADJIGEORGIOU J., KARAMPINOS E., TURCOTE P., MERCIER- Mining and Metallurgy.
-LANGEVIN F., Assessment of the influence of drift orientation [21] TRIFU C., SUORINENI F., Use of microseismic monitoring for
on observed levels of squeezing in hard rock mines, Seventh rockburst management at Vale Inco mines, [in:] C. Tang (Ed.),
International Symposium on Ground Support in Mining and Controlling Seismic Hazard and Sustainable Development of
Underground Construction, 13–15 May 2013, pp. 109–117, Deep Mines, Rinton Press, New York 2009, 1105–1114.
Perth, WA, Australia, Australian Centre for Geomechanics. [22] VAKILI A., An improved unified constitutive model for rock
[9] HAJIABDOLMAJID V., KAISER P.K., MARTIN C.D., Modelling material and a guideline for its application in numerical
brittle failure of rock, International Journal of Rock Me- modelling, (Unpublished paper – currently under comple-
chanics and Mining Sciences, 2002, 39(6), 731–741, DOI: tion), 2015.
10.1016/S1365-1609(02)00051-5. [23] VAKILI A., ALBRECHT J., SANDY M., Rock strength anisot-
[10] HOEK E., CARTER T.G., DIEDERICHS M.S., Quantification of ropy and its importance in underground geotechnical de-
the geological strength index chart, 47th US Rock Mechan- sign, Proceedings AusRock 2014, Second Australasian

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56
 Rock strength anisotropy in high stress conditions: a case study for application to shaft stability assessments 125

Ground Control in Mining Conference, 5–6 November [25] VAKILI A., SANDY M., ALBRECHT J., Interpretation of non-
2010, pp. 167–180, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, linear numerical models in geomechanics – a case study in the
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy application of numerical modelling for raise bored shaft de-
2014. sign in a highly stressed and foliated rock mass, Proceedings
[24] VAKILI A., SANDY M., MATHEWS M., RODDA B., Ground sixth International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining,
support under highly stressed conditions, Proceedings Sev- Massmin 2012, 10–14 June 2012, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada,
enth International Symposium on Ground Support in Mining The Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
and Underground Construction, 13–15 May 2013, pp. 551– [26] ZHAO X.G., CAI M., A mobilized dilation angle model for rocks,
564, Perth, Western Australia, Australia, Australian Centre International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
for Geomechanics. 2010, 47(3), 368–384, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2009.12.007.

Bereitgestellt von | Politechnika Wroclawska - Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Angemeldet
Heruntergeladen am | 06.11.17 09:56