Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques &

Examples
When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from
every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals
who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select a
sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called a sampling method. There are
two primary types of sampling methods that you can use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other
criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section of your
paper or thesis, as well as how you approached minimizing research bias in your work.

Table of contents

1. Population vs. sample

2. Probability sampling methods
3. Non-probability sampling methods
4. Frequently asked questions about sampling

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample, and identify the target
population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or many other
characteristics.
It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you want to make inferences about the
whole adult population of your country; maybe your research focuses on customers of a
certain company, patients with a specific health condition, or students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and
practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed, it

might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack of a representative
sample affects the validity of your results, and can lead to several research biases,
particularly sampling bias.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).
Example: Sampling frame You are doing research on working conditions at a social media
marketing company. Your population is all 1000 employees of the company. Your
sampling frame is the company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact
details of every employee.
Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various
factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design.
There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want
to achieve with statistical analysis.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being
selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that
are representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most
valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or
other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random sampling You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a
social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the company database
from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead
of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic sampling All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the
first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th
person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in
the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees
by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your
interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed
towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket,
job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified sampling the company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You
want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population
into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women
and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling
individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster.
If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each
cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more
risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters.
It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.

Example: Cluster sampling the company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all
with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the
capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to
select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and
not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling
bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than
with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-
probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as
possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative

research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad
population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched
population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if
the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services in your
university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic.
This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as
you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
2. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease
of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them,
people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will
inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at your university and a
lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the
people who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support
services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled
students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support
needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants
via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get
in contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you
have no way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on
participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is
no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she
knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific
characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in
Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and
vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a
quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are equally represented
in your research, and you can easily compare these groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the
quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.