Cambridge International AS Level

Chemistry
Home Work
Chapter 1
Atomic Structure
SAQ : Self Ass. Questions
eocq : End Of Chapter Questions

Hakeem
Student Name .............................................................................................
 Chapt er 1 atomic structure Lesson 1

Summary

Every atom has an internal The number of neutrons in an

■ ■
structure with a nucleus in the atom is found by subtracting the
centre and the negatively charged proton number from the nucleon
electrons arranged in ‘shells’ number (A – Z).
outside the nucleus.

Most of the mass of the atom is in In a neutral atom, number of

■ ■
the nucleus, which contains electrons = number of protons.
protons (positively charged) and When there are more protons than
neutrons (uncharged). electrons, the atom becomes a
positive ion. When there are more
electrons than protons, a negatively
charged ion is formed.
Beams of protons and electrons
■
are deflected by electric fields
but neutrons are not.

Isotopes are atoms with the same

All atoms of the same element ■
■ atomic number but different
have the same number of protons. nucleon numbers. They only differ
This is the proton number (Z), in the number of neutrons they
which is also called the atomic contain.
number.

The nucleon number, which is also

■
called the mass number (A), is the
total number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.
 Chapter 1 : Atomic structure

Chapter 1 Lesson 1 saq

1 A beam of electrons is passing close to a highly negatively charged plate. When the electrons
pass close to the plate, they are deflected (bent) away from the plate.
a What deflection would you expect, if any, when the experiment is repeated with
beams of i protons and ii neutrons? Explain your answers.
b Which subatomic particle (electron, proton or neutron) would deviate the most ?
Explain your answer.

2 Use the information in the table to deduce the number of electrons and neutrons in a neutral
atom of:
a vanadium b strontium c phosphorus.

Atom Nucleon number Proton number

vanadium 51 23
strontium 84 38
phosphorus 31 15

3 Use the Periodic Table .

Write isotopic symbols for the following neutral atoms: a bromine-81

b calcium-44
c iron-58
d palladium-110.

4 Deduce the number of electrons in each of these ions:

15 18 71
40
a K+ b N3– c O2– d Ga3+
19 7 8 31
 Chapter 1 : Atomic structure

End-of-chapter questions lesson 1

1 Boron is an element in Group 13 of the Periodic Table.
a Boron has two isotopes.
What do you understand by the term isotope? [1]
11
b State the number of i protons, ii neutrons and iii electrons in one neutral atom of the isotope 5B. [3]
c State the relative masses and charges of:
i an electron [2]
ii a neutron [2]
iii a proton [2]
Total = 10

2 Zirconium, Zr, and hafnium, Hf, are metals.

An isotope of zirconium has 40 protons and 91 nucleons.
a i Write the isotopic symbol for this isotope of zirconium. [1]
ii How many neutrons are present in one atom of this isotope? [1]
180
b Hafnium ions, 72Hf 2+, are produced in a mass spectrometer.
How many electrons are present in one of these hafnium ions? [1]

c The subatomic particles present in zirconium and hafnium are electrons,

neutrons and protons. A beam of protons is fired into an electric field +
produced by two charged plates, as shown in the diagram. beam of
protons
–

i Describe how the beam of protons behaves when it passes through the gap between the charged plates.
Explain your answer. [2]
ii Describe and explain what happens when a beam of neutrons passes through the gap between the
charged plates. [2]
Total = 7

3 a Describe the structure of an atom, giving details of the subatomic particles present. [6]
b Explain the terms atomic number and nucleon number. [2]
c Copy and complete the table:

Neutral atom Atomic number Nucleon number Numbers of each subatomic particle present
Mg 12 24
Al 13 27
[2]
d Explain why atoms are neutral. [1]
e An oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. Explain why it cannot have 9 protons. [1]
f When calculating the relative mass of an atom, the electrons are not used in the calculation. Explain why not. [1]
Total = 13
 Chapter 1: Atomic structure

4 The symbols below describe two isotopes of the element uranium.

235 238
92U 92U
a State the meaning of the term isotope. [1]
b i In what ways are these two isotopes of uranium identical? [2]
ii In what ways do they differ? [2]
c In a mass spectrometer uranium atoms can be converted to uranium ions, U2+.
State the number of electrons present in one U2+ ion. [1]
Total = 6
5 The table below shows the two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine.
a Copy and complete the table.
35 37
17Cl 17Cl

number of protons
number of electrons
number of neutrons
[3]

b The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5. What does this tell you about the relative abundance of the
two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine? [2]
c Magnesium chloride contains magnesium ions, Mg2+, and chloride ions, Cl–.
i Explain why a magnesium ion is positively charged. [1]
ii Explain why a chloride ion has a single negative charge. [2]
Total = 8
 Chapt er 1 atomic structure Lesson 2

Summary

■ Electrons in an atom exist only in ■ The 1st ionisation energy of an element is

certain energy levels (shells) the energy needed to remove one electron
from atom in its gaseous state (to form
gaseous 1+ ions).
■ The main energy levels (shells) are given
principal quantum numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4,
■ The ionisation energies needed to remove
etc. The lowest energy level (n = 1) is
the first, second, third, fourth, etc.,
closest to the nucleus.
electrons from each atom or ion in a mole
of gaseous atoms are called successive
■ The shells may be divided into subshells ionisation energies.
known as s, p and d subshells, which can
hold a maximum of 2, 6 and 10 electrons,
■ The magnitude of the ionisation energy
respectively.
depends on these four factors:

■ Each subshell has a number of orbitals – the distance of the electron from the
which can each hold a maximum of two nucleus
electrons. Subshells s, p and d have 1, 3 and
5 orbitals, respectively. – the number of positive charges in the nucleus

– the degree of shielding of outer electrons by

■ The s orbitals are spherical in shape.
inner electron shells
The p orbitals have two ‘lobes’.
– spin-pair repulsion

■ The trends in 1st ionisation energy of the

■ When two electrons are present in an elements across a period and down a
orbital they spin in opposite directions . group can be explained using the four
factors above.

■ The electronic configuration of atoms is

found by adding electrons to each orbital ■ Values of successive ionisation energies of
starting from those in the lowest energy atoms provide evidence for their
level. electronic configuration.

■ When electrons are added to orbitals in

the same subshell they go into separate
orbitals first the paird .
 Interpreting successive ionisation energies

Figure 3.4 shows a graph of successive ionisation energies against the number of electrons removed for sodium.

■■The first electron removed has a low 1st ionisation energy, 5

It is therefore likely to be a long way from the nucleus and well
shielded by inner electron shells.

log10 ionisation energy / kJ mol–1

■■The second electron is much more difficult to remove than 4
the first electron. There is a big jump in the value of the ionisation
energy. This suggests that the second electron is in a new shell closer to
the nucleus than the first electron.

3
■■From the second to the ninth electrons removed there is only
a gradual change in successive ionisation energies.
This suggests that all these eight electrons are in the same shell.

■The 10th and 11th electrons have extremely high ionisation 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
energies, when compared with the rest of the data. This suggests that
Number of electrons removed
they are very close to the nucleus.

1 electron;
very easily
We can use successive ionisation energies in this way to: removed
2 electrons;
very difficult
11+ 8 electrons;
■■predict or confirm the simple electronic configurationof elements to remove
less easily
removed
■■confirm the number of electrons in the outer shell of an
element and hence the group to which the element belongs.
nucleus

The arrangement of electrons in an atom of sodium

can be deduced from the values of successive ionisation
energies.
 Number of electrons
removed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ΔHi / kJ mol– 1 000 2 260 3 390 4 540 7 010 8 500 27 100 31 670 36 580 43 140
1

Table The successive ionisation energies of an element x. For Worked example 1.

1 The successive ionisation energies, ΔHi, of an element x are shown in the aboveTable . Which
group in the Periodic Table does x belong to ?

We look for a large jump in the value of the ionisation energy. This occurs between the removal
of the 6th and 7th electrons. So, six electrons have been removed comparatively easily. The
removal of the 7th electron requires about three times the energy required to remove the 6th

electron. So, there must be six electrons in the outer shell of x. So, element x must be in Group 16
of the Periodic Table.

Factors that influence ionisation energies

1 The size of the nuclear charge

As the atomic number (number of protons) increases, the positive nuclear charge increases. The bigger
the positive charge, the greater the attractive force between the nucleus and the electrons. So, more
energy is needed to overcome these attractive forces if an electron is to be removed.
■ In general, ionisation energy increases as the proton number increases.

2 Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus

The force of attraction between positive and negative charges decreases rapidly as the distance between
them increases. So, electrons in shells further away from the nucleus are less attracted to the nucleus
than those closer to the nucleus.
■ The further the outer electron shell is from the nucleus, the lower the ionisation energy.

3 Shielding effect of inner electrons

Electrons in full inner shells repel electrons in outer shells. Full inner shells of electrons prevent the full
nuclear charge being felt by the outer electrons. This is called shielding. The greater the shielding of outer
electrons by the inner electron shells, the lower the attractive forces between the nucleus and the outer
electrons.
■ The ionisation energy is lower as the number of full electron shells between the outer electrons and
the nucleus increases.
 Chapter 1 Lesson 2

1 Write the simple electronic configuration of the ollowing atoms, showing the
principal quantum shells only:

a sulfur; the atomic number of sulfur, Z = 16

b magnesium, Z = 12
c fluorine, Z = 9
d potassium, Z = 19
e carbon, Z = 6

2 a Write equations that describe:

i th e 1st ionisation energy of calcium ii th e 3rd ionisation energy of potassium

iii th e 2nd ionisation energy of lithium iv th e 5th ionisation energy of sulfur.

b The 2nd ionisation energy of nitrogen is

–1
2860 kJ mol–1. The 3rd ionisation energy of nitrogen is 4590 kJ mol . Explain

why the 3rd ionisation energy is higher.

3 a The successive ionisation energies of boron are shown in Table

Ionisation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Ionisation energy / kJ mol–1 799 2 420 3 660 25 000 32 800

i W hy is there a large increase between the third and fourth ionisation energies?

ii E xplain how these figures confirm that the electronic structure of boron is 2, 3.

b For the element aluminium (Z = 13), draw a sketch graph to predict the log10 of the
successive ionisation energies (y-axis) against the number of electrons removed (x-axis).
4 a The first six ionisation energies of an element are 1090, 2350, 4610, 6220, 37 800

and 47 300 kJ mol–1. Which group in the Periodic Table does this element belong

to? Explain your decision.

b Draw a sketch graph to show the log10 values of the first four successive ionisation

energies of a Group 2 element.

5 a Name the three types of orbital present in the third principal quantum shell.

b State the maximum number of electrons that can be found in each subshell of the

third quantum shell.

6 Use 1s2 notation to give the electronic configurations of the atoms with the
following atomic numbers:

a 16 b 9 c 20

7 Use 1s2 notation to give the electronic configurations for the following elements:

a vanadium (Z = 23) b copper (Z = 29) c selenium (Z = 34)

8 a An element has the electronic configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p5.

i W hich block in the Periodic Table does this element belong to?

ii W hich group does it belong to?

iii Id entify this element.

b Which block in the Periodic Table does the element with the electronic configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 belong to?

9 Write electronic configurations for the following ions:

a Al3+ (Z = 13) b O2– (Z = 8) c Fe3+ (Z = 26)

d Cu2+ (Z = 29) e Cu+1 (Z = 29)

10 a The first ionisation energies of four consecutive elements in the Periodic Table are:

sodium = 494 kJ mol–1 magnesium = 736 kJ mol–1

aluminium = 577 kJ mol–1 silicon = 786 kJ mol–1
i E xplain the general increase in ionisation energies from sodium to silicon.
ii E xplain why aluminium has a lower first ionisation energy than magnesium.

b The first ionisation energy of fluorine is 1680 kJ mol–1 whereas the first ionisation
energy of iodine is 1010 kJ mol–1. Explain why fluorine has a higher first ionisation
energy than iodine despite it having a smaller nuclear charge.
 End-of-chapter questions lesson 2
1 The sketch graph shows the 13 successive ionisation energies of aluminium.

log10 ionisation energy

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Number of electrons removed

a Define the term 1st ionisation energy. [3]

b How does the graph provide evidence for the existence of three electron shells in an aluminium atom? [6]
c Write an equation, including state symbols, to represent the 2nd ionisation energy of aluminium. [2]
d Write the electronic configuration of an aluminium ion, Al3+, using 1s2 notation. [1]
Total = 12

2 The table below shows the 1st ionisation energies, ΔHi1, in kJ mol–1, of the elements in Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
44
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

ΔHi1 494 736 577 786 1060 1000 1260 1520

a Explain why there is a general increase in the value of ΔHi1 across the period. [4]
b Explain why aluminium has a lower value of ΔHi1 than magnesium. [4]
c Write the electronic configuration for argon (Z = 18) using 1s2 notation. [1]
d Copy and complete the diagram below for the 15 electrons in phosphorus by
i adding labels for the other subshells [1]
ii showing how the electrons are arranged. [3]

1s

e Predict a value for the 1st ionisation energy for potassium, which has one more proton than argon. [1]
Total = 14
3 a What do you understand by the term atomic orbital? [1]
b Draw diagrams to show the shape of:
i an s orbital [1]
ii a p orbital. [1]
c Element x has the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2.
i Which block in the Periodic Table does element x belong to? [1]
ii State the maximum number of electrons in a d subshell. [1]
iii Element x forms an ion of type x 2+.
Write the full electronic configuration for this ion using 1s2 notation. [1]
iv Write the symbol for the subshell that begins to fill after the 3d and 4s are completely full. [1]
Total = 7

4 The 1st ionisation energies of several elements with consecutive atomic numbers are shown in the graph below.
The letters are not the symbols of the elements.

2000
First ionisation energy / kJ mol–1

1600

1200

1800

400

0
A B C D E F G H I J
Element

a Which of the elements a to i belong to Group 1 in the Periodic Table? Explain your answer. [3]
b Which of the elements a to i could have the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2? [1]
c Explain the rise in 1st ionisation energy between element e and element G. [4]
d Estimate the 1st ionisation energy of element J. [2]
e The successive ionisation energies of element a are shown in the sketch graph.
log10 ionisation energy

0
0 1 2 3 4 9
Number of electrons removed

What information does this graph give about how the electrons are arranged in shells for element a? [3]
Total = 13
5 a Define the following:
i 1st ionisation energy [3]
ii 3rd ionisation energy. [3]
b Give the equations representing:
i the 1st ionisation energy of magnesium [2]
ii the 3rd ionisation energy of magnesium. [2]
c Which ionisation energies are represented by the equations below?
i Mg3+(g) Mg4+(g) + e– [1]
ii Al5+(g) Al6+(g) + e– [1]
Total = 12

6 The graph shows a sketch of log10 ionisation energy against number of electrons removed for magnesium.
Use this sketch graph to answer the following questions.
log10 ionisation energy

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of electrons removed

a Explain why the first two electrons are relatively easy to remove. [3]
b Why is there a sharp rise in ionisation energy when the third electron is removed? [3]
c What information does the graph give about the electron arrangement of magnesium? [3]
d Give the equation for the ionisation energy marked x (the 5th ionisation energy). [2]
Total = 11

7 a The table shows the first five ionisation energies for five elements (a to e). For each one state which
group the element belongs to. [5]

Element Ionisation energy / kJ mol–1

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
A 786.5 1 577.1 3 231.6 4 355.5 16 091
B 598.8 1 145.4 4 912.8 6 491.8 8 153
C 496.8 4 562.8 6 910.8 9 543.8 13 354
D 1 087.8 2 353.8 4 621.8 6 223.8 37 831
E 578.8 1 817.8 2 744.8 11 577.8 14 842

b Explain your reasoning behind your answer for element e. [1]

c Draw a sketch graph to show how log10 ionisation energy for phosphorus (atomic number 15) varies
when plotted against number of electrons removed. [6]
Total = 12
8 a Define the term 1st ionisation energy. [3]
b Draw a sketch graph to show how log10 ionisation energy for chlorine (atomic number 17) varies when
plotted against number of electrons removed. [6]
c Explain the shape of the graph you have drawn. [6]
Total = 15
 Chapter 1: Atomic Structure

Summary
■ Electrons in an atom can exist only in certain energy ■ The 1st ionisation energy of an element is the energy
levels (shells) outside the nucleus. needed to remove one electron from each atom in
■ The main energy levels (shells) are given principal one mole of atoms of the element in the gaseous
quantum numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The lowest state (to form gaseous 1+ ions).
energy level (n = 1) is closest to the nucleus. ■ The ionisation energies needed to remove the first,
■ The shells may be divided into subshells known second, third, fourth, etc., electrons from each
as s, p and d subshells, which can hold a maximum atom or ion in a mole of gaseous atoms are called
of 2, 6 and 10 electrons, respectively. successive ionisation energies.

■ The region of space in which an electron is likely to ■ The magnitude of the ionisation energy depends on
be found is called an orbital. Each subshell has a these four factors:
number of orbitals which can each hold a maximum – the distance of the electron from the nucleus
of two electrons. Subshells s, p and d have 1, 3 and 5 – the number of positive charges in the nucleus
orbitals, respectively. – the degree of shielding of outer electrons by
inner electron shells
■ The s orbitals are spherical in shape. The p orbitals
– spin-pair repulsion.
have two ‘lobes’.
■ The trends in 1st ionisation energy of the elements
■ When two electrons are present in an orbital they across a period and down a group can be explained
spin in opposite directions and are said to be paired. using the four factors above.
■ The electronic configuration of atoms is found by ■ Values of successive ionisation energies of atoms
adding electrons to each orbital starting from those provide evidence for their electronic configuration.
in the lowest energy level. 43
■ When electrons are added to orbitals in the same
subshell they go into separate orbitals if possible.
Electrons pair up where this is not possible.
 Answers to self-assessment questions

Answers to SAQs
Chapter 1 lessopn 1
1 a i Protons are deflected towards the plate /
move towards the plate; because unlike
charges are attracted to each other.
ii Neutrons are not deflected; because
neutrons have no charge / zero charge / are
uncharged.
b Electrons; because of the charged particles
it has the least mass / has a lower mass than
the proton.

2 a vanadium-51: electrons = 23, neutrons = 28

b strontium-84: electrons = 38, neutrons = 46
c phosphorus-31: electrons = 15, neutrons = 16
81
3 a Br
35
44
b Ca
20
58
c Fe
26
110
d Pd
46

4 a 18
b 10
c 10
d 28
 Answers to end-of-chapter questions

Answers to SAQs
Chapter 1 lesson 2 5 a s, p, d
b s = 2, p = 6, d = 10
1 a 2, 8, 6
b 2, 8, 2 6 a 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
c 2, 7 b 1s2 2s2 2p5
d 2, 8, 8, 1 c 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
e 2, 6 7 a 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
2 a i Ca(g) → Ca+(g) + e– b 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
ii K2+(g) → K3+(g) + e– c 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p4
iii Li+(g) → Li2+(g) + e– 8 a i p block
iv S4+(g) → S5+(g) + e– ii Group 17
b The charge on the ion is greater when the iii iodine
third electron is removed than when the b d block
second is removed. So, it is more difficult to
remove the third electron as there is a greater 9 a 1s2 2s2 2p6
attractive force between the outer electrons
b 1s2 2s2 2p6
and the nucleus.
c 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
3 a i The large change between the third and d 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9
fourth ionisation energies suggests that e 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
the first three electrons are easier to
remove because they are further away 10 a i From sodium to silicon, the nuclear charge
from the nucleus and are shielded by increases. The distance between the
the inner electrons from the full nuclear nucleus and the outer electron remains
charge. The fourth electron is much more reasonably constant. The shielding by
difficult to remove because it is closer inner shells remains reasonably constant.
to the nucleus and there is no (or little) Ionisation energy increases to match
shielding. increase in attraction from the nucleus
ii Three electrons are easily removed, so are with an increased nuclear charge.
on the outside (in the second shell) and ii The distance between the nucleus and
two are very difficult to remove (in the the outer electrons increases from Mg to
first shell). Al. The shielding by inner shells increases.
b Gradual rise in ΔHi for first 3 electrons. Large These two factors outweigh the increased
rise between ΔHi3 and ΔHi4. Gradual rise in nuclear charge.
ΔHi for next 8 electrons. Large rise between b The distance between the nucleus and the
ΔHi11 and ΔHi12. Gradual rise in ΔHi for next 2 outer electron increases from F to I. The
electrons. shielding by inner shells increases. These
two factors outweigh the increased nuclear
4 a Group 4. There is a large increase in value of charge.
ΔHi between the removal of the fourth and
fifth electrons.
b Small rise in ΔHi for first 2 electrons. Large
rise between ΔHi2 and ΔHi3. (Gradual rise in
ΔHi for next electrons)
 Answers to end-of-chapter questions

Answers to EOCQs
Chapter 1 lesson 1 d number of positively charged protons =
number of negatively charged neutrons [1]
1 a Isotopes are atoms of the same element with e it would not be oxygen / it would be another
different nucleon numbers / mass numbers / element / oxygen can only have 8 protons [1]
different numbers of neutrons. [1] f The mass of an electron is negligible. [1]
b i protons = 5 [1] Total = 13
ii neutrons = 6 [1]
4 a Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
iii electrons = 5 [1] different nucleon numbers / mass numbers /
1
c i mass = 1836 [1] different numbers of neutrons. [1]
charge = –1 [1] b i both have 92 protons; [1]
ii mass = 1 [1] both have 92 electrons [1]
charge = zero [1] ii uranium-235 has 143 neutrons; [1]
iii mass = 1 [1] uranium-238 has 146 neutrons [1]
charge = +1 [1] c 90 [1]
Total = 10 Total = 6
2 a i 91
40
Zr [1] 5 a number of protons = 17 and 17 [1]
ii 51 [1] number of electrons = 17 and 17 [1]
b 70 [1] number of neutrons in chlorine-35 = 18;
c i It is deflected / bends away from the anode in chlorine-37 = 20 [1]
(or positive plate), or towards the cathode b the chlorine-35 isotope is more abundant; [1]
(or negative plate), or downwards. [1] the weighted average is nearer 35 than 37 [1]
Proton has positive charge, and like c i it has more protons than electrons [1]
charges repel / opposite charges attract.[1] ii it has 17 protons and 18 electrons / it has
ii no deflection / go straight through; [1] 1 more electron than protons [2]
neutrons have no charge [1] [it has more electrons than protons for
Total = 7 1 mark]
Total = 8
3 a positively charged nucleus; [1]
containing protons and neutrons; [1]
electrons outside the nucleus in energy
l v ls; [1]
protons are positively charged with relative
charge of +1 and relative mass of 1; [1]
neutrons are neutral with relative charge of
zero and relative mass of 1; [1]
electrons are negative with relative charge of
1
–1 and relative mass of 1836
1
[allow 2000 or negligible] [1]
b atomic number = number of protons (in the
nucl us); [1]
nucleon number
= number of protons + number of neutrons[1]
c Mg = 12 protons, 12 electrons, 12 neutrons [1]
Al = 13 protons, 13 electrons, 14 neutrons [1]
 Answers to end-of-chapter questions

Answers to EOCQs
Chapter 1 lesson 2 d i subshells shown in correct order, i.e. 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p [1]
1 a The energy needed to remove one electron[1] ii two electrons as arrows in each box for 2s,
from each atom in a mole of gaseous atoms 2p and 3s orbitals; [1]
[1] electrons shown as arrows in opposite
to form a mole of gaseous 1+ ions. [1] direction in 2s, 2p and 3s orbitals; [1]
b The first three electrons are easy to remove, 1 electron as arrow in each of the 3p
so these are in the outer shell / energy level; orbitals with arrows pointing in same
e [1] dir ction [1]
large increase in ionisation energy between e value less than 494 (ignore lack of units) [1]
third and fourth electrons removed; [1] Total = 14
so fourth electron in next shell towards
nucl us; [1] 3 a Region of space outside the nucleus where
fourth to eleventh electrons in same shell as there is a likelihood of finding an electron /
only gradual increase in ionisation energy;[1] two electrons. [1]
large increase in ionisation energy between b i sphere / circle drawn; [1]
11th and 12th electrons removed; [1] ii correct shape of p orbital (hourglass /
so 12th and 13th electrons in shell close to propeller shape) with two lobes [1]
nucl us. [1] c i d block [1]
+ 2+ –
c Al (g) → Al (g) + e  [2] ii 10 [1]
[1 mark for balancing, 1 mark for state 2 2 6 2 6 8
iii 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d  [1]
symbols]
iv 4p [1]
d 1s2 2s2 2p6 [1] Total = 7
Total = 12
4 a C; [1]
2 a Increase in number of protons / increased
there is big decrease in ionisation energy
nuclear charge; [1]
between B and C; [1]
electrons added go into the same outer shell
the outer electron in C is in the next quantum
/ quantum level; [1]
e sh ll. [1]
so same amount of shielding; [1]
greater force of attraction across period b D [1]
between (positive) nucleus and (negative) c Increase in number of protons / increased
l ctrons. [1] nuclear charge; [1]
b Outermost electron of aluminium is in electrons added go into the same outer shell
p subsh ll; [1] / quantum level; [1]
outermost electrons of magnesium in so same amount of shielding; [1]
s subshell (of same quantum level as p); [1] greater force of attraction across period
outermost electron of aluminium in subshell between (positive) nucleus and (negative)
e e
with higher energy (or further from nucleus) l ctrons. [1]
/ outermost electron of magnesium in lower d above 1250 [1]
energy sublevel (or nearer the nucleus / more but below 2050 [1]
shielding of p electron); [1] e The first seven electrons removed are in the
greater force of attraction between nucleus outermost energy level / quantum level; [1]
and s electron than p electron (or reverse there is a big jump in energy required when
argum nt). [1] the eighth electron is removed; [1]
2 2 6 2 6
c 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p  [1]
 Answers to end-of-chapter questions

the eighth and ninth electrons are in the next b There is a big increase in ionisation energy
energy level (nearer the nucleus). [1] from the 3rd to the 4th electron removed. [1]
Total = 13 c Correctly labelled axes; [1]
gradual increase in ΔHi for the first 5
5 a i The energy needed to remove one electron
electrons removed; [1]
[1]
sudden increase in ΔHi between the 5th and
from each atom in a mole of gaseous
6th electrons removed; [1]
atoms [1]
gradual increase between 6th and 13th
to form a mole of gaseous 1+ ions. [1]
electrons removed; [1]
ii The energy required to remove one sudden increase in ΔHi between the 13th and
l ctron [1] 14th electrons removed; [1]
from each ion in a mole of gaseous 2+ ions gradual increase between the 14th and 15th
[1] electrons removed. [1]
to form a mole of gaseous 3+ ions. [1] Total = 12
+ –
b i Mg(g) → Mg (g) + e  [2]
[1 mark for balancing, 1 mark for state 8 a The energy needed to remove one electron[1]
symbols] from each atom in a mole of gaseous atoms;
ii Mg2+(g) → Mg3+(g) + e– [2] [1]
[1 mark for balancing, 1 mark for state to form a mole of gaseous 1+ ions. [1]
symbols] b Correctly labelled axes; [1]
c i 4th ionisation energy of magnesium [1] gradual increase in ΔHi for the first 7
electrons removed; [1]
ii 6th ionisation energy of aluminium [1] sudden increase in ΔHi between the 7th and
Total = 12
8th electrons removed; [1]
6 a They are in the outermost energy level / gradual increase in ΔHi between electrons
subsh ll; [1] 8th and 15th electrons removed; [1]
greatest shielding by inner electrons; [1] sudden increase in ΔHi between the 15th and
least attractive force from nucleus on the 16th electrons removed; [1]
outer electrons. [1] gradual increase between the 16th and 17th
electrons removed. [1]
b Third electron is in the next main energy level
/ principal quantum shell further in; [1] c The first 7 electrons are easiest to remove,
closer to the nucleus; [1] as they are in the outermost energy level; [1]
less shielding (by inner shells of electrons).[1] the steady increase shows that each electron
is attracted more strongly by a more positive
c There are 2 electrons in the outermost energy
ion. [1]
level / quantum shell; [1]
There is a big jump in energy required from
the next 8 electrons are in the energy level
the 7th to the 8th electrons; [1]
quantum shell further in; [1]
this is because the 8th electron is in the next
there are 2 electrons in the innermost energy
energy level; [1]
level / quantum shell. [1]
4+ 5+ –
which is closer to the nucleus and the
d Mg (g) → Mg (g) + e  [2] electrons in it are less shielded. [1]
[1 mark for balancing, 1 mark for state There is a large jump from the 15th to the
symbols] 16th electrons because the 16th electron is in
Total = 11
a new energy level. [1]
Total = 15
7 a A is in Group 14. [1]
B is in Group 2. [1]
C is in Group 1. [1]
D is in Group 14. [1]
E is in Group 13. [1]