MEC281 Chapter 1 PDF
MEC281 Chapter 1 PDF
MEC281 Chapter 1 PDF
(10 hours)
SUBCONTENT :
1.1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
1.2
1.3
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES.
1.4
1.5
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
You should be able:
Describe an atomic structure
Configure electron configuration
Differentiate between each atomic bonding
Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen
and Van der Waals bonds
Relate the atomic bonding with material
properties
Neutron
Nucleon or
Nucleus
Proton
+
Electrons
move
around the
nucleus
Electron
Shell @ Orbital @ Energy level
Fig. : A simplified
diagram of atom
6
Proton
Charge
Location
Mass (amu)
Positive (+ve)
Nucleus
1.0073
Symbol
+
Neutron
Neutral
Nucleus
1.0087
Electron
Negative (-ve)
Orbital
0.000549
To describe the mass of atom, a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu) is used.
Neutron
-
Proton
Electron
+
++
Proton = 4
NEUTRAL
Electron = 4
CHARGE
Na
11 protons
11 electrons
Na+
11 protons
10 electrons
Cl
17 protons
17 electrons
Cl-
17 protons
18 electrons
An arrangement of elements in
order of atomic number;
elements with similar
properties are in the same
group.
10
2) ATOMIC MASS
SYMBOL
ATOMIC MASS , A =
no. of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (N)
PERIODIC TABLE
ATOMIC NUMBER tells how many PROTONS (Z) are in its atoms which determine the
atoms identity.
The list of elements (ranked according to an increasing no. of protons) can be looked up
on the Periodic Table. So, if an atom has 2 protons (atomic no. = 2), it must be helium(He).
ATOMIC MASS tells the sum of the masses of PROTONS (Z) and NEUTRONS (N) within the
nucleus E.g :
Lithium:
Atomic number = 3
3 protons, Z
4 neutrons, N
Atomic mass, A = 3 + 4 = 7
BUT... although each element has a defined number of protons, the number of neutrons
is not fixed
isotopes
14
ISOTOPES
Atoms which have the same
number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
1
1H
2
1H
3
1H
(D)
(T)
Natural
Isotope
Proton
Neutron
Atomic
Mass
Hydrogen 1
(hydrogen)
Hydrogen 2
(deuterium)
Hydrogen 3
(tritium)
15
Exercise of isotopes :
Element
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Carbon
Chlorine
Sodium
Name
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
Sodium-23
Sodium-24
Number of
Proton
Nucleon
Number
Number of
Neutron
Example of isotopes :
Element
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Carbon
Chlorine
Sodium
Name
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
Sodium-23
Sodium-24
Number of
Proton
1
1
1
8
8
8
6
6
6
17
17
11
11
Nucleon
Number
1
2
3
16
17
18
12
13
14
35
37
23
24
Number of
Neutron
0
1
2
8
9
10
6
7
8
18
20
12
13
EXERCISE
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes,
12C, 13C, and 14C. State the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in each of these carbon atoms.
12C
13C
14C
#p _______
_______
_______
#n _______
_______
_______
#e _______
_______
_______
18
ANSWER
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes,
12C, 13C, and 14C. State the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in each of these carbon atoms.
12C
13C
14C
#p
#n
#e
6
19
ELECTRON SHELLS
The electron cloud that surrounded the nucleus is divided into 7 shells (a.k.a energy level)
K (1st shell, closest to nucleus) followed by L, M, N, O, P, Q.
N (32 electrons)
4th shell
M (18 electrons)
3rd shell
L (8 electrons)
2nd shell
K (2 electrons)
1st shell
20
ORBITAL
Within each shell, the electrons occupy sub shell (energy sublevels)
s, p, d, f, g, h, i. Each sub shell holds a different types of orbital.
Each orbital holds a max. of 2 electrons.
Each orbital has a characteristic energy state and characteristic shape.
s - orbital
Spherical shape
Located closest to nucleus (first energy level)
Max 2 electrons
p - orbital
- There is 3 distinct p - orbitals (px, py, pz)
- Dumbbell shape
- Second energy level
- 6 electrons
d- orbital
- There is 5 distinct d orbitals
- Max 10 electrons
- Third energy level
22
The max. no. of electrons that can occupy a specific shell can be found
using the following formula:
Electron Capacity = 2n2
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Electron configuration the ways in which electrons are arranged
around the nucleus of atoms. The following representation is used :
The following representation is used :
Energy level @
Principal
quantum no.
Orbital
1s2
No. of electrons
in the orbital
Example: it means that there are two electrons in the s orbital of the
first energy level. The element is helium.
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6
e- e-
e-
ee-
e-
e- e-
e- e-
e-
2nd shell
(energy
level)
e-
e-
e-
eLithium (3 electrons)
Symbol
Hydrogen
Helium
He
Lithium
Li
Beryllium
Be
Chlorine
Cl
Argon
Ar
Potasium
Calcium
Ca
Atomic Number
27
Electron configuration
By following these rules, we can build up the electron shell structure of all the atoms.
Atom
Symbol
Atomic Number
Electron configuration
Hydrogen
1s1
Helium
He
Lithium
Li
Beryllium
Be
Chlorine
Cl
Argon
Ar
Potasium
Calcium
Ca
2
3
4
17
18
19
20
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
2s1
2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2
2p6
2p6
2p6
2p6
3s2
3s2
3s2
3s2
3p5
3p6
3p6 4s1
3p6 4s2
The key to the properties of atoms is the electrons in the outer shell.
28
TRANSITION ELEMENT
Cr [Z = 24]
Mo [Z = 42]
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 (correct) halfly filled
5s1 4d5 (correct)
halfly filled
Cu [Z = 29]
Ag [Z = 47]
Au [Z = 79]
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10 (correct) completely filled
5s1 4d10 (correct)
completely filled
6s1 5d10 (correct)
completely filled
Exercise
Write the electron configuration for below element.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
a) K
b) K1+
c) Fe
d) Fe3+
Answer : EXERCISE
Write the electron configuration for below element.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
a) K
b) K1+
c) Fe
d) Fe3+
Na+
Valence electron
Number of electron
1
11
8
10
Number of shell
Drawing
1) IONIC BONDING
Example: NaCl
IONIC BONDING
Properties :
H
2.1
Li
1.0
Be
1.5
Na
0.9
Mg
1.2
K
0.8
Ca
1.0
Rb
0.8
He
O
F
3.5 4.0
Ne
-
Cl
3.0
Ar
-
Br
2.8
Kr
-
Sr
1.0
I
2.5
Xe
-
Cs
0.7
Ba
0.9
At
2.2
Rn
-
Fr
0.7
Ra
0.9
Ti
1.5
Cr
1.6
Give up electrons
Fe
1.8
Ni
1.8
Zn
1.8
As
2.0
Acquire electrons
Draw = 1 mark
EXERCISE
Draw the following ionic bonding?
IONIC BONDING :
Group 1 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : NaCl
Group 2 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : MgF, BeF, MgBr, CaCl or CaI
Group 2 metal + Group 6 non metal, eg : CaO, MgO, MgS, or CaS
2) COVALENT BONDING
2) COVALENT BONDING
Properties
Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)
Poor electrical conductors in all phases
Variable ( hard , strong, melting temperature, boiling point)
Be
1.5
Na
0.9
K
0.8
Mg
1.2
Ca
1.0
Rb
0.8
Sr
1.0
Cs
0.7
Ba
0.9
Fr
0.7
Ra
0.9
column IVA
H2O
C(diamond)
SiC
Ti
1.5
Cr
1.6
Fe
1.8
F2
He
-
O
2.0
C
2.5
Ni
1.8
Zn
1.8
Ga
1.6
Si
1.8
Ge
1.8
As
2.0
Sn
1.8
Pb
1.8
GaAs
F
4.0
Ne
-
Cl
3.0
Br
2.8
Ar
Kr
-
I
2.5
Xe
-
At
2.2
Rn
-
Cl2
EXERCISE
Draw the following covalent bonding?
SINGLE BOND :
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Water
DOUBLE BOND :
Oxygen
TRIPLE BOND :
Nitrogen
3) METALLIC BONDING
3) METALLIC BONDING
48
3) METALLIC BONDING
Properties:
Good electrical conductivity
Good heat conductivity
Ductile
Opaque
Ductile
- The valence electrons are not closely associated with individual atoms, but
instead move around amongst the atoms within the crystal.
- The individual atoms can "slip" over one another yet remain firmly held together
by the electrostatic forces exerted by the electrons.
- This is why most metals can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable) or drawn
into thin wires (ductile).
MOLECULE
Molecule is considered the smallest particle of a pure
chemical substance that still retains its composition
and chemical properties.
Type
Summary of BONDING
Bond energy
Melting point
Hardness
Conductivity
Comments
Ionic
bonding
Large
(150-370kcal/mol)
Very high
Hard and
brittle
Poor
-required
moving ion
Nondirectional
(ceramic)
Covalent
bonding
Variable
(75-300 kcal/mol)
Variable
Very hard
(diamond)
Poor
Directional
(Semiconductors,
ceramic, polymer
chains)
Low to high
Soft to hard
Excellent
Nondirectional
(metal)
Low to
moderate
Fairly soft
Poor
Directional
inter-chain
(polymer)
inter-molecular
Large -Diamond
Small Bismuth
Highest
diamond
(>3550)
Mercury (-39)
Metallic
bonding
Variable
(25-200 kcal/mol)
Large- Tungsten
Small- Mercury
Secondary
bonding
Smallest
* Directional bonding
Metals
(Metallic bonding):
Polymers
(Covalent & Secondary):
Directional Properties
Secondary bonding dominates
small Tm
small E
large a
Bond energy
Melting point
Hardness
Conductivity
Metallic
bonding
Variable
(25-200 kcal/mol)
Low to high
Soft to hard
Excellent
[e.g. :
Zinc]
Large- Tungsten
Small- Mercury
Bond energy
Melting point
Hardness
Conductivity
Variable
(75-300 kcal/mol)
Variable
Very hard
(diamond)
Poor
Type
Covalent
bonding
[e.g. :
Hydrogen]
Large -Diamond
Small Bismuth
Highest
diamond
(>3550)
Mercury (-39)
Crystal
structure
Crystalline
Material
Single Crystal
Noncrsytalline
material
(Amorphous)
polycrystal
* comprised of many single
crystal or grain
Crystalline materials...
atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers
crystalline SiO2
Noncrystalline materials...
atoms have no periodic packing
occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
noncrystalline SiO2
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline
Structure of SOLID
Amorphous
Crystal
Polycrystalline
Completely ordered
In segments
Different lattice
orientation for each
grain
grain
i.
Crystalline materials
ii.
Amorphous materials
iii.
Single crystalline
iv. Polycrystalline
[8 marks]
Mark[s]
crystalline SiO2
Draw [1]
Amorphous materials
noncrystalline SiO2
Draw [1]
Single crystalline
Draw [1]
Polycrystalline
Draw [1]
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Most metals exhibit a crystal structure which show a unique arrangement of atoms
in a crystal.
A lattice and motif help to illustrate the crystal structure.
Lattice (lines network in 3D) + Motif (atoms are arranged in a repeated pattern)
= CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
lattice
motif
68
crystal structure
+
Lattice - The three
dimensional array
formed by the unit cells
of a crystal is called
lattice.
=
A crystal is a threedimensional repeating
array.
Fig. : The crystal structure (a) Part of the space lattice for natrium chloride (b)Unit cell for natrium
chloride crystal
70
7 crystal systems :
cubic, hexagonal,
tetragonal,
rhombodhedral,
orthorhombic, monoclinic,
triclinic.
71
By adding additional
lattice point to 7 basic
crystal systems
form 14 Bravais
lattice.
SC
BCC
FCC
78
79
EXAMPLE
Calculate the APF for Simple Cubic (SC)?
EXERCISE
Calculate the APF for BCC and FCC ?
a) BCC
b) FCC
81
82
83
Simple
cubic
BCC
FCC
a = 2R
a = 4R/3
a = 4R/2
Atoms/unit
cell
Packing
Density
(APF)
Examples
52%
CsCl
68%
Many metals:
-Fe, Cr, Mo, W
74%
84
1a] Give the definition of a unit cell. Briefly describe lattice constant in the unit cell.
[ 4 marks]
1b] Give the definition of APF for a unit cell and calculate the APF for FCC.
[4 marks]
85
Answer
Mark [s]
It is a small building block or a structure that can describe the crystal structure.
Lattice constants or lattice parameters are the magnitudes and directions of three lattice
vectors such as a, b and c.
Angle = , ,
86
Mark [s]
APF can be defined as the volume of atoms in a selected unit cell with respect to the volume of the
unit cell
Or;
87
DENSITY COMPUTATIONS
A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic
solid permits computation of its density through the
relationship :
=
nA
Vc NA
Where
n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell
A = atomic weight
Vc = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadros number (6.023 x 1023 atoms/mol)
88
EXAMPLE
Calculate the density for nickel (simple cubic structure).
Note that the unit cell edge length (a) for nickel is 0.3524 nm.
The volume (V) of the unit cell is equal to the cell-edge length (a) cubed.
V = a3 = (0.3524 nm)3 = 0.04376 nm3
Since there are 109 nm in a meter and 100 cm in a meter, there must be 107 nm in a cm.
109 x 1m
= 107 nm/cm
1 m 100 cm
We can therefore convert the volume of the unit cell to cm3 as follows.
4.376 x 10-2 nm3 x [1 cm ]3 = 4.376 x 10-23 cm 3
107 nm
The mass of a nickel atom can be calculated from the atomic weight of this metal and Avogadros
number.
58.69g Ni x
1 mol
= 9.746 x 10-23 g/atom
1 mol
6.023 x 1023 atoms
89
EXERCISE
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, FCC crystal structure and an atomic
weight of 63.5 g/mol. Compute its density and compare the answer with its
measured density.
Element
Copper
Symbol
Atomic
weight
(amu)
Density of
solid, 20oC
(g/cm3)
Crystal
Structure,
20oC
Atomic
radius
(nm)
Cu
63.55
8.94
FCC
0.128
90
1b] Platinum has a FCC structure, a lattice parameter of 0.393 nm and an atomic weight
of 195.09 g/mol. Determine :
i.
ii.
Density of platinum
[ 6marks]
Solution :
91
i.
ii.
Density of platinum
[ 6marks]
Solution :
a = 4R/2
R = 0.139 nm @ 0.139 x 10-7cm @ 1.39 x 10-8cm
=
nA
Vc NA
= 21.345 g/cm3
MILLER INDICES
Miller indices is used to label the planes and directions of atoms in a crystal.
Why Miller indices is important?
To determine the shapes of single crystals, the interpretation of X-ray
diffraction patterns and the movement of a dislocation , which may determine
the mechanical properties of the material.
Miller indices
(h k l) : a specific crystal plane or face
{h k l} : a family of equivalent planes
[h k l] : a specific crystal direction
<h k l> : a family of equivalent directions
93
POINT COORDINATES
- The position of any point located within a unit cell may be
specified in terms of its coordinates (x,y,z)
z
Point
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
x axis
0
1
1
0
1/2
0
1
1
0
y-axis
0
0
1
1
1/2
0
0
1
1
z-axis
0
0
0
0
1/2
1
1
1
1
Point
Coordinated
000
100
110
010
1/2 1/2 1/2
001
101
111
011
94
Head (H)
x2
y2
z2
Tail (T)
x1
y1
z1
x2-x1
y2-y1
z2-z1
[h
l]
95
Head (H)
Tail (T)
Projection (H-T)
Enclosed
[1
0]
0,0,0
1
Axis
Head (H)
Tail (T)
Projection (H-T)
Enclosed
[1
0]
1,1,0
0,1,0
1,0,0
96
Head (H)
1/2
Tail (T)
Projection (H-T)
1/2
Reduction (x2)
2__________0
Enclosed
[ 2
_____1_
1 ]
Axis
Head (H)
Tail (T)
Projection (H-T)
-1
1__________-1_
Enclosed
[1
_____0_
0 ]
97
Head (H)
Tail (T)
Projection (H-T)
-3/4
Reduction (x4)
2_________4_________-3_
Enclosed
[2
3]
Axis
Head (H)
Tail (T)
Projection (H-T)
-1
Reduction (x2)
1_________-1
Enclosed
[1
-2
2]
98
Axis
Head
x
y
z
1/4 1/2 1/2
Tail
3/4
Projection
-2/4 1/2
1/4
1/4
(Head Tail)
Reduction
-2
(x4)
Enclosed
[ 221]
b) [ 1 1 1 ]
b)
c) [ 1 1 0 ]
d) [ 1 1 0 ]
e) [ 1 1 2 ]
c)
d)
e)
Axis
(h
l)
Interceptions
Reciprocals
102
(0 , 0 , 1)
+z
_
_ (1 , 0 , 0)
x
_
_
(0 , 1 , 0) y
+x
(1 , 0 , 0)
+y (0 , 1 , 0)
_
z _
(0 , 0 , 1)
Interceptions
Reciprocals
Reduction
Enclosed
( 2
2)
Axis
Interceptions
Reciprocals
Reduction
Enclosed
1
1
1
1
104
Interceptions
Reciprocals
Reduction
Enclosed
1
( 1
1
1
0
0 )
Interceptions
1/2
Reciprocals
Reduction
Enclosed
2 )
z = 5/6 1/3
Interceptions
-1
1/2
Reciprocals
-1
Reduction
-1
Enclosed
)
Plane pass through origin,
find new axis
Axis
Interceptions
Reciprocals
Reduction
Enclosed
( 0
0)
b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )
a) ( 1 0 0 )
b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )
PLANE
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets () with no
separating commas (hkl)
DIRECTION
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets () with no
separating commas [hkl]
Final answer for labeling the plane and direction should not have fraction
number
do a reduction.
110
111
Mechanical Properties
114
Tensile Test
specimen
machine
115
Tensile Test
116
Terminology
Load - The force applied to a material during testing.
Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
yield
strength
Strain
Hardening
UTS
y
necking
Fracture
5
2
Elastic region
slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture
Plastic
Region
Elastic
Region
1
E
y
2 1
4
Strain ( ) (DL/Lo)
or
: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)
This diagram is used to determine how material will react under a certain load.
Elastic region
Yielding
Strain Hardening
Necking and Failure
123
124
E(GPa)
200
100
80
60
40
109 Pa
Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
CFRE(|| fibers)*
<111>
Si crystal
<100>
AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass-soda
GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
GFRE*
20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
Graphite
Polyester
PET
PS
PC
CFRE( fibers)*
AFRE( fibers)*
Epoxy only
PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE
Wood(
grain)
126
E
N
S
I
L
E
P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
S
127
Room T values
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
128
Yield Strength, y
tensile stress,
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
129
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
Atomic bonds are stretched but not
broken.
Once the forces are no longer
applied, the object returns to its
original shape.
Elastic means reversible.
130
Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P
and the yield strength
y, as determined
using the 0.002 strain
offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
2. Small load
3. Unload
F
Atomic bonds are broken and new
bonds
are created.
.
Plastic means permanent.
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
plastic
132
Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
133
intended.
Tensile Strength, TS
After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
Subsequent deformation will be confined
to this neck area.
Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
134
In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains
in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
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Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
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Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, :
Shear stress, t:
Ft
Ao
original area
before loading
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2
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VMSE
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Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture:
A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is
brittle.
% EL
l f lo
lo
x100
% AR
Ao Af
Ao
x100
Toughness is
the ability to
absorb
energy up to
fracture (energy
Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics
Higher toughness: metals
A tough
material has
strength and
ductility.
Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve.
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Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,
21
=E
n x/y
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~0.25
polymers: n ~0.40
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
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Engineering Strain
Strain is dimensionless.
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Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative strains) in
response to an imposed tensile stress.
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148
Ductile Fracture
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[6 marks]
152
ii] With the aid of schematic diagrams, describe elastic and plastic deformations.
[6 marks]
Ductility is an ability of a material to have large plastic deformation before fracture
or area under plastic deformation in stress strain diagram
Elastic deformation
1
return to
initial
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
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Plastic deformation
The deformation is permanent.
In terms of atomic level, the bonding between atoms will break and the atom
bonded with new atom. As a result, permanent deformation will occur.
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
Brittle fracture
Plastic deformation
Detectable failure
Unexpected failure
Hardness of Materials
Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to
penetration by a sharp object.
Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured
using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop
(HK).
Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1
10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 N)
forces.
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or
scratch).
Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed where a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material.
The depth or size of the indentation is measured,
and corresponds to a hardness number.
The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
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Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
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Hardness Testers
159
Hardness Testers
Hardness
Scale
Conversions
Figure Chart for converting
various hardness scales. Note
the limited range of most scales.
Because of the many factors
involved, these conversions are
approximate.
Conversion of
Hardness Scales
Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metals resistance to
plastic deformation.
For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
Tensile strength (psi) =
500*BHR
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[ 4 marks]
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Indenter type : Diamond [cone] [120 angle and 0.2mm tip radius] or steel sphere
Brinell
Vickers
Knoop
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Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
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