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The Ultimate
IGCSE Guide
to Physics
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Unit 1: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Density
SO what’s density? Well, all solids, liquids and gases have different properties and characteristics. One such characteristic is
density. Solids are often very dense, liquids are less dense than solids, and gases have very low densities. Density is how much
mass something has for a certain volume – in other words, how ‘squashed up’ something is.

To calculate density, use this equation:

Density = Mass/Volume
P = m/v

Example: A piece of iron has a mass of 390kg and a volume of 0.05m3. What is its density?

P = m/v
P = 390kg/0.05m3
= 7800kg/m3 Remember the unit! Density can be kg/m3, g/cm3…etc

Calculating Volumes for the Density

For a cuboid like this, simply multiply its length, width and height. I’m assuming you know this, but if
not, work up your maths man…

As for irregular solids, measure out a certain amount of water

with a measuring cylinder. This is the control (something to
compare results to). Do the same with another measuring
cylinder, and drop the solid in. Note the rise in the level of
water. The difference between the two measurements is the
volume of the solid, in this case, 10ml.

Pressure

Pressure in Solids

Lets start like this: You can easily push a pin into a piece of wood quite easily, but it is pretty much impossible to make a hole in
the wood with your finger. You can try with little success (and end up with splinters all over your fingers). Why is that? The
small point of the drawing pin concentrates all your pushing force into a tiny area, so the pin goes into the wood easily.

To get to the point, pressure is defined as the force per unit area. Force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in
square metres (m2). The unit for pressure is N/m2 or Pa (for Pascals).

Unfortunately, there is an equation that comes with pressure and this is ONLY FOR SOLIDS:

Pressure (in Pascals) = Force (in newtons)/Area (in square metres)

p = f/a

Example: A woman weighs 600N and the total area of her shoes in contact with the ground is 0.0015m2. Find the pressure she is
exerting to the ground.

p = f/a
p = 600N/0.0015m2
= 400000Pa (or 400kPa)

Pressure in Liquids and Gases

Pressure in liquids act equally in all directions as long as the liquid is not moving. This is the same for gases. The pressure in air
is a staggering 100000Pa, but since the pressure inside our bodies are similar, we don’t feel the pressure. The pressure in air is
also referred to as 1.0 atmosphere.
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To calculate pressure in liquids use the following equation:

Pressure (in Pa) = Height/Depth (in m) x Density (in kg/m3) x Gravitational Field Strength (in N/kg)
Or p = hdg  Note that g is usually 10N/kgv

Example: Justin Bieber’s (oh my god!) swimming pool has a depth of 3m. What is the total pressure of the swimming pool? Take
the gravitational field strength to be 10N/kg and the density of water to be 1kg/m3 (ignore the swimming pool being chlorinated
‘cause JB’s swimming pool is always clean anyways).

p = hdg (the actual equation is p=hpg, but I’m not bothered finding that special p for density)
p = 3m x 1kg/m3 x 10N/kg
p = 30Pa

The Brownian Motion

Brownian Motion: The continual random movement of microscopic particles. When particles collide into one another, this causes
a change in speed and direction of the particles, making them randomly move about.

Boyle’s Law

This is all summarized into the following equation:

Pressure1 x Volume1 = Pressure2 x Volume2

Or p1V1 = p2V2

Example: Atmospheric pressure is 100kPa. Some air in a sealed container has a volume of 2m3 at atmospheric pressure. What
would be the pressure of the air if you reduced its volume to 0.2m3?

100kPa = 100000Pa
P1V1 = p2V2
100000Pa x 2m3 = p2 x 0.2m3
200000 = 0.2p2
P2 = 1000000Pa
= 1000kPa

And in words…

Boyle’s Law: At a constant temperature and with a fixed mass of gas, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

Question: How does a gas exert a pressure on the walls of its container?

Billions of tiny air particles move about in continual random motion. Particle collisions with the walls of the container exerts a
force, which gets distributed over the area of the wall of the container, hence, exerting a pressure.

Pressure Law

Temperature also has an effect on the pressure of a gas. This is shown in an experiment
set up on the right. When water is heated gradually, the air is also heated, changing the
reading on the pressure gauge. Plot down the results and you’d get a graph that looks
something like this.

Wait a minute…
shouldn’t the pressure be
at zero pascals? No. This
is because pressure is
NOT proportional to
temperate in Celsius. But
what happens if you continue cooling the gas? You’d find that
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when pressure is zero, the temperate would be at -2730C. This temperate is known as absolute zero. When converted to kelvins
(another type of measurement for temperature), absolute zero is zero kelvins. But back to the point, what would happen if you
converted the temperatures into kelvins?

Converting between Kelvins and Celsius

Kelvins = Celsius + 273

Celsius = Kelvins – 273

If you convert the temperatures into kelvins, this is what happens:

There is a positive correlation! This shows that pressure of gas is

proportional to temperature in Kelvin. This leads into the Pressure Law
equation: (Note that temperatures must be in Kelvin)

Pressure1/Temperature1 = Pressure1/Temperature1
Or p1/T1 = p2/T2

Example: You take an empty tin and put the lid on tightly. You heat it
using a Bunsen burner until the temperature of the air inside is 500C.
What is the pressure of the air inside the tin? The temperature of the
room is 200C and atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.

We must first convert the temperature in Kelvin, so:

T1 = 20 + 273 = 293K (This is the temperature OUTSIDE the

tin)
T2 = 50 + 273 = 323K (This is the temperature INSIDE the tin)
p1/T1 = p2/T2
100kPa/293K = p2/323K
p2 = 110kPa

Now to summarise the Pressure Law:

Pressure Law: With a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume, pressure is proportional to temperature (in Kelvins).

States of Matter
Solids Liquids Gases

Particles are closely packed. Particles are closely packed. No fixed positions.
Regular structure. Irregular structure. Move at rapid random motion.
Vibrate about fixed positions. Random motion within structure. Are very spread out.

Change in States of Matter

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Unit 2: Energy
What the hell is energy? Well, energy is used everywhere! We need to use energy to walk, to life
objects, to push, to pull, and in most cases, to think. Machines also need to use energy to power up.
That’s why your iPod can’t last forever without electricity! We get our energy from food and it is
then transferred into other forms of energy such as kinetic energy and heat energy. What the hell
are you talking about? Well you will find out later.

Define Energy: Energy is the ability to do work.

Types of Energy and Energy Conversions

This table summarises some of the different types of energy that you will need to learn about in GCSE.

Energy Description
Chemical Energy that is stored in food or batteries. We burn it into other forms of energy.
Thermal Also known as heat energy. Most energy is wasted by turning into this. We use thermal
energy to keep ourselves warm.
Sound Also a possible form of waste energy. But I’m sure you know what sound is. It is a series of
longitudinal waves – but we’ll get to that later.
Light This energy emits a light. We need light to see things. Things like light bulbs have energy
that is converted to this.
Electrical Most of the energy we need is converted from electrical energy. Electrical energy can be
made from other forms of energy.
Gravitational Potential Stored energy that varies depending on where you are. The higher, the more.
Kinetic Also known as movement energy. Electrical energy is converted to kinetic energy to make
motors work. We get this from chemical energy.
Geothermal Energy from the heat underground – stored in the Earth’s core. This is found in volcanoes
and thermal springs.
Elastic Potential Energy that is stored in springs. This type of energy is found in catapults and bows.
Nuclear Energy The energy released when unstable uranium atoms in the nuclear reactor break down and
form a chain reaction.

Energy is converted in different ways. Here are some examples:

 When we run, chemical energy from our food is converted to kinetic energy. Some of it is wasted by being converted into
thermal energy, making us hot.
 When a vibrator is used, chemical energy from the battery is converted into electrical energy, which is then converted into
kinetic energy. Some is wasted through sound energy.

Efficiency

Energy will never disappear. It can only be wasted – or converted into other forms of energy. Physicists believe that the amount
of energy in the Universe is constant – which means we cannot use energy up.

This leads us to the Law of Conservation of Energy.

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that:

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Energy is not created or destroyed in any process. It is just converted from one type to another.

Drawing Sankey Diagrams

When we are considering energy transfers, we must remember that a proportion of the energy input is wasted. Real systems can
never have 100% efficiency. The useful output energy will always be less than the input. Efficiency is given in percentage –
usually anyway, but read the question for the specific unit.

This is a Sankey diagram.

How does it work? Well the Sankey diagram

always points right. The input energy is written
at the beginning of the arrow, with the amount of
energy specified in joules. Then the arrow splits
into more arrows. The arrow that goes straight
right is the useful energy (which needs to be
stated too). The arrow pointing down is wasted
energy.

When drawing the Sankey, you need to

remember several things:

 All forms of energy must be stated –

both the input and the output(s).
 The total output energy must equal to
the input energy.
 The wasted energy slopes down.
 The size of the output arrows depend
on their energy. As you can see, heat energy is 90 J, therefore the arrow is a lot bigger than the light energy arrow.
 The size also needs to be proportional – depending on the question.

To calculate efficiency:

Efficiency = Useful energy output / Total energy input

So in the case of the above diagram:

Efficiency = 10J / 100J

Efficiency = 0.1 or 10%

Some Everyday Examples of Heat Loss (4.5)

A filament lamp might have a 5% efficiency. The other 95% is lost through heat.
Nuclear power has an efficiency of 35%. The rest is lost through heat and other forms of energy.
When one is running, some of his/her energy is lost through heat and friction.

Energy Transfer

Energy transfer may take place by:

Conduction

Transfer of thermal energy through a substance without the substance itself moving. Metals are good thermal conductors.
Something like plastic is not, and therefore, it is a good insulator. Conduction is carried out when particles transfer their energy to
other particles. These gain energy and then pass it on to other particles, and so on. In thermal conductors, there are free electrons
that can move easily through the structure of the conductor to speed the energy transfer.

Convection
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Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward
movement of warmer, less dense regions of fluid. Hot air tends to rise and cool air tends
to fall. ACs and heaters are therefore, positioned differently. The AC is positioned near
the ceiling, so cool air that comes out of it will fall, whereas, heaters are placed on the
floor so hot air can rise from it. In cooking ovens, a heating element is placed at the
bottom of the oven. It heats the nearby air, which makes it rise. Woolen clothing trap
air, which forms an insulating layer to prevent heat loss. Convection can be seen by
placing potassium manganate (VII) into a beaker of water on a Bunsen burner. The
hotter water expands and floats up to the beaker. Colder water sinks to take its place
and gets heated too. Meanwhile the hot air starts to cool and sink. This makes a
circulating current, called convection current.

Radiation

Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infra-red (IR) waves. IR waves travel in a
straight line, and are used in special cameras and other devices. It can travel through a vacuum. We receive heat from the Sun
through radiation.

IR waves can be reflected and absorbed by different materials. Shiny surfaces are good reflectors. Dark surfaces are poor
reflectors, but good absorbers of heat radiation.

House Insulation

Heat can be lost through walls by conduction.

Conduction is the main way heat is lost in a house. Heat
however, can be lost through convection in the roof.

Below are ways to reduce energy transfers.

Ways to Reduce Heat Transfer in a House

Walls

The picture on the right shows cavity wall insulation.

The outer layer is made with bricks – which have good
insulating properties, are strong and have good
weathering properties. The inner layer is built with
thermal bricks which have very good insulation properties. They are also light, relatively
cheap and quick to work with. In the middle, there is an air cavity, which uses air as an
insulator. However, air can still be lost through convection, therefore, glass fibre matting or
foam can be injected into the air cavity to trap air. The panels are usually surfaced with
aluminium foil to reflect IR waves.

Double Glazing

This is a typical double glazed window. Glass is a poor conductor.

Two layers of glass are used to trap a layer of air for insulation. Some
double glazing uses a special glass to increase the greenhouse effect
(heat radiation from the Sun can get in but radiation from inside the
house is mainly reflected back again).

Loft Insulation

Roof insulation in modern houses uses similar panels to those used in

the wall cavities, trapping a thick layer of air. This takes advantage of
the poor conducting property of air, whilst also preventing convection
currents circulating. Again, reflective foil is used to reduce radiation
heat loss.
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Other Ways to Reduce Energy Transfer

Reduction or elimination of draughts from poorly fitting doors and windows.

Curtains to reflect/absorb heat.
Carpets to prevent loss of heat through the floor.

In Humans and Animals

Fire fighters use protective clothing to reduce the amount of heat getting to their bodies.
Clothes trap air around the body to provide insulation.
Hats are the human equivalent of loft insulation.
Marathon runners or people suffering from hypothermia are wrapped in thin, highly reflective blankets.
Birds fluff up their feathers to trap air.
Some huddle together for warmth.
Other animals curl into small balls – this minimizes the exposed surface area.

Work

Work done is equal to energy transferred (because energy is the ability to do work). To calculate work:

Work Done (joules) = Force (newtons) x Distance (metres)

W=FxD

Example: A weightlifter raises an object that weights 500N through a distance of 2m. Calculate the work done:

W=FxD
= 500N x 2m
= 1000J

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed because of its position. It increases with height, if the mass and
gravitational field is constant. If an object is raised above the ground, it gains GPE. Once it is dropped, the GPE turns into kinetic
energy. When the object reaches the ground, all the KE is turned into heat, sound and other forms of energy. To calculate GPE:

Change in GPE (joules) = Mass (kg) x Gravitational Field Strength (N/kg) x Height (m)
GPE = m g h

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is movement energy. To calculate kinetic energy:

KE (joules) = ½ x mass (kg) x velocity2 (m/s)

KE = ½ mv2
*Note: work done = gain in GPE = gain in KE

Power

Power is the rate of transfer or energy or work. To calculate power:

Power (watts) = Work Done (joules) / Time Taken (seconds)

P = W/t
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Energy Resources and Electricity Generation

Wind Wind is caused by huge convection currents in the Earth's KE  Electrical Energy
atmosphere, driven by heat energy from the Sun. The moving air
has huge amounts of kinetic energy, and this can be transferred Ads: Renewable
into electrical energy using wind turbines. DisAds: Noisy, ugly, wind level varies
Waves Wave machines use the up and down movement of waves to turn KE  Electrical Energy
electricity generators.
Ads: Renewable
DisAds: Difficult to build
Tides Tidal barrages are built across the mouths of rivers. As water KE  Electrical Energy
moves in or out of the river mouth when the tide turns, the kinetic
energy in the water is used to turn electricity generators. Ads: Renewable
DisAds: Expensive, harm wildlife

Water Hydroelectric power (HEP) schemes store water high up in dams. GPE  KE  Electrical Energy
The water has gravitational potential energy. As the water rushes
down through pipes, this GPE is transferred to kinetic energy, Ads: Renewable
which turns electricity generators. DisAds: Ugly, disrupt wildlife, expensive

Geother- In some places the rocks underground are hot. Deep wells can be Thermal Energy  KE  Electrical Energy
mal drilled and cold water pumped down to be heated by the rocks. It
returns to the surface as hot water and steam, where its energy can Ads: Renewable
be used to drive turbines and electricity generators DisAds: Deep drilling is difficult
Solar Solar panels do not generate electricity. Instead they heat up water Thermal Energy  Electrical Energy
Heating directly. A pump pushes cold water from a storage tank through
pipes in the solar panel. The water is heated by heat energy from Ads: Renewable, quick
the Sun and returns to the tank. DisAds: Sun’s heat energy varies

Solar Solar cells are devices that convert light energy directly into Light Energy  Electrical Energy
Cells electrical energy. You may have seen small solar cells on
calculators. Larger arrays of solar cells are used to power road Ads: Renewable
signs, and even larger arrays are used to power satellites in orbit DisAds: Sunshine varies, expensive, not very
around Earth. efficient
Fossil Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels. Chemical energy Chemical Energy  Heat Energy  Electrical
Fuels from dead remains is stored within these. The energy is transferred Energy
to thermal energy and light energy when the fuels burn.
Ads: Efficient
DisAds: Scarce, causes pollution
Nuclear The heat from the chain reaction caused by the radioactive decay Thermal Energy  KE  Electrical Energy
Power of unstable uranium-236 nuclei is used to boil water, which
produces steam that turns turbines. Ads: Efficient
DisAds: Highly dangerous, U-236 is scarce
Biomass Biomass fuels come from living things such as wood. Chemical Chemical Energy  Heat Energy  Electrical
energy stored in these are burned to release heat energy which Energy
heats up water into steam. The steam is then used to turn turbines
which generate electricity. Ads: Renewable
DisAds: Huge areas of land are needed
Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
Speed
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To calculate speed:

Speed (m/s) = Total Distance Moved / Time Taken

V = d/t

Understanding Distance-Time Graphs

The gradient of the line tells us the speed of the car. The steeper, the faster. The picture on the right shows acceleration on a
distance-time graph. A straight line means a steady speed. A horizontal line means stationary.

What’s the difference between speed and velocity?

Velocity is speed at a particular direction.

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which objects change their velocity. To calculate acceleration:

Acceleration (m/s2) = (Final velocity – Initial Velocity) / Time Taken

A = (V-U)/t

Velocity-Time Graphs
The steeper the gradient, the greater the
acceleration.
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The area under the line on a speed-time graph represents the distance travelled.

For the first four seconds: ½ x 4 x 8 =

16m

For the next six seconds: 6 x 8 = 48m

Total Distance Travelled = 16 + 48 =

64m

Unit 3: Electricity
Unit What It Measures The live wire provides a path which electricity from the power station travels
Ampere (A) Current (I) along. The neutral wire completes the circuit. The earth wire provides a low
Coulomb (C) Charge (Q) resistance path for the current to flow in case of a fault.
Joule (J) Energy (E)
Ohm (Ω) Resistance (R)
Second (s) Time (t)
Hazards of Electricity
Voltage (V) Volts (V)
Watt (W) Power (P)

Hazard What Makes It Dangerous

Frayed Cables  Can expose metal wires. Touching these would give an electric shock.
 Heat may cause fire.
Long Cables  Might trip someone.
 If put in a bunch, the high current will cause it to heat up and potentially cause a
fire.
 It could lead to the earth wire being easily pulled out.
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Damaged Plugs  May expose parts of the plug that are carrying electricity.
Water Around Sockets  Water conducts electricity at high voltages, Touching the water can cause an electric
shock.
Pushing Metal Objects into  Metals conduct electricity. Push a metal object into a socket and you get an electric
Sockets shock and die.

Safety Features

Safety Feature How It Helps

Insulation/Double Most modern appliances are made from an insulator like plastic. Electrical parts are covered with
Insulation plastic so if a fault develops, the dangerous parts won’t be touched by the user. Double insulation
doesn’t require an earth wire.
Earthing Appliances with metal casing should be connected to the earth wire so if the live wire becomes frayed
or breaks, and comes into contact with the casing, the earth wire provides a low resistance path for the
current for the electricity to pass back down to the earth without giving the user an electric shock.
Fuses A fuse is found in a plug and contains a think piece of wire made from a metal with a low melting
point. If too large a current flow through the circuit, the fuse wire melts, shutting the circuit off,
preventing you from getting a shock and the ignition of an electrical fire. The blown fuse must be
replaced. When choosing the right fuse, you choose the next biggest choice from the current rating of
your device.
Circuit Breakers A modernized form of a fuse. If a large current flows in a circuit, the switch opens, breaking the
circuit. Once the fault has been corrected, the reset button can be pressed so it can be used again.

Electrical Heating and How It Is Used

Wiring in a house is designed to let current pass through it easily – it has a low resistance.

However, things such as kettles or toasters have wires with high resistance. As the current passes through the element, energy is
transferred and the element heats up. This heating effect is also used in dishwashers, cookers, washing machines etc.

It is also used in lights. Normal light bulbs have a very thin filament which gets so hot when current passes through it that it
glows white. This effect is what causes electric fires too, but can be used in fan heaters, hair dryers…etc.

Resistors and Resistance

Resistors are used in circuits to control the sizes of currents and voltages. Without one, the voltage
across a bulb may cause too large a current to flow through and cause the bulb to blow. An extra
amount of energy is needed to push charges through the resistance, and this can cause a rise in
temperature as the energy may be converted to heat.

There are two types:

Fixed resistors – They have a fixed amount of resistance.

Variable resistors – Resistance can be varied to increase/decrease the current. It is used in the remote control to alter the
volume of the TV, and also used to control the speed of a motor.

Ohm’s Law

To calculate resistance:

Voltage (V) = Current (A) x Resistance (Ω)

V = IR

Ohm’s Law: The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) across its
ends, provided its temperature remains the same.

Basically, current flowing through a wire/resistor is directly

proportional to the voltage. It also means that resistance stays
constant.
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However, this is not the case for a metal filament bulb. Resistance of the bulb increases because temperature increases. When
temperature increases, the positive atoms vibrate more vigorously, impeding the flow of electrons. You get a curve (left picture).

Thermistors

Thermistors are used as temperature sensors, for example, in fire alarms. It is made from semiconducting
material such as silicon or germanium.

At low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is high, and little current can flow through
them.
At high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is low, and more current can flow through them.

Light-Dependent Resistors (LDR)

LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light levels, for example, in automatic security lights,
photographic equipment, automatic lighting controls and burglar alarms.

In the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high, and little current can flow
through it.
In bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low, and more current can flow through it.

Diodes

Diodes are resistors that direct the flow of current to one direction only. Current can only flow through
one direction due to a part of the diode with low resistance and cannot flow the opposite way due to the
high resistance at the other end of the diode. Diodes are used in rectifier circuits that convert alternating
current to direct current. It can also make logic gates (something in the Cambridge syllabus and thank
GOD it is not Edexcel).

All these resistors can be investigated by sticking them into a circuit and adjusting
the voltage, then comparing it with the current and then plotting a graph.

Current and Circuits

Explaining Charge, Current and Voltage

Meet Mr.Coulomb:
Mr. Coulomb is a single charge. He carries voltage, emptying it for his fellow light bulbs, arriving at the batteries to take more
voltage until it runs out. Current is the rate of flow of charge. If we have 9 Mr.
Coulombs running around at once then that’s our current.

To calculate charge:

Charge (C) = Current (A) x Time (s)

Q=Ixt

Indicating the Presence of a Current

Lamps and LEDs (light emitting diodes) will glow when there is a current flowing in the circuit.
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Different Types of Circuits

Series Circuits

In a series circuit, current is the same throughout the circuit. The size of the current depends on the voltage supplied and the
number and nature of the other components in the circuit. If more bulbs are added, there will be a greater resistance throughout
the circuit.

In a series circuit, the total resistance is the resistance of all the other resistors added
up.

 One switch can turn on all the components together.

 If there is a fault in the circuit, the whole thing stops working.
 Voltage is shared between all the components – the more bulbs added the dimmer they become. The larger the
resistance of the component, the bigger its share of voltage.
 Decorative lights (the ones you put on Christmas trees) are wired in series.

Parallel Circuits

Parallel circuits have branches so there are more paths for the current to flow. This means that it is possible to turn different parts
of the circuit on or off by using switches. The voltages across components in a parallel circuit are all equal. Current however,
halves at every junction.

 Switches can be placed to switch individual bulbs or switch them all on together.
 If one bulb breaks, only the other components from the same branch would break.
 If more bulbs are added, since voltage is the same, all bulbs will be equally bright – however, voltage runs out quicker.
 Lights in your home are wired in parallel.

Measuring Voltage and Current

Voltage

 Use a voltmeter.
 The voltmeter must be connected in parallel.

Current

 Use an ammeter.
 The voltmeter must be connected in series.

And another relationship…to calculate power:

Power (W) = Current (A) x Voltage (V)

P=IxV

Short Circuits

Current will always choose the path with least resistance. This circuit will not light because there is
a path available with less resistance (i.e. without a bulb) for Mr. Coulomb. This obviously means
that the current would choose to take that path instead, which means the bulb won’t light.

A.C and D.C

Alternating Current

 The flow of electricity is constantly changing direction.

 Mains electricity supply provides alternating current.

Direct Current
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 The flow of electricity is in one direction.
 Cells and batteries provide this.

Conductors and Insulators

 Conductors allow current to flow easily through the circuit. These are usually metals, where charge is carried by the
free electrons that are able to move throughout the whole of the metal.
 Insulators are poor conductors. These are things like plastic and fabric.

More Relationships

Energy Transfer

To calculate energy transfer:

Energy Transferred (J) = Current (A) x Voltage (V) x Time (s)

E=IxVxt

Explaining Charge, Current and Voltage (cont.)

Current:

 The rate of flow of charge/electrons

 Is equivalent to one coulomb per second

Voltage:

 Energy transferred per unit charge passed

 Joule per coulomb
 Is the force that pushes the current around the circuit

Circuit Symbols
Open Switch

Closed Switch

Lamp

Cell

Battery

Voltmeter
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Resistor

Fuse

Ammeter

Variable resistor

Thermistor

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

Electric Charge

Insulating materials can be given an electric charge by rubbing them –or charging by friction.
This does not create charge, but separates them.

When two uncharged insulators (a plastic rod and a cloth) are rubbed together, electrons from
the rod would be rubbed onto the cloth, making the cloth negatively charged and the rod
positively charged. Remember, it’s the electrons that move, not protons.

Also remember:

 Like forces attract

 Unlike forces repel

Electrostatic Phenomena: When electrons are rubbed onto insulating materials, charging them up, and therefore, making them
repel or attract other objects.

Dangers of Static Electricity

 Airplanes can get charged when flying to the air. As it increases, so does the voltage between it and the earth. When
airplanes are being refueled, the high charges could escape to the earth as a spark (much like getting an electric shock,
but bigger) during refueling and cause in explosion. Solution’s to earth the plane with a conductor as it lands.
 Fuel tankers may build up charge as it travels (because of the road or the air). If charges escape as a spark, you may get
an explosion. Solution again is the earth the fuel tanker before fuel is transferred.
 Our clothing may get charged with electricity – which charges us negatively. Since our body is a conductor, charges
can escape from us too. If we touch someone when charged, the charges may escape to the earth or the next person,
which creates an electric shock. Ouch.
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Uses of Static Electricity

Photocopiers

I. Drum is charged negatively where places are to be copied (the dark spots).
II. Toner of the opposite charge of the drum would stick to the charged areas.
III. Negatively charged paper is pressed against drum, where the toner charges are
attracted to the paper, forming the image.
IV. Paper is then heated to form a permanent image.

Inkjet Printers

I. A drop of ink is given a charge.

II. One of the charged deflectors is negative and the other is positive, so when the
charged ink drops between the deflectors, (if say the ink drop was negatively
charged), it would be repelled away by the negative deflector and attracted to the
positive deflector until it falls onto the right place on the paper.

Electrostatic Paint Sprayers

These spray positively charged paint. It is very efficient

because when each drop of paint is of the same charge,
the repel each other, increasing spread of paint. Also, the
charged paint would attract to the negatively charged
object, which means less paint is wasted, tight corners can easily be coated with paint.

Electrostatic Precipitators

When fossil fuels are burnt, they release waste gases with smoke particles of carbon and other disgusting stuff. To clean the
smoke, electrostatic precipitators are used and this diagram shows how:
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Unit 4: Forces and Motion

A force is a push or pull of one body on another. Type of Force What is it?

Push A force

Friction A force that opposes motion

Normal Reaction The force that acts in an upward

Force direction to the skater and prevents
him from sinking into the ground.

Gravitational The pull of the Earth

Force/Weight
Force is a vector quantity. It changes in size and direction. Air A force that opposes the movement
Other examples of vector quantities include velocity, Resistance/Drag of objects in the air.
acceleration and momentum. Scalar quantities only change in
size, for example, temperature. Forces are measured in Upthrust An upward push
newtons (N). 1kg is equivalent to about 10N.
Magnetic Force Used to make electric motors rotate.
Looking back at the right picture, if the forces are all equal
and then cancel each other out, the forces and balanced and Electrostatic Force To do with the attractions and
therefore, the unbalanced force is zero. If you look at the left repulsions between charges.
picture, you can see that the forces are not equal. The skater is
moving right at 120N, cancelling out the 100N. Here, there is an unbalanced force or resultant force of 120-100 = 20N.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s 1st Law: If the forces on an object is balanced – there is no resultant force – the object will either remain at rest or carry
on moving at constant speed in a straight line. If the forces on an object is unbalanced, the object will accelerate.

Newton’s 2nd Law: Resultant force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2) or F = ma

Newton’s 3rd Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Terminal Velocity

An object moving through the air experiences air resistance or drag. The size of this depends on the object’s shape and speed.
Objects falling through the air experiences two significant forces: weight and drag.

When an object has just been released, there is a starting velocity of 0m/s. This means there is no drag. The resulting downward
acting force is just the weight force of the Earth.

When it starts moving, it has a drag force acting against it, m. As the object is accelerating, it is getting faster. The faster the
object moves, the bigger the drag force is.

The object then reaches a point where the drag force exactly balances the weight force. Acceleration is now at zero and the falling
object is moving a constant speed. The object has reached
terminal velocity.

When a skydiver jumps off the plane, she will accelerate

until she reaches terminal velocity. When her parachute
opens, it will cause a sudden increase in drag force. This
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means that there will be an unbalanced force acting upwards, causing her to decelerate. As she slows down, the drag force
decreases and a new terminal velocity is reached.

Or she simply forgets her parachute and dies.

Thinking Distance and Braking Distance

Thinking distance is the time taken for the driver to respond or react. This can be increased if the driver is tired, under the
influence of alcohol/drugs or there is poor visibility.

Braking distance is the distance taken for the vehicle to decelerate to rest after the driver has hit the brakes. This can be increased
if the road is slippery or the tyres are screwed up.

Vehicles with a larger mass will have smaller rates of deceleration as you can see in F = ma.

Rearranging the equation gives a = F/m. If the braking force of two cars, one that weighs 1000kg and one that weighs 1500kg for
example, then the car with the bigger mass will come to rest at a longer time than the other car.

Similarly if a car is breaking from higher velocity, it takes longer to stop.

Momentum
Momentum is quantity possessed by masses in motion. In other words, it is a measure of how difficult it is to stop something that
is moving. We can calculate it using the formula:

Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)

p=mxv

Remember momentum is a vector quantity.

Also, the rate of increase of momentum is proportional to the force applied. This leads us to:

Force = change in momentum/time taken

F = (mv – mu)/t

Momentum is also conserved, therefore:

Momentum before the collision = Momentum after the collision

Collisions with no kinetic energy lost are called elastic collisions. These are usually collisions between gas molecules (they
continue moving in a container and does not end up in a pile at the bottom).

When a ball bounces off the ground, the collision is partially elastic – the ball rebounds, regaining its original shape, but loses
some of its kinetic energy.

When two objects collide and stick together, the collision is inelastic.

Example:

A railway truck with a mass of 5000kg rolling at 3m/s collides with a stationary truck of 10000kg (note that a stationary truck is
0m/s). At what speed do they move after the collision?

We have to take both momentums into consideration. If we picturise this somehow, when the trucks collide, both trucks will
move in the same direction as the moving truck, however, they’d move at a slower speed because the crash has caused a lost in
momentum of the moving truck. This momentum is conserved however, when both trucks move the same direction – they just do
it a different speed. Confusing I know.

5000kg 10000kg
3m/s 0m/s
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Yeah I know, I used Microsoft Word shapes.

Anyways we have to consider both momentums (the blue truck has a momentum of 10000 x 0 = 0 kg m/s. It has no momentum.
It doesn’t need to be stopped because it is already stopped).

To get the point:

Momentum of Red Truck + Momentum of Blue Truck = Momentum of Both Trucks Moving Together After Colliding
*Note: Conservation of momentum remember?

Therefore,

5000kg x 3m/s + 10000kg x 0m/s = (5000kg + 10000kg) x v

So v = 15000 kg m/s divided by 15000 kg = 1 m/s

So both trucks will move 1 m/s right

Remember you have to consider both speeds.

Car Safety

Cars are designed to have crumple zones, which collapse during a collision and increase the time during which the car is
decelerating, decreasing the force.

Example:

A car travelling at 20 m/s collides with a stationary lorry and is brought to rest in just 0.02s. A woman in the car has a mass of 50
kg. What force does the woman experience?

Remember a stationary lorry has a momentum of 0 kg m/s.

Force = change in momentum/time taken

= (50 kg x 20 m/s – 50 kg x 0)/0.02
= 50000N

Using the same example, if the car was to have a crumple zone and the deceleration time (time taken) is increased from 0.02s to
1s, the impact causes a much smaller force of just 1000N to act on the passage, greatly increasing the chances of survival.

The Turning Effect of Forces

Forces have a turning effect. They tend to make objects turn around a fixed point called a pivot or a fulcrum. The turning effect
of a force about a pivot is called its moment.

Moment (Nm) = force (N) x perpendicular distance from pivot (m)

The perpendicular distance is basically the distance from the pivot to the line of force. It has to be 900 for the
correct value.

An object will be in balance if:

Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise movements

Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity is the point where the whole of the weight of the object
appears of act. It can be found by drawing lines of symmetry (if the object is
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rectangular or symmetrical) and finding the point which all the lines intersect, or, for an irregular shape, by suspending it freely
by a point on its edge and using a plumb line to indicate the space directly vertical to the point. The centre of gravity is always
vertically below the pivot so you can work out the centre of gravity by drawing a point somewhere in the middle of the plumb
line, or suspending the object at different points on its edge and finding out where all the lines intersect.

Objects with a low centre of gravity and a wide base are stable as it is difficult to knock over.

Parallel Forces Acting on a Plane

That’s basically using the principle of moments (clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment) to find out whatever the question
asks.

Forces Acting on a Beam

The upward forces on a light beam, supported at its ends, vary with the position of a heavy object placed on the beam.

For example(s):

400N 400N
400N

200N each
400N 300N 100N

Hooke’s Law

Elastic behavior is the ability of a material to recover its original shape after the forces causing deformation have been removed.
Hooke’s Law states that: load force is directly proportional to extension provided that it is within its elastic limit
Once the spring or whatever has been
stretched beyond the elastic limit, it will
change shape permanently and will not
return to its original shape.

Helical springs and metal wires give you a

graph like the left one (except in metal
wires, the graph is steeper). However,
elastic bands do not obey Hooke’s Law
and you get a graph like this (right).
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Unit 5: Waves
Waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter.

Waves can be shown by waggling one end of a rope or slinky. It can also be shown in water using a ripple tank.

The motor/oscillating paddle can be adjusted to produce vibrations that cause

ripples in the water. Because of the light, these ripples can be seen under the
tank.

 Transverse waves move at right

angles to the direction of the
motion of the wave. Examples
include light waves and water
waves.
 Longitudinal waves move along the
direction of the motion of the wave.
Examples include sound waves.
Amplitude Maximum movement of
(A) particles from their resting
position
Wavelength Distance between a point on a
(m) wave and the same point on
the next wave
Period (s) The time it takes to produce
one wave
Frequency The number of waves
(Hz) produced each second

The equation for wave speed:

Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)

V=fxλ

The equation for frequency:

Frequency (Hz) = 1/time period (s)

f = 1/T

Reflection
When waves strike a straight or flat barrier:

Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

Note that the red line is called the normal line.

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When waves strike a concave
barrier, they converge.

When waves strike a convex

barrier, they diverge.

Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction when waves enter a
medium. The length of the waves is altered but the frequency
isn’t. When waves hit shallow water, they’ll slow down and
bend towards the normal. When the waves leave the shallow
water, it will bend away from the normal.

Diffraction
If a barrier with a large gap is
placed in the path of waves, the majority of the waves passing through the gap continue in a
straight line. There are regions to the left and right of the gap where there are no waves. If the
size of the gap is adjusted so that it is equal to the wavelength of the water waves, they will
diffract. Diffraction can also happen when waves pass a single edge. Examples of this include
radio waves that are diffracted as they pass over hills.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum of waves. At one end of the spectrum,
the waves have very long wavelengths. At the other end, the waves have very short wavelengths.
All the waves have similar properties:

 They all transfer energy

 They are all transverse waves
 They all travel at the speed of light in vacuum (300 000 000m/s)
 They can all be reflected, refracted and diffracted

Below is a picture that shows the order of the EM spectrum in decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency. Learn them all
(except for the actual wavelengths and frequencies).
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Wave Uses Dangers of Excessive Exposure

Radio Waves Broadcasting and Communication – This None
includes television, telephone
conversations, radio broadcasts…
Microwaves Heating food and satellite Can directly heat internal body tissue –
communication serious damage can occur before pain is
felt
Infrared Heating devices and night vision Readily absorbed by skin and can cause
cameras skin burns
Visible Light Used by us to see things, in photography None
and optical fibres
Ultraviolet Used in fluorescent lamps and sterilizing Causes skin to tan. Overexposure will
water lead to sunburn, blistering, skin cancer
and blindness
X-rays Observing internal structure of objects Cell mutation and cancer
and materials and medical applications
Gamma Rays Sterilising food and equipment as well as Cell mutation and cancer
treat certain types of cancer

Light
Light is a transverse wave that can be reflected, refracted and diffracted. When it strikes a flat mirror/surface, the angle of
incidence = angle of reflection.

The image seen in a mirror is called a virtual image. There are no rays of light actually coming from the place where the image
seems to be (inside the mirror). It cannot be reproduced on screen.
It’s simply a misinterpretation of the brain. The opposite of this is a
real image. The image produced in a mirror is the same distance
behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. It is also laterally
inverted. This means when you raise your left hand, your mirror
image raises his right hand.

To summarise:

 The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in

front
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 The image is the same size as the object
 The image is virtual
 The image is laterally inverted

Refraction of Light
In vacuum, light travels at around 300 000 000m/s. However, when it enters a new medium such as
water, it travels more slowly and may cause a change in direction. This change in direction is called
refraction.

When white light passes through a prism, it emerges as a band of

colours called a spectrum. It’s formed because white light is a
mixture of colours and each colour travels through the prism at a
slightly different speed, so each colour is refracted by a different
angle. The prism has a refractive index for each colour and as a result, each colour emerges
from the prism travelling at a slightly different direction. This is called dispersion.
Refractive Index
The refractive index (n) is a constant that determines the amount
of refraction in a material. Its formula is:

n = sin i / sin r

The RF is simply a ratio between the sine of i and the sine of r,

so there is no unit.

Finding the RF of a Glass Block

1. Set up a ray box and shine light into
rectangular glass block.
2. Measure the angle of incidence and angle of
refraction.
3. Repeat step 2 a few times.
4. Use the formula to work out the refractive
index (use deg, not radians).

Total Internal Reflection

When a ray of light passes from an optically more dense medium into an optically less dense medium such as from glass to air,
the majority of the light is refracted away from the normal. However, there is a small amount that is reflected from the boundary.
Total internal reflection occurs when all light is reflected from the boundary.

When the incidence ray is at an angle

where the refracted ray is 900 to the
normal, it is called the critical angle.
It is the angle at which anything
bigger, and total internal reflection
will occur. Its formula:

n = 1/ sin c
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Optical Fibres
The fibres are very narrow, so light entering the inner
core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at
an angle greater than the critical angle. Bundles of
fibres carry sufficient light for images of objects to be
seen through them. Optical fibres are used in
endoscopes to see inside the body. It illuminates the
object to be viewed.
The
Prismatic
Periscope
Unlike normal periscopes (which use plane mirrors to reflect light), prismatic periscopes
use glass prisms. Light strikes the prism at an angle greater than the critical angle for
glass. The light then gets totally internally reflected twice before emerging parallel to the
direction in which it was originally travelling.

The final image created is sharper and brighter than those produced by a plane mirror
periscope. As well as that, no multiple images will be created.

Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel through gases, liquids
and solids. They travel slower in air, at around 340m/s and faster in
solids. Sound waves cannot travel in vacuum. Sound waves can be
reflected, refracted and diffracted.

Frequency Range for Humans: 20Hz – 20 000Hz (hertz)

Measuring the Speed of Sound

1. Stand 50m away from a large, blank wall and clap wood blocks. Listen for an echo. Set up a rhythm of claps so that the
echo comes exactly between two claps. Ask a friend to time 20 claps. During this time, sound has travelled 2000m (to
the wall and back 20 times). Divide this distance by the time to work out the speed of sound.

2. Turn on the single generator so it produces a known frequency (such as 1 kHz). Move the microphones so that the two
waves that form on the oscilloscope are exactly on top of each other. This would show that the microphones are at 1
wavelength away from each other. Measure the distance between the microphones. The speed of sound can be worked
out using the formula v = f x λ

An image of a sound wave produced in a oscilloscope will look like this:

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To determine the frequency of a sound wave, find the time period

for one complete wave and use the relationship f = 1/T to find
calculate the frequency.

 The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the

vibration (of the waves).
 The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency of the
vibration.

Letter Description
P High pitched, loud
Q Low pitched, soft
R High pitched, soft
S Low pitched, soft

 The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

 The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.

Digital and Analogue Signals

When telephones, fax-machines and internet-linked computers transmit information, they must convert the information into a
stream of electrical/light pulses. These pulses carry information as analogue or digital signals.

Digital Signal Information is converted into a sequence of 0s and 1s called a binary code. These numbers are then
converted into a series of electrical pulses.
Analogue Signal Information is converted into electrical voltages or currents that vary continuously.

Advantages of Using Digital Signals

All signals become weaker during transmission as they lose energy or they pick up unwanted signals such as interference or
noise. As a result, signals need to be amplified.

Regeneration of digital signals creates a clean, accurate copy of the original signal as it simply restores their distinct ‘0’ and ‘1’
shape.

On the other hand, when analogue signals are amplified, any accompanying noise is also amplified. These unwanted noises may
drown out the original signal or introduce errors in the information being carried.

Digital signals can be made very short so more pulses can be carried
around per second, meaning more information is passed on.
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Unit 6: Radioactivity

The Atom
Atoms are made up of electrons protons and neutrons.

Atomic Particle Relative Mass of Particle Relative Charge

Neutron 1 0

Proton 1 +1

Electron 1/1836 -1

 The mass number shows the sum of the number of protons + neutrons
 The atomic number shows the number of protons (not necessarily electrons!)
 Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

The number of protons in an atom identifies the element. The chemical behaviour of the element depends on the number of
electrons it has.

Atoms of an element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes.

Understanding the Stability of Atoms

The protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear force of neutrons. It is strong enough to hold the protons together as they
would try to repel each other due to like positive charges. Too many or too few neutrons will make the nucleus unstable. The
unstable nucleus will eventually decay, giving out energy and altering its balance of neutrons and protons. It may also give out
ionising radiations in a random process. Since the process is random, it is not possible to predict which unstable nucleus in a
piece of radioactive material will decay, or when the decay will happen.

Ionising Radiation
There are three types of ionising radiation:
alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Ionising radiation causes uncharged atoms
to lose electrons, turning it into an ion. The penetration power of the
radiation depends on the interaction between the radiation particles and other
particles. If they have a small range, it means they interact frequently with
atoms along their paths (such as atoms in the air) and therefore, lose their
energy quicker.
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Radiation About Ionising Penetrating Range in Radiation

Power Power Air Stopped By
Alpha Fast – moving helium (42He) nuclei that are thrown out High Weak 5 – 8cm A few mm of
of unstable nuclei. They have a relatively large mass and Paper
a relative charge of +2.
Beta Very fast – moving electrons that are ejected by a Medium Medium 500 – A few mm of
decaying nucleus. However, the electrons don’t come 1000cm Alnuminium
from the shell. It involves a neutron splitting up into a
proton and an electron. The electron is ejected at high
speed as a beta particle and the proton remains in the
nucleus. Beta particles are very light and have a relative
charge of -1. Since they are smaller and carry less
charge, they interact with matter in their paths less
frequently and therefore, have a greater range.
Gamma Electromagnetic waves that are weakly ionising and Weak Strong Infinite A few cm of
move very fast, making them extremely penetrating. Lead
Since they are waves, they have no mass or charge.
Gamma radiation is emitted in ‘packets’ of energy called
photons.

Describing the Effects on the Atomic and Mass Numbers of a Nucleus of the Emission of Each
of the Three Types of Radiation

If the decay process involves the nucleus ejecting either an alpha or a beta
particle, the atomic number will change. This basically means that alpha or
beta causes the original element to transform into a different element.
Gamma radiation – since they are waves, will not change either the atomic
or mass number of the element.

Alpha

The general form of an alpha decay equation is:


A A–4 4
Z Y Z-2 W + 2 He + Energy
The helium nucleus is the alpha particle. This is called a nuclear equation. Everything needs to be balanced out. Here is an
example of alpha decay involving a radium atom splitting into a radon atom and an alpha particle:

Ra 
222 218 4
88 86 Rn + 2 He + Energy

Beta

The general form of the beta decay equation is:


A A 0
Z Y Z+1 W + -1 e + Energy
An example involving the radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, decaying to form the stable isotope of the gas nitrogen:

14 14 0
6 7 -1
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C  N + e + Energy
Gamma

As mentioned earlier, gamma rays don’t alter the mass or atomic number of the nucleus. It is emitted when an unstable nucleus
have surplus energy, even after emitting an alpha or beta particle.

Detecting Ionising Radiation

Photographic film is used by scientists to detect radioactivity. If the film becomes fogged, it shows that the scientist has been
exposed to a certain amount of radiation. These films are checked regularly to ensure that the safety limit for exposure to ionising
radiation is not exceeded.

The Geiger – Müller Tube

When ionising radiation enters the tube, it causes the low

pressure gas inside to form ions. The ions allow a pulse
of current to flow from the electrode to the conducting
layer. This then gets recorded in the counting circuit as a
‘click’ sound. Sometimes, GM tubes are connected to
rate meters, which measure the number of ionising
events per second and therefore, give out a measure of
radioactivity in Becquerels.

Radioactivity is measured in Becquerels (Bq). It is a

measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating
per second. More practical units are kBq (an average of 1000 disintegrations per second) and MBq (an average of 1000000
disintegrations per second), as 1 Bq is an extremely small unit.

Background Radiation
Background radiation is low-level ionising radiation that is produced all the time. Sources include:

 Radon gas
 Ground, buildings and medical facilities
 Nuclear power
 Cosmic Rays from nuclear reactions in stars
Half – Life
The half – life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the original mass of the sample to decay. It is different
for different radioactive isotopes.

Plotting the count rate in Bq or the mass, will get you a graph that
looks something like the one on the right. Notice however, the line
will never reach the x – axis, because 0 isn’t the half of any other
number but 0.

In this example, the half life can be deduced by dividing the initial
mass/count rate by 2. In this case, it’s 100/2 = 50. The time it takes
for 50kg of tritium to decay is about 13 years.

This means that in 13 years time (i.e. it’s second half life), half the
remaining mass will be gone. In this case, that’s 50/2 = 25kg gone.

Example:

The activity of a sample of a certain isotope is found to be 200 Bq.

If the isotope has a half-life of 20 minutes, what will the activity of
the sample be after one hour?
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After 20 minutes, the activity will be 200/2 = 100

After 40 minutes, the activity will be 100/2 = 50
After 60 minutes… 50/2 = 25 Bq

Uses of Radioactivity
Medical Tracers

Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers to help doctors identify diseased organs. It is a chemical compound that emits gamma
radiation. The tracer is either swallowed or injected. Its passage around the body can be traced using a gamma ray camera.

Different compounds are chosen for different diagnostic tasks. For example, the isotope iodine -123 is
absorbed by the thyroid gland in the same way as the stable form of iodine. The isotope decays and
emits gamma radiation. The gamma ray camera can then be used to form a clear image of the thyroid
gland. The half-life of iodine-123 is about 13 hours. A short half-life is important as this means the
activity of the tracer decreases to a very low level in a few days.

Radiotherapy

Cancer can be treated by chemicals containing radioactive isotopes. Unfortunately, the radiation kills
healthy cells as well as diseased ones. To minimize damage, chemicals are used to target the location
of the cancer in the body. They may emit alpha or beta radiation. Both types have a short range in the body, and so they will only
affect a small volume of tissue close to the target.

Sterilisation Using Radiation – Called Irradiation

Ionising radiation is used to kill micro-organisms on surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Some food products are
treated in a similar way to make sure they are free from any bacteria that will cause food poisoning. However, it will not destroy
any poisons that bacteria may have already produced. Irradiation however, does not destroy vitamins in the food.

Non-medical Tracers

Gamma rays can be used to track the flow of liquids in industrial processes.
Complex piping systems, like heat exchangers in power stations, can be
monitored for leaks. Radioactive tracers are even used to measure the rate of
dispersal of sewage.

Radioactive Dating

Radioactive dating measures the levels of the isotope carbon-14, to predict the age of living organisms. Since the chemical
behaviour of the isotopes is the same, this means that carbon-14 reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, and this is also
absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Incorporated in plant material, the isotope enters the food chain. This means that in living
organisms, the carbon-14 atoms are continuously replaced by new ones.

When an organism dies, the replacement process stops, and the carbon-14 decays in the remains of the organism. By measuring
the amount of carbon-14 still present in the dead organism, it is possible to estimate when the organism died. The half-life for
carbon-14 is about 5600 years.

Dangers of Ionising Radiation

 Radiation can cause cell mutations in living organisms, leading to cancer. This is because the radiation may cause the
cell to start behaving in an unexpected way. The cell may either die, or start dividing uncontrollably.
 Radiation can damage cells and tissue – but cells usually suffer this all the time and can repair itself, unless of course, it
starts to mutate. Alpha particles have little penetrating power and present little risk when outside the body. However, if
the alpha source is breathed in or taken in through eating food, the problem of alpha radiation is a lot greater as its
ionising power is strong. Beta and gamma radiation can penetrate skin and flesh from outside the body, causing cell
damage. The damage depends on how much of the energy of the radioactive particle is absorbed by ionising atoms
along their path. When absorbed by the body, beta and gamma emitters present less risk than alpha emitters, because of
their low ionising power.
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 Disposal of Radioactive waste – nuclear waste must be stored in sealed containers that can contain the radioactivity for
enormously long periods of time, as the radioactive isotopes used have an extremely long half-life (we’re talking
millions of years).

Safety precautions for handling radioactive materials in the lab include:

 Storing samples in lead containers

 Clearly labeling the containers as a radiation hazard
 Handling samples using tongs and kept as far from the body as possible
 In the nuclear industry, they are handled by operators who are shielded by lead and thick glass viewing panels.

Geiger and Marsden’s Experiments – Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

Rutherford was a scientist who wanted to know what the atom was really made out of and how it looked. He worked with Geiger
and Marsden to carry out a series of experiments that involves firing alpha particles at very thin gold foil.

The zinc sulphide screen gives out tiny sparks of light, called scintillations, when hit by an alpha particle. Most of the alpha

particles passed straight through the gold foil (A). Once in a while, an alpha particle was knocked off course (B). A very small
proportion (about 1 in 8000) actually seemed to bounce off the gold foil (C).

Rutherford deduced these things:

 Since most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil, most of each gold atom must be empty space.
 However, he knew that atoms did have mass so they could not just be empty space. The rare event of a rebound meant
that an alpha particle had run into something massive. He realised that the mast must be concentrated in a very tiny
volume at the centre of the atom, called the nucleus.
 The deflections and rebounds were because the positive charges on the alpha particles we repelled by positive charges
in the nuclei.

The amount of deflection depended on:

 The speed of the alpha particle – the particle is deflected less if it is travelling faster
 The nuclear charge – if the nucleus is strongly positive, then the alpha particle will be more strongly repelled
 How close the alpha particle gets to the positively charged nucleus

From this, the experiment gave evidence for the

existence of the nucleus as well as an estimation of
the size of the nucleus (its diameter is about 10000
times smaller than the diameter of its atom).

Nuclear Fission
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Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor, because its nuclei can be split by a neutron. The process of splitting an atom is
called fission. U-235 is called a fissile material because it goes through the splitting process easily.

The process is shown below:

In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a

nucleus of uranium – 235 (as faster, more energetic neutrons do not
cause fission; also it has a neutral charge and so, is not repelled by
the positive charges of the nuclei)

The resulting uranium-236 is unstable and splits apart.

This forms two daughter nuclei: barium-144 and krypton-89 as well

as gamma radiation and three more neutrons.

The process produces a huge amount of energy, most of which is

carried away as kinetic energy of the two lighter nuclei.

The three neutrons produced may hit other uranium-235 nuclei,

causing the process to repeat continuously. This results in a chain
reaction.

The reaction is controlled to avoid a nuclear explosion. The heat

produced is used to heat water into steam, which will then drive
turbines to turn generators.

The equation for this decay is:

236
92 U  144
56 Ba + 89
36 Kr + 3 1
0 n + Gamma radiation
The Nuclear Reactor
 The graphite moderator absorbs some of the kinetic energy of
the neutrons to slow them down and increase the probability of
them being absorbed.

 The control rods, made of boron or cadmium, absorb the

neutrons to take them out of the fission process completely or to
control the reaction.

Unit 7: Magnets and Electromagnetism

Magnets repel and attract other magnets, as well as magnetic substances. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

Hard magnetic materials are ‘hard’ to demagnetise – and are used for making magnets and other things that we want to stay
magnetised. Such materials include steel.

Soft magnetic materials demagnetise easily and are used in things like relays
and electric motors. Such materials include iron.

Magnetism can be induced into certain alloys, compounds and metals. The
permanent magnet induces a magnetic effect in the unmagnetised material with
an unlike pole nearest the pole of the magnet (e.g. sticking the North pole of a
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magnet near a paperclip will cause the side of the paperclip facing the magnet to have a South pole). This is why unmagnetised
materials like iron are always attracted to magnets.

Magnetic field lines show the direction, strength and shape of the magnetic field. It always goes from the North to the South.

Electromagnets

When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is produced. It can be made by coiling a wire (a solenoid) around a soft iron core
and connecting the wires to a cell. The magnet can be made stronger by increasing the current or number of coils.

Straight wire

Flat circular coil

Solenoid

The Right-Hand Grip Rule

The right hand grip rule is a good way to remember the direction of the field lines. Using the
thumb of your right hand, point towards the direction of the current and wrap your hands
normally around the wire. The thumb shows the current and the fingers show the field.

Note: In magnetism, when pointing towards the direction of the current, you do it, the
‘convectional current’ way – as in current flows from positive to negative (I don’t know why
but yeah).

The Motor Effect

There is a force on a charged particle when it moves in a
magnetic field as long as it is not parallel to the field. Since an electric current is a flow of electrons
– which are charged particles, we can see this effect. If we pass a current through a wire held at 900
to the field of the magnet, the wire will move. This motion is the result of a force created by
overlapping fields called the motor effect.

This is because (referring to the above diagram) there are two magnetic fields, one from the current
flowing through the wire; and one from the magnets. At some points, the field lines of
both fields are in the same direction, so they reinforce each other and produce a
stronger field. At other points however, the go against – or in opposite directions to
each other, producing a weaker field (like forces in a way, when there are two opposing
forces, the stronger force cancels out the weaker force but the overall unbalanced force
is decreased). Anyways the wire experiences a force
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that pushes it from the stronger field to the weaker field. This force can be increased by increasing the current or using a stronger
magnet.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

If shown a diagram and asked to predict the direction of the movement of the wire, you can use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (note:
remember the name – it will be asked). REMEMBER: THE CURRENT WE’RE TALKING ABOUT IS THE
CONVECTIONAL CURRENT.

The Moving-Coil Loudspeaker

The moving-coil loudspeaker uses the motor effect to change electrical energy to sound
energy. Signals from the source such as an amplifier are fed into the coil of the speaker as
currents that are continually changing in size and direction. This means each time the
current changes, the direction of the wire’s field changes and overlaps with the magnet’s
field differently. This results in a varying – vibrating force that causes the cone to vibrate,
creating sound waves that we hear.

The Electric Motor

Get ready to not get anything!

When a current passes through the conducting loop of wire, one side
of the loop experiences a downward force and the other side
experiences an upward force – this is because when the current comes
back to the carbon brushes, its direction relative to the field has
changed. And so loop turns clockwise. After turning 1800 (a half turn),
the split rings (the yellow thing stuck to the brushes) swap over (they
turn with the loop) so their connections to the supply through the
brushes change direction. This also means that the current flowing
through each direction changes direction. This ensures that the rotation
is continuous.

Increasing the rate at which the motor turns can be done by:

 Increasing the number of loops

 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
 Increasing the current

Electromagnetic Induction
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Motors use electricity to produce movement. Generators do the opposite. When we move a wire across a magnetic field at right
angles, a voltage is induced. If the wire is part of a complete circuit, a current flows. This is called electromagnetic induction.

It can be increased by:

 Moving the wire more quickly

 Using a stronger magnetic
 Coiling the wire

You can also induce voltage by pushing a magnet into a coil. To increase the
voltage:

 Move the magnet more quickly

 Using a stronger magnet
 Using a coil with more turns
 Using a coil with a larger cross-sectional area

Since there is a force acting on a charged particle in a magnetic field as long as it

is not parallel to the field. Why is that? Because voltage is generated when the
magnetic lines of flux (field lines) are being cut. The size of the induced voltage
across the ends of a wire (coil) is directly proportional to the rate at which the magnetic lines of flux are being cut.

Generating Electricity

As the coil (armature loop) rotates (due to movement such as the

spinning of turbines), its wires cut through the magnetic field
lines, resulting current to be induced. Since movement is
controlled, the coil will only spin one way. This means that
the current will change direction every half turn (left hand
rule). This means the induced current is alternating.

The Transformer
Electromagnetic Induction in
Transformers are used to increase or a Bicycle Dynamo
decrease voltages using the concept of
electromagnetic induction. Step-up As the cyclist pedals, the
transformers increase them and step-down magnet rotates. Its field cuts
transformers decrease them. through the coils, inducing a
current.
How does it work? When an alternating
current is passed through the coil, its field is continuously changing
(because the direction of the current changes). If a second coil is placed
near the first, this changing or fluctuating magnetic field will pass
through it and cut through the wires of the second coil, inducing voltage
across it. It’s abit like moving a magnet in and out of a solenoid. The
first coil is called the primary coil and the second coil is called the
secondary coil. Note: transformers don’t work unless the input
voltage/current is alternating.
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The relationship between the voltage and the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils:

Input voltage/Output voltage = number of turns on the primary coil/number of turns on the secondary coil
Vp/Vs = np/ns

If the efficiency of the transformer is 100% then:

Input power = Output power

Pin = POut
Power = Voltage x Current so
Vp x I p = V s x I s
The National Grid

The UK National Gird is a network of wires and cables that carries electrical energy from power stations to consumers such as
factories and homes. High currents will result in lots of energy lost in the form of heat, therefore, current is kept at a minimum,
and this is done by producing high voltages.

P = VI
V = IR --- so substituting V results in P = (IR)I, or P = I2R the formula for power loss in transmission lines

Input power = Output power, so power is constant. Increasing the current will result in energy lost so that’s not good. Therefore,
to reduce current you must increase voltage. This is done by passing the generated electricity through step-up transformers. The
voltage is increased here to about 400kV. This then passes through the cables to some step-down transformers, which decreases
the voltage to 230V, increasing the current at the same time. The electricity then goes to our houses.
Unit 8: Astronomy

Planets are non-luminous objects. They are held in orbit by the gravitational pull of the sun. Their orbits are elliptical (like
circles).

Moons are examples of natural satellites. They are natural objects that orbit a planet. They are non-luminous objects and their
motions are determined by gravitational forces of the planet they orbit around.
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Comets are made up of dust and ice. They also orbit the sun. Their orbits are:

 Elliptical
 Close to the sun at one focus
 At the far end of the solar system at another focus
 Has a period of more than 1 Earth year

All these belong to the solar system, which is part of the Milky
Way galaxy.

A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars. The universe is a

large collection of billions of galaxies.

The orbital speed is calculated by:

Orbital speed = (2 x π x orbital radius) / time period

Or orbital speed = 2πr/T

Gravitational Force
Gravitational force:

 Causes the planets to orbit the sun

 Causes the moon and artificial satellites (as in man-made) to orbit the Earth
 Causes comets to orbit the sun

It is a force of attraction between two objects due to its masses. If the masses
of the objects are small, the gravitational attraction is too small to be
noticeable. However, when the masses are as big as planets, the force is more
obvious (it causes planets to orbit the sun).

And that’s all for physics!