The Ultimate IGCSE Physics Guide
The Ultimate IGCSE Physics Guide
The Ultimate IGCSE Physics Guide
Science
The Ultimate
IGCSE Guide
to Physics
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Density = Mass/Volume
P = m/v
Example: A piece of iron has a mass of 390kg and a volume of 0.05m3. What is its density?
P = m/v
P = 390kg/0.05m3
= 7800kg/m3 Remember the unit! Density can be kg/m3, g/cm3…etc
For a cuboid like this, simply multiply its length, width and height. I’m assuming you know this, but if
not, work up your maths man…
Pressure
Pressure in Solids
Lets start like this: You can easily push a pin into a piece of wood quite easily, but it is pretty much impossible to make a hole in
the wood with your finger. You can try with little success (and end up with splinters all over your fingers). Why is that? The
small point of the drawing pin concentrates all your pushing force into a tiny area, so the pin goes into the wood easily.
To get to the point, pressure is defined as the force per unit area. Force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in
square metres (m2). The unit for pressure is N/m2 or Pa (for Pascals).
Unfortunately, there is an equation that comes with pressure and this is ONLY FOR SOLIDS:
Example: A woman weighs 600N and the total area of her shoes in contact with the ground is 0.0015m2. Find the pressure she is
exerting to the ground.
p = f/a
p = 600N/0.0015m2
= 400000Pa (or 400kPa)
Pressure in liquids act equally in all directions as long as the liquid is not moving. This is the same for gases. The pressure in air
is a staggering 100000Pa, but since the pressure inside our bodies are similar, we don’t feel the pressure. The pressure in air is
also referred to as 1.0 atmosphere.
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Pressure (in Pa) = Height/Depth (in m) x Density (in kg/m3) x Gravitational Field Strength (in N/kg)
Or p = hdg Note that g is usually 10N/kgv
Example: Justin Bieber’s (oh my god!) swimming pool has a depth of 3m. What is the total pressure of the swimming pool? Take
the gravitational field strength to be 10N/kg and the density of water to be 1kg/m3 (ignore the swimming pool being chlorinated
‘cause JB’s swimming pool is always clean anyways).
p = hdg (the actual equation is p=hpg, but I’m not bothered finding that special p for density)
p = 3m x 1kg/m3 x 10N/kg
p = 30Pa
Brownian Motion: The continual random movement of microscopic particles. When particles collide into one another, this causes
a change in speed and direction of the particles, making them randomly move about.
Boyle’s Law
Example: Atmospheric pressure is 100kPa. Some air in a sealed container has a volume of 2m3 at atmospheric pressure. What
would be the pressure of the air if you reduced its volume to 0.2m3?
100kPa = 100000Pa
P1V1 = p2V2
100000Pa x 2m3 = p2 x 0.2m3
200000 = 0.2p2
P2 = 1000000Pa
= 1000kPa
And in words…
Boyle’s Law: At a constant temperature and with a fixed mass of gas, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
Question: How does a gas exert a pressure on the walls of its container?
Billions of tiny air particles move about in continual random motion. Particle collisions with the walls of the container exerts a
force, which gets distributed over the area of the wall of the container, hence, exerting a pressure.
Pressure Law
Temperature also has an effect on the pressure of a gas. This is shown in an experiment
set up on the right. When water is heated gradually, the air is also heated, changing the
reading on the pressure gauge. Plot down the results and you’d get a graph that looks
something like this.
Wait a minute…
shouldn’t the pressure be
at zero pascals? No. This
is because pressure is
NOT proportional to
temperate in Celsius. But
what happens if you continue cooling the gas? You’d find that
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when pressure is zero, the temperate would be at -2730C. This temperate is known as absolute zero. When converted to kelvins
(another type of measurement for temperature), absolute zero is zero kelvins. But back to the point, what would happen if you
converted the temperatures into kelvins?
Pressure1/Temperature1 = Pressure1/Temperature1
Or p1/T1 = p2/T2
Example: You take an empty tin and put the lid on tightly. You heat it
using a Bunsen burner until the temperature of the air inside is 500C.
What is the pressure of the air inside the tin? The temperature of the
room is 200C and atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.
Pressure Law: With a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume, pressure is proportional to temperature (in Kelvins).
States of Matter
Solids Liquids Gases
Particles are closely packed. Particles are closely packed. No fixed positions.
Regular structure. Irregular structure. Move at rapid random motion.
Vibrate about fixed positions. Random motion within structure. Are very spread out.
Unit 2: Energy
What the hell is energy? Well, energy is used everywhere! We need to use energy to walk, to life
objects, to push, to pull, and in most cases, to think. Machines also need to use energy to power up.
That’s why your iPod can’t last forever without electricity! We get our energy from food and it is
then transferred into other forms of energy such as kinetic energy and heat energy. What the hell
are you talking about? Well you will find out later.
This table summarises some of the different types of energy that you will need to learn about in GCSE.
Energy Description
Chemical Energy that is stored in food or batteries. We burn it into other forms of energy.
Thermal Also known as heat energy. Most energy is wasted by turning into this. We use thermal
energy to keep ourselves warm.
Sound Also a possible form of waste energy. But I’m sure you know what sound is. It is a series of
longitudinal waves – but we’ll get to that later.
Light This energy emits a light. We need light to see things. Things like light bulbs have energy
that is converted to this.
Electrical Most of the energy we need is converted from electrical energy. Electrical energy can be
made from other forms of energy.
Gravitational Potential Stored energy that varies depending on where you are. The higher, the more.
Kinetic Also known as movement energy. Electrical energy is converted to kinetic energy to make
motors work. We get this from chemical energy.
Geothermal Energy from the heat underground – stored in the Earth’s core. This is found in volcanoes
and thermal springs.
Elastic Potential Energy that is stored in springs. This type of energy is found in catapults and bows.
Nuclear Energy The energy released when unstable uranium atoms in the nuclear reactor break down and
form a chain reaction.
When we run, chemical energy from our food is converted to kinetic energy. Some of it is wasted by being converted into
thermal energy, making us hot.
When a vibrator is used, chemical energy from the battery is converted into electrical energy, which is then converted into
kinetic energy. Some is wasted through sound energy.
Efficiency
Energy will never disappear. It can only be wasted – or converted into other forms of energy. Physicists believe that the amount
of energy in the Universe is constant – which means we cannot use energy up.
When we are considering energy transfers, we must remember that a proportion of the energy input is wasted. Real systems can
never have 100% efficiency. The useful output energy will always be less than the input. Efficiency is given in percentage –
usually anyway, but read the question for the specific unit.
To calculate efficiency:
A filament lamp might have a 5% efficiency. The other 95% is lost through heat.
Nuclear power has an efficiency of 35%. The rest is lost through heat and other forms of energy.
When one is running, some of his/her energy is lost through heat and friction.
Energy Transfer
Conduction
Transfer of thermal energy through a substance without the substance itself moving. Metals are good thermal conductors.
Something like plastic is not, and therefore, it is a good insulator. Conduction is carried out when particles transfer their energy to
other particles. These gain energy and then pass it on to other particles, and so on. In thermal conductors, there are free electrons
that can move easily through the structure of the conductor to speed the energy transfer.
Convection
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Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward
movement of warmer, less dense regions of fluid. Hot air tends to rise and cool air tends
to fall. ACs and heaters are therefore, positioned differently. The AC is positioned near
the ceiling, so cool air that comes out of it will fall, whereas, heaters are placed on the
floor so hot air can rise from it. In cooking ovens, a heating element is placed at the
bottom of the oven. It heats the nearby air, which makes it rise. Woolen clothing trap
air, which forms an insulating layer to prevent heat loss. Convection can be seen by
placing potassium manganate (VII) into a beaker of water on a Bunsen burner. The
hotter water expands and floats up to the beaker. Colder water sinks to take its place
and gets heated too. Meanwhile the hot air starts to cool and sink. This makes a
circulating current, called convection current.
Radiation
Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infra-red (IR) waves. IR waves travel in a
straight line, and are used in special cameras and other devices. It can travel through a vacuum. We receive heat from the Sun
through radiation.
IR waves can be reflected and absorbed by different materials. Shiny surfaces are good reflectors. Dark surfaces are poor
reflectors, but good absorbers of heat radiation.
House Insulation
Walls
Double Glazing
Loft Insulation
Fire fighters use protective clothing to reduce the amount of heat getting to their bodies.
Clothes trap air around the body to provide insulation.
Hats are the human equivalent of loft insulation.
Marathon runners or people suffering from hypothermia are wrapped in thin, highly reflective blankets.
Birds fluff up their feathers to trap air.
Some huddle together for warmth.
Other animals curl into small balls – this minimizes the exposed surface area.
Work
Work done is equal to energy transferred (because energy is the ability to do work). To calculate work:
Example: A weightlifter raises an object that weights 500N through a distance of 2m. Calculate the work done:
W=FxD
= 500N x 2m
= 1000J
Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed because of its position. It increases with height, if the mass and
gravitational field is constant. If an object is raised above the ground, it gains GPE. Once it is dropped, the GPE turns into kinetic
energy. When the object reaches the ground, all the KE is turned into heat, sound and other forms of energy. To calculate GPE:
Change in GPE (joules) = Mass (kg) x Gravitational Field Strength (N/kg) x Height (m)
GPE = m g h
Kinetic Energy
Power
Wind Wind is caused by huge convection currents in the Earth's KE Electrical Energy
atmosphere, driven by heat energy from the Sun. The moving air
has huge amounts of kinetic energy, and this can be transferred Ads: Renewable
into electrical energy using wind turbines. DisAds: Noisy, ugly, wind level varies
Waves Wave machines use the up and down movement of waves to turn KE Electrical Energy
electricity generators.
Ads: Renewable
DisAds: Difficult to build
Tides Tidal barrages are built across the mouths of rivers. As water KE Electrical Energy
moves in or out of the river mouth when the tide turns, the kinetic
energy in the water is used to turn electricity generators. Ads: Renewable
DisAds: Expensive, harm wildlife
Water Hydroelectric power (HEP) schemes store water high up in dams. GPE KE Electrical Energy
The water has gravitational potential energy. As the water rushes
down through pipes, this GPE is transferred to kinetic energy, Ads: Renewable
which turns electricity generators. DisAds: Ugly, disrupt wildlife, expensive
Geother- In some places the rocks underground are hot. Deep wells can be Thermal Energy KE Electrical Energy
mal drilled and cold water pumped down to be heated by the rocks. It
returns to the surface as hot water and steam, where its energy can Ads: Renewable
be used to drive turbines and electricity generators DisAds: Deep drilling is difficult
Solar Solar panels do not generate electricity. Instead they heat up water Thermal Energy Electrical Energy
Heating directly. A pump pushes cold water from a storage tank through
pipes in the solar panel. The water is heated by heat energy from Ads: Renewable, quick
the Sun and returns to the tank. DisAds: Sun’s heat energy varies
Solar Solar cells are devices that convert light energy directly into Light Energy Electrical Energy
Cells electrical energy. You may have seen small solar cells on
calculators. Larger arrays of solar cells are used to power road Ads: Renewable
signs, and even larger arrays are used to power satellites in orbit DisAds: Sunshine varies, expensive, not very
around Earth. efficient
Fossil Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels. Chemical energy Chemical Energy Heat Energy Electrical
Fuels from dead remains is stored within these. The energy is transferred Energy
to thermal energy and light energy when the fuels burn.
Ads: Efficient
DisAds: Scarce, causes pollution
Nuclear The heat from the chain reaction caused by the radioactive decay Thermal Energy KE Electrical Energy
Power of unstable uranium-236 nuclei is used to boil water, which
produces steam that turns turbines. Ads: Efficient
DisAds: Highly dangerous, U-236 is scarce
Biomass Biomass fuels come from living things such as wood. Chemical Chemical Energy Heat Energy Electrical
energy stored in these are burned to release heat energy which Energy
heats up water into steam. The steam is then used to turn turbines
which generate electricity. Ads: Renewable
DisAds: Huge areas of land are needed
Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
Speed
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To calculate speed:
The gradient of the line tells us the speed of the car. The steeper, the faster. The picture on the right shows acceleration on a
distance-time graph. A straight line means a steady speed. A horizontal line means stationary.
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which objects change their velocity. To calculate acceleration:
Velocity-Time Graphs
The steeper the gradient, the greater the
acceleration.
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The area under the line on a speed-time graph represents the distance travelled.
Unit 3: Electricity
Unit What It Measures The live wire provides a path which electricity from the power station travels
Ampere (A) Current (I) along. The neutral wire completes the circuit. The earth wire provides a low
Coulomb (C) Charge (Q) resistance path for the current to flow in case of a fault.
Joule (J) Energy (E)
Ohm (Ω) Resistance (R)
Second (s) Time (t)
Hazards of Electricity
Voltage (V) Volts (V)
Watt (W) Power (P)
Safety Features
Wiring in a house is designed to let current pass through it easily – it has a low resistance.
However, things such as kettles or toasters have wires with high resistance. As the current passes through the element, energy is
transferred and the element heats up. This heating effect is also used in dishwashers, cookers, washing machines etc.
It is also used in lights. Normal light bulbs have a very thin filament which gets so hot when current passes through it that it
glows white. This effect is what causes electric fires too, but can be used in fan heaters, hair dryers…etc.
Resistors are used in circuits to control the sizes of currents and voltages. Without one, the voltage
across a bulb may cause too large a current to flow through and cause the bulb to blow. An extra
amount of energy is needed to push charges through the resistance, and this can cause a rise in
temperature as the energy may be converted to heat.
Ohm’s Law
To calculate resistance:
Ohm’s Law: The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) across its
ends, provided its temperature remains the same.
However, this is not the case for a metal filament bulb. Resistance of the bulb increases because temperature increases. When
temperature increases, the positive atoms vibrate more vigorously, impeding the flow of electrons. You get a curve (left picture).
Thermistors
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors, for example, in fire alarms. It is made from semiconducting
material such as silicon or germanium.
At low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is high, and little current can flow through
them.
At high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is low, and more current can flow through them.
LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light levels, for example, in automatic security lights,
photographic equipment, automatic lighting controls and burglar alarms.
In the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high, and little current can flow
through it.
In bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low, and more current can flow through it.
Diodes
Diodes are resistors that direct the flow of current to one direction only. Current can only flow through
one direction due to a part of the diode with low resistance and cannot flow the opposite way due to the
high resistance at the other end of the diode. Diodes are used in rectifier circuits that convert alternating
current to direct current. It can also make logic gates (something in the Cambridge syllabus and thank
GOD it is not Edexcel).
All these resistors can be investigated by sticking them into a circuit and adjusting
the voltage, then comparing it with the current and then plotting a graph.
Meet Mr.Coulomb:
Mr. Coulomb is a single charge. He carries voltage, emptying it for his fellow light bulbs, arriving at the batteries to take more
voltage until it runs out. Current is the rate of flow of charge. If we have 9 Mr.
Coulombs running around at once then that’s our current.
To calculate charge:
Lamps and LEDs (light emitting diodes) will glow when there is a current flowing in the circuit.
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Different Types of Circuits
Series Circuits
In a series circuit, current is the same throughout the circuit. The size of the current depends on the voltage supplied and the
number and nature of the other components in the circuit. If more bulbs are added, there will be a greater resistance throughout
the circuit.
In a series circuit, the total resistance is the resistance of all the other resistors added
up.
Parallel Circuits
Parallel circuits have branches so there are more paths for the current to flow. This means that it is possible to turn different parts
of the circuit on or off by using switches. The voltages across components in a parallel circuit are all equal. Current however,
halves at every junction.
Switches can be placed to switch individual bulbs or switch them all on together.
If one bulb breaks, only the other components from the same branch would break.
If more bulbs are added, since voltage is the same, all bulbs will be equally bright – however, voltage runs out quicker.
Lights in your home are wired in parallel.
Voltage
Use a voltmeter.
The voltmeter must be connected in parallel.
Current
Use an ammeter.
The voltmeter must be connected in series.
Short Circuits
Current will always choose the path with least resistance. This circuit will not light because there is
a path available with less resistance (i.e. without a bulb) for Mr. Coulomb. This obviously means
that the current would choose to take that path instead, which means the bulb won’t light.
Alternating Current
Direct Current
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The flow of electricity is in one direction.
Cells and batteries provide this.
Conductors allow current to flow easily through the circuit. These are usually metals, where charge is carried by the
free electrons that are able to move throughout the whole of the metal.
Insulators are poor conductors. These are things like plastic and fabric.
More Relationships
Energy Transfer
Current:
Voltage:
Circuit Symbols
Open Switch
Closed Switch
Lamp
Cell
Battery
Voltmeter
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Resistor
Fuse
Ammeter
Variable resistor
Thermistor
Electric Charge
Insulating materials can be given an electric charge by rubbing them –or charging by friction.
This does not create charge, but separates them.
When two uncharged insulators (a plastic rod and a cloth) are rubbed together, electrons from
the rod would be rubbed onto the cloth, making the cloth negatively charged and the rod
positively charged. Remember, it’s the electrons that move, not protons.
Also remember:
Electrostatic Phenomena: When electrons are rubbed onto insulating materials, charging them up, and therefore, making them
repel or attract other objects.
Airplanes can get charged when flying to the air. As it increases, so does the voltage between it and the earth. When
airplanes are being refueled, the high charges could escape to the earth as a spark (much like getting an electric shock,
but bigger) during refueling and cause in explosion. Solution’s to earth the plane with a conductor as it lands.
Fuel tankers may build up charge as it travels (because of the road or the air). If charges escape as a spark, you may get
an explosion. Solution again is the earth the fuel tanker before fuel is transferred.
Our clothing may get charged with electricity – which charges us negatively. Since our body is a conductor, charges
can escape from us too. If we touch someone when charged, the charges may escape to the earth or the next person,
which creates an electric shock. Ouch.
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Photocopiers
I. Drum is charged negatively where places are to be copied (the dark spots).
II. Toner of the opposite charge of the drum would stick to the charged areas.
III. Negatively charged paper is pressed against drum, where the toner charges are
attracted to the paper, forming the image.
IV. Paper is then heated to form a permanent image.
Inkjet Printers
Electrostatic Precipitators
When fossil fuels are burnt, they release waste gases with smoke particles of carbon and other disgusting stuff. To clean the
smoke, electrostatic precipitators are used and this diagram shows how:
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Push A force
Newton’s 1st Law: If the forces on an object is balanced – there is no resultant force – the object will either remain at rest or carry
on moving at constant speed in a straight line. If the forces on an object is unbalanced, the object will accelerate.
Newton’s 2nd Law: Resultant force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2) or F = ma
Newton’s 3rd Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Terminal Velocity
An object moving through the air experiences air resistance or drag. The size of this depends on the object’s shape and speed.
Objects falling through the air experiences two significant forces: weight and drag.
When an object has just been released, there is a starting velocity of 0m/s. This means there is no drag. The resulting downward
acting force is just the weight force of the Earth.
When it starts moving, it has a drag force acting against it, m. As the object is accelerating, it is getting faster. The faster the
object moves, the bigger the drag force is.
The object then reaches a point where the drag force exactly balances the weight force. Acceleration is now at zero and the falling
object is moving a constant speed. The object has reached
terminal velocity.
Thinking distance is the time taken for the driver to respond or react. This can be increased if the driver is tired, under the
influence of alcohol/drugs or there is poor visibility.
Braking distance is the distance taken for the vehicle to decelerate to rest after the driver has hit the brakes. This can be increased
if the road is slippery or the tyres are screwed up.
Vehicles with a larger mass will have smaller rates of deceleration as you can see in F = ma.
Rearranging the equation gives a = F/m. If the braking force of two cars, one that weighs 1000kg and one that weighs 1500kg for
example, then the car with the bigger mass will come to rest at a longer time than the other car.
Momentum
Momentum is quantity possessed by masses in motion. In other words, it is a measure of how difficult it is to stop something that
is moving. We can calculate it using the formula:
Also, the rate of increase of momentum is proportional to the force applied. This leads us to:
Collisions with no kinetic energy lost are called elastic collisions. These are usually collisions between gas molecules (they
continue moving in a container and does not end up in a pile at the bottom).
When a ball bounces off the ground, the collision is partially elastic – the ball rebounds, regaining its original shape, but loses
some of its kinetic energy.
When two objects collide and stick together, the collision is inelastic.
Example:
A railway truck with a mass of 5000kg rolling at 3m/s collides with a stationary truck of 10000kg (note that a stationary truck is
0m/s). At what speed do they move after the collision?
We have to take both momentums into consideration. If we picturise this somehow, when the trucks collide, both trucks will
move in the same direction as the moving truck, however, they’d move at a slower speed because the crash has caused a lost in
momentum of the moving truck. This momentum is conserved however, when both trucks move the same direction – they just do
it a different speed. Confusing I know.
5000kg 10000kg
3m/s 0m/s
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Anyways we have to consider both momentums (the blue truck has a momentum of 10000 x 0 = 0 kg m/s. It has no momentum.
It doesn’t need to be stopped because it is already stopped).
Momentum of Red Truck + Momentum of Blue Truck = Momentum of Both Trucks Moving Together After Colliding
*Note: Conservation of momentum remember?
Therefore,
Car Safety
Cars are designed to have crumple zones, which collapse during a collision and increase the time during which the car is
decelerating, decreasing the force.
Example:
A car travelling at 20 m/s collides with a stationary lorry and is brought to rest in just 0.02s. A woman in the car has a mass of 50
kg. What force does the woman experience?
Using the same example, if the car was to have a crumple zone and the deceleration time (time taken) is increased from 0.02s to
1s, the impact causes a much smaller force of just 1000N to act on the passage, greatly increasing the chances of survival.
Forces have a turning effect. They tend to make objects turn around a fixed point called a pivot or a fulcrum. The turning effect
of a force about a pivot is called its moment.
The perpendicular distance is basically the distance from the pivot to the line of force. It has to be 900 for the
correct value.
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity is the point where the whole of the weight of the object
appears of act. It can be found by drawing lines of symmetry (if the object is
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rectangular or symmetrical) and finding the point which all the lines intersect, or, for an irregular shape, by suspending it freely
by a point on its edge and using a plumb line to indicate the space directly vertical to the point. The centre of gravity is always
vertically below the pivot so you can work out the centre of gravity by drawing a point somewhere in the middle of the plumb
line, or suspending the object at different points on its edge and finding out where all the lines intersect.
Objects with a low centre of gravity and a wide base are stable as it is difficult to knock over.
That’s basically using the principle of moments (clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment) to find out whatever the question
asks.
The upward forces on a light beam, supported at its ends, vary with the position of a heavy object placed on the beam.
For example(s):
400N 400N
400N
200N each
400N 300N 100N
Hooke’s Law
Elastic behavior is the ability of a material to recover its original shape after the forces causing deformation have been removed.
Hooke’s Law states that: load force is directly proportional to extension provided that it is within its elastic limit
Once the spring or whatever has been
stretched beyond the elastic limit, it will
change shape permanently and will not
return to its original shape.
Unit 5: Waves
Waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter.
Waves can be shown by waggling one end of a rope or slinky. It can also be shown in water using a ripple tank.
Reflection
When waves strike a straight or flat barrier:
Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction when waves enter a
medium. The length of the waves is altered but the frequency
isn’t. When waves hit shallow water, they’ll slow down and
bend towards the normal. When the waves leave the shallow
water, it will bend away from the normal.
Diffraction
If a barrier with a large gap is
placed in the path of waves, the majority of the waves passing through the gap continue in a
straight line. There are regions to the left and right of the gap where there are no waves. If the
size of the gap is adjusted so that it is equal to the wavelength of the water waves, they will
diffract. Diffraction can also happen when waves pass a single edge. Examples of this include
radio waves that are diffracted as they pass over hills.
Below is a picture that shows the order of the EM spectrum in decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency. Learn them all
(except for the actual wavelengths and frequencies).
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Light
Light is a transverse wave that can be reflected, refracted and diffracted. When it strikes a flat mirror/surface, the angle of
incidence = angle of reflection.
The image seen in a mirror is called a virtual image. There are no rays of light actually coming from the place where the image
seems to be (inside the mirror). It cannot be reproduced on screen.
It’s simply a misinterpretation of the brain. The opposite of this is a
real image. The image produced in a mirror is the same distance
behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. It is also laterally
inverted. This means when you raise your left hand, your mirror
image raises his right hand.
To summarise:
Refraction of Light
In vacuum, light travels at around 300 000 000m/s. However, when it enters a new medium such as
water, it travels more slowly and may cause a change in direction. This change in direction is called
refraction.
n = sin i / sin r
n = 1/ sin c
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Optical Fibres
The fibres are very narrow, so light entering the inner
core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at
an angle greater than the critical angle. Bundles of
fibres carry sufficient light for images of objects to be
seen through them. Optical fibres are used in
endoscopes to see inside the body. It illuminates the
object to be viewed.
The
Prismatic
Periscope
Unlike normal periscopes (which use plane mirrors to reflect light), prismatic periscopes
use glass prisms. Light strikes the prism at an angle greater than the critical angle for
glass. The light then gets totally internally reflected twice before emerging parallel to the
direction in which it was originally travelling.
The final image created is sharper and brighter than those produced by a plane mirror
periscope. As well as that, no multiple images will be created.
Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel through gases, liquids
and solids. They travel slower in air, at around 340m/s and faster in
solids. Sound waves cannot travel in vacuum. Sound waves can be
reflected, refracted and diffracted.
1. Stand 50m away from a large, blank wall and clap wood blocks. Listen for an echo. Set up a rhythm of claps so that the
echo comes exactly between two claps. Ask a friend to time 20 claps. During this time, sound has travelled 2000m (to
the wall and back 20 times). Divide this distance by the time to work out the speed of sound.
2. Turn on the single generator so it produces a known frequency (such as 1 kHz). Move the microphones so that the two
waves that form on the oscilloscope are exactly on top of each other. This would show that the microphones are at 1
wavelength away from each other. Measure the distance between the microphones. The speed of sound can be worked
out using the formula v = f x λ
Letter Description
P High pitched, loud
Q Low pitched, soft
R High pitched, soft
S Low pitched, soft
Digital Signal Information is converted into a sequence of 0s and 1s called a binary code. These numbers are then
converted into a series of electrical pulses.
Analogue Signal Information is converted into electrical voltages or currents that vary continuously.
All signals become weaker during transmission as they lose energy or they pick up unwanted signals such as interference or
noise. As a result, signals need to be amplified.
Regeneration of digital signals creates a clean, accurate copy of the original signal as it simply restores their distinct ‘0’ and ‘1’
shape.
On the other hand, when analogue signals are amplified, any accompanying noise is also amplified. These unwanted noises may
drown out the original signal or introduce errors in the information being carried.
Digital signals can be made very short so more pulses can be carried
around per second, meaning more information is passed on.
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Unit 6: Radioactivity
The Atom
Atoms are made up of electrons protons and neutrons.
Neutron 1 0
Proton 1 +1
Electron 1/1836 -1
The mass number shows the sum of the number of protons + neutrons
The atomic number shows the number of protons (not necessarily electrons!)
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
The number of protons in an atom identifies the element. The chemical behaviour of the element depends on the number of
electrons it has.
Atoms of an element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes.
The protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear force of neutrons. It is strong enough to hold the protons together as they
would try to repel each other due to like positive charges. Too many or too few neutrons will make the nucleus unstable. The
unstable nucleus will eventually decay, giving out energy and altering its balance of neutrons and protons. It may also give out
ionising radiations in a random process. Since the process is random, it is not possible to predict which unstable nucleus in a
piece of radioactive material will decay, or when the decay will happen.
Ionising Radiation
There are three types of ionising radiation:
alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Ionising radiation causes uncharged atoms
to lose electrons, turning it into an ion. The penetration power of the
radiation depends on the interaction between the radiation particles and other
particles. If they have a small range, it means they interact frequently with
atoms along their paths (such as atoms in the air) and therefore, lose their
energy quicker.
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Describing the Effects on the Atomic and Mass Numbers of a Nucleus of the Emission of Each
of the Three Types of Radiation
If the decay process involves the nucleus ejecting either an alpha or a beta
particle, the atomic number will change. This basically means that alpha or
beta causes the original element to transform into a different element.
Gamma radiation – since they are waves, will not change either the atomic
or mass number of the element.
Alpha
A A–4 4
Z Y Z-2 W + 2 He + Energy
The helium nucleus is the alpha particle. This is called a nuclear equation. Everything needs to be balanced out. Here is an
example of alpha decay involving a radium atom splitting into a radon atom and an alpha particle:
Ra
222 218 4
88 86 Rn + 2 He + Energy
Beta
A A 0
Z Y Z+1 W + -1 e + Energy
An example involving the radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, decaying to form the stable isotope of the gas nitrogen:
14 14 0
6 7 -1
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C N + e + Energy
Gamma
As mentioned earlier, gamma rays don’t alter the mass or atomic number of the nucleus. It is emitted when an unstable nucleus
have surplus energy, even after emitting an alpha or beta particle.
Background Radiation
Background radiation is low-level ionising radiation that is produced all the time. Sources include:
Radon gas
Ground, buildings and medical facilities
Nuclear power
Cosmic Rays from nuclear reactions in stars
Half – Life
The half – life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the original mass of the sample to decay. It is different
for different radioactive isotopes.
Plotting the count rate in Bq or the mass, will get you a graph that
looks something like the one on the right. Notice however, the line
will never reach the x – axis, because 0 isn’t the half of any other
number but 0.
In this example, the half life can be deduced by dividing the initial
mass/count rate by 2. In this case, it’s 100/2 = 50. The time it takes
for 50kg of tritium to decay is about 13 years.
This means that in 13 years time (i.e. it’s second half life), half the
remaining mass will be gone. In this case, that’s 50/2 = 25kg gone.
Example:
Uses of Radioactivity
Medical Tracers
Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers to help doctors identify diseased organs. It is a chemical compound that emits gamma
radiation. The tracer is either swallowed or injected. Its passage around the body can be traced using a gamma ray camera.
Different compounds are chosen for different diagnostic tasks. For example, the isotope iodine -123 is
absorbed by the thyroid gland in the same way as the stable form of iodine. The isotope decays and
emits gamma radiation. The gamma ray camera can then be used to form a clear image of the thyroid
gland. The half-life of iodine-123 is about 13 hours. A short half-life is important as this means the
activity of the tracer decreases to a very low level in a few days.
Radiotherapy
Cancer can be treated by chemicals containing radioactive isotopes. Unfortunately, the radiation kills
healthy cells as well as diseased ones. To minimize damage, chemicals are used to target the location
of the cancer in the body. They may emit alpha or beta radiation. Both types have a short range in the body, and so they will only
affect a small volume of tissue close to the target.
Ionising radiation is used to kill micro-organisms on surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Some food products are
treated in a similar way to make sure they are free from any bacteria that will cause food poisoning. However, it will not destroy
any poisons that bacteria may have already produced. Irradiation however, does not destroy vitamins in the food.
Non-medical Tracers
Gamma rays can be used to track the flow of liquids in industrial processes.
Complex piping systems, like heat exchangers in power stations, can be
monitored for leaks. Radioactive tracers are even used to measure the rate of
dispersal of sewage.
Radioactive Dating
Radioactive dating measures the levels of the isotope carbon-14, to predict the age of living organisms. Since the chemical
behaviour of the isotopes is the same, this means that carbon-14 reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, and this is also
absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Incorporated in plant material, the isotope enters the food chain. This means that in living
organisms, the carbon-14 atoms are continuously replaced by new ones.
When an organism dies, the replacement process stops, and the carbon-14 decays in the remains of the organism. By measuring
the amount of carbon-14 still present in the dead organism, it is possible to estimate when the organism died. The half-life for
carbon-14 is about 5600 years.
The zinc sulphide screen gives out tiny sparks of light, called scintillations, when hit by an alpha particle. Most of the alpha
particles passed straight through the gold foil (A). Once in a while, an alpha particle was knocked off course (B). A very small
proportion (about 1 in 8000) actually seemed to bounce off the gold foil (C).
Since most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil, most of each gold atom must be empty space.
However, he knew that atoms did have mass so they could not just be empty space. The rare event of a rebound meant
that an alpha particle had run into something massive. He realised that the mast must be concentrated in a very tiny
volume at the centre of the atom, called the nucleus.
The deflections and rebounds were because the positive charges on the alpha particles we repelled by positive charges
in the nuclei.
The speed of the alpha particle – the particle is deflected less if it is travelling faster
The nuclear charge – if the nucleus is strongly positive, then the alpha particle will be more strongly repelled
How close the alpha particle gets to the positively charged nucleus
Nuclear Fission
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Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor, because its nuclei can be split by a neutron. The process of splitting an atom is
called fission. U-235 is called a fissile material because it goes through the splitting process easily.
236
92 U 144
56 Ba + 89
36 Kr + 3 1
0 n + Gamma radiation
The Nuclear Reactor
The graphite moderator absorbs some of the kinetic energy of
the neutrons to slow them down and increase the probability of
them being absorbed.
Hard magnetic materials are ‘hard’ to demagnetise – and are used for making magnets and other things that we want to stay
magnetised. Such materials include steel.
Soft magnetic materials demagnetise easily and are used in things like relays
and electric motors. Such materials include iron.
Magnetism can be induced into certain alloys, compounds and metals. The
permanent magnet induces a magnetic effect in the unmagnetised material with
an unlike pole nearest the pole of the magnet (e.g. sticking the North pole of a
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magnet near a paperclip will cause the side of the paperclip facing the magnet to have a South pole). This is why unmagnetised
materials like iron are always attracted to magnets.
Magnetic field lines show the direction, strength and shape of the magnetic field. It always goes from the North to the South.
Electromagnets
When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is produced. It can be made by coiling a wire (a solenoid) around a soft iron core
and connecting the wires to a cell. The magnet can be made stronger by increasing the current or number of coils.
Straight wire
Solenoid
Note: In magnetism, when pointing towards the direction of the current, you do it, the
‘convectional current’ way – as in current flows from positive to negative (I don’t know why
but yeah).
This is because (referring to the above diagram) there are two magnetic fields, one from the current
flowing through the wire; and one from the magnets. At some points, the field lines of
both fields are in the same direction, so they reinforce each other and produce a
stronger field. At other points however, the go against – or in opposite directions to
each other, producing a weaker field (like forces in a way, when there are two opposing
forces, the stronger force cancels out the weaker force but the overall unbalanced force
is decreased). Anyways the wire experiences a force
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that pushes it from the stronger field to the weaker field. This force can be increased by increasing the current or using a stronger
magnet.
When a current passes through the conducting loop of wire, one side
of the loop experiences a downward force and the other side
experiences an upward force – this is because when the current comes
back to the carbon brushes, its direction relative to the field has
changed. And so loop turns clockwise. After turning 1800 (a half turn),
the split rings (the yellow thing stuck to the brushes) swap over (they
turn with the loop) so their connections to the supply through the
brushes change direction. This also means that the current flowing
through each direction changes direction. This ensures that the rotation
is continuous.
Increasing the rate at which the motor turns can be done by:
Electromagnetic Induction
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Motors use electricity to produce movement. Generators do the opposite. When we move a wire across a magnetic field at right
angles, a voltage is induced. If the wire is part of a complete circuit, a current flows. This is called electromagnetic induction.
You can also induce voltage by pushing a magnet into a coil. To increase the
voltage:
Generating Electricity
The Transformer
Electromagnetic Induction in
Transformers are used to increase or a Bicycle Dynamo
decrease voltages using the concept of
electromagnetic induction. Step-up As the cyclist pedals, the
transformers increase them and step-down magnet rotates. Its field cuts
transformers decrease them. through the coils, inducing a
current.
How does it work? When an alternating
current is passed through the coil, its field is continuously changing
(because the direction of the current changes). If a second coil is placed
near the first, this changing or fluctuating magnetic field will pass
through it and cut through the wires of the second coil, inducing voltage
across it. It’s abit like moving a magnet in and out of a solenoid. The
first coil is called the primary coil and the second coil is called the
secondary coil. Note: transformers don’t work unless the input
voltage/current is alternating.
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The relationship between the voltage and the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils:
Input voltage/Output voltage = number of turns on the primary coil/number of turns on the secondary coil
Vp/Vs = np/ns
The UK National Gird is a network of wires and cables that carries electrical energy from power stations to consumers such as
factories and homes. High currents will result in lots of energy lost in the form of heat, therefore, current is kept at a minimum,
and this is done by producing high voltages.
P = VI
V = IR --- so substituting V results in P = (IR)I, or P = I2R the formula for power loss in transmission lines
Input power = Output power, so power is constant. Increasing the current will result in energy lost so that’s not good. Therefore,
to reduce current you must increase voltage. This is done by passing the generated electricity through step-up transformers. The
voltage is increased here to about 400kV. This then passes through the cables to some step-down transformers, which decreases
the voltage to 230V, increasing the current at the same time. The electricity then goes to our houses.
Unit 8: Astronomy
Planets are non-luminous objects. They are held in orbit by the gravitational pull of the sun. Their orbits are elliptical (like
circles).
Moons are examples of natural satellites. They are natural objects that orbit a planet. They are non-luminous objects and their
motions are determined by gravitational forces of the planet they orbit around.
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Comets are made up of dust and ice. They also orbit the sun. Their orbits are:
Elliptical
Close to the sun at one focus
At the far end of the solar system at another focus
Has a period of more than 1 Earth year
All these belong to the solar system, which is part of the Milky
Way galaxy.
Gravitational Force
Gravitational force:
It is a force of attraction between two objects due to its masses. If the masses
of the objects are small, the gravitational attraction is too small to be
noticeable. However, when the masses are as big as planets, the force is more
obvious (it causes planets to orbit the sun).