Kasdi Merbah University Ouargla

Faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages

Department of Letters and English Language

Suggesting a Task Based Approach to Teaching ESP

‗Memoir‘ Submitted to the Department of English in Partial Fulfillment for the
Requirements of the ‗Magister‘ Degree in English for Specific Purposes

Candidate: Ali NOUAR

Board of Examiners

Chairman: Dr. Bachir BOUHANIA University of Adrar

Supervisor: Prof. Farouk BOUHADIBA University of Oran

Examiner: Dr. Noureddine CHAOUKI University of Ouargla

Examiner: Dr. Djamel GOUI University of Ouargla

2014-2015
 Dedication

To my father,

To my mother for suffering through the realisation of this work, for her
understanding and the care she showed during the difficult moments I went
through as I forged the lines of this dissertation, without you mother, the
accomplishment of this work and what I am now would have been impossible.

To all my brothers and my sister Houda for their support and encouragement.

To Souhila , your support was indispensable for completing this work.

To my EDOLAS Ouargla colleagues , Asma ,Cheikh, and M.Kentaoui.

To all those who prayed for me and besought God to help me.

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 Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to record my gratitude and appreciation to my

supervisor Professor Bouhadiba Farouk for his constant support, and
guidance. I am thankful for his insightful advice throughout the completion of
this work.

In addition, I am indebted to Mr. Tayeb Benoun and Mr.Bouahli

Mouhamed from the Faculty of Business and Economics at Laghouat
University who helped me to carry out the experimental work. I could never
have accomplished this work without their patience and unconditional help.

I should also like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Kebbach from the
Higher School of Teachers for his kind help and support.

I would like to extend my thanks to the members of the jury who will
read, examine , and evaluate this modest work.

Finally, I am especially indebted to my EDOLAS teachers at the

University of Ouargla.

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 Abstract

The present research aims at determining the effects of the Task Based Approach on
Business students‘ writing skills so as to suggest and recommend it or discourage its use at
English for Business Purposes classrooms. The effect of the Task Based Approach has
been measured in different English teaching and learning environments. However, only
few studies have been carried out to test the effect of the approach in ESP settings. This
research goes further than just implementing the Task Based Approach in ESP classes but
it attempts to examine the effect of this teaching pedagogy on students writing skills. It is
known that professionals in different business fields communicate mostly via writing, for
this reason, writing skill was chosen among other language skills because of its importance
to the students 3rd year LMD Banking and Insurance the sample that represents the whole
population, that is, the Faculty of Business and Economics at Laghouat University and
professional business areas. The current study aims at empirically examining the effect of
the Task based Approach. However, random assignment of the participants in this
educational experiment was impossible for the researcher, so a quasi-experimental design
was utilised to provide as accurate and valid results as possible. The participants in the
control and experimental groups were tested before and after the implementation of the
Task Based Approach to statistically measure the effects of this teaching approach. The
findings showed that the Task Based Approach improved the writing skills of the
experimental group in comparison to the control group which was taught using the regular
teaching methodology. Pedagogically, the Task Based Approach can be utilised to bring
closer the ESP classes to the professional world as the approach is built on real-world tasks
to enable the students of business to live up to the expectations and requirements of a
globalised and demanding business world.

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 List of Acronyms
ESP: English for Specific Purposes

TBA: Task Based Approach

EBP: English for Business Purposes

BE: Business English

CLT: Communicative Language Teaching

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

SLA: Second Language Acquisition

List of Graphs
Graph.1: Pre-test experimental and control groups‘ mean scores

Graph.2: Post-test experimental and control groups‘ mean scores

List of Figures
Figure.1: Non-equivalent Groups Pre-test-Post-test Design
Figure.2: An Overview of the Experimental Procedures

List of Tables

Table1. Harmers‘ division of communicative and non-communicative activities

Table 2. The distribution of branches and specialities at The Faculty of Business and
Economics, Laghouat

Table 3. Gender Proportions in the quasi-experimental study

Table 4.Task Based Approach Framework

Table 5.A sample Lesson Plan

Table 6.The Pre-test mean score of the control group

Table 7.The Pre-test mean score of the experimental group

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Table 8.The post-test mean score of the control group

Table 9.The Post-test mean score of the experimental group

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 Table of Contents
Acknowledgement i

Dedication ii

Abstract iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Abbreviations x

List of Graphs x

List of Figures x

List of Tables x

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction 2

2. Statement of the Problem 3

3. Purpose of the Study 5

4. Research Questions 5

5. Hypotheses 5

6. Scope of the Study 6

7. Research Tools 6

8. Structure of the Dissertation 7

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 CHAPTER ONE

The Task Based Approach

1.1 Introduction 11

1.2 Conceptual Background of the Task Based Approach 12

1.2.1 Communicative Language Teaching 12

1.2.2.1 Communicative Competence 15

1.2.2.2 Grammatical Competence 16

1.2.2.3 Discourse Competence 16

1.2.2.4 Sociolinguistic Competence 16

1.2.2.5 Strategic Competence 17

1.2.3 Experiential Learning 17

1.3 The Task Based Approach 18

1.3.1 The Definition of Task 21

1.3.2 Task Types 22

1.3.3 Task Components 24

1.3.3.1 Goals 25

1.3.3.2 Input 26

1.3.3.3 Procedures 27

1.4 The Task Based Approach Methodology 27

1.4.1 The Pre-task Phase 27

1.4.2 The Task Cycle Phase 30

1.4.3 The Task Stage 31

1.4.4 The Planning Stage 31

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 1.4.5 The Report Stage 32

1.4.6 The Language Focus Stage 32

1.4.7 Roles of Teachers in the Task Based Approach 34

1.4.8 Roles of Learners in the Task Based Approach 35

1.5 Empirical Research on the Task Based Approach 36

1.6 Drawbacks of the Task Based Approach 39

1.7 Conclusion 40

C H A P T E R T WO

Writing Skill and Approaches to Teaching Writing

2.1 Introduction 45

2.2 Defining Writing 46

2.3 Writing in ESP Settings 47

2.4 Writing and the Other Skills 48

2.4.1 Writing and Speaking 48

2.4.2 Writing and Reading 50

2.5 Components of Writing 51

2.5.1 Notation 51

2.5.2 Spelling 51

2.5.3 Writing Practice 51

2.5.4 Composition 52

2.6 Stages of Development of the Writing Skill 53

2.6.1 Copying 53

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 2.6.2 Reproduction 54

2.6.3 Reproduction and Adaptation 54

2.6.4 Guided Writing 54

2.6.5 Composition 54

2.7 The Previous Approaches to Teaching Writing 55

2.7.1 The Process Approach to Teaching Writing 55

2.7.2 The Product Approach to Teaching Writing 57

2.7.3 The Genre Approach to Teaching Writing 58

2.7.4 The Controlled to Free Writing Approach to Teaching Writing 58

2.7.5 Free Writing Approach to Teaching Writing 59

2.7.6 Paragraph Pattern Approach to Teaching 59

2.7.7 The Grammar-Syntax Organization to Teaching Writing 60

2.7.8 The Communicative Approach to Teaching Writing 60

2.7.9 The Task Based Approach to Teaching Writing 61

2.8 Conclusion 64

CHAPTER THREE

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction 68

3.2 Setting of the Research Study 69

3.3 The Status of the English Language at Economic Sciences Department 69

3.4 Methodology and Research Procedures 70

3.5 Recalling Research Questions and Hypotheses 71

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 3.5.1 The Research Questions 71

3.5.2 The Hypotheses 71

3.6 Definition of the Variables of Research 71

3.6.1 Independent Variable 71

3.6.2 Dependent Variable 72

3.7 Choice of the Method of Research 72

3.7.1 The Quasi-experimental Method 73

3.7.1.1 Non-equivalent Groups Post-test-Only Design 73

3.7.1.2 Non-equivalent Groups Pre-test Post-test Design 74

3.8 Sampling 75

3.9 Teacher‘s Profile 77

3.10 Experimental Procedure 77

3.10.1 Description of the Pre-test 78

3.10.2 The Treatment Procedure 80

3.10.3 Sample Lesson 83

3.10.4 Comments on the Lesson Plan 87

3.10.5 Description of the Post-test 88

3.11 Ethical Issues 89

3.12 Conclusion 91

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 CHAPTER FOUR

Analyses, Discussion, Recommendations and Suggestions

4.1 Introduction 94

4.2 Presentation of the Findings 94

4.2.1 The Pre-test 94

4.2.2 The Post-test 96

4.3 General Interpretation of the Findings 98

4.3.1 Interpretation of the Findings in Relation to the first Research Question 98

4.3.2 Interpretation of the Findings in Relation to the Second Research Question 99

4.4 Pedagogical Implications 100

4.4.1 The Effectiveness of the Task Based Approach in Teaching English in an ESP Context 100

4.4.2 The Need for Communicative Classrooms 101

4.4.3 The Need for Experiential Learning in ESP Classes 102

4.4.5 The Need for Learner-centred Language Classrooms 103

4.4.6 The Importance of Relevant and Authentic Materials for ESP Learners 103

4.5 Recommendations 104

4.6 Limitations of the Study 105

4.7 Conclusion 107

General Conclusion 109

Bibliography 112

Appendices 119

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INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction 2

2. Statement of the Problem 3

3. Purpose of the Study 5

4. Research Questions 5

5. Hypotheses 5

6. Scope of the Study 6

7. Research Tools 6

8. Structure of the Dissertation 7

1
1. Introduction

English has become the most important language in the world. It is described as the
world‘s language and the language of science and technology. In business, professionals
cannot do without English which is a tool of paramount importance to conduct business
communication especially on the international scale. This has led to fast research
development in the domain of English Language Teaching to improve the teaching and
learning of English for Specific Purposes so as to fulfil the demands of the professional
world. Consequently, several teaching approaches and methods have come to the ground,
each suggesting its own vision of the learning process and solutions for the teaching and
learning problems. Research in this field is carried out in order to improve the instruction
of ESP in specialised colleges and faculties and to prepare competent professionals
equipped with high target language proficiency to successfully operate in the target work
fields.

Writing plays a crucial role in the business field as millions of employees in this
domain write and receive billions of business e-mails and letters every day to establish
internal and /or external business communication. Furthermore, many of us buy products
we have read about in printed and online newspapers. This has led to consider written
communication as the most important and lucrative type of business means of
communication.

As written communication is essential to successful professionals, recent studies

and researches have concluded that the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) offers
better and adequate solutions to overcome the teaching and learning difficulties and
improve the students‘ communicative skills along with their writing skills.

The Task Based Approach (hensforth TBA) represents a new direction in

Communicative Language Teaching; it is thought to be highly effective and fruitful in the
domain of languages for specific purposes for different reasons. For instance, it presents
the learner with real-world tasks which improve their proficiency in the target language.
Furthermore, TBA is a learner-centred approach that focuses on meaning rather than form,
these reasons might make it suitable for ESP classes.

In the Algerian universities, the teaching and learning of ESP do not yield good
results as this is reflected in the students‘ lack of mastery and proficiency of the target

2
language. This weakness is due to different reasons. For example, the absence of ESP
courses and the inadequacy of the teaching materials which led to vagueness of educational
objectives as content is chosen randomly and does not serve to improve students‘ language
proficiency and target communicative skills as some teachers focus on developing General
English in specialised classes instead of English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, ESP is
taught by subject specialists and not by ESP practitioners which is another impediment to a
sound specialised instruction of the subject.

The Task Based Approach might be a solution for the current teaching and learning
situation of ESP in Algeria in general and particularly at the University of Laghouat. This
hypothesis leads us to the main questions that the present research attempts to answer.
Namely, will the implementation of the TBA improve students‘ writing skills?? will the
implementation of the TBA improve students‘ communicative proficiency?

2. Statement of the Problem

Students in different ESP contexts especially at the Faculty of Business and

Economics, Laghouat find writing as a challenging activity due to some problems and
lacks at the mentioned educational institution. Specialists agree that writing is a complex
skill which needs ample efforts from the part of teachers and learners. In this context,
special attention from the teachers and an adequate teaching methodology are required.
The current teaching practices that focus on language form (grammar) rather than
communication, and the irrelevance of the content being taught to the target situations do
not help to yield good results as learners cannot produce correct texts. This fact, would
result in poor professional performance in workplaces that require good writing skills for
employees who must write a large number of business-related texts such as business e-
mails, different genres of business letters, etc; this may lead to communication breakdown
in the globalized business and trade especially that Algeria has been an active member for
so many years in several commercial unions and organizations. Hence, poor learners‘
writing skills might generate serious problems and negatively affect the economic sector
that utilises the English language to establish business communication especially with the
international partners such as China, European Union..etc.

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 Furthermore, the absence of business courses and qualified practitioners inhibits
adequate teaching and learning of English for Business Purposes as it is taught by subject
specialists who lack adequate training in the domain of teaching languages for specific
purposes in spite of their competence in their specialties. Moreover, most of the teachers in
charge of ESP admit that language structure is the most stressed in ESP classes which may
justify the poor results achieved at the faculty in question. This fact proves the inadequacy
of the teaching materials which should be meaning-based and subject -specific rather than
form-based which is redundant in this specialised context. Specialists have proven in
many studies that authentic materials inspired from the real-world or target situations
increase student‘s interest and motivation to learn the language. The focus on theory and
form in the Algerian ESP classes lowered the proficiency level of the students. To improve
the current teaching and learning situation at the Faculty of Business and Economics,
Laghouat, some reforms have to be made. For instance, designing curricula and syllabi as
well as conducting research to discover profitable and adequate teaching methodologies
.In this concern, the TBA might be the right solution for the absence of real ESP
practitioners as the approach is designed to allow subject specialists and even EFL teachers
to successfully and effectively teach ESP. The TBA gives more importance to meaning
than to form. This leads to the improvement of the students‘ writing skills and their
mastery of the target language. Moreover, the TBA provides learners with authentic tasks
brought from the target situation. These real-world activities make students ready to
perform in their future workplace.

Finally, the assumed positive qualities of the TBA remain theoretical as the only
way to prove the efficiency and adequacy of any approach or method is putting them under
test via an empirical study. The present work aims at discovering the effects of the TBA on
the writing and communicative skills of the learners of English for Business Purposes
(henceforth EBP) at the University of Laghouat to come to a decision about the adequacy
of this approach in the teaching and learning situation in question. In case the TBA proves
its success, a large number of impediments and problems concerning the teaching and
learning of EBP at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Laghouat would be solved. The
potential findings lure the researcher and increase the importance of this study.

4
3. Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to enhance the writing skills and improve the
communicative skills of the students enrolled at the Department of Banking, Faculty of
Business and Economics, University of Laghouat. To do so, a set of objectives needs to be
pointed out:

1- This study attempts to explore the effects of implementing the Task Based
Approach on the students‘ writing skills and mastery of the English language
needed in the target situations.

2- The present study aims to equip the teachers of ESP at the Faculty of Business and
Economics, Laghouat with an effective teaching method and practical techniques
which will enable them to improve learners‘ writing and communicative skills.

4. Research Questions

In order to spell out the need of conducting the present research, the following set
of questions is formulated:

1- Does the implementation of the Task Based Approach teaching methodology

improve the students‘ writing skills?
2- Does the implementation of the Task Based Approach improve the learners‘
communicative proficiency?

5. Hypotheses

This work aims at testing the following hypotheses:

1-Implementing the Task Based Approach improves the learning of writing in the
target ESP classes at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Laghouat.

2-The Task Based Approach promotes the participants‘ communicative skills.

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6. Scope of the Study

This study limits itself to one language skill , that is, the writing skill. Particularly,
the teaching of writing in the English for Business Purposes classes through Task Based
Approach. In plain English, the current study is limited to determine the effect of the TBA
on students‘ writing and communicative proficiency.

7. Research Tools

To answer and test the already mentioned research questions and hypotheses,
certain methodological procedures need to be conducted. The study attempts at testing and
proving that the TBA actually enhances the learners‘ writing skills and communicative
proficiency as well as the teaching and learning situation at the of Faculty of Business and
Economics, Laghouat .The empirical method seems to be the most adequate method to
fulfil the mentioned objectives. However, the academic pre-designed grouping resulted in
the absence of randomization aspect which is an important element for a successful
empirical investigation has led us to the choice of quasi-experimental designs. The first
step is an attempt to determine the current students‘ level of the English language through
a pre-test. The treatment will be done through the implementation of a program based on
the TBA principles and procedures. The last step would be assessing the level of the
students after the implementation of the TBA via a post-test to determine the effects of the
teaching approach in question.

In the case of this study, the control and experimental groups will be compared
before and after the implementation of the TBA to answer the research questions. The
dependent variable of the study is the learners‘ writing skills and communicative
competence. On the other hand, the independent variable which is the Task Based
Approach, will be used to instruct one group; that is, the experimental group and absent in
the other group defined as the control group.

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8. Structure of the Dissertation

The present dissertation is divided into four chapters. The first two chapters,
represent the topic-related literature review .The first chapter provides the reader with
information about the conceptual background of the TBA and its central components.
Furthermore, it exposes the TBA methodology and the roles of teachers and learners in the
Task Based Approach. It also provides the reader with an account of the previous empirical
studies on the approach and finally it presents the drawbacks of the Task Based Approach
in an attempt to promote the validity and credibility of the present study. The second
chapter explores different aspects of the writing skill, it includes a comparison between
writing and other skills, notably, speaking and reading to demonstrate the complexity and
difficulty of learning this language skill. It explores writing in ESP settings to show the
importance of these skills in both academic and professional areas. The most important
part of this chapter is an overview of the previous theories and methodologies of teaching
writing with special focus on the TBA to teaching writing to explore their strengths,
weaknesses, and differences ,by doing so, the readers will be sufficiently informed on this
skills and the various practices that are used to teach this important skill. The third chapter
accounts for the methodology that was adopted in the present research work. The fourth
and last chapter is devoted to the analysis, interpretation of the research findings as well as
the provision of some pedagogical implications, recommendations, and suggestions
concerning the implementation of the Task Based Approach in ESP settings.

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 CHAPTER ONE

THE TASK BASED APPROACH

 CHAPTER ONE

The Task Based Approach

1.1 Introduction 11

1.2 Conceptual Background of the Task Based Approach 12

1.2.1 Communicative Language Teaching 12

1.2.1.1 Communicative Competence 15

1.2.1.2 Grammatical Competence 16

1.2.1.3 Discourse Competence 16

1.2.1.4 Sociolinguistic Competence 16

1.2.1.5 Strategic Competence 17

1.2.2 Experiential Learning 17

1.3 The Task Based Approach 18

1.3.1 The Definition of Task 21

1.3.2 Task Types 22

1.3.3 Task Components 24

1.3.3.1 Goals 25

1.3.3.2 Input 26

1.3.3.3 Procedures 27

1.4 The Task Based Approach Methodology 27

1.4.1 The Pre-task Phase 27

1.4.2 The Task Cycle Phase 30

1.4.3 The Task Stage 31

1.4.4 The Planning Stage 31

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 1.4.5 The Report Stage 32

1.4.6 The Language Focus Stage 32

1.4.7 Roles of Teachers in the Task Based Approach 34

1.4.8 Roles of Learners in the Task Based Approach 35

1.5 Empirical Research on the Task Based Approach 36

1.6 Drawbacks of the Task Based Approach 39

1.7 Conclusion 40

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1.1 Introduction

The Task Based Approach appeared in reaction to traditional teaching

methodologies which focused on language-form and teachers rather than communication
and learners. Long and Norris (2000) state in this vein, ‖The term was coined, and the
concept was developed by SLA researchers and language educators largely in reaction to
empirical accounts for teacher-dominated, form-oriented second language classroom
practice‖. (Cited in Van Den Branden, 2006, p.1). This approach promotes learner-
centeredness and focuses on communication rather than language structure. In this regard,
the TBA presents learners with functional tasks that simulate those used in the target
workplaces , thus, it values the communicative competence and exchanging meaning
among learners rather than linguistic competence.

This chapter attempts to provide the reader with insights about this approach. It
sheds light on the underlying concepts and assumptions, notably, Communicative
Language Teaching as the Task Based Approach represents a refinement of the latter,
communicative competence and experiential learning. This chapter provides a detailed
account of the components of the Task Based Approach. For example, ―task‖ which is the
central concept in the TBA, types of tasks, the components of tasks…etc. This chapter
emphasizes the TBA methodology and explores the stages and procedures of task based
lessons. It also deals with the roles of the teacher and learners in the TBA lessons.

Finally, a glimpse at similar empirical researches on different subjects and areas is

provided in this chapter. In this respect, it is important to state that this research differs
from previous ones in terms of the language skill in question, writing, for most of the
previous studies focused on all four skills or on speaking .

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1.2 Conceptual Background for the Task Based Approach
1.2.1 Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching is a teaching approach as claimed by Richards
and Rodgers (1986), confusingly considered as a method, the CLT is actually an approach
because the content, syllabi and teaching practices are not identified. Thus, Communicative
Language Teaching welcomes a wide variety of methods and techniques. Richards and
Rodgers justify that as they add, ―There is neither single authority on it nor any single
model that is universally accepted as authoritative‖. (p. 65). It appeared as a result of the
changes and discoveries in Applied Linguistics and especially in Sociolinguistics during
the late 1960s and also as a response to the Audio-lingual method. Specialists asserted that
the teaching methodologies used then were incapable of fulfilling the requirements of a
developing world in which the English language plays a major role as a global
language.Therefore, communicative proficiency has become more important than
mastering language structures the fact that led to the emergence of the Communicative
Language Teaching which is termed as the Functional Approach and also the Notional
Functional Approach.
The advent of this approach is linked to the efforts of a group of linguists in the
1970s notably Wilkins (1972) who suggested a functional or a communicative definition to
language teaching. Wilkins based his research on the communicative meaning rather than
language structures. Consequently, he proposed two types of meaning that characterise the
communicative uses of language .The first type was termed the notional categories, this
refers to concepts such as time, frequency, location. The second type is the categories of
communicative function, for instance, requests, complaints, offers and denials. This
research had a remarkable impact of the development of the CLT. Cater and Nunan (2001)
state that in modern day language classroom, focus is put on communication rather than
language form. In this concern Savignon (1983) offered a commentary by Montaigne ,
―Without methods, without a book, without grammar or rules, without a whip and without
tears I had learned a Latin as proper as that of my schoolmaster‖. ( qtd in Richards and
Rodgers ,1986. p. 68) . After these changes of views about language teaching, course
designers, materials writers, and teachers paid more attention to the learners and their
communicative needs. The problems faced by the learners in utilising language structures
which they acquire in the classroom to real life communication were another reason that
led to the emergence of this communicative approach and the redirection of the attention of

12
applied linguists from the grammatical competence to the communicative competence
which is the basic feature of the CLT.

Moreover, Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) as cited in Richards and Rodgers

(1986) show a number of the CLT features among which the high importance of meaning
as the communicative approaches focus on language functions and communicative
proficiency, thus, the primary goal is achieving communicative competence which is the
ability to use the linguistic system appropriately and effectively . Further still, they picture
some traits of the CLT in the classroom. For example, they insist that the teacher must help
his or her learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language and that
language is created by the individual through trial and experimentation. They claim that
contextualisation is a basic premise which could be done through dialogues that centre on
communicative functions; they added two distinctive features of the CLT as they allowed
translation when students need or benefit from it, and judicious use of the first language
when feasible.

Accordingly, CLT is distinguished by a number of fundamental characteristics,

namely those delivered in Nunan‘s (1991) list of the five features of communicative
language teaching:

1- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target

language.
2- The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but
also on the learning management process.
4- An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
5- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside
the classroom.
(Banciu , 2012 ,p.95)
In short, the CLT is a content-based approach for which meaning is more important
than form. Language is thus regarded as a tool of communication. The approach is based
on the use of a variety of authentic materials as newspapers‘ articles, brochures…etc. to
meet students‘ needs and expectations .One very important feature of the approach is its
focus on the learner, learners are granted the responsibility on their learning and are

13
considered as the most important participant in the learning process. On the other hand,
learners‘ needs are paramount in communicative language teaching; activities and
materials are designed to fulfil those needs and objectives. Importantly, the CLT aims to
develop and influence the whole personality and ways of thinking of the learner that is the
reason why it is labelled as ―holistic‖.

Furthermore, Nunan (2004) argue that due to the changes that occurred in language
teaching, the Communicative Language Teaching approach utilises and adopts different
exercises and materials such as role taking in dialogues and jigsaw tasks as well as
information-gap activities.In this respect, Morrow (1981) claims that there are three
features common between communicative tasks which are, ―Feedback, choice, and
information-gap‖.(qtd in Sarozdy .et al ,2006 , p.22); This fact creates a real cut between
the CLT and the previous teaching methodologies. Furthermore, Harmer (2003)
distinguishes between communicative and non-communicative activities in the following
table:

Communicative activities Non-communicative activities

A desire to communicate No communicative desire
A communicative purpose No communicative purpose
Content not form Form not content
Variety of language One language item only
No teacher intervention Teacher intervention
No Materials control Materials control
Table 1. Harmer s‘ division of communicative and non-communicative activities

(Harmer, 2003, qtd in Sarosdy et al., 2006)

According to Littlewood (1981) communicative activities effectively contribute in

ameliorating language learning because they improve learners‘ motivation which is
sustained if the learners notice the relationship between what is delivered in the classroom
and their objectives. In this context, Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) assert that
communicative tasks create and promote students‘ intrinsic motivation; the authenticity of
the real-world tasks and materials offered by communicative activities draws learners‘
attention and increases their motivation unlike language structures that engender a feeling
of irrelevance the fact that demotivates students. Moreover, communicative activities
permit natural learning that is a solution to problems that are out of teachers‘ pedagogical

14
control, for instance, psychological problems. Natural processes seem to be the only
solution to overcome those problems; they are put to work when the learner is involved in
using language for communication. In addition to what has been written, communicative
activities create a context which supports learning by providing opportunities to develop a
friendly milieu and positive relationships among learners and between them and their
teachers .All communicative activities are designed to reach the most important goal in the
CLT which is the communicative competence that means promoting learners‘
communicative abilities .In this context, Hymes (1972) argues that the most important goal
for this approach is developing and improving learners‘ communicative proficiency.

1.2.2.1 Communicative Competence

The term was coined by the sociolinguist Hymes (1972), who added a
sociolinguistic dimension to Chomsky‘s views about the concept, communicative
competence, which he considered as limited. He defines the communicative competence as
‖The aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to
negotiate meanings interpersonally within a specific context‖. Further, he states that ‖The
communicative competence is not only an inherent grammatical competence but also the
ability to use that competence in a variety of communicative situations‖.(p.47) .
Widdowson (1978) an adherent of Hymes‘ views, believes that the communicative
competence is a synthesis between the linguistic knowledge and the awareness of the
sociolinguistic conventions. In this respect, further researches distinguished between
linguistic and communicative competences defining the first as the knowledge and mastery
―about ―language forms and the second as the ability that allows us to use language to
establish communication with another individual (Sarosdy .et al, 2006, p.24). Moreover,
Savignon (1983) delivers a simpler definition to the concept, ―Communicative competence
is defined in terms of the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning‖. Further
still, she asserts that, ―Communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depends on
the cooperation of the participants involved‖. (p.48)

Further investigations on the construct especially those made by Canale and Swain
(1980) deduced that the communicative competence comprises four components; two of
them are linked to the structural features of the language whereas the last ones reflect the
functional aspects of communication (Cited in Richards and Rodgers,1986 ,p.71).

15
1.2.2.2 Grammatical Competence

It is the systematic and linguistic competence that involves, ―The Knowledge of

lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence grammar, semantics and
phonology.‖(Canale and Swain 1980,qtd in Sarozdy et al , 2006 , p.24 ). Hymes defines it
as the mastery of language forms.

1.2.2.3 Discourse Competence

It is concerned with the relationship between sentences. It defines the ability to

establish cohesion between the different parts of a discourse to form a homogeneous whole
from separate sentences and utterances. This competence completes the grammatical
competence.

1.2.2.4 Sociolinguistic Competence

To have this competence, the knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of the language
is compulsory, Savignon (1983) confirms that as she states, ―This type of competence
requires an understanding of the social context in which a language is used: the roles of
participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. Only in a full
context of this kind judgments can be made on the appropriateness of a particular
utterance.‖(p.63). Savignon clarifies that language speakers should understand certain
traits of their society such as roles in conversations and the appropriateness of the language
they produce, for instance, some topics could be talked about overtly in the USA whereas
it is inappropriate to tackle them in Algeria ,for instance, sexuality and a large number of
other topics that are considered taboo in the Algerian society.

1.2.2.5 Strategic Competence

This construct is more complex than the previous ones. It is also referred to as
―compensatory strategies‖. This denotes the various strategies one uses to compensate for
linguistic breakdowns or to increase the effectiveness of the communication being

16
conducted as assumed by Swain (1984). Canale and Swain (1980) believe that these
strategies are summoned to sustain communication and overcome difficulties caused by
insufficient linguistic and communicative competences. Savignon (1983) states,―Imperfect
knowledge of rules or limiting extra-linguistic factors as fatigue, distraction and
inattention‖. (p.63) she calls for the use of the strategic competence which is for him, ―The
competence underlying our ability to make repairs to cope with imperfect knowledge and
to sustain communication‖.(p.63). Savignon adds that the strategic competence is
demonstrated through the use of the following techniques ,―Paraphrase, circumlocution,
repetition, hesitation, avoidance, and guessing, as well as shifts in register and style‖. (p.
63).

1.2.3 Experiential Learning

It is one of the background concepts of the Task Based Approach (TBA). It stems
from different disciplines, notably, psychology. Experiential learning values learners‘
personal experiences which are believed to be beneficial to language learning and makes
them the starting point in the learning process; it also aims at promoting personal growth
which is necessary to the success of the learning operation and the learner. Accordingly,
Kohonen (1996) states ,‖Experiential learning provides the basic philosophical view of
learning as a part of personal growth.‖ (qtd inNunan, 2004, p.12). Thus, personal growth
and promotion are the most important goals of experiential learning. Furthermore, active
and intensive involvement of the learner in the learning process would be more fruitful
than learners‘ passivity and dependence on the teacher as a source for information. In this
respect, Nunan (2004) believes that, ―Intellectual growth occurs when learners engage in
and reflect on sequences of tasks‖. (p.12).

Experiential learning requires learners‘ autonomy and urges learners to assume the
responsibility on their learning, this is referred to as active learning or learner-
centeredness. Similarly, it calls for the reduction of teachers‘ authority in language classes.
These would encourage learners‘ contributions and utilisation of their personal experiences
which would increase the learning outcomes and enhance students‘ cognitive and linguistic
performance. In relation to that, Kohonen states, ―The goal is to enable the learner to
become increasingly self-directed and responsible for his or her own learning. This
process means a gradual shift of the initiative to the learner, encouraging him or her to

17
bring in personal contributions and experiences. Instead of the teacher setting the tasks
and standards of acceptable performance, the learner is increasingly in charge of his or
her own learning.‖(Kohonen ,1996,qtd in Nunan, 2004, p.13)

Kohonen claims that teachers should respect the following instruction to put
experiential learning to work :
- Encourage the transformation of knowledge within the learner rather than the
transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the learner.
- Encourage learners to participate actively in small, collaborative groups (I see group
and pair work as important, although I recognise that there are many contexts where
class size makes pair and group work difficult).
- Embrace a holistic attitude towards subject matter rather than a static, atomistic and
hierarchical attitude.
- Emphasize process rather than product, learning how to learn, self inquiry, social and
communication skills.
- Encourage self-directed rather than teacher-directed learning.
- Promote intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation.

(Kohonen, 1996, qtd in Nunan, 2004, p.12)

1.2 The Task Based Approach

The Task Based Approach regards language as a tool of communication and makes
the latter a top priority in language teaching and learning, in this concern, Ellis (2003)
believes that language is a means of communication rather than a subject for study or
manipulation. The TBA proponents agree that learners learn best in classes where English
is presented through real contexts and content that do not just endow them with the
linguistic competence they need in the target situations but make learning more interesting
for them .The TBA as thought by Branden (2006) is supported because it provides learners
with functional tasks that invite them to use language for real-world purposes. It is an
approach that advocates the primacy of meaning and communication over form and
linguistic purposes. Consequently, the Task-based Approach has become increasingly
important to ELT according to Ellis (2005) who argued that the Task Based Approach has

18
become a viable and important teaching methodology and a prominent area of research in
the recent years.

The TBA gained its importance in the domain because it promotes the acquisition
of the target language, fosters communication and focuses on meaning instead of form
through the use of authentic tasks. The TBA allows students to express their own ideas
about the topic of the lesson without the interference of the teacher, and to perform tasks
without any input or guidance from the latter, so this learner-centeredness makes the TBA
very attractive to course designers and ESP practitioners from all over the world who
strongly believe that TBA is adequate for ESP situations. Malmkjaer believes in his book
The Linguistic Encyclopedia (2005), ―Task-based approaches have also been very
appropriate for ESP work‖.(p.539) because the Task Based Approach allows the student
to use the language in the classroom as it is used in the target situation.

The TBA aims at attaining its objectives through ―tasks‖ which are the essential
component of this approach and the most adequate means of organising teaching to build
learners‘ proficiency. Willis (1996) justifies that ,‖Within the TBA framework, tasks give
students a rich exposure to language and also opportunities to use it themselves‖. (p .101)

Moreover, the proponents of the TBA differ in their views and beliefs about the TBA
and its principles, Swan (2005) believes that there is an agreement between the TBA
proponents over the following principles:

- Instructed language learning should primarily involve natural or naturalistic language

use, and the activities are concerned with meaning rather than language.

- Instruction should favour learner-centeredness rather than teacher control.

- Since purely naturalistic learning does not normally lead to target-like accuracy,
involvement is necessary in order to foster the acquisition of formal linguistic elements
while keeping the perceived advantages of a natural approach.

- This can be done best by providing opportunities for focus on the form which will draw
students‘ attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose prime
focus is on meaning or communication.

- Communicative tasks are a particularly appropriate tool for such an approach.

19
 - More formal pre or post task language study may be useful, this may contribute to
acquisition leading or increasing noticing of formal features during communication.

- Traditional approaches are ineffective and undesirable especially where they involve
passive formal instruction and practice separated from communicative work.

(Cited in Kagan Buyukkarci, 2009; p.315)

Different views advocate the implementation of the TBA in the teaching of

languages.

Skehan (1996) supports the shift from the structure-based approaches to the task-
based teaching. Apart from highly gifted and motivated students, most learners working
within a structure-based approach fail to attain a useable level of fluency and proficiency in
the second language even after years of instruction. Prabhu (1987) shared the same belief
,―Structure-based courses require a good deal of remedial re-teaching , in turn led to
similarly unsatisfactory results‖. (p. 11).

Many studies that were conducted to explore the effect of the TBA concluded that
with task based instruction and authentic materials, learners made more progress and were
able to use their new foreign language in real-world circumstances with a reasonable level
of proficiency after a very short period of time. They were able to operate, this means, to
express what they want to say, though their grammar and lexicon were far from being
perfect.

There exists a number of reasons for the implementation of tasks in language

classes. Lynch and Maclean (2000) believe that the first source of justification for the task-
based learning and teaching, is the belief that the best way to promote effective learning is
by utilising real-world tasks .Task performance is regarded as a rehearsal for the
interactions that will be carried out in the professional settings.

The TBA has also a psycholinguistic perspective. In this regard, Ellis (2003)
assumes that the task is a classroom activity that enhances the students‘ thinking and
experimentation with the language which helps to foster the acquisition of the target
language. On the other hand, those mental processes the tasks might generate help directly
in the improvement of the fluency and proficiency of the learners.

20
 Lapes (2004) found out that learners who are taught using the TBA learn English
more effectively because they used the language to perform tasks, access information,
solve problems, and talk about personal experiences. He explains ,―These tasks are
believed to be the heart of the target language learning‖. (qtd in Richards and Rodgers
2001, p.228).

To achieve communicative competence which is the most important goal for the
approach in question, learner-centeredness which is stressed by the TBA is demanded. In
this regard, Canale and Swain (1980) add, ―It requires the active involvement of the learner
in the production of the target language‖. (p. 5).

1.3.1 The Definition of Task

Various and different definitions have been offered by specialists for the term
―task‖ which is the central idea in the Task Based Approach.. Willis (1996) defines a task
as ,―An activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative
purpose in order to achieve an outcome‖. In this statement which probably contains the
most accurate definition of ―task‖ Willis points out that communication is the goal behind
using tasks which utilise authentic language and materials students need to achieve
linguistic success and survival in their future professional environment.

For Long (1985) ,―A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others,
freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a
child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, borrowing a library book, making an
airline reservation…by ‗task‘ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday
life, at work, at play, and in between‖. (Cited in Nunan,1989, p.5) The writers explain that
the learner is expected to think about real-life domain-related problems which are the
content of some tasks, and to communicate meaning specific to their domains.

Nunan (2004) believes that the task results in an effective output in the target
language and the learners would unconsciously focus on the meaning rather than the form.
He also uses the word task rather than ―activity‖. He defines it as, ―A piece of classroom
work which involves the learners in comprehending, manipulating producing, or
interacting in the target language‖. (p.10) while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form. Bygate (1996) paid a special attention to meaning as he defined

21
the term; he argued that the focus on meaning leads the learners to achieve the objectives
of the task that they perform. Those objectives are the reason behind using tasks, to attain
those aims, an authentic use of language is required.

Skehan (1996) asserts the importance of tasks in the language learning process.
Long (1985) and Prabhu (1987) have also supported this approach to language education.
Nunan (2004) confirms that ,‖The concept of ―task‖ has become an important element in
syllabus design, classroom teaching and learner assessment‖. (p. 1).

1.3.2 Types of Tasks

Ellis (2003) classified tasks into the following types.

1- Unfocused tasks is one that encourages learners to use English freely without
concentration on just one or two specific forms that is to say replication activity.

2- Pedagogical (rehearsal, activation) tasks: they are tasks that have a

psycholinguistic basis, but do not necessarily reflect real-world tasks. In this regard,
pedagogical tasks are defined by Richards and Rodgers (1986) as :

―An activity or action which is carried out as the result

of processing or understanding language (i.e. as a
response). For example, drawing a map while listening to a
tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command
may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve
the production of language. A task usually requires the
teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful
completion of the task. The use of a variety of different
kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make
language teaching more communicative since it provides a
purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the
practice of language for its own sake‖.(p.289)

22
 3- Real-world tasks: they are tasks that are derived from real-world problems. They
equip the learners with the target language they would need in their future
workplaces.

4- Focus tasks: Ellis (2003): a Focus task is a consciousness-raising activity that

focuses on examining samples of language to explore particular features. These are
sometimes called metacognitive activities.

Another typology is that set by Willis (1996) the writer listed the following types of
tasks of the TBA approach:

1- Listing: including brainstorming and fact-finding activities. The outcome is a

completed list or draft mind map. This type of tasks can help to improve students‘
comprehension and induction ability.
2- Ordering: including sequencing, ranking, and classifying .The outcome is a set of
information ordered and sorted according to specific criteria. These types might
foster comprehension, logic and reasoning abilities.
3- Comparing: this type of tasks includes matching, finding similarities or differences.
This type of task enhances students‘ ability of differentiation.
4- Problem-solving: this type of tasks includes analyzing real situations, reasoning,
and decision making activities.
5- Sharing experience: These tasks include narrating, describing, exploring, and
explaining attitudes, opinions, and reactions. The outcome is essentially social.
These tasks help students to share and exchange their knowledge and experiences.
6- Creative tasks: These include brainstorming, fact-finding, and sorting, comparing
and many other activities. These kinds of tasks help improving the students‘
problem-solving abilities as well as their reasoning, and analyzing abilities.
(p.149)

Willis argues that all the tasks in the TBA should be applicable to real life to help
students to accomplish the activities, and show their communicative competence in the
classroom and in real life situations.

23
 According to Skehan (1998) all task types should have the following characteristics:

1- Meaning is primary.
2- There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities.
3- Task completion has some priority.
4- The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.
(Cited in Nunan, 2004, p.3)

1.3.3 Task Components

The definition of task leads to the presentation of its components. A number of

studies have been carried out in this concern. Nunan (1989) believes that tasks are
composed of four elements which are,‖ goals, the input, and activities derived from this
input, and finally the roles implied for teacher and learners.‖(p.47).A decade later, Nunan
(2004) refined his list of task components, ―task goals , input data, and learner
procedures, and they are supported by teacher and learner roles and the settings in which
tasks are undertaken.‖ (p. 40).

Accordingly, Candlin (1987) provides the following list of the elements that
compose tasks: input, roles, settings, actions, monitoring, outcomes, and feedback.
Candlin‘s list encompasses more details about task components. The list shows the writer‘s
consideration for the environment in which tasks are carried out and the objectives of the
tasks.

Moreover, Shavelson and Stern (1981) believe that task designers should pay ample
attention to the following task components:

- Content: the subject matter to be taught.

- Materials: the things that learners can observe/manipulate.

- Activities: the things that learners and teachers will be doing during a lesson.
- Goals: the teachers‘ general aims for the task (these are much more general
and vague than objectives).
- Students: their abilities, needs and interests are important.
-Social community: the class as a whole and its sense of ―groupness‖.
(Cited in Nunan , 2004, p. 40)

24
 ―Task‖ should contain these elements to reach the learning objectives and to
achieve and generate outcome. However, Wright (1987) claims that tasks should contain at
least the two components that he believes are the spine of tasks .They are input data which
Nunan defines as the data presented for learners to work on.‖ (p. 47). These could be
provided by the teacher in the form of instructions, or the learners‘ interpretations and
feedback. The second element is the outcome, the tasks should be designed to control and
achieve precise results. The outcome of the task should be similar to that anticipated by the
teacher.

What follows is a presentation of task components.

1.3.3.1 Goals

Goals are the outcomes meant to be achieved from learning tasks. They are simply
what a teacher aims to develop or promote in his /her students, for instance, developing
learners‘ speaking or writing skills, their self-confidence, or motivation. In its broader
sense, Nunan (2004) claims that goals may be ―Communicative, affective, or cognitive‖.
(p.42).However, teachers should not focus on one type of goals, for example, emphasising
affective goals more than communicative or cognitive goals. The focus on one type of
goals will be reflected on the nature of the perception of teaching and learning as well as
the purposes, quality, and functions of education.

Different curricula have appeared, each of them has its own vision to teaching and
learning, and its own educational purposes. However, a lot of them have embraced
Halliday‘s macro-skills (interpersonal, transactional, and aesthetic) (Nunan, 2004, p.41)
.Goals are considered as the starting point of these curricula.

Moreover, researches carried out on educational goals assert that goals differ
greatly in nature according to disciplines and learning communities .For instance ,non-
academic goals may be set for English for tourism or social purposes classes, whereas,
academic goals fit specific-subject classes as science, technology ,medicine classes.

Nunan (2004) asserts that the best task goals are those related to learners‘
performance which has been a conceptual basis of the communicative language teaching

25
for many years. Consequently, many performance-based curricula have come to the ground
setting developing learner‘s performance as the most important educational goal.

1.3.3.2 Input

Input is visual, or written data provided by different sources, for example, the
teacher, the textbook, books, or the internet. For the modern teaching methods, input could
be made by the learners themselves.

Hover (1986) provides a rich list of sources that could serve as an input:

―Letters (formal and informal), newspaper extracts,

picture stories, telecom account, driver‘s licence , missing
person‘s declaration form, social security form, business
cards, memo note, photographs, family tree, drawings,
shopping lists, invoices, postcards, hotel brochures,
passport photos, swop shop cards, street map, menu,
magazine quiz, calorie counter, recipe, extract from a play,
weather forecast, diary, bus timetable, notice board items,
housing request form, star signs, hotel entertainment
programme , tennis court booking sheet, extracts from film
script ,high school year book, note to a friend, seminar
programme, newspaper reporter‘s notes, UK travel
regulations, curriculum vitae, economic graphs.‖
(Cited in Nunan, 2004, p.48)

The sources mentioned in Hover‘s list could be the basis of the learning tasks.
The use of these materials as tasks‘ input raises the authenticity of the latter, and would
help to achieve the communicative goals of those tasks, however, some specialists prefer to
combine authentic materials with materials written and designed by them to improve
learning.
Eventually, much consideration should be given to input because it directly affects
and influences tasks‘ quality, performance of the learners during the task completion, and
most importantly the learning outcomes.

26
1.3.3.3 Procedures
They refer to learners activities during the completion of tasks, as well as learners‘
manipulation of the input. Nunan (2004) defines procedures as, ―Procedures‖ specifies
what learners will actually do with the input that forms the point of departure for the
learning task‖.(p.52) .Procedures could be classified in terms of their focus ,some focus on
language fluency while some others focus on language accuracy, and goals.
The previously mentioned components are the basis of sound tasks; every teacher
should take them into consideration during the production of tasks. For the TBA
proponents, only the careful inclusion and production of tasks components lead to
successfully achieve learning and educational outcomes. Task components play a pivotal
role in the general success or failure of the TBA as tasks form the centre of this approach.

1.4 The Task Based Approach Methodology

Various designs have been proposed for the task based lessons; however, all of
them consist of three principal phases: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus. They
reflect the chronological assumptions of the TBA. That is, progressing from holistic to
specific.

The pre-task is an the introductory phase in the TBA framework in which learners
discover the topic and the tasks; this phase incites the learners to recall and practice topic-
related words and phrases, some specialists refer to it as the warm-up phase. The second
phase is the task cycle, in this phase the basic assumptions of the TBA about language
learning are put to work. TBA proponents believe that effective learning takes place only
in the light of these three vital conditions which are: exposure, use, and motivation. The
task cycle is designed in this respect. The last phase is the language focus; this phase
includes the practice and analysis of what has been done in the task cycle.

1.4.1 The Pre-task Phase

It is usually the shortest phase for it takes from two to twenty minutes (Willis,
1996).The first phase‘s purpose is preparing learners to perform and acquire the language
and creating the adequate atmosphere for successful learning, it is the most important

27
phase because its success entails the success of the following phases. Jane Willis (1996)
believes that the pre-task phase enables the learners to gain acquaintance with components
of the tasks as she argued,‖ The pre-task phase introduces the class to the topic and the
task, activating topic-related words and phrases‖. (p.40).This is known for some
specialists as the warm up phase which targets bringing up topic-related vocabulary
through making use of the learners‘ pre-acquired knowledge and experiences ,the
investment of learners‘ previous experiences is one of the basic principles of the TBA
which is referred to as experiential learning.

Moreover, the pre-task phase was utilised in Prahbu‘s Communicational Teaching

Project (1987). It was used as an activity that involved learners in the completion of the
tasks that are the basis of the principal tasks in the task cycle phase. the pre-task is a
preparatory phase for the task performance in the following phase.

The first procedure in the pre-task phase requires teachers to help learners to define
and recognise the topic area, for instance, sports, transport, and science. In the second step,
the teacher must help students to discover and remember words or phrases in relation to the
task, these linguistic components of the task might be useful for the learners not only to
perform the classroom task but in real life situations as well. Many teachers were surprised
by the number of topic-related words and phrases already mastered by the learners, this can
be discovered only through carrying out well-designed and adequate tasks that might
achieve certain goals which are necessary for language learning as assumed by the TBA
proponents, for instance, providing exposure to the target language, motivating the learners
and creating interest in the topic.

Accordingly, Willis in her book a Framework for Task Based Learning (1996)
provided the following list of pre-tasks that teachers can make use of to create a relevant
input that would engender the previously mentioned goals:

1- Classifying words and phrases: on the board write jumbled up words and
phrases connected with the topic and task. Talk about them as you write. ( This
will provide exposure)
2- Add one out: write sets of related words and phrases on the board inserting one
item in each set that does not fit, for instance, a blue shirt, black trousers, a
long dress, a smart tie. Say the phrases to your partner ,and discuss which is
the odd one out and why then make up some more sets for another pair to do.

28
 3- Matching phrases to pictures: you need a set of pictures related to your topic, some
can be quite detailed and two or three phrases or captions for each picture
(including ,if you like one that doesn‘t fit mix all the phrases or captions up
and write them on the board in a jumbled list). Ask questions like: which
phrasal captions go with each picture, (there may be some left over that do not
fit).Write your own captions for any two pictures. Can your partner tell which
pictures are there?

4 -Memory challenge: This is the same as the matching activity. Only you take the
pictures down after one or two minutes and students must match the phrases or
captions to the pictures from the memory .It is better not to number the pictures,
then students will have to specify verbally which picture they mean by describing it
which of course stimulates more language use.

5- Brainstorming and mind maps : write the main topic word(s) in the centre of the
board .If you have a picture related to your topic show it to the class ,encourage
students to call out other words and phrases ,and ask whereabouts on the board,
you should write them. Some ideas for classification will develop.

Example: What do you think when you hear these words and/or see the pictures?

6- Thinking of questions to ask: Write four questions, you might ask if you were doing
a survey on TV interviewing someone to teach in your college; etc. Exchange
questions with another classmate and then classify them all.

7- Teacher recounting a similar experience: I am going to tell you about a silly

accident I once had; etc. Listen and see whether anything like it has ever happened
to you.

(p.44)

Furthermore, learning may be hindered in this phase because of certain factors, for
instance, the intensity of the pre-task activities may engender a cognitive load that would
scatter learners‘ attention leading to low performance and thus poor learning. In this
regard, teachers bear the responsibility of learning which is the ultimate goal for any

29
 language teacher. The following list represents a number of instructions for the teachers to
overcome problems caused by the cognitive load:

1- Providing a model: the teacher asks the students to observe a model of how the task might
be performed. Willis and Skehan (1996) believe that students observing their mates
performing a task might help them to improve their performance.

2- Engaging learners in non-task activities, for example, teacher-guided brainstorming that

aims at providing learners with background information. The non-task activities are
believed to reduce the cognitive load that has negative effects on learning.

3- Strategic planning: learners should be given a sufficient amount of time to plan how they
are going to perform the task. Planning can be conducted individually, in pairs, in groups,
or with the teacher.

After the task, the teacher has to comment on the way the task was carried out,
teacher‘s feedback allow a smooth transition to the next phases of the TBA framework.

1.4.2 The task Cycle Phase

The task cycle is the most important phase in the TBA framework because most of
the learning takes place during this stage. This phase contains three components beginning
with the first stage which Willis (1996) terms task to the second one, that is, the planning
stage, the final stage in the task cycle is referred to as the report. At all the mentioned
stages, communication in the target language is emphasised and the learners‘ errors are
tolerated whereas the teacher‘s correction is not allowed.

30
1.4.3 The Task Stage

In this stage the teacher has to play two roles, the first role is monitoring and
guiding the learners during the accomplishment of the tasks; he/she should minimize
his/her intervention to prompt learners‘ autonomy, the second role requires the teacher to
observe and encourage the learners to communicate in the target language but from what
Willis calls slight distance, in case learners resort to the mother tongue, the teacher has to
suggest substitutions in English.

The tasks can be done in groups or in pairs and the input should be introduced to
the learners through recordings or written texts to read then the learners must discuss the
content with their group mates, this stage provides real opportunities of practice for the
learners.

1.4.4 The Planning Stage

This sections follows the task stage and comes before the report, thus, it forms the
central part of this phase, Willis believes that the aim of this stage is to ―Help learners plan
their reports effectively and maximize their learning opportunities ― (p.56) .A sufficient
amount of time is allotted in this stage to enable the learners to rehearse what they are
going to say or write in the report; practicing and experimenting with the language in the
planning stage is deemed to result in well elaborated reports.

The teacher is an advisor which is the role he/she has to play in the planning stage,
Willis asserts that,‖ The teacher must help students shape their meanings and express
exactly what they intend to say‖. (p.56).This role implies going through the rows in an
attempt to make them aware of what they are expected to do in this stage, besides this ,the
teacher has to perform the following functions to accomplish his mission as an advisor :

- Helping learners to improve their texts by intelligent and positive comments.

- The teacher has to make learners correct themselves because error correction is not
allowed. The objective is to enhance experimentation and avoid penalisation that could be
done through intrusive error correction.

- Encouraging learners to help and listen to each other when rehearsing.

31
- Encouraging the learners to use dictionaries and making sure they know how to use them
properly.

After allotting enough time to accomplish this stage, the teacher must stop the planning
stage once he notices that most of the groups and pairs have finished or nearly finished.
Finally, he has to prepare the learners to carry out their presentation in the next stage, that
is, the report.

1.4.5 The Report Stage

This stage is the last one in the task cycle phase and the, ―Natural conclusion of the
task cycle.‖(Willis, 1996, p.58) .All the stages that preceded have a common aim which is
preparing the learners for this phase. Thus, it is the most important in the framework;
however, most of the learning occurs in the planning stage, that is, in the report stage
learners have less chance to produce the language. On the other hand, vital activities that
engender successful completion of the tasks and the success of the learning process in
general such as planning, drafting, and rehearsing are practiced in this stage.

In the report stage, each pair of the learners is given enough time to prepare the
report. Learners should be encouraged to produce the language , consequently, linguistic
and grammatical errors should be tolerated. In this respect, Willis (1996) thinks that
teachers must not devalue learners‘ achievements or even show their negative impression
towards learners‘ performance; instead, they should positively encourage learners and
focus on the areas in which they show improvement. The success of the learners should be
invested to help them overcome some difficulties which hinder learning, and the
imperfections should not create a psychological fence that slows down or even impedes
learning.

32
1.4.6 The Language Focus Phase

This last phase comprises two stages, the first one is the analysis .Learners are
subjected to analysis activities which are usually referred to ,according to Willis (1996), as
consciousness raising activities, language awareness activities, or meta-communicative
tasks. Hence, they listen recordings done by more fluent speakers practicing the same task
or read written products of other learners and then examine and discuss some prominent
features of the text. Finally, the teacher reviews learners‘ products and provides feedback.
Analysis activities are a contextualized practice of topic-related forms, therefore, language
forms should not be practiced in isolation but hand in hand with meaning that has been
studied during the previous phases, notably , in the task cycle. The familiarity with
meaning eases the task to learn and practice pertinent forms. If there is a lack of examples
of language forms in the related text produced in the task cycle, the teacher may invent
some examples which have to be contextualized, that is, topic-related examples.

Willis (1996) believes that analysis activities have the following goals, ―They aim
to promote observation through identification, and critical investigation of linguistic
features.‖(p.103).From Willis‘s statement,it is understood that learners analyse texts
aiming to identify forms they need or want to master; this activity develops precision in
selecting and studying language structures. This kind of activities enable learners to benefit
from language structures they already know, it also allows learners to experiment with
those forms and test them, and to enrich their repertoire with target items, that is, useful
words that would facilitate learners‘ communicative activities. Learners doing the analysis
activities will discover and notice linguistic features they need and use them afterwards
without difficulties and without the help of the teacher. In this regard, Willis states ,―With
constant exposure and opportunities to use language they will be more likely to notice
further example and to know how and when to use them for themselves.‖ (p.103)

The second phase of this stage is, the practice. It is carried out by the teacher who
urges the learners to practice new words and phrases that occurred during or after the
analysis, this could be done if the teacher utilises some language focused-tasks based on
the texts students have read or the recordings they have listened to during the precedent
phase of this stage. In this phase the teacher monitors learners. He/she goes around trying
to see if the learners are doing well. If not, they should help them out without doing the
tasks themselves; learners should be given the opportunity to think by themselves to make

33
their personal hypotheses which certainly lead them to make their own discoveries. The
teacher will notice that after one or two minutes learners find out what he/she was about to
tell them. However, the teacher has to focus on weaker learners and give them more
attention.

The teacher‘s roles in this phase require him/her to write relevant lexical items and
language forms on the board then learners conduct practice activities based on what is
written on the board. The Practice activity may be one of these:

- Choral repetition of the phrases identified or classified.

- Memory challenging activities based on partially erased examples.

- Using lists already on blackboard for progressive deletion.

- Sentence completion, matching the past tense verbs with the subject or objects in the text.

1.4.7 Teachers’ Roles in the Task Based Approach

In the past, the focus was put on the teacher that had a total control on the learners
and the learning process in what was referred to as teacher-centred classrooms. However,
some years ago with the advent of TBA that focuses on the processes of communication
and learning rather that language structures mastery, more responsibilities and roles were
assumed for the teacher. In this concern, Breen and Candlin (1980) believe that the teacher
has three roles to play in the communicative classroom. The first is to act as a facilitator of
the communicative process, the second is to act as a participant, and third is to act as an
observer and learner.

Moreover, in the TBA the teacher plays many unconventional roles, for instance,
he/she accompanies learners through the learning process .Many specialists believe that the
teacher can be regarded in many ways as the learner‘s most privileged interlocutor. The
role of the teacher in the TBA is considered as different from the role of instructors in
form-oriented approaches, he/she plays different roles in each of the three phases of the
TBA framework.TBA proponents believe that educational issues ,challenges , and more
importantly the needs of the learners are the factors that determine the teacher‘s role.
Accordingly, Richards and Rodgers (1986) assume that teacher‘s roles are affected by

34
some problems, for instance ,the interactional patterns that develop between the teacher
and the learner, the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place, the
degree to which the teacher is responsible for the content, and finally the types of functions
he/she is expected to fulfil ,for example, he is expected to practice the director role,
councillor ,or a model.

Furthermore, Richards and Rodgers (2001) enriched the list of roles a teacher has to
play which are specific to the TBA. The first role is a selector and sequencer of tasks, the
teacher is the only responsible for creating, selecting, and modifying tasks according to
learners‘ interests, needs, and linguistic proficiency.

1.4.8 Learners’ Roles in the Task Based Approach

The TBA utilises a learner-centred approach in language teaching, the role of the
learners is not limited to attending lessons especially in ESP settings; Ken Hyland (2006)
asserts that,‖ Learners have to take on new roles and to engage with knowledge in new
ways when they enter high education.‖ (p.8) Learners must actively participate in the
learning process, they must play critical roles as they do not just receive but contribute in
making meaning (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). In the TBA, learners should assume the
responsibility and take control of the learning process, minimize their dependence on the
teacher, as well as, creating content.

Moreover, Richards and Rodgers (1986) found that the learner should play a
number of roles. First , a group participant. As group and pair work are favoured in the
TBA, learners have to learn to share information and to contribute in making meaning with
their classmates. Second, risk taker, many tasks require the learner‘s creation and
interpretation of some information about which he/she lacks linguistic background, in this
respect, they have to learn to live with uncertainty and errors .Third, the learner should be
an innovator. He/she should be encouraged to experiment with using language in different
ways that involve using new words and structures in different contexts.

Furthermore, learners are assigned to conduct more sensitive roles as they actively
participate in curriculum design which has become a collaborative activity and other

35
complex activities. Nunan (1998) states that , ‖Learners are involved in decisions on
content selection, methodology, and evaluation‖. (p.146)

1.5 Empirical Research on the Task Based Approach

Positive views about the TBA began with Prahbu‘s (1987) project named the
Bengalore project .This research‘s results suggested that the TBA may be a good
replacement to the existing methods for it provides the learner with real opportunities to
learn. Yule (1989) in his report about this project asserted that problem-solving activities
used in the TBA can improve learners‘ language proficiency and the investment of this
kind of activities by traditional and form-based syllabi may improve their performances
and achievements.

Skehan (1996) found that strategic planning which involves both meaning and form
that was suggested by the TBA proponents promoted higher language fluency than
traditional planning presented by previous teaching methods.

Bygate (1996) after his research that took a female judge as a sample, asserted that
the repetition of certain tasks had a positive effect on the learner‘s communicative abilities
;the learner showed control that was manifested in the accurate selection of lexical items
and grammatical structures, her communicative strategies have improved as she was able
to use self-correction techniques. Bygate goes on claiming that the repetition of the tasks
supplies a structured context that promotes the mastery of meaning and form more than the
traditional sequencing of tasks.

Carless (2002) investigated the effects of the implementation of the TBA on

teachers; the study took place in a primary school in Hong-Kong. He found out that
teachers‘ positive attitudes towards the TBA has increased their interest in teaching and the
time they allotted to lesson preparation, teachers attitudinal change effected the quality of
teaching which naturally impacts on students learning .In this respect, Willis (1996) claims
that the TBA makes teachers feel more comfortable in their classrooms and provides
learners with more favourable conditions for learning ,for example, exposure ,meaningful
use of language that is a result of contextualisation highly utilised in the TBA ,and
motivation which is a key to the success of the learning process.

36
 Lopez (2004) in his comparison between the commonly used PPP approach and the
TBA approach, discovered that learners who have been taught under the Task Based
Approach learned English more effectively , the TBA changed their views about the
language that regarded the latter as a study subject because they began to use English to
express themselves and to solve problems .Learners who were exposed to a real input with
the opportunity to negotiate meaning used English more effectively outside the classroom
in real life situations. In another research conducted by Birjandi and Ahagari (2008)
positive effects of the TBA were clearly noticed on learners‘ linguistic abilities, notably, in
terms of fluency, accuracy, and the complexity of the vocabulary and grammatical
structures they used.

Pica et al. (1996) argued that tasks provided by the Task Based Approach precisely
the jigsaw tasks allow negotiation of meaning and foster learner‘s opinion exchange,
establishing and maintaining information become an easy task for the learners after
repeating this kind of tasks .As many other proponents of the Task Based Approach, they
claimed that the negotiation of meaning encouraged by the TBA is an important factor that
promotes language acquisition .Many researches that were a result of these findings sought
to create and develop tasks that boost the negotiation of meaning . In here, it becomes clear
that tasks should be designed according to students ‗ level and background knowledge in
order to involve all the students in the learning process ,this would generate more
classroom interaction and negotiation of meaning .

Begler and Hunt (2002) conducted a project to explore how tasks can be used as a
central unit in teaching ,it was a twelve-week long task-based project that was entitled
―The Students Generated Action Research ― .This project was conducted in a Japanese
college ; the sample was composed of 340 students enrolled in a twelve –week semester
speaking class. The learners were arranged in pairs or groups of four students and were
required to choose a topic in which they were interested in .Then pairs and groups should
design a questionnaire to investigate other learners‘ opinions about the topic they have
chosen. The results show that the experience was appreciated by the learners themselves; it
had a positive effect on learners‘ motivation, and speaking proficiency. Accordingly, a
number of researches investigating the effect of the TBA on learners‘ productive skills,
that is, speaking and writing, have concluded that the implementation of the TBA has
improved the target skills better than the existing teaching methods.

37
 Galina Kavaliauskiené (2005) has conducted a research in an attempt to explore the
effects and outcomes of the Task Based Approach In ESP settings ,the study examined the
effects of a number of tasks on 56 learners who attended the ESP class twice a week. The
learners were given the freedom to choose the tasks they prefer. The research findings
showed that problem solving tasks came in the first place, then sharing personal
experiences tasks, and listing tasks come last in the third position. The learners asserted
that the experience was beneficial for them and that they have achieved three learning
outcomes which are,‖ Building professional vocabulary, development of speaking skills,
refinement of listening skills.‖ (p.6). The results of this research were stunning because the
learners were subjected to tasks that promote learner-centeredness and negotiation of
meaning.

Similarly, Patricia Cordoba Cubilo and César Navas Bernes (2009) taught using the
Task Based Approach; the old ESP course in the computer centre at the University of
Costa Rica was kept during this study. The research findings have indicated that the
implementation of the TBA has improved both teachers‘ and learners‘ performance .For
the researchers the participants benefited from the TBA ,―Because it is more motivating
,more challenging, more innovative ,more appealing and more meaningful to students than
traditional grammar-based approaches‖.(p.8)

Jipada Promrunang (2012) has carried out a research to improve learners speaking
and listening proficiency, the dissertation was entitled:‖ The Use of the Task Based
Learning to Improve Listening and Speaking Abilities of Mattayomsuka 1 Students at
Piboonprochasan School.Bangkok‖. The results were very promising; the researcher has
noticed improvement in learners‘ speaking and listening abilities, similarly, students‘
motivation has significantly increased, the results prove once again the positive change the
TBA could make.

In Iran, Majid Hayati and Alireza Jalilifar (2010) investigated the reading
comprehension of English language learners in an EAP situation via the Task Based
Approach .Forty two students were the sample of this research, they were divided into two
groups ,experimental and control groups, The first group was taught using Willis‘ (1996)
TBA framework while the other group was taught using the traditional method, both
groups were taught for a similar amount of time. The results revealed that the learners who
received TBA instruction performed better in the post-test than those who have been taught

38
via the traditional method; according to the researchers, the first group‘s reading
comprehension was more effective.

Finally, the conclusions made by the previously mentioned researches, show that
TBA offers adequate conditions for learning such as providing the learners with authentic
materials and content ,these factors allow the improvement of students‘ intrinsic
motivation ; consequently, both teachers‘ and learners‘ expectations are fulfilled .The
approach lowers the anxiety levels this improves learners‘ confidence and leads learners
to take a good share in classroom interaction and results in more practice of the language.
The TBA also develops cooperative learning among learners. In the Task Based Approach,
learner-centeredness is fostered and teachers‘ control touches its lowest levels, on the other
hand, it allows teachers to monitor, direct, provide input and feedback. Moreover, teachers
showed satisfaction during and after implementing the TBA, the approach has promoted
their performance and language proficiency, it also bettered their interest in teaching as it
provides scientifically proven instructions that eliminate the problems that hinder learning
which are usually faced in form-based methods. Teachers indicated that the target situation
related topics or real-world tasks along with the careful grading and sequencing of the
tasks created a motivating and exciting learning environment that eases both parties‘ tasks.
Furthermore, the TBA welcomes everyone‘s criticism and evaluation of the class work;
this will not just optimize students' participation but also improves their critical thinking,
thus, more competent learners.

To conclude, TBA enhances learners‘ communicative fluency and emphasises

accuracy. In addition, some researches proved that TBA could be used with traditional
teaching practices and courses; this increases the practicality of this method.

39
1.6 Drawbacks of the Task Based Approach

Skehan (1996) asserts that the TBA should be carefully implemented otherwise it
may seriously endanger the learning process and outcomes. In this case, the TBA creates
pressures on the speakers, consequently, lowers their instant communication skills, hence,
the learners will resort to speaking strategies such as word coinage, and paraphrasing
which indicate the failure of promoting learners fluency. Brown (2002) argues that the
Task Based Approach does not permit learners to make interpretations beyond the tasks‘
context. Thus, factors that create language use are reduced if not eliminated.

Swan (2005) criticizes the TBA‘s basic assumptions and claims that language is
acquired through noticing during the communicative activity which is neither supported by
strong theoretical argument nor by experimental evidence, and is proven wrong by actual
teaching and learning research.

Richards and Rodgers (2001) believe that the Task Based Approach assumptions
are theoretical and lack empirical evidence, thus, its findings are ideological rather than
factual .Accordingly, many researchers assert that many aspects of the TBA have not been
justified, for instance ,the proposed task types, the sequencing and grading of those tasks as
well as the evaluation of task performance .In addition, they believe that the lack of task
based syllabi weakens the TBA and puts it in the crossroads of other approaches. The Task
Based Approach is also criticized for its emphasis on meaning more than language
structures as communication is the primary goal for the approach.

Finally, Researches indicate that the TBA is surrounded by a number of drawbacks;

it is criticized for its focus on meaning more than form, and for not having syllabi which
subjects the TBA to the effects of other approaches. In addition to what has been said,
more empirical research is needed to validate some TBA assumptions and to refine its
findings in order to raise its effectiveness and confirm its adequacy for different English
language teaching situations.

40
1.7 Conclusion

In conclusion, it is proven that the TBA has improved students proficiency and
language skills in different English language teaching settings. In addition, the approach
focuses on the learners‘ needs and believes that the success of the whole learning process
is in the hands of the learner, therein, all the procedures and techniques are designed to
foster what is termed as learner-centeredness. Similarly, it improves speciality-related
language skills thanks to the use of authentic materials which makes it highly adequate to
ESP classes; moreover, the utilisation of real-world tasks increases students‘ interest and
motivation which are necessary to the success of any teacher, learner, and approach.
However, the teachers should understand their roles which differ from one stage to another
in the TBA methodology to ensure the full exploitation of the approach to achieve the
required results and especially to improve the current situation at the Faculty of Business
and Economics, Laghouat.

41
 CHAPTER TWO

Writing Skill and Approaches to Teaching

Writing
 C H A P T E R T WO

Writing Skill and Approaches to Teaching Writing

2.1 Introduction 45

2.2 Defining Writing 46

2.3 Writing in ESP Settings 47

2.4 Writing and the Other Skills 48

2.4.1 Writing and Speaking 48

2.4.2 Writing and Reading 50

2.5 Components of Writing 51

2.5.1 Notation 51

2.5.2 Spelling 51

2.5.3 Writing Practice 51

2.5.4 Composition 52

2.6 Stages of Development of the Writing Skill 53

2.6.1 Copying 53

2.6.2 Reproduction 54

2.6.3 Reproduction and Adaptation 54

2.6.4 Guided Writing 54

2.6.5 Composition 55

2.7 The Previous Approaches to Teaching Writing 55

2.7.1 The Process Approach to Teaching Writing 55

2.7.2 The Product Approach to Teaching Writing 57

2.7.3 The Genre Approach to Teaching Writing 58

43
 2.7.4 The Controlled to Free Writing Approach to Teaching Writing 58

2.7.5 Free Writing Approach to Teaching Writing 59

2.7.6 Paragraph Pattern Approach to Teaching 59

2.7.7 The Grammar-Syntax Organization to Teaching Writing 60

2.7.8 The Communicative Approach to Teaching Writing 60

2.7.9 The Task Based Approach to Teaching Writing 61

2.8 Conclusion 64

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2.1 Introduction

Writing is regarded as the most important skill in all languages for it is the means
by which learners express and share their thoughts with their teachers and classmates.
Besides, learners‘ achievements are assessed via writing, thus, writing is essential for both
learning and academic success. Moreover, writing is a vital activity in many careers in
different professional domains, it is indispensable for professionals in business fields as
they start writing job application letters before they get hired; in their offices, they daily
write a good number of e-mails to purchase and sell goods, to establish internal
communication, that is, with their colleagues and external communication with other
organizations and companies. Writing complaint letters, transmittal letters and response
letters is part of the employees‘ job in business companies, and banks. Therefore, the
importance of writing to language learners and professionals in different business fields led
the researcher to focus on this language skill.

This chapter will proceed from the definition of writing, to writing in ESP settings
and the components of this skill; it also contains a comparison between writing and
speaking, writing and reading. Similarly, it presents the stages of development of writing.
In addition, it comprises an overview of the previous writing teaching methodologies to
provide the readers with ideas and insights about traditional theories and practices in the
domain of teaching writing, it starts from the Process approach to writing to the most
modern approaches such as communicative approaches and the Task Based Approach
which is the subject of this dissertation.

The review of the traditional methods to teaching writing is conducted to explore

their weaknesses, strengths, and differences between them and the Task Based Approach to
teaching writing. The latter, might be promising when it is applied in ESP classes for it
provides learners with real-world materials and tasks, and focuses on communication
without neglecting form.

45
2.2 Defining Writing

Every language learner should master the four language skills to achieve
communicative competence; the macro skills of the language are classified into two
categories. First, the receptive skills, listening and reading, characterized by the passivity
of the learners; that is to say, they receive information and do not produce it. The
productive skills also called active skills, speaking and writing, they are referred to as
productive because learners produce language.

Writing as defined by Collins dictionary (2003) is a group of letters or symbols

written or marked on a surface to communicate ideas and meaning. A similar definition
was made by Widdowson (1990) who believes that writing is the act of producing correct
sentences and substantiating them on paper through the use of letters. Another definition of
writing is delineated by Byrne (1979) who states that writing is the transformation of
sounds into letters. Further still, he claims that writing is making words from letters and
sentences from words to make a one comprehensible message. Freeman and Richards
(1996) believe that writing is the act of making utterances visible and it is the art of making
meaning through forming characters and letters on paper. Similarly, Bachani (2003)
regards writing as the encoding of a massage of some kind that is, translating thoughts and
ideas into written words.

Bell and Barnaby (1984) define writing as a complex cognitive activity that
integrates physical and mental activities, thus, it is not a natural activity. The writer has to
master a number of key-elements while writing from the level of structures that require the
control of many constituents as punctuation, spelling, and format which are important to
achieve cohesion. Besides the attention paid to the structures used in a given piece of
writing, the writer must be able to organise his ideas and information in homogeneous
paragraphs and to realise the aspect of coherence. All this makes writing more difficult and
complex than the other macro-skills of the language. Hence, the complexity of writing
engenders a number of problems learners encounter in the writing process.

46
2.3 Writing in ESP Setting
Writing is an important element in language learning. However, it is not only a tool
of learning but also an important means of communication. It is probably the most
practised language skill in the tertiary level in general and in professional institutions and
workplaces. Writing is considered to be the means through which learners consolidate and
prove their understanding and academic retention. Furthermore, students‘ are assessed and
evaluated upon their writing performance in tests , further still, good writing skills are an
important measure for hiring employees in many organizations and companies in the
business world.

The importance of writing in English in professional contexts has contributed to

create a new view of the teaching and learning of writing that is different from the
traditional views of teaching that regarded writing as a generic skill which could be taught
depending on teachers‘ experiences and practices .ESP practitioners‘ perception is
influenced by the new discoveries and theories in the domain of English Language
Teaching (ELT), and new concepts guide the teaching methodologies, course design
,materials writing, and the teaching practices in ESP environments. The advent of the
concept ―Communicative Competence‖ and the resulting Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) led to alter the focus of the specialists in the field from the focus on
language structures and form to the focus on meaning and communicative writing.
Currently, teaching writing practices and content in ESP contexts is based on the needs of
the target workplaces to construct authentic courses and materials essential to prepare
proficient learners ready to the linguistic challenges and requirements of their future jobs.
Evans and St. John (1998) assert in this vein, ‖Learning is a social act in which writers
have to be aware of the contexts‖. (p.117).

This commitment to contextual relevance has driven specialists to develop a genre

approach to teaching writing in ESP contexts to make students develop discipline and
target writing skills. Evans and St. John (1998) believe that successful writing requires the
awareness of the target situations‘ conventions and expectations of texts and also how texts
should be written and the norms to be respected while writing those texts. Consequently,
specialists do not teach general writing skills in ESP classes, they utilise target genres to
develop particular writing skills expected to be needed in the related professional contexts.

47
 However, ESP practitioners are faced by a challenge that is far more complicated
than controlling linguistic competence, and errors or improving and polishing students‘
linguistic style because adopting a genre approach to teaching ESP obliges them to deal
with the complexity, diversity , and differences between the target genres .

2.4 Writing and the Other Skills

Specialists agree that all language skills are different not only in nature but in the
way they are learned, the elements that affect the acquisition and learning of each, and
importantly their level of difficulty as learners often report that one language skill is more
difficult to learn than another . In the following paragraphs, the difference between writing
as it is the language skill in question in the present study and the rest of language skills
will be clarified.

2.4.1 Writing and Speaking

Writing and speaking are productive skills. However, writing has always been
regarded as different from speaking. Researchers believe that writing is the most correct
form or produced language while speaking is considered as an imperfect form of language.
Some believe that the only difference between the two skills is in the means and channels
both are transmitted through, Raimes (1983) rejects these views as he states ‖Writing is not
simply speech written down on paper‖.(p.4). Furthermore, the writer distinguishes between
the two skills in terms of nature and setting because writing is a learnt activity which is
acquired in formal settings, that is, school whereas speaking is a natural activity that is
learnt naturally at home without any formal instruction. Raimes (1983) offers an insightful
distinction between writing and speaking in the following list :

1- Speech is universal; everyone acquires a native language in the first few years of
life. Not everyone learns to read and write.
2- The spoken language has dialect variations; the written language generally
demands standard forms of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary.

48
 3- Speakers use their voices (pitch, stress, and rhythm.) and bodies (gestures and
facial expressions.) to help convey their ideas. Writers have to rely on the words on
the page to express their meaning.
4- Speakers use pauses and intonation .Writers use punctuation.
5- Speakers pronounce. Writers spell.
6- Speaking is usually spontaneous and unplanned .Most writing takes time .It is
planned, writers have the possibility to go back and change what they have written.
7- A speaker speaks to a listener who is right there nodding or frowning, interrupting
or questioning. For the writer, the reader‘s response is either delayed or non-
existent. The writer has only that one chance to convey information and be
interesting and accurate enough to hold the reader‘s attention.
8- Speech is usually informal and repetitive we say things like ―what I mean is…or let
me start again. Writing on the other hand is more formal and compact .It
progresses logically with fewer digressions and explanations.
9- Speakers use simple sentences connected by a lot of and’s and but’s .Writers use
more complex sentences with connecting words like however, who, and, in
addition. While we could easily say,‖ His father runs ten miles every day and is
very healthy.‖ We might well write ―His father who runs ten miles every day is very
healthy.‖
(Raimes, 1983, p.5)

Moreover, Grabe and Kaplan (1996) assert that writing abilities are not acquired in
a natural manner but a learning environment is needed to assist the learning of this
language skill. Grabe and Kaplan (1996) once again point out the ways both skills are
acquired and learnt. For them , speaking is acquired in a natural way without a teacher or
going to school ; whereas , learners need teachers‘ assistance which is provided in formal
settings such as schools, and universities to learn writing.

Similarly, Brown (1994) believes that there are many differences between the two
productive skills, writing and speaking. He points out five differences .First, permanence
and occurrence which refers to the nature of these skills in terms of the time they both last
as the act of speaking ends just after speakers leave and stop the conversation ;whereas,
writing is permanent, it could be read at different points of time. The second difference lies
in the production time. Speaking can be processed in few moments while longer time is
needed by writers to finalise their pieces of writing as they go through the time-consuming

49
activities such as: planning, drafting, revising, and finally editing. For Brown the third
difference is distance. Speaking joins interlocutors in one time and space, on the other
hand, writers are distant from their readers, the fact that eliminates many aspects present in
speaking such as immediacy of feedback. The fourth difference is characterized by the
limitations caused by orthography, the latter limits the amount of information that could be
delivered compared to a large number of devices available for speakers which entail richer
outcome in terms of information provided through speaking, for instance, intonation,
stress, and paralinguistic devices like gestures and facial expressions.

Brown believes that complexity represents the fifth difference between the two
skills. Moreover, writing involves the use of long clauses and subordinators whereas
speaking is characterized by the use of shorter clauses which are connected by
coordinators. Moreover, the degree of formality constitutes another difference between
speaking and writing because the latter tends to be more formal than the first one.

2.4.2 Writing and Reading

The two skills are different by nature because writing is a productive skill while
reading is a receptive skill which is characterized by the passivity of the reader.
Nevertheless, each one of these skills influences the other. In this respect, reading is often
considered as the input for the acquisition of the writing skills. The latter is an activity that
provides learners with new words and makes them familiar with the syntax of the
language. Concerning the relationship between writing and reading, specialists claim that
there is a close relationship between reading achievement and writing proficiency .They
assert that better readers are better writers.

In language instruction, the two skills are better learnt and mastered when they are
taught simultaneously .In this concern, activities that involve both reading and writing or
vice versa are highly recommended .In addition to that ,Leki (1991) contends, ―Writing is
the natural outlet for students reflection on their speaking, listening, and reading
experiences‖.(p.87) .Here, Leki (1991) points out that reading is an important input for
writers. Hence, writers cannot do without it.

To sum up, both writing and reading are complementary and interrelated , thus,
good learning standards cannot be reached unless the two skills are mastered .Mackay

50
(1965) believes that learners should be able to read before attempting to write because
reading is very important for writers.

2.5 Components of Writing

Writing is not as simple as it seems. Several components constitute this

communicative activity. All the constituents of this complex skill are presented below.

2.5.1 Notation

It means the transformation of sounds into letters on paper, in other words, it is the
substantiation of abstract thoughts into concrete graphs. This activity requires learners‘
proper organization of thoughts as well as the mastery of language structures in order to
write comprehensively.

2.5.2 Spelling

Learners should be equipped with the ability to distinguish sounds and forming
words through the proper combination of letters. The mastery of spelling enables the
learners to communicate clearly and effectively in the next stages of their learning to write.

2.5.3 Writing practice

It is the simplest component of writing; it requires the learner to master the

conversion of sounds into letters then from letters to words. In this respect, Rivers and
Temperly (1978) go on claiming:

‖Practice is needed in actual sequential writing.

Having learned about the various part of the machine,
and parts of the parts, and how these synchronize in

51
 action, the students need to set the machine in motion
with different parts active in weaving the intricate
pattern of meaning. Here guidance is helpful in learning
which parts will operate together to form new patterns.
Students‘ aptitudes vary widely in writing. Some need
considerable help in developing a smooth and effective
operation, others seem intuitively to take off and create
interesting patterns of their own‖.(p.297)

Writing practice can also be defined as the knowledge of combining words to get a
coherent, cohesive, and meaningful text. Accordingly, Rivers (1968) insists that teachers
must help learners growing awareness and mastery of conventional combinations of
sounds and letters so that they become able to proceed smoothly to the following stages of
writing. Moreover, learners must be endowed with certain abilities and skills, for instance,
the ability to manipulate the grammatical and syntactic systems to produce correct words
and sentences; the mastery of stylistics is another must for the learners for more effective
use of the language. Importantly, learners should acquire the ability to choose the language
level according to the purpose they endeavour to reach and the audience to which they
write.

2.5.4 Composition

Writing properly requires the mastery of a number of variables, for instance,

syntax, grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, spelling and all the aspects that constitute
writing as well as extra or beyond sentence aspects of writing such as cohesion. The
learner is required to master a number of skills to get a meaningful piece of writing that
succeeds to achieve his or her communicative goals.

52
2.6 Stages of Development of Writing Skills

Learning to write is a developmental process; students achieve high proficiency

levels after going through the following five stages of development of writing skills.

2.6.1 Copying

It is the first stage in learning writing. Copying refers to the reproduction of

graphic forms that learners are already familiar with on a paper .It is an activity in which
the writer represents his own picture of the sounds he or she has heard and the graphs he
has seen before he begins copying. The aim of this activity is strengthening learners‘
mastery of writing components, letters in this case. This activity is necessary to learning in
general at the early stages of students‘ learning process. Brookes and Grundy (1998) state,
‖it is much about using writing to support language learning than about teaching writing
itself.‖ (p. 22).

A number of principles and procedures underlie copying, thus, both teachers and
learners must respect them. In this concern, Rivers (1968) states,‖ The work set for copying
should consist of sections of work already learned orally and read with the teacher .As the
student is copying , he should repeat to himself what he is writing .In this way, he deepens
the impressions in his mind of the sound and the symbols.‖ (p. 246). Rivers argues that
learners should copy only what has been read or dictated by the teacher; familiarity with
what students copy is very important at this stage of learning. Moreover, the writer urges
the teachers not to tolerate students‘ mistakes while copying, and insists that they should
immediately correct students‘ mistakes to eliminate habits of inaccuracy that may affect
learners‘ writing performance in the next stages.

The purpose of copying is gaining acquaintance with letters and sounds. This stage
is indispensable for building learners‘ basic writing skills.

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2.6.2 Reproduction

It is the stage that follows copying, learners move from copying letters and words
to copying texts with a slight margin of creativity. Learners attempt to reproduce a text
they already have been exposed to. Consequently, the originality of the product is not a
quest. Rivers (1968) claims that during the second stage, that is, reproduction, learners try
to write without originality, they just reproduce what they have listened to or read in the
textbook. Furthermore, Rivers asserts that learners would succeed in this stage if they have
been trained on accuracy during the previous stage.

To achieve the purpose of reproduction, dictation is used as the main activity, it

allows learners to develop two macro skills which are writing and listening as the learners
acquire the ability to distinguish between the sounds and then the ability to convert them
into written symbols.

2.6.3 Reproduction and Adaptation

In this third stage, the teacher presents the learners with a model text and asks them
to reproduce it .The possibility of slight adaptation which is done through the substitution
of words , phrases, and adding new information to the original text as well as omitting
some information figured in the text.

To help learners develop their reproduction and adaptation skills, teachers may
utilise some drills and activities, for example, substitution, transformation, and expansion
activities. The intensive practice of these activities improves learners‘ writing and prepares
them for the next stages.

2.6.4 Guided Writing

At this stage, learners are free to choose the lexical and grammatical components of
their end-products but within a framework under the guidance of the teacher, Rivers (1968)
explains that teacher‘s intervention ―Will prevent the learners from writing at a level that
exceeds their current level and abilities‖. (p. 250). At this stage, learners must follow

54
teacher‘s instructions before moving to the next stage in which they would have the
complete command on what and how they write.

2.6.5 Composition

At this fifth and last stage and after acquiring different writing kills, learners are
granted more freedom in selecting words, phrases, and structures according to their
communicative needs, the purpose they want to achieve, and their audience. This freedom
of choice of lexical, syntactic, and grammatical items allows the learners to express their
opinions and explain their views about a topic more clearly than in the previous stage in
which they were limited by teachers‘ instructions and guidance. Furthermore, the learner
must receive sound instruction in the early stages because the success in this final stage
requires the mastery of language structure which is essential for constructing meaning.

2.7 The Previous Approaches to Teaching Writing

2.7.1 The Process Approach to Writing

The new philosophy in the English language teaching (ELT) has resulted in a new
perception of writing and a move from the emphasis on the final product as a purpose to
the focus on the processes learners go through to come to the final product, this is clarified
by Applebee (1982) ―Recent studies have shifted the focus from the artefact produced by a
writer to the process in which the writer is involved when writing.‖(cited in Freeman and
Richards, 1996, p.97). This shift gave value to writers, what they do, and the thinking
processes they undergo before reaching the end-product the thing learners could not do in
the previous approaches. Li states :

―Our students are all too often deprived of the joy of

watching how their thinking goes onto the paper ,how
their ideas get shaped into words and expressions ,and
above all, to see how their buildings and castles could have
always been rebuilt with blocks combined in new and
different arrangements.‖

(Li.,1991, p.1. cited in Freeman and Richards, 1996, p.97)

55
 According to Raimes (1983) ,‖Learners are required to ask themselves the
following questions : How do I write this? How do I get started?‖(p.10). Freeman and
Richards (1996) assert that in the process approach to writing, ―The learner has to view
writing as a process of creating, discovering and expending meaning rather than putting
down preconceived and well-formed meaning.‖ (p.97). Raimes (1983) and Freeman &
Richards (1996) believe that writing should be a conscious activity, that is, learners should
be aware of the different stages of the process of writing, how to begin and how to finish as
well as the points that have to be tackled in their texts .Similarly, they should realise that
writing is a tool that promotes their learning skills. In other words, learners should
experience the complex process of writing which is ‖The making of meaning out of
chaos.‖(Zamel, 1983, qtd in Freeman and Richards,1996, p.97).The process approach to
writing stresses creativity by giving the learners the opportunity of thinking and
experimenting with both meaning and language. By doing so Raimes (1983) claims that
the writing process,‖ Becomes a process of discovery for the students; discovery of new
ideas and new language forms to express those ideas.‖(p.11). Raimes believes that the
process approach helps learners to unleash their creativity , it also appeals them to enrich
the content with new ideas, and helps to discover new words, phrases, structures, and
utilise them.

The writing process according to Brown (1994) involves the following activities,
‖ pre-writing, drafting, revising, and editing‖.(p.322).The nature of these processes allows
the learner to think as an attempt to solve a problem which is an important activity to the
process approach proponents . Accordingly, Nunan (1989) states, ―The process approach
has emphasized the idea of writing as problem solving with focus on process and
thinking.‖(p.116).Writing should involve complex thinking carried out to solve problems
rather than copying a model or writing to have grades. The writing process comprises two
stages. In the first stage, termed the thinking stage, learners think about the topic via a
number of activities such as brainstorming, planning, drafting. In the second stage, the
process stage, learners transform the plan and drafts into more organized paragraphs. This
new vision to writing would promote learners‘ writing skills and improve the quality of the
product.

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2.7.2The Product Approach to Teaching Writing

In this approach, the emphasis is put on the outcome or the end-product rather than
the writing processes or writers. Evans and St.John (1998) argue ‖The term has generally
been used to refer to concentration on the features of the actual text, the end-product that
writers have to produce‖.(p.116).

The learners are presented with a model text which is the basic exercise and the
most important technique and then they are required to compose a similar text which is
referred to as the product which is the central interest of this approach. In this respect,
Brown (1994) believes that the product is the ultimate and most important goal of this
approach. For the proponents of this approach, writing is nothing but an imitation of texts
provided by the instructor, accordingly, Evans and St. John (1998) argue, ―The use of the
product approach has led to a rather simplistic copying of the model text by merely
changing certain words from the original text to produce a new text‖.(p.116). Copying
leaves no space for learners‘ creativity and offers fewer chances to learn new vocabulary
and practice of grammatical structures. Furthermore, copying as a mechanical act did not
prevent specialists to assert the importance of the mastery of language structures in the
product that has to be error-free, thus, learners have to be accurate. Consequently, writing
is all about the writers‘ mastery of the grammatical and lexical systems of the language.
Accordingly, the end product has to contain no grammatical errors , the language has to be
correct ,punctuation has to be thoroughly mastered ,the content has to be cohesive ,that is
to say ,ideas must be organized clearly to effectively reach the purpose of the end-product.

The adherents of this approach recognise some positive aspects of the approach as
it provides linguistic input and knowledge to novice writers. Conversely, Raimes (1983)
criticizes the approach for it favours certain aspects of the end-product, for instance,
grammatical and syntactic but ignores the communicative aspects of the final product. In
addition to that, criticism is addressed to this approach, because use of imitation as the only
technique leads to the negligence of the communicative purposes and audience of the text.
Moreover, learner‘s personality and thoughts about the topic are made absent by this
approach‘s practices.

57
2.7.3 The Genre Approach to Teaching Writing

This approach focuses on teaching particular genres related and needed in the
learners‘ future workplace. Swales (1990) regards genre as a text that has specific
characteristics in terms of form and style. Genre is also defined as a purposeful socially
recognised language activity .Thus, this approach focuses on the linguistic features of the
text and the situation in which it was and will be produced. Particular genres are taught to
to achieve workplace and genre-related communicative purposes. Thus, the notions of
purpose and target social content are central to the Genre Based Approach to teaching
writing. Genres are used pragmatically to develop target skills and language, the teacher
presents the learners with a given text of a specific genre to read and analyse, then learners
carry out activities to detect the repeatedly used structures. Finally, learners are appealed to
produce a text that stimulates the model text previously provided.

This approach is often considered as an extension of the Product Approach for it

neglects the thinking and writing processes and focuses on the copying and reproduction of
model texts. These practices limit learners creativity as form, language, and content are
imposed on the learners, and indulge them in the mechanical act of copying.

2.7.4 The Controlled to Free Writing Approach to Teaching Writing

In the 1950s and early 1960s, the area of English Language Teaching was
dominated by the audio-lingual approach. Writing was not important as speech, thus,
writing was used as a tool to promote speaking. The Controlled to free writing approach
created a cut with the existing conventions at that time; it valued writing and appealed for
the mastery of grammar and syntax. Raimes (1983) argues ―This approach stresses three
features: grammar, syntax, and mechanics. It emphasizes accuracy rather than fluency or
originality‖.(p.7).Writers do not write in this approach but they perform grammar
exercises .It is a sequential approach as claimed by Raimes , students learn to write
gradually as they go through the following stages to learn writing :

1-They perform sentences exercises.

2-They copy paragraphs and practice relevant grammar.

58
3-Controlled compositions, in this stage, learners are granted some freedom in writing.
This is allowed in this stage only because learners would have reached a high level of
proficiency.

This approach takes learners from easy to difficult which is a way to achieve high
standards of accuracy; the latter is the most valued of language features for this approach.

2.7.5 Free Writing Approach to Teaching Writing

This approach focuses on fluency rather than language forms as it encourages

learners to write a great number of texts on a specific topic .This approach limits error
correction, the goal is encouraging learners to write without worrying about grammar and
syntax .Raimes (1983) endorsed these view as he justifies,‖ Once ideas are down on the
page, grammatical accuracy ,organization and the rest will gradually follow‖.(p. 7)

This approach attempts to eradicate the psychological impediments as worrying

about grammar and spelling and some extra-textual concerns that involve thinking about
the purpose and audience of the text .This will promote and improve learners‘ writing
skills as they discover that writing is not as difficult as they thought it is and then they
begin to write more frequently and effectively. On the other hand, the role of the teacher is
limited to reading the text produced by the learners and providing feed-back. Thus, the
texts produced by the learners cannot be corrected but read aloud then the teacher and the
learners comment on it with special attention to content.

2.7.6 Paragraph-Pattern Approach to Teaching Writing

Paragraph is the central concept in this approach, on this basis organization within
paragraphs is more important than fluency or accuracy of the language.

In the first phase of this approach, students work on paragraphs by analysing the
language and forms. Then they imitate the original texts. During the process of imitation,
the approach allows the learners to delete some words and sentences in the model texts and
add new ones .This approach is dominated by the belief that languages and cultures are
different; students are used to organise their thoughts according to the models and patterns

59
of their first language, thus ,they have to imitate English paragraph patterns to be familiar
with the conventions of this language to finally achieve communicative goals through
clear, and understandable paragraphs which are free of the ambiguities that may be caused
by linguistic and cultural differences.

2.7.7 The Grammar-Syntax Organization Approach to Teaching Writing

As indicated in the title, this approach focuses on form, that is to say, grammar and
syntax. The mastery of language forms is vital to successfully conduct writing tasks. This
approach devotes ample efforts to improve learners‘ grammatical competence because for
it , grammar is essential to convey messages properly, for instance, when learners are
asked to write instructions about how to operate a computer, they are required to:

1-Use adequate and relative vocabulary

2-Master and correctly use verb tenses.

3-Order thoughts in a chronological order, this requires the mastery of words such as First,
eventually…etc.

2.7.8 The Communicative Approach to Teaching Writing

This approach regards writing as a communicative act, in this respect; it focuses on

the communicative aspects of the texts such as purposes, and the audience of the text.
Raimes (1983) argues that learners should ask themselves the following questions before
they start writing, ‖Why am I writing this? Who will read it?‖ (p. 8).

In this approach, the audience of the text is not exclusively the teacher; the students
in the class should be involved and taken into consideration. They are supposed to read the
texts produced by their mates, provide feedback, and eventually rewrite theirs.

The teacher‘s roles in this approach are: helping and directing learners to specify
the audience of the text, the degree of formality, providing learners with insights about
content and context of the text. This approach considers writing as a communicative act.

60
Hence, real life tasks are utilised to teach learners communicative writing such as writing
letters, asking target situation-related questions, and making comments.

Finally, the proponents of this approach believe that writing must represent an attempt to
communicate with the reader which is more important than focusing on aesthetic or artistic
features of the text.

2.7.9 The Task Based Approach to Teaching Writing

In this approach, the focus is put on writing processes as well as the end-product, in
this regard, Nunan (1989) states , ‖Focusing as much on the means whereby the complete
text was created as the end product itself.‖, further still he adds:‖ both processes and
outcomes are taken care of.‖(p.36) .The following definitions of ‗task‘ which is the central
unit in the Task Based Approach show the compatibility between ‗task‘ and the nature of
‗writing‘ as writers write for a specific audience and to achieve a goal or an outcome.
Skehan (2003) defines a task as, ‖ An activity in which meaning is primary: there is a goal
and an outcome.‖(p.3). Feez (1998) goes on claiming that a task is,‖A goal-oriented
activity which reflects a social purpose.‖(p.11).

The TBA stresses notions such as purpose, audience, context, and identity of
writers‘ texts to finally ensure that the end-product achieves its communicative purposes
and is socially adequate. Writing is thus used by the learner as a tool to achieve a
communicative outcome. Moreover, context is of a paramount importance in the TBA
approach to writing, in this concern, Samuda and Bygate (2008) state:‖It is the context that
provides the primary grounds for the participants‘ interpretations of what they are doing
and why‖.(p.258).Context is what guides students to write a text that they could benefit
from as the contextualization applied in this approach ensures exposure to the vocabulary
and structures related to learners‘ specialism, besides; it provides learners with insights
about the process they should undergo, the purposes their texts should have, and the
audience they write for.

TBA writing lessons are divided into three stages as stated by Willis (1996) , ‖This
end-product will first be introduced orally or through reading in the pre-task phase then
discussed as an integral part in the task stage ,drafted collaboratively at the planning
stage and finalized for the report stage‖.(p.62).Willis supports the use of a model text in

61
the first stage which serves to set the context whereby audience and purpose of the
students‘ end-product are established. Later in this stage, the teacher presents the learners
with a set of preparatory activities that aim at activating topic-related words and phrases
and background knowledge necessary to understand tasks and tasks instructions. In the
planning phase of the task cycle stage, the learners working in groups or in pairs discuss
about the task in an attempt to detect problems, then suggest solutions .In relation to what
has been previously written, group and pair work is considered as highly helpful and
beneficial to the learners Willis (1996) asserts , ‖It engages learners in using language
purposefully and collaboratively ,concentrating on building meaning ,not just using
language for display purposes‖. (p.35).

It is noticed that learners practice other skills during the planning stage such as
speaking and listening; this integration of other skills is supported by Willis (1996) and is
thought to contribute in the improvement of learners‘ general language proficiency.
Moreover, discussions carried out during the planning stage allow students to learn and
notice how others make meaning and equip them with the knowledge needed to utilise
what they have learnt from their mates to create meaning of their own for their texts. Willis
(1996) agrees on these points as he claims:

―With constant exposure and opportunities to use

language, they will be more likely to notice further
examples, and discover how and when to use them for
themselves‖. (Willis, 1996, p.103)

Giving learners the opportunity to negotiate meaning together enables them to

develop their communicative skills and especially the target-language‘s vocabulary
because the discussions they carry out are goal oriented. Then, learners draft what
they have discussed earlier before exchanging drafts to get peer feedback,
recommendations and suggested improvements. At the end of this stage, students are
asked to redraft what they have written taking into consideration the feedback of
their mates to prepare the final drafts which they will present to their audience. In the

62
last stage, learners are asked to write reports about what they have learnt from the
collaborative work in relation to specific features of the written texts. In this stage,
learners will be granted the opportunity to discuss about language form after
focusing on meaning and communication in the pre-task and task cycle stages.

Previous studies attempting to explore the effects of the implementation of the Task
Based Approach to writing on EFL and ESP writing determined that the TBA could
influence and improve learners‘ writing. In this respect , Linying Cao,a Chinese researcher
who carried out a research attempting to measure the effects of the TBA on learners
writing skills asserts the positive change this approach brought as he states :‘

―The application of Willis‘ framework for TBL to

college EFL writing classrooms positively brings forth
significant improvement of learners‘ English writing
competence, which involves the increase of average
sentence length, the increase of average number of big
words or academic words, and the increase of salience of
lexical diversity (or the decrease of average lexical
recurrence rate). (Linying Cao, 2012, p.89)

Molinari et al. (2012) conducted a research on the benefits TBA might yield and
arrived at the following results:

‖TBL provides dialogic opportunities for the writing

process to be fully explored (…) TBL encourages learners
to notice language rather than copy it which further
encourages reflection on the appropriateness of a
particular language form for a given purpose.‖ (p.8)

To sum up, the TBA exploits the model text or an end-product to establish purpose
and audience of learners‘ final texts, creates a motivating learning environment which
enables the learners to reflect upon what they write, communicate with their mates and
negotiate and create meaning, orient their writings according to the purpose and audience
to finally achieve adequate and correct texts in terms of topic-related words and phrases ;
texts that would satisfy the audience‘s needs and expectations .Hence achieve a

63
considerable communicative outcome around which all the TBA practices and researches
revolve.

2.8 Conclusion

This chapter attempted to shed light on the nature of the writing skills in general
and in ESP settings in particular, it pointed out the importance of this skill to both learners
of the English language and to professionals in different fields specifically in business
companies and fields where billions of texts of different genres such as e-mails, reports,
and business letters are used as the major means of communication. In this respect, this
chapter tried to take the readers in a journey across the traditional teaching methods,
traditional assumptions about how this basic language skill is taught and learned with
special focus on the Task Based Approach to teaching writing. Moreover, it attempted to
provide learners and teachers with knowledge and information that would make learning
and teaching writing easier and more effective. The present chapter attempted to inform its
readers about the ways writing is taught .Finally, writing should be given more attention
because of the undeniable importance of this skill for learners and professionals.

Importantly, the chapter deals with the TBA approach to teaching writing which is
a recent teaching approach that proved its effectiveness in improving different language
skills, notably, writing and speaking, and helping learners and teachers of the English
language at different levels and specialities to overcome the difficulties of writing. This
approach changed learners‘ perception to writing which was regarded as a means to answer
exam questions and achieve grades that enable them to pass to the next levels rather than
an important tool of communication, the TBA focuses on the learners, hence, it limits
teachers‘ roles and supplies them with techniques that are thought to promote learner-
centeredness in language classes. In the next chapter, an experiment is carried out in
English for Business classes at the University of Laghouat to explore the effect of this
approach on the learners‘ writing skills, and communicative proficiency.

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CHAPTER THREE

Research Methodology
 CHAPTER THREE

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction 68

3.2 Setting of the Research Study 69

3.3 The Status of the English Language at Economic Sciences Department 69

3.4 Methodology and Research Procedures 70

3.5 Recalling Research Questions and Hypotheses 71

3.5.1 The Research Questions 71

3.5.2 The Hypotheses 71

3.6 Definition of the Variables of Research 71

3.6.1 Independent Variable 71

3.6.2 Dependent Variable 72

3.7 Choice of the Method of Research 72

3.7.1 The Quasi-experimental Method 73

3.7.1.1 Non-equivalent Groups Post-test-Only Design 73

3.7.1.2 Non-equivalent Groups Pre-test Post-test Design 74

3.8 Sampling 75

3.9 Teacher‘s Profile 77

3.10 Experimental Procedure 77

3.10.1 Description of the Pre-test 78

3.10.2 The Treatment Procedure 80

3.10.3 Sample Lesson 83

3.10.4 Comments on the Sample Lesson 87

66
3.10.5 Description of the Post-test 88

3.11 Ethical Issues 89

3.12 Conclusion 91

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3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the methods and procedures adopted by the researcher to
examine the effect of the Task Based Approach on learners‘ writing and communicative
skills. The chapter begins with a description of the teaching environment in which the
research work took place then proceeds to deliver some information about the status of the
English language at the Department of Economic Sciences at the University of Laghouat.
The research questions and hypotheses are recalled and the variables of the research are
also defined to provide more insights into this experimental study. As it was impossible to
carry out a true experiment due to the inability to execute random assignment led the
researcher to opt for the quasi-experimental method which is explained in details in this
chapter. Later in the chapter, a full account of the sample of the study is provided.

As an attempt at answering and testing the research question and hypothesis, a

range of experimental procedures are conducted. The fact that the study aims at
determining the effect of the TBA on students‘ language places it in the cause-effect
testing continuum which required the design of an empirical investigation. The experiment
is carefully designed and logically ordered to reduce the effects of the extraneous variables
which might be critical to the validity and reliability of the research. A pre-test is the first
phase in the experiment at hand, it is administered to determine the students‘ level of
proficiency at English and it is also used as an element of control that aids the researcher to
confirm that the control and experimental groups belong to the same population and have
the same level to prove that the potential improvement or regression of the level of the
participants in the experimental group are the result of the treatment. This chapter presents
in details the experimental intervention and supplies the readers with Willis‘(1996) Task
Based Approach‘s Framework which is a set of methodological procedure proper to the
teaching approach in question .Moreover, a sample lesson is provided for more
clarifications about the treatment. Finally the current chapter exposes the post-test which is
the last experimental procedure in this study, it is very important to measure the effects of
the Task Based Approach on students‘ writing skills. Finally, the chapter contains
discussions and solutions for the ethical issues encountered during the realization of this
modest research work.

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3.2 Setting of the Research Study

The work was carried out at the Faculty of Business and Economics, University of
Laghouat .The mentioned Faculty comprises three departments:

1- Department of Economic Sciences

2- Department of Commercial Sciences
3- Department of Management Sciences

The division of undergraduate instruction and specialities is shown in the following table:

Domain Branches Specialities

Marketing

Commercial Sciences Accountancy

Economics Management IS

Management Sciences Management Sciences Business Management

Commercial sciences

Economic Sciences Banking and Inssurance

Table2.The distribution of branches and specialities at The Faculty of Business and

Economics, Laghouat

3.3 The Status of the English Language at Economic Sciences

Department

English is taught to the students of the department as a foreign language subject and
not as an ESP module due to the lack of ESP curricula and syllabi. The general objectives
of teaching English are reading, comprehending, and analyzing English texts. Additionally,
learning specialised vocabulary is another purpose of teaching this international language
to the students of the faculty.

69
 This module is taught by either part-time EFL teachers who hold a BA degree in
English, or subject specialists. Nevertheless, all of the instructors teaching English at the
mentioned faculty have not received any ESP training and know little about specialised
languages‘ teaching methodology and the requirements of ESP environments. Teachers
aim at achieving linguistic and grammatical competences as they base their English
sessions on reading texts and practicing grammatical structures with little if not any
emphasis on communication which should be the most important goal in ESP classes.
Teachers play the most important role in the business classes the fact that makes them
teacher-centred which opposes the doctrines and principles of ESP.

One hour and a half is the time allotted to the teaching and learning of the English
language per week which is believed to be insufficient by the teaching staff .In addition,
the lack of published books written in English at the faculty‘s library is another
impediment for both teachers and learners. Further details about the current English
teaching and learning situation could not be provided by the present research because they
are beyond its limits, hence, a further study is suggested to provide more insights and
explore the status of ESP at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Laghouat.

3.4 Methodology and Research Procedures

To answer and test the research questions and hypotheses mentioned previously,
certain methodological procedures need to be conducted. As the study attempts to test and
prove that the TBA could actually enhance the learners‘ writing skills as well as their
communicative proficiency, the experimental method seems to be the most adequate
method to fulfil the mentioned objectives as it is deemed to be appropriate to analyse the
functional relationship, that is to say, cause and effect relationship between variables.
However, the academic pre-designed grouping resulted the absence of randomization, a
kind of protection against extraneous variables, which is enumerated among the
fundamental principles of the experimental method has led us to the choice of quasi-
experimental designs. What follows is a reminder of the research questions and hypotheses
of the current study.

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3.5 Recalling Research Questions and Hypotheses
3.5.1 The Research Questions
In order to spell out the need of conducting the present research, a set of questions are
being formulated:

1- Does the implementation of the Task Based Approach teaching methodology

improve the students‘ writing skills?

2-Does the implementation of the Task Based Approach improve the learners‘
communicative proficiency?

3.5.2 The Hypotheses

This work aims at testing the following hypotheses:

1-Implementing the Task Based Approach improves the learning of writing in the
target ESP classes at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Laghouat.

2-The Task Based Approach improves and promotes the participants‘ communicative
skills.

3.6 Definition of the Variables of Research

3.6.1 Independent Variable

As stated in the title, the independent variable is the Task Based Approach. The
latter is present in the experimental group and absent in the control group. In this research
work, the utility of the TBA is measured through the experimental group‘s scores of the
post-test compared to those of the second group of the study.

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3.6.2 Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the business students‘ writing skills. This variable is
measured in both experimental and control groups before the introduction of the treatment
through a pre-test and after it via a post-test which is used to measure and prove the cause
and effect relationship between the mentioned variables.

3.7 Choice of the Method of Research

This study investigates the effect of the Task Based Approach on learners‘ writing
skills and communicative proficiency. The cause-effect relationship between the
mentioned variables of the research could not be tested using other methods than the
experimental method which is deemed to be one of the most agreeable tools to examine
causality which is addressed by this research study.

The Ex Post Facto method which is very often used to test cause-effect relationship
between variables is ruled out because it is utilised to investigate cases where the
independent variable has already occurred or used, which is not the case of the population
under study because neither the control nor the experimental groups have been subjected to
the task-based instruction before this study took place which led the researcher to opt for
the experimental method. Singh (2006) asserts that the experimental method is applied in
educational research for different reasons, among them is to, ―find out the efficiency of
different methods teaching in one subject in class-room‖.(p.145).This statement proves
that the choice of the experimental method is adequate for the present research which aims
at determining the efficiency of the Task Based Approach to teaching ESP.
However, the impossibility to execute the random assignment of the participants
equally to the control and experimental groups reoriented our choice of the method of
research, hence; the quasi-experimental design appeared to fit this study.

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3.7.1 The Quasi-experimental Method

The quasi-experimental method is used when randomization which is ,―The best

way to establish internal validity of a research study‖. (Marczyk ,et al., 2005, p. 137) is
absent .Moreover, the authors state that the method in which randomization is present is
referred to as a true-experiment whereas the method which lacks this element is a quasi-
experiment which means in English ―sort of experiment‖. As previously mentioned, the
pre-designed academic formation of students who have been subjected to the study made
the equal assignment of the participants to the experimental or control groups impossible,
thus, it is impossible for the researcher to control some external factors such as learners
educational background, level of the English language, gender, and age which are
considered to be extraneous variables.

The quasi-experimental method may be implemented through two different designs

which are interrupted time-series designs and the non-equivalent comparison-group
designs. The latter is more appropriate to this study. Marczyk, et al. argue , ‖Structurally,
these designs are quite similar to the experimental designs, but an important distinction is
that they do not employ random assignment‖. (p. 138).

Moreover, the researcher has the possibility to choose one of the two non-
equivalent comparison-designs which will be presented and described in brief in the
succeeding paragraphs.

3.7.1.1 Non-equivalent Groups Post-test-only Design

In this design, the sample is divided into two groups, control and experimental
groups. The experimental group receives the treatment. This quasi-experimental design
does not allow the researcher to carry out a pre-test to determine that the participants of
both groups have similar characteristics and level. In this respect, Marczyk ,et al. (2005)
state, ‖ However, it is equally possible that students who were likely to achieve high grades
were selected for a specific teaching method‖. Finally, the writers conclude that the
researcher ,‖Cannot rule the serious threats to internal validity that plague this design.‖
Hence, this design cannot be chosen for this research study because it lacks some elements
of control which may threaten its validity.

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3.7.1.2 Non-equivalent Groups Pre-test-Post-test Design

NR—O1—X—O2

NR—O1—X—O2

Diagram.1 Non-equivalent Groups Pre-test-Post-test Design.

Note:

NR stands for not randomized which is a fundamental characteristic of this

research, O1 stands for the pre-test which allows the researcher to measure between-group
differences before exposure to the intervention, X refers to the treatment of the
intervention and O2 is the post-test.
(Marczyk , et al. 2005, p. 139)
In this design, the dependent variable will be tested before and after the
introduction of the treatment through a pre-test and post-test. This design consists in two
groups, control and experimental group. The latter will receive the treatment which
represents the independent variable of the study. This design has two advantages:

―The temporal precedence of the independent

variable to the dependent variable can be established. This
may give the researcher more confidence when inferring
that the independent variable was responsible for changes
in the dependent variable. Second, the use of a pre-test
allows the researcher to measure between-group
differences before exposure to the intervention‖.
(Marczyk, et al, 2005, p. 139)

The researcher has chosen this design because it would solve the stated
problems of control the fact that increases the validity of the research findings. In
addition, the changes in the outcome of the participants would be presumed to be
the result of the treatment.

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 The current experimental design is essentially cross-sectional because this
type of studies permits gathering data promptly, thus, it is time and energy
efficient. The Cross-sectional approach is chosen because it is less likely to suffer
from extraneous effects, and is more likely to ensure the cooperation of the
participants.

3.8 Sampling

Before tackling the sample which is the subject of the current educational
experiment, it should be noted that sampling is an extremely difficult and serious
operation. In this respect, Morrison contends that ‖ The quality of a piece of research not
only stands or falls by the appropriateness of methodology and instrumentation but also by
the suitability of the sampling strategy that has been adopted‖. (Morrison,1993, qtd in
Cohen , et al. , 2000 , p.92). Morrison means that sampling is governed by a set of
scientific laws that must be respected to avoid the elements of bias and limit the effect of
extraneous variables and reduce the sampling error which would directly affect the quality
and objectivity of this research.

The participants of the present empirical study are the Students of the third-year
LMD enrolled in the economic sciences‘ classes at the University of Laghouat during the
academic year 2013-2014. It is important to mention that the population is composed of
(118) learners; the sample that is the subject of this study consists of (56) students divided
into two groups, control and experimental. The two groups could not be chosen and
equated by randomization. In this concern, Kerlinger (1970) states,‖ The researcher is
advised to use samples from the same population or samples that are alike as possible‖.
(Cited in Cohen, et al ,2000 , p. 215).The researcher attempted to choose identical samples.
Accordingly, the participants come from different regions. Their ages range between
twenty-one and thirty-two. However, the groups contain full-time workers aged between
twenty-nine and thirty-five. Importantly, all of the participants have been studying English
as a foreign language for at least five years before entering the university. As previously
mentioned, the randomization aspect will be absent due to the administrative grouping of
the students. However, the sampling in the current study was based on particular criteria.
The control over some extraneous examples such as sex was respected due to the nature of

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the mentioned groups which are composed mostly of female-students. Coincidently, the
number of boys and girls in both groups was similar which is in favour of the research‘s
validity. This is explained in the following table.

Group Sample Group1 Group2

Category N. P.% N. P.% N. P.%

Male 18 32,14 9 32,14 9 32,14

Female 38 67,85 19 67,85 19 67,85

Total 56 100 28 100 28 100

Table 3.Gender Proportions in the quasi-experimental study

Moreover, the age factor was controlled as participants have almost the same age,
so there are no old students whose relatively higher experience might bias the findings of
this research study.

The need of the English language proficiency is of paramount importance for this
population that is about to be graduated and will be directed to different sectors of the
economic and public administrations. Besides, the levels of the participants who make up
this population reflect those of the actual employees in different workplaces; this was the
first reason for choosing this particular sample. The relatively advanced level of this
population ,and the assumption that motivation should be higher amongst students of the
sample than other classes made the second reason for this choice because motivation is a
very important factor in the success of the learning . The mentioned reasons make the
sample of this study truly representative of the population, thus, the results can be
generalised.

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3.9 Teacher’s Profile

The teachers of business taking part in this study are both double-majors, that is to
say, they are BA in English and an MA in Business Studies holders. The teacher who was
assigned to implement the Task Based Approach was chosen because he has shown decent
skills and abilities, for he has been teaching ESP at the faculty of business at Laghouat
University for 10 years. Furthermore, being a subject specialist makes him adequate to
participate in the current educational experiment which takes place in a setting that
demands a solid background in the English language teaching in general and in Business
English in particular.

3.10 The Experimental Procedure

In order to test the mentioned hypotheses, the researcher adopted an experimental

design that consists of pre-testing both control and experimental groups to evaluate their
writing skills before the introduction of the treatment to eliminate bias elements and to
attribute the potential changes to the implementation of the TBA. The second procedure in
this research work is the introduction of the treatment, that is to say, the implementation of
the Task Based Approach. The researcher has relied on business tasks extracted from Neil
Wood‘s (2003) ―Business and Commerce‖. It is important to clarify that syllabus design
and materials writing are not the subjects of this study which limits itself to the task-based
teaching methods and practices. The last procedure was the post-test which both groups
have undertaken. This instrument was the tool by which the effect of the Task Based
Approach is determined. It is important to mention that the tests administered, that is, the
pre-test and post-test are statistically analysed which allows the researcher to correctly and
precisely interpret the findings of the educational experiment.

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 Pre-test Measurement

Treatment

Post-test Measurement

Diagram.1 An Overview of the Experimental Procedures

3.10.1 Description of the Pre-test

Before the introduction of the experiment (treatment) a pre-test of writing was

conducted in the two classes which represent control and experimental groups. The
participants were informed that they were taking part of the study and their performances‘
evaluation would not affect their course grade. The researcher had that chance to choose
one of the tasks suggested by Willis (1996) to comply with the Task Based Approach in
terms of assessment, the task types are:

7- Listing: including brainstorming and fact-finding activities. The outcome is a

completed list or draft mind map. This type of tasks can help to improve students‘
comprehension and induction ability.
8- Ordering: including sequencing, ranking, and classifying .The outcome is a set of
information ordered and sorted according to specific criteria. These types might
foster comprehension, logic and reasoning abilities.
9- Comparing: this type of tasks includes matching, finding similarities or differences.
This type of task enhances students‘ ability of differentiation.
10- Problem-solving: this type of tasks includes analyzing real situations, reasoning,
and decision making activities.

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 11- Sharing experience: These tasks include narrating, describing, exploring, and
explaining attitudes, opinions, and reactions. The outcome is essentially social.
These tasks help students to share and exchange their knowledge and experiences.
12- Creative tasks: These include brainstorming, fact-finding, and sorting, comparing
and many other activities. These kinds of tasks help improving the students‘
problem-solving abilities as well as their reasoning, and analyzing abilities.

(Willis, 1996, p.149)

The researcher has chosen the fourth type of tasks, that is, a problem solving task
suggested by Willis. The students were asked to write an e-mail (not more than two
paragraphs) to their supervisor to inform him about a problem that occurred in their
company and recommend solutions to solve that problem. The aim of this target-situation
production task is to test students‘ ability to communicate their ideas appropriately using
English as well as the mastery of language form and vocabulary. The time allocated for the
test is forty-five minutes .It should be noted that the researcher has evaluated the answers.
Finally, it should be pointed out that the researcher made ample efforts to balance the level
of difficulty of the pre-test and the post-test to increase the validity and reliability of the
results.

Scores obtained in the pre-test were to determine learners‘ ability to communicate

meaning properly in a target-like- situation as well as their ability to produce a coherent
and cohesive composition before the introduction of the treatment. This pre-test aims also
to make sure that the participants of the control and experimental groups have the same
level of language proficiency. It was an effective tool to establish control which is vital for
the internal validity of the results as well as to eliminate the effect of the extraneous
variables such as the difference of the participants‘ level. Any changes would be attributed
to the effect of the treatment, therefore, the pre-test provides the researcher with data to
either confirm or refute the working hypotheses. Finally, it should be noted that the scoring
of the pre-test and post-test was purely impressionistic. That is, the principal measures of
the correction of the test were the learners‘ ability to respect the characteristics of the
written genre (Business e-mail) and their ability to produce a correct text as much as
possible in terms of form, eloquence and creativity in making meaning, that is, the quality
of ideas and the way they are organised

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3.10.2 The Treatment Procedure

The treatment sessions are carried out within the regular business and economics
session. This quasi-experiment took six weeks. The lessons chosen for the study were
planned and structured according to the standards of the Task Based Approach to teaching
writing. The ESP teacher and the researcher have made ample efforts to turn regular
grammar-based classes into communicative task-based ones; the latter, were validated by
experienced EFL teacher. Moreover, the tasks were designed under the time allocated to
the subject. It should be noted that materials writing is beyond the limits of this study
which focuses on the TBA‘s teaching methodology. To accomplish the treatment
procedure, a training session was held with the teacher who has been assigned to carry out
the experiment. The teacher was trained on the principles and procedures of the task based
methodology to teaching and was provided with Willis‘ (1996) Task-based Framework
which he should exploit and adopt with the experimental group because the regular
teaching methodology was used with the control group:

TBA phase Teacher role

Introduction to topic and task:

During this phase, the teacher introduces the topic and

asks students questions that help them recall and use

Pre-task Stage topic-related vocabulary then he presents them with

the task instructions and finally makes sure they have
understood the theme.

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 Task:

The students of business and economics should

accomplish the task in pairs or in groups depending on
the language resources they have been provided with
Task Cycle Stage while the teacher walks between the rows monitoring
and encouraging students to complete the task.
However, the teacher is not allowed to correct
students‘ mistakes in this phase.

Planning stage:

In this phase the learners are required to prepare a

short written report about what they have learnt and
discovered while performing the task .The teacher can
answer students‘ questions and can supply them with
advice to properly write and organise the report.

Report:

Students of business and economics present or

circulate their written reports..The teacher in this phase
assigns roles, and gives feedback on the reports.

Analysis:
Language Focus Stage
In this stage, students try to examine and analyze the
task text‘s grammar and words. The teacher reviews
and corrects each analysis activity with the students;
he/she is allowed to suggest alternative useful words,
phrases and structures.

Practice:

The teacher selects structures, words, and phrases

students did not master when they produced their
reports. The students of business and economics are
required to practice the language features suggested by

81
 the teacher and write down important language items
in their copybooks.

Table 4. Task Based Approach Framework

The participants were informed that they were taking part in a research study. They
were provided with a clear explanation of the purpose of the research before carrying out
the study. Finally, the participants were notified that the tests administered by the
researcher are neither graded nor make part of their regular assessment.

In each of the treatment sessions, participants in the experimental group were

presented with texts that represent different genres commonly used in the business world to
make them notice how other writers create and communicate meaning in professional
settings. the use of such texts integrate other language skills as reading, speaking and
listening that served as an input for learners. In the first session of the treatment, the
teacher provided the learners with a business e-mail written by a student to a company‘s
human resources manager asking for information about training sessions organized by the
company. The text was extracted from Neil Wood. (2003). Business and Commerce .The
researcher and the teacher utilised this text which contains a communicative process in the
real world because ―context‖ is very important in the Task Based pedagogies. In this
regard, Samuda and Bygate (2008) show the importance of context as they state ‖It is the
context that provides the primary grounds for the participant‘s interpretation of what they
are doing and why…This is bound to affect the kinds and qualities of action they engage
in‖. (p.258).The researcher‘s choice of this text is justified because Business e-mails have
a communicative and social purpose, they are goal-oriented; this fact makes them fit the
TBA philosophy which stresses that task with a meaningful content and a social purpose
lead to action.

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3.10.3 Sample Lesson

Lesson 1

In the first stage, that is, the pre-task, the teacher distributed the model text and
asked the students to observe it because it represents the way the learners should perform
their own tasks and aids to establish the purpose and audience of the piece of writing
students had to produce; it also helped the students to acquire new topic-related words they
did not know before .Then the teacher used brainstorming which is one of Willis‘ (1996)
pre-task activities. He wrote the words ―business e-mail‖ and then asked them to tell him
what they thought when they saw it written on the white-board. The students interacted
positively with this activity and tried to explain to the teacher the meaning of a business
e-mail. Then the teacher asked them to write and then read a list of reasons about why
people write e-mails in business. This stage aimed at introducing the topic to the class, and
activating topic-related vocabulary.

The next phase of the lesson was the task phase which is a sequential phase that
contains three different stages. The task phase is the most important in the TBA‘s
methodology. The teacher began this phase by distributing the second handout which
contained the following task prompt:

You are interested in taking part in a work experience programme for business
students. Write an e-mail to a company or a bank that offers such training sessions.
Organise your e-mail like this:

1- Start the e-mail in an appropriate way.

2- Introduce yourself.
3- Explain why you are writing to them.
4- Request some information about the programme.
5- End the e-mail in an appropriate way.

(Neil Wood, 2003, p.10)

In the task stage which is the first stage in the task phase, the students of banking
had to accomplish the task in pairs depending on the model text provided by the teacher
earlier. The students‘ task was to unify their efforts to write one good business e-mail.
Then the teacher asked the students to form larger groups that had to reach an agreement

83
on the best possible business e-mail. As a result, students intensely communicated, argued
and collaborated with each other. The purpose of this stage was to enable the learners to
rehearse and argue using the English language. The teacher monitored the students from a
distance. He also encouraged them to communicate in English and use as little Arabic as
they could which was not possible due to their weak level in English, to solve this problem
the researcher has provided the class with two bilingual dictionaries. However, the teacher
was not allowed to correct during this stage. The stage‘s communicative nature provided
the students with real opportunities to practice and communicate in the target language.

After the students finished preparing the task, the teacher asked them to plan and
write a report about how they performed the task; this stage is referred to as the planning
stage. The students were encouraged to share and discuss what they have learnt and
discovered during the process of the task accomplishment. The report should supply
information such as the students‘ understanding of the model text, the difficulties they have
faced during the accomplishment of the task. Further still, learners could express their
opinions about the theme of the lesson and they could state whether they have enjoyed
working in pairs or not…etc. The teacher went around the rows and answered all the
questions the students posed as an attempt to improve their texts, he advised them about
the language forms and vocabulary of their reports. Finally, he encouraged them to
rehearse their reports which they had to present in the report stage.

In the report stage which is the final phase in the task cycle, students from each pair
are given one minute to present their written report. During this stage, the teacher assigned
roles and helped the students to overcome the linguistic difficulties they faced while
reading their reports. The teacher made sure that all the participants in the experimental
group have presented their reports. Ultimately, the students were required to exchange
reports and compare them to theirs. It was noticed that the lesson then took more time than
was scheduled and there were fifteen minutes only before the session reached its end.

The lesson reached its final phase, the language focus. In the analysis stage, the
students still had their mates‘ reports, they were asked to try to analyze and write down
what their mates have missed writing such as forgetting to start or end the e-mail properly
or missing the writer‘s name, etc. Finally, they are encouraged to correct their classmates‘
mistakes. The teacher used their reports to draw their attention to errors and mistakes they
have made. In terms of error correction, the teacher used self-correction which yielded

84
satisfactory results with some students. However, the majority of the students were not
able to self-correct themselves, the teacher used peer-correction which seemed to work but
the use of the mother tongue among the students was prevalent, therefore, the teacher
resorted to teacher correction. This method of error correction helped the students to
broaden their understanding of the language they have experienced in the task cycle.

The final stage in this TBA lesson was the practice stage. The teacher tried to
correct students‘ final reports quickly; he selected a set of words, phrases, and language
structures students did not master when they produced their texts.

The following table represents a lesson plan of this sample lesson. It supplies more
details about the treatment in terms of time, teacher/learner role/activity, and the objectives
of the lesson.

Phase Teacher Activity Learning Activity Objectives

Pre-task Teacher begins by writing Students give various To help students

stage ― business e-mail ― on the definitions about business recall topic
board. Then he asks: What e-mails then write a list of related words,
does the word on the board reasons why people write e- making them
mean? Then Why do people mails in business. ready for the
use‖ e-mail ― in business ? following stage.
Then the teacher uses
brainstorming by asking :make
a list of reasons.

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Task The task phase:
stage
Teacher asks the students to Students read the model Students discuss
form pairs and/or groups then text and the list ―how to and argue in
distributes the Text model and write an effective e-mail. English, write
a list entitled ―How to write an Then start performing the and rehearse
effective e-mail‖. After task guided by the the task.
students finish reading they are instructions provided in the
asked to start doing the task task prompt entitled in the
which requires writing a handout:‖Get Real‖.
similar e-mail. This is
explained clearly in the task
prompt entitled : Get real in
the distributed handout.

Planning stage:

After the students finish the

Students write reports and Students
task, the teacher asks them to
discuss what they learn as practise and
write a report telling how they
they performe the task. experiment with
performed the task ,the
the language.
students are encouraged to
discuss the problems they
faced during the
accomplishment of the task
and what they have learnt( new
words, corrected errors..etc.).

The report stage:

The report stage: students
Teacher asks the students to
read their reports out loud.
choose one from each pair to
Students read the reports of
read the report. Teacher makes
other mates and compare
sure all students have read
them to theirs.
their reports. Teacher may now
give feedback on the reports

86
 after asking the students to
exchange reports in order to
compare them to theirs.

Students take notes.

Analysis stage:
To determine
Teacher examines and analyses
the language
students‘ text looking for
errors
grammatical and vocabulary
Language committed by
errors.
Focus the learners.
Students take notes,
Stage Practice stage:
practise, and ask questions. To help learners
Teacher corrects the most overcome and
flagrant errors through correct language
exercises and similar errors they still
sentences. Writes correct make.
sentences and asks learners to
produce likewise.

Table5. A sample Lesson Plan, Lesson One

3.10.5 Comments on the Sample Lesson

The lesson plan presented in this chapter complies with the rules and principles of
the Task Based Approach .It was designed to help learners understand the different moves
specific to the genre of the text they were presented with. The task, a real-world e-mail,
enabled the teacher to expose the learners in the experimental group to meaningful and
comprehensible input. Real-world tasks are proven to be a motivating factor in ESP
settings and even in General English classes .The task was performed in pairs to foster the
negotiation of meaning among the students constituting each pair, hereby, communication
and use of domain specific words are promoted and learners‘ autonomy is encouraged
through this teaching pedagogy. On the other hand, the role of the teacher is minimized for

87
the task based instructions handed by the researcher do not allow him to be more than a
monitor or a guide in the ESP classroom.

It is important to mention, that the analysis phase allowed the teacher to effectively
detect students‘ weaknesses and lacks in terms of language structures, this practice permits
the teacher to acquire a clearer idea about students‘ lacks necessary in planning future
action such as planning lessons dealing with areas of difficulty diagnosed in the task-based
lesson, and designing relevant materials to overcome the weaknesses and lacks students
suffer from .The flexibility of the Task Based Approach made concrete by the lesson plan
provided previously makes it suitable for the Algerian students who still lack the mastery
of the English language despite receiving English courses for at least five years which is a
handicap that slows down and hinders their improvement in ESP. The Task Based
Approach aids to diagnose and detect what students lack which other teaching pedagogies
do not allow because their rigid structures and curricula require the teacher to adhere to the
prescribed lesson plans and objectives that in most cases surpass students‘ level especially
in the institutions where student‘s level at English is very weak.

3.10.6 Description of the Post-Test

The post-test is conducted after the treatment period reached its end. It aims at
measuring the effects and changes in learners‘ level of proficiency which occurred as a
result of the utilisation of the Task Based Approach .The researcher prepared a post-test
similar in nature and difficulty with the pre-test. The latter was validated by the teaching
staff that collaborated in the realisation of this educational experiment before conducting it.
During the process of designing the post-test the researcher took the level of the Algerian
students into consideration, for that reason the post-test as the pre-test was composed of
one question requiring the learners to write a business e-mail to a supplier ordering new
appliances (Printers, cartridges, computers, etc and asking some questions about them. The
students had forty-five minutes to accomplish the task.

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3.11 Ethical Issues

To tackle ethical issues that make part of any research work and implicitly
contribute to the validity and reliability of the project‘s results, careful consideration
should be given to the participants, materials, and the methods of data collections.

To point out the importance of being aware of ethical issues present in research
works, Cohen, et al. (2000) assert ―Ethical concerns encountered in educational research
in particular can be extremely complex and subtle and can frequently place researchers in
moral predicaments which may appear quite irresolvable‖. (p.49).The researcher adopted
a set of guidelines to make their ethical decisions .The first one is what is referred to as
informed consent. Cohen, et al. explained:

―Much social research necessitates obtaining the

consent and co-operation of the subjects who are to assist
in investigations.. The principle of informed consent arises
from the subject‘s right to freedom and self-determination…
Another aspect of the right to self-determination is that the
subject has the right to refuse to take part, or to withdraw
once the research has begun.‖
(Cohen et al., 2000 , pp. 50-51)

Secondly, every researcher should consider the rule of access and acceptance .Cohen
explains it as:

―The relevance of the principle of informed consent

becomes apparent at the initial stage of the research
project—that of access to the institution or organization
where the research is to be conducted and acceptance by
those whose permission one needs before embarking on the
task.
(Cohen , et al ., 2000 , pp . 53)

This principle requires the researcher to ask for permission before the execution of an
experiment at a given institution or company, that is to say, the researcher should formally
request access to the facilities of members of a certain organization. In this regard, research

89
work carried out without the consent of those in charge of the department that hosted the
project would flagrantly violate research ethics and puts the findings and results of the
work into question.

The last principle taken into consideration in this study is the anonymity and confidentially
of the participants. In this regard, Cohen.et al, (2000) explain the concept‖ The essence of
anonymity is that information provided by participants should in no way reveal their
identity‖.(p.61).The researcher should by all means keep the identity of the participants
confidential:

―The obligation to protect the anonymity of research

participants and to keep research data confidential is all
inclusive. It should be fulfilled at all costs unless
arrangements to the contrary are made with the
participants in advance.‖

(Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias , 1992 , qtd in Cohen. et al , 2000, p.61).

In response to ethical issues raised previously, the researcher has implemented the
following actions:

1- Informed consent was obtained from the participants. The subjects in both groups
were informed two weeks before the intervention about their contribution to the
present study. The participants were permitted to withdraw from the study and it
was explained to them that the tests they are going to be subjected to are not part of
their regular assessment. All of the students accepted to take part of this study.
2- A formal meeting with the teachers who took part in the present research was held
to ask for permission to implement the current study, they were presented with an
outline of this study. Finally, the subject specialists agreed to host the research.
3- To comply with the principle of anonymity and confidentiality, the researcher used
the letter (A) followed by numbers to identify the participants of the experimental
group, the letter (C) has been used as an identification code to refer to the
participants of the control group.

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3.12 Conclusion

In the present chapter, the researcher provided the readers with details about the
research method and the reasons behind the choice of a particular design of the quasi-
experimental method which was used to answer the research questions. Also, valuable
information about the sampling and the experimental procedure that has been adopted in
the current research study enriched this chapter. In addition, the teaching-learning situation
at the department of business was presented. The lessons that constituted the treatment
procedure were designed according to the norms and standards of the Task Based
Approach.

However, the learners‘ level of proficiency obliged the researcher and the teachers
who participated in this study to modify some tasks. In this concern, the Task Based
Approach framework was provided as well as a sample lesson (lesson 1) to illustrate the
treatment procedure .Finally, the results of the study will further determine the utility of the
experimental procedures administered to answer the research questions and prove or
disprove the mentioned hypotheses. In the fourth chapter, the obtained results will be
analysed and discussed then it will conclude by presenting recommendations and
suggestions for further studies.

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 C H A P T E R FOUR
Analyses, Discussion, Recommendations and
Suggestions
 CHAPTER FOUR

Analyses, Discussion, Recommendations and Suggestions

4.1 Introduction 94

4.2 Presentation of the Findings 94

4.2.1 The Pre-test 94

4.2.2 The Post-test 96

4.3 General Interpretation of the Findings 98

4.3.1 Interpretation of the Findings in Relation to the first Research Question 98

4.3.2 Interpretation of the Findings in Relation to the Second Research Question 99

4.4 Pedagogical Implications 100

4.4.1 The Effectiveness of the Task Based Approach in Teaching English in an ESP Context 100

4.4.2 The Need for Communicative Classrooms 101

4.4.3 The Need for Experiential Learning in ESP Classes 102

4.4.5 The Need for Learner-centred Language Classrooms 103

4.4.6 The Importance of Relevant and Authentic Materials for ESP Learners 103

4.5 Recommendations 104

4.6 Limitations of the Study 105

4.7 Conclusion 107

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4.1 Introduction
The present chapter aims at examining, analysing, and interpreting the effects of the
Task Based Approach on students‘ writing and communicative proficiency to further
suggest or discourage the implementation of this teaching approach in ESP settings.

In order to answer the research questions and prove or disprove the research
hypotheses, and due to the quantitative nature of the research, statistical analysis was
utilised to analyse the findings of the study. The results were obtained through two main
instruments, a pre-test and a post-test; they allowed us to have an idea about the students‘
level of proficiency before and after the introduction of the treatment. These were the
means that enabled the researcher to attribute the changes, improvement, or regression in
the English language level of the participants in the experimental group to the effects of the
Task Based Approach to teaching writing to ESP classes. In the paragraphs that follow,
presentation of the findings, pedagogical implications, recommendations, and suggestions
for further studies will be provided to extend and effectively invest the benefits of the
current research work.

4.2 Presentation of the Findings

4.2.1 The Pre-test

The pre-test served as a valuable information resource and control element that
provided the researcher with details about the participants‘ level and proficiency in the
English language .The test was validated by a panel of ESP teachers at the faculty that held
this study. The pre-test was primarily designed to determine the difference between the two
groups, experimental and control groups, to control bias in the results so as to increase the
validity and reliability of the whole study. Moreover, the test focused on examining
students‘ linguistic competence, writing skills and communicative abilities to fit the
principles of ESP. In this respect, grammatical constructions were not tackled in this test
but this important element in language learning was not neglected during the
implementation of the treatment.

94
 The quantitative data resulting from both tests were numerically analysed using the
Statistical Package for Social Science. The results of the pre-test taken by both groups are
sketched in the following tables.

Table number six presents us with the average score of the control group.

Group Number Mean

Control Group 28 8,3571
Table6.The Pre-test mean score of the control group

The next table includes the mean realized by the experimental group:

Group Number Mean

Experimental Group 28 8,2232

Table7. The Pre-test mean score of the experimental group

The difference between the mean scores of the experimental and control groups is provided
below:

(X1) =8, 3571

(X2) =8, 2232

(X1)- (X2) = 8, 3571 – 8, 2232= 0, 1339

The calculation provided above reveals that there is no noteworthy difference between
the mean scores of the control group and the experimental group. The difference between
the means is only 0, 1339. This confirms that the participants in the control and
experimental group are from the same sample and they have almost the same level of
writing and communicative competences before the introduction of the experiment. The
findings allow the researcher to measure the progress or regression in the experimental
group‘s level of proficiency and attribute any positive or negative changes to the Task
Based Approach which is the teaching approach adopted to instruct this group.

The mean scores and the slight difference between the means obtained by the groups is
sketched in the figure below:

95
 Graph.1: Pre-test experimental and control groups‘ mean scores

4.2.2 Post-test

After the end of the treatment, the post-test was carried out as it was clarified in the
previous chapter. Importantly, the researcher and teachers involved in the current
educational experiment have done their best to maintain the same level of difficulty of the
pre-test; this establishes validity of the tools of measurement employed in the study.

The results of the post-test are presented in the following tables:

Group Number Mean

Control Group 28 7,5357
Table 8.The post-test mean score of the control group

The table (8) demonstrates the mean score obtained by the control group. It is noticed that
students‘ mean in the post-test has regressed compared to their performance in the pre-test.
The next table shows the mean score of the participants of the experimental group that
received the treatment:

96
 Group Number Mean
Experimental Group 28 8,9286

Table 9. The Post-test mean score of the experimental group

To figure out the difference between the means the following mathematical operation has
been conducted:

(X1) =7, 5357

(X2) =8, 9286

(X2)- (X1) = 8, 9286 – 7, 5357= 1, 3929

This calculation shows that the difference between the mean scores of the control
and experimental groups has become more important compared with the difference
between the means of the same groups in the pre-test .Further analysis and discussion of
the findings at hand will be provided in the next paragraphs of this chapter below the graph
that illustrates the difference between the means of the participants.

Graph.2: Post-test experimental and control groups‘ mean scores

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4.3 General Interpretation of the Findings

In the following paragraphs, the findings will be interpreted according to each of

the research questions.

This empirical study was carried out to prove or disprove the most important
hypothesis that the TBA improves learners‘ writing skills and communicative proficiency
to cater for the needs of their future workplaces. The pre-test showed that the control and
experimental groups had almost the same level of language and communicative
proficiency before the introduction of the independent variable with the difference of only
0.1339 between their means(average scores of the two groups). The findings yielded by the
post-test that was administered after the introduction of the intervention reveal that the
students‘ writing and communicative level could really be improved after implementing
the Task Based Approach. Precisely, in the post-test the experimental group‘s mean is
8,9286 whereas the control group‘s mean score is 7,5357.The difference between the
means is 1,3929 .Moreover, the difference between the mean scores of the experimental
group in the pre-test and the post-test is (8,9286 - 8,2232) = 0,7054 which reveals a
significant improvement in the students level after being subjected to the Task Based
Approach .
It is worth noting that the marking of the pre-test and post-test which are the
research tools utilised to gather and interpret data was purely impressionistic. That is, the
principal measures of the correction of the test were the learners‘ ability to respect the
characteristics of the written genre (Business e-mail) and their ability to produce a correct
text as much as possible in terms of form, and creativity in making meaning, that is, the
relevance of ideas and the way they are organised.

4.3.1 Interpretation of the Findings in Relation to the First Research

Question

The participants of the experimental group had performed in the post-test better
than they did in the pre-test and far better than their colleagues in the control group who
were taught via the current teaching method.
The subjects in the experimental group were successful to a certain extent in
producing a relevant and effective business e-mail as they were taught using authentic

98
materials and real-world tasks the fact that allowed them to not just write in a correct,
coherent, and cohesive manner but to respect the moves of business genres as the TBA is a
combination of the product and process approaches to teaching writing. The analysis and
practice phases allowed the students to revise and practice grammar and that helped them
to produce grammatically sound pieces of writing which was not the case for the control
group whose teacher ignored the revision of tenses and other grammatical features as the
teaching method he utilised was not flexible and did not allow the revision of grammar
which is thought to be done in the previous years. The findings prove the first hypothesis
of this research that the implementation of the Task Based Approach improves ESP
learners‘ writing skills.

4.3.2 Interpretation of the Findings in Relation to the Second Research

Question
The participants in the experimental group respected the business genres‘
conventions as a result of being exposed to real-world models which is important for a
successful communicative act. In addition, the task based method of teaching allowed them
to improve their ability to produce and communicate which characterised their
performance in the post-test. To sum up, the results of the post-test reveal that the Task
Based Approach does help to improve students‘ communicative proficiency.

The conclusion that may be drawn from the presentation and discussion of the
findings, is that the improvement of the level of the experimental group compared to their
performance in the pre-test and that of the control group in the post-test is proven to be the
result of the implementation of the Task Based Approach created a real ESP environment
for the students of the Faculty of Business and Economics at the University of Laghouat.
Therefore, the research questions were positively answered and the hypothesis that the
Task Based Approach can bring forth improvement at an ESP setting has been proved right
by the current empirical research work.

99
4.4 Pedagogical Implications

4.4.1 The Effectiveness of the Task Based Approach in Teaching English

in an ESP context
The findings of the study show that the TBA could be a good alternative for
teachers in ESP contexts to live up to the expectations of the professional world that
demands linguistically competent employees. The introduction of the Task Based
Approach altered the focus of the ESP classes in the Department of Economics at the
University of Laghouat from form to communication which should be the ultimate concern
in all ESP classes.

The first implication of the present study is that teachers may well adopt the TBA
to improve their students‘ communicative and writing skills in the light of the absence of
an ESP curriculum and the lack of specialised training in ESP for the teachers in the
mentioned department have never been trained on the principles and pedagogies that
should be implemented in ESP contexts. Hence, the TBA seems to be a viable solution for
the ESP teachers for it is accessible in terms of time and effort and because it relies on real-
world tasks that equip the learners with the language required in the target situations.
Moreover, the content is created as a response to students needs not decided by the teacher
or the course book. The teachers should therefore realize that authentic materials should be
utilised to satisfy the needs of both the learners and their potential workplaces.

Teachers need to apply and practice the Task Based Approach in ESP classes
because it proved in this study as well as in previous studies that it is an effective tool to
enhance students‘ communicative proficiency and writing skills. Urging the teachers to
make use of the Task Based Approach is supported by the following reasons:

1- The language practiced and explored by the learners arises from their needs which
make the TBA lesson enjoyable and motivating, thus, it is adequate and relevant to
their future professional context‘s requirements.
2- The TBA offers more chances to write than any other teaching approach for
Students intensely practice writing because they write to perform the task and write
the report .
3- Teachers need to implement the Task Based Approach because it creates a real
environment for students to communicate in English as the researcher noticed
during the experiment carried out in the present study that subjects in the

100
 experimental group spent more time communicating in English than those in the
control group.
4- The Task Based Approach offers the learners more exposure to target language.
They are exposed to a wide range of lexical items, phrases, and collocations in
addition to language forms which directly contribute to building professional
vocabulary.
5- The TBA should be used in the Algerian specialised classes because it promotes
learner-centeredness and increases students‘ motivation which are proven by
pedagogues that they are the right ingredients for educational success.

4.4.2 The Need for Communicative Classes

ESP specialists believe that language is a tool of communication rather than forms
and structure one should master, thus, communication according to them must be the top
priority of any ESP class. Teachers in the Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences of
Laghouat should adopt the Task Based Approach for which meaning and communication
are central because it aims at making the language classroom truly communicative through
the utilisation of real-world or target situation tasks which are proven by many researchers
notably Prahbu (1987) to enhance the learning of second languages and improve students‘
motivation .

Teacher need to realize that the target language is a vehicle for classroom
communication not just the object of the study. In this respect, the use of real-world tasks
helped motivating disengaged learners .Thus, the TBA aids to democratize language
learning and includes disinterested students which focus on the subjects‘ modules at the
expense of the specialised foreign languages in general and English in particular which is
the case in all of the specialised institutions in Algeria .Accordingly, for a truly
communicative class ,the teacher has to grant the students the opportunity to express their
ideas and opinions and need to tolerate language errors considered to be a natural outcome
of the learning process.

Moreover, the current used methodologies that focus on language forms and on
teaching business theories as practiced actually in the faculty in question have been proven
to be a failure as the great majority of the students are not excited before entering language
classrooms, and most of them are unable to produce neither written nor spoken business

101
language in a world that increasingly depends on English as Algeria is economically bound
to English speaking partners such as the British company British Petroleum as well as a
great number of Chinese ,Japanese, and Portuguese construction companies, the fact that
obliges the teachers to focus on communication in response to the demands of the Algerian
economy which is a fertile business ground for native and non-native English speaking
partners.

Accordingly, the target situations such as companies and banks do not need
linguistically competent employees only, they need sociable individuals to fit the modern
business doctrines which depend on marketing the company‘s reputation and products
using the socio-communicative skills of their employees, hence, the Task Based Approach
becomes necessary as the tasks used in the TBA classroom improve problem solving and
interaction among the learners using English. Opinion-gap and reasoning-gap activities are
two of three important activity categories of the TBA tasks .This shows the consideration
the TBA pays to the skills needed in the professional setting which leaves no doubt that the
TBA might be a solution to the current learning and teaching in the Faculty of Business of
Laghouat.

4.4.3 The Need for Experiential Learning in ESP Classes

One of the most important implications of this study is that teachers in ESP settings
need to implement the Task Based Approach in their classes because it fosters what is
termed experiential learning which refers to learning through doing what students are
supposed to do in their future workplaces. Personal experiences resulting from performing
real-world tasks endow the learners with linguistic and social skills required to successfully
operate in the various potential professional settings.

In accordance, teachers need to focus on the process of learning rather than the
product. They also need to promote learners‘ autonomy and, ―Improve intrinsic motivation
rather than extrinsic motivation.‖(Kohonen , 1996, cited in Nunan,2004, p.12).Teachers
who use the TBA should, ―Encourage self-directed learning rather than teacher-directed
learning.‖(ibid.12).In other words, teachers of ESP need to limit their roles and time of
intervention and must encourage learners to play active roles in small groups or pairs to
foster experiential learning.

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4.4.5 The Need for Learner-centred Language Classrooms

Most of the teachers in different fields and domains assert that the dependence of
the learners on them is flagrant. This over- reliance of the learners on their teachers does
not hinder the instructors‘ creativity and productivity only but impedes sound learning and
results in superficial learning for most of the learners. Modern researches have revealed
that learner-centeredness or active learning which is essential to ESP teaching is the
solution for most of the classroom problems. Student-centeredness draws on the
involvement of the learners in the learning process and encourages the students to assume
the responsibility on their own learning and incites them to rely less on their teachers, thus,
develop their autonomy or self-reliance which may be a very promising solution to
improve their learning and language skills.

However, it is noticed that Business English classes in the Faculty of Business of

Laghouat University are still teacher-centred classes with complete dependence on the ESP
teachers who provide the learning materials, present lessons, ask and answer questions, and
draw conclusions. The Task Based Approach might be the adequate solution for this
situation, for the TBA lesson plans clearly define teachers‘ roles, and its carefully designed
TBA lesson phases and activities eradicate teachers‘ dominance that prevails in the current
ESP classes and provide the learners with more opportunities to improve their autonomy in
the language classroom besides improving their language skills and mastery.

4.4.6 The Importance of Relevant and Real-World Materials for ESP

Learners

Teachers need to utilise real-world materials that constitute a fundamental

component of the Task Based Approach. They are of paramount importance for ESP
trainees in the Faculty of Business of Laghouat University and in all ESP settings because
they immerse the learners in the target situation‘s language and endow the language tasks
with a realistic context relevant to the learners‘ needs. Authentic materials are very
important for communicative purposes which are the objectives of ESP. These materials
can help while performing real-world problem solving they also help learners and teachers
as asserted by House (2008) to ,―Link the formal, and to some extent artificial,
environment of the classroom with the real world in which we hope our students will

103
eventually be using the language they are learning‖ (as cited in Benavent, 2012, p.
89).The accomplishment of tasks that are made from authentic materials acquaints
learners with the language they will be using in their potential workplace which facilitates
their task ,and helps them to rapidly adapt to their job‘s requirements and ensures high
linguistic performance in the target situation which plays a decisive role in their
professional success.

Finally, the didactic implications of using the Task Based Approach to teaching
writing in ESP classes are summarised in the following point:

a- Focus on meaning and communication must replace the current emphasis on

form .They should be the central interest of ESP teachers at the mentioned
faculty.
b- The needs of the target situations and the learners must define the content and
the materials.
c- During the task-based lessons, teachers should respect the roles assigned for
them in a way that fosters learner-centeredness to promote the quality of the
English language learning.
d- Real-world tasks should be the means of teaching and teachers should
permanently fetch for up to date authentic materials to respond to learners‘
needs and aspirations.

Moreover, ESP teachers must encourage students to bring business English

dictionaries as well as English to Arabic dictionaries as a way to adapt with the level and
the needs of the Algerian students.

4.5 Recommendations

After the presentation and discussion of the results, the following recommendations
are proposed to teachers and researchers in the field of ESP . First, ESP teachers need to
use the Task Based Approach which has proven to be highly effective in improving
students writing skills and communicative proficiency. Second, as teachers play a crucial

104
role in the success of the TBA classes and for better results and effective learning, it is
recommended that ESP teachers organise meetings to brainstorm about the Task Based
Approach for a better mastery and understanding of the approach‘s procedures. These
meetings could also serve to accurately select real-world tasks. It is also recommended that
researchers carry out future studies to explore the effects of the TBA in various ESP
classes such as English for Engineering, Legal English, and in other English for Academic
and Occupational Purposes setting .Moreover, EFL classes in the English departments
across the country may be the subject of studies that aim at examining the effect of the
TBA on teaching language skills other than writing as well as grammar which poses
problems for teachers who are striving to find an effective pedagogy to teach grammar to
overcome the difficulties faced by the students in understanding this fundamental
component of the language that effects their general mastery of English.

Furthermore, the researcher recommends that course and syllabus designers need to
design a task-based curriculum, syllabus and well-designed audio-visual activities and
tasks that bring the workplace to the ESP classroom to improve students‘ language and
communication skills. The task based curriculum should be relevant to the needs and
backgrounds of the learners and relevant to the target situations in which the ESP learners
will be hired. Moreover, the TBA curriculum should be designed according to the
international norms and learners‘ level of proficiency. In the meanwhile and during the
absence of these important tasks-based pedagogical tools, ESP teachers are asked to
transform the content and textbook they actually use to fit the principles and procedures of
the Task Based Approach that has been proven beneficial in ESP contexts.

If put to work , the recommendations may aid to improve the teaching and learning
of writing in ESP classes and the retention of specialised vocabulary and mastery of the
target-situation-related genres, they will also help to improve students‘ interest and
motivation in English for Specific Purposes classes.

4.6 Limitations of the Study

It is known that any research has weaknesses and limitations; the current research is
no exception. Several limitations present in this study should be noted. First, the readers of
the present report must be reminded that sampling has not been done randomly. In this

105
concern, some of the participants in the experimental group might have higher levels than
the subjects that formed the control group, the fact that might have affected the results
achieved by the subjects who received the study. In addition, other factors such as age
could not be fully controlled due to the nature of quasi-experimental designs. Therefore,
the positive change and results of the experimental group might be attributed to students‘
level and background rather than the Task Based Approach; the fact that might seriously
endanger the validity of the research findings.

The pre-test and the post-test that were designed to measure the level of proficiency
of the learners before the introduction of the treatment and after it ,represent the second
limitation of this study because each of them was composed of one activity. This was done
to preserve students‘ effort and encourage them to co-operate and participate in this study,
and also to make it accessible for all members in both groups. The tests despite having
been validated by teachers of the ESP module at the faculty in question might be very easy;
the level of difficulty may threaten the credibility of the data collection tools.

Moreover, the teaching methodology adopted in the control group might share
some aspects with the Task Based Approach implemented in the experimental group as no
control was applied on the second group. Another limitation of this study is the attitudes of
the teacher and the experimental group‘s participants towards the Task Based Approach
have not been recorded nor measured and the findings of this study draw uniquely on the
scores obtained from the pre-test and post-test; this obliges the researcher to recommend a
more comprehensive research to precisely measure the effects of the TBA on student‘
writing skills and communicative proficiency.

Furthermore, lacking attitudinal questionnaires and classroom observation

necessary to measure teacher‘s and learners‘ reaction to the TBA are among the limitations
of the current research. Finally, the dependence on written texts and the absence of audio-
visual materials that could have increased the positive effect of the TBA in the target ESP
classes may be added to the limitations of this study.

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4.7 Conclusion

The scores and results of this experimental research reveal that the Task Based
Approach had positive effects. The approach brought forth important improvement of
learners‘ writing and communicative skills and created a real ESP environment because it
led to more focus on function and meaning than on structure. The quantitative results are a
strong and valid proof that the TBA can really enhance and improve learners‘ writing and
communicative competence in ESP classes.

Finally, despite the valuable insights provided by this cross-sectional study, a

longitudinal research is highly needed to prove or disprove the acquired results as well as
to overcome the difficulties encountered by the researcher as he conducted the present
work which might have limited the positive effects of the TBA. For instance, the lack of
time devoted to training the teachers on the principles and practices of the approach.
Besides, the lack of a task-based curriculum and syllabi toughened the task of the
researcher and obliged him to design tasks that were used during this educational
experiment, therefore, exceeded the limitations of this research that was limited to
exploring the effects of the TBA.

107
GENERAL CONCLUSION
General Conclusion

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is an important subject to the students of the
Faculty of Business and Economics at Laghouat University; its importance exceeds
achieving high grades in particular and academic success in general for it is crucial to
enable them to fulfil the aspirations of their future employers.

However, it is clearly noticed that the current teaching methodologies at the

mentioned faculty and other specialised faculties and institutions across the country have
to be reviewed as they do not take learners‘ needs into consideration because of their
flagrant focus on language form and business theory which do not fit ESP environments.
Importantly, the actual teaching practices are not able to fulfil the requirements of the
business sector which is more open on English speaking business poles such as China,
USA, Germany and the European Union. Therefore, the purpose behind this study was to
explore the effects of the Task Based Approach on students‘ writing skills and
communicative proficiency because any new teaching methodology could not be
implemented before testing its efficiency and suitability for a particular group of learners
and for a specific educational environment.

The present study was built around four chapters which were carefully designed to
answer the research questions and to prove or disprove the working hypotheses. The first
chapter endeavoured to provide the readers with precise information and details of the
Task Based Approach .A considerable part of the first chapter was devoted to the
presentation of the theoretical background of this teaching approach. The second chapter
dealt with writing for it was chosen as the language skill to be targeted in the present
research project. First, writing skill was defined. Furthermore, writing in ESP settings
was highlighted. Finally, various approaches to teaching writing were presented in this
part before tackling the TBA approach to teaching writing which was to be implemented
by the researcher.

In the practical part of the work, the third chapter attempted to shed light on the
setting in which the study was carried out. Details about the status of the English
language at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Laghouat were provided. Moreover,
the sampling, scientific method, procedures adopted by the researcher were dealt with in
this chapter. The quasi-experimental method was the means by which the researcher
attempted to explore the effects of the Task Based Approach on learners‘ writing skills;

109
accordingly, the pre-test that was used to examine students‘ level of proficiency and to
prove that the samples belong to the same population was presented. Then, the treatment
procedure was illustrated through a sample plan which explained how the Task Based
Approach was implemented in this study. Finally, the chapter presented the last tool of
measurement, that is, the post-test which was administrated to determine the effects of the
Task Based Approach on learners‘ writing and communicative abilities.

In the last chapter of the study, the researcher analysed the results of the pre-test
and post-test which were administered to measure students‘ writing and communicative
proficiency before and after the implementation of the TBA. The findings gathered in this
study support the hypotheses we departed from. They have also revealed that the Task
Based Approach is an effective pedagogy to improve business students‘ English writing
and communicative skills .The average mean scores of the groups show that the students
of the experimental group, who were subjected to the teaching approach in question,
achieved better results and were more motivated than their counterparts in the control
group. The difference between scores of the two groups is attributed to the effects of the
independent, that is, Task Based Approach.

This research study gives the Algerian university, teachers and learners tools and
ways to improve the writing and communicative skills in the ESP classes to cater for the
requirements of the professional sector. However, a longitudinal study needs to be carried
out to overcome the limitations encountered in the current research. More importantly,
future investigations are necessary to design a task based curriculum for the students of
business and economics.

110
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1 : Identity of the Participants

Ammar Thelidji University

Department of Banking and Assurance

ID of the Participants

Degree:

Module:

You are: Male Female

Your age is:

You: Work and Study Study only

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Appendix 2 : Pre-test and Post-test

Educational Experiment

Pre-test

Ammar Thelidji University

Degree: 3rd year

Module: English for Specific Purposes

Task:

Write an email to your supervisor to inform him about a problem that occurred (happened)
in your company and recommend solutions to solve that problem.

Answer:

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

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Appendix 2 : Pre-test and Post-test

Educational Experiment

Post-test

Ammar Thelidji University

Degree: 3rd year

Module: English for Specific Purposes

Task:

Write an e-mail to a supplier ordering a new appliances (Printers, cartridges, computers, etc and

asking some questions about them.

Answer:

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Appendix 3 : Teacher’s Guide : A Task Based Approach Framework

Time TBA phase Teacher role

Introduction to topic and task:

Pre-task
During this phase, the teacher introduces the topic and
asks students‘ questions that help them recall and use
topic-related vocabulary then he presents them with
the task instructions and finally makes sure they have
understood the task.

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Appendix 3 : Teacher’s Guide : A Task Based Approach Framework

Task:
The students of business and economics should
accomplish the task in pairs or in groups depending on
Task cycle the language resources they have been provided with
while the teacher walks between the rows monitoring
and encouraging students to complete the task.
However, the teacher is not allowed to correct
students‘ mistakes in this phase.

Planning stage:
In this phase the learners are required to prepare and
rehearse what they are going to write in the written
report .They may also discuss and share what they
have learnt and discovered while performing the task
.The teacher can answer students‘ questions and can
supply them with advice to properly write and
organize the report.

Report:
Students of business and economics present or
circulate their written reports. The teacher in this phase
assigns roles, and gives feedback on the reports.

Analysis:
Language Focus In this stage, students try to examine and analyze the
task text‘s grammar and words. The teacher reviews
and corrects each analysis activity with the students;
he/she is allowed to suggest alternative useful words,
phrases and structures.

Practice:
The teacher selects structures, words, and phrases
students did not master when they produced their
reports. The students of business and economics are
required to practice the language features suggested by
the teacher and write down important language items
in their copybooks.

The Teacher’s guide: The TBA framework

123
Appendix 3 : Teacher’s Guide : A Task Based Approach Framework

Objectives (Instructions) of the TBA approach to teaching Writing:

-Summarizing the important points of the presentation or the text dealt with in the speaking
phase.(or by the teacher)

Re-writing the Text given by the teacher using personal style.

Writing a Business report on one of the themes talked in the English course.(text)

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Appendix 4 :Sample Lesson Plan

Lesson Plan (Lesson 1) Lesson title: Business E-mail

Time : 90 :30 to 11. Year/Class :3rd year Banking

University Ammar Thelidji

Time Teacher Activity Learning Activity Objectives

Pre-task Teacher begins by writing Students give various To help

stage « business e-mail » on the definitions about students
board. Then he business e-mails then recall topic
asks :What does the word write a list of reasons related words,
on the board mean ?then why people write e- making them
Why do people use « e- mails in business. ready for the
mail » in business ?then following
the teacher uses stage.
brainstorming by
asking :make a list of
reasons.

Task 1 :Task phase Students

stage discuss and
Teacher ask the students Students read the
argue in
to form pairs and/or model text and the list
English, write
groups then distributes ―how to write an
and rehearse
the Text model and a list effective e-mail‖. Then
the task.
entitled ―How to write an start performing the
effective e-mail‖. After task guided by the
students finish reading instructions provided
they are asked to start in the task prompt
doing the task which entitled in the
requires writing a similar handout:‖Get Real‖.
e-mail. This is explained
clearly in the task prompt
entitled :Get real in the
distributed handout.

Planning stage: Students

Students write the practise and
After the students finish report and discuss experiment
the task, the teacher asks about what they have with the

125
Appendix 4 :Sample Lesson Plan

them to write a report learnt as the performed language.

telling how they the task.
performed the task ,the
students are encouraged
to discuss the problems
they faced during the
accomplishment of the
task and what they have
learnt( new words,
corrected errors..etc.). The report stage:
students read their
The report stage: reports out loud.
Teacher asks the students Students read the
reports of other mates
to choose one from each
and compare them to
pair to read the report.
theirs.
Teacher makes sure all
students have read their
reports. Teacher may now
give feedback on the
reports after asking the
students to exchange
reports in order to
compare them to theirs.

Language To determine
Analysis stage: Students take notes.
Focus the language
Stage Teacher examines and errors
analyses students‘ text committed by
looking for grammatical the learners.
and vocabulary errors.
To help
Practice stage: learners
Students take notes,
overcome and
Teacher corrects the most practise , and ask
correct
flagrant errors through questions.
language
exercises and similar
errors they
sentences. Writes correct
still make.

126
Appendix 4 :Sample Lesson Plan

sentences and asks

learners to produce
likewise.

127
Appendix 5 :Treatment Lessons

128
Appendix 5 :Treatment Lessons

129
Appendix 5 :Treatment Lessons

130
Appendix 5 :Treatment Lessons

131
Appendix 5 :Treatment Lessons

132
Appendix 5 :Treatment Lessons

133
 ‫الملخص‬

‫انٓدف يٍ ْرِ اندزاسة ْٕ تقيى تأثيس انًقبزثة ثبنتًبزيٍ أ انًٓبو عهٗ قدزات ٔ يٓبزات انكتبثة نطهجة انسُة انثبنثة‬
‫ثكهية انعهٕو انتجبزية ٔ االقتصبدية ثجبيعة االغٕاط ٔقد تى اختيبز انكتبثة يٍ ثيٍ انًٓبزات انهغٕية االخسٖ ألًْيتٓب في‬
ِ‫ تى اجساء ْرا انجذث نتقيى يدٖ َجبعة ْر‬. ‫عبنى االعًبل ٔاالقتصبد ثبعتجبز ْب االكثس استعًبال في تهك انجيئة انًُٓية‬
‫انًقبزثة ٔ ذنك نطسدٓب كٕسيهة نهسفع يٍ يستٕٖ طهجة االَجهيزية في دبل كبٌ تأثيسْب ايجبثيب أ عدو انُصخ ثٓب في‬
‫ يعتجس ْرا انجذث يٍ ا ٔنٗ انتجبزة في ييداٌ تعهيى انهغة االَجهيزية‬. ‫دبنة عدو يالئًتٓب نٓرا انٕسط انتعهيًي انًتطهت‬
‫ نرنك اتجع انجبدث انًُٓج انشجّ انتجسيجي نهذصٕل عهٗ َتبئج ذات يصداقية تًكٍ يٍ انذكى ثكم‬. ‫ألغساض خبصة‬
.‫ٔضٕح ٔ يٕضٕعية نًدٖ يالئًة انًقبزثة يٕضٕع انجذث نتعهيى انهغة االَجهيزية ألغساض خبصة‬

Résumé:

La présente étude vise à déterminer les effets de l'approche par tâches sur les compétences
communicatives et de rédaction des étudiants d‘Anglais à Objectifs Spécifiques afin de
recommander ou décourager son utilisation dans les institutions algériennes. Il est bien connu que
les professionnels dans des le monde d‘affaires et de commerce communiquent essentiellement par
écrit, pour cette raison, l‘écrit comme compétence a été choisi parmi d'autres compétences de
langue en raison de son importance pour les étudiants 3ème année LMD bancaires et Assurances,
l'échantillon qui représente l'ensemble de la population, la Faculté de Commerce et d‘'Economie de
l'Université de Laghouat. Les résultats ont montré que l'approche par tâches a amélioré les
compétences de communications et de l‘écrit du groupe expérimental par rapport au groupe de
contrôle qui a été enseignée en utilisant la méthodologie de l'enseignement régulier. Sur le plan
pédagogique, l'approche peut être utilisée pour rapprocher les classes d‘Anglais à Objectifs
spécifiques au monde professionnel pour permettre aux étudiants à être à la hauteur des attentes et
des exigences d'un monde d‘ affaires globalisé et exigeant .

Abstract:

The present research aims at determining the effects of the Task Based Approach on Business
students‘ writing skills so as to suggest and recommend it or discourage its use at the Algerian
institutions. It is known that professionals in different business fields communicate mostly via
writing, for this reason, writing skill was chosen among other language skills because of its
importance to the students 3 rd year LMD Banking and Inssurance . A quasi-experimental design
was utilised to provide as accurate and valid results as possible. The findings showed that the Task
Based Approach improved the writing skills of the experimental group in comparison to the control
group which was taught using the regular teaching methodology. The Task Based Approach can be
utilised to bring closer the ESP classes to the professional world as the approach is built on real-
world tasks to enable the students of business to live up to the expectations and requirements of a
globalised and demanding business world.

134