Topic 21: Alternating Current

21.1.1 Alternating Current & Voltage Example

The variation with time t of the output voltage V of an alternating voltage supply is shown in the
Properties of Alternating Current & Voltage graph below. Use the graph to calculate the frequency of the supply.

• An alternating current (a.c) is defined as:

A current which periodically varies from positive to negative and changes its magnitude continuously
with time

• This means the direction of an alternating current varies every half cycle
• The variation of current, or p.d., with time can be described as a sine curve ie. sinusoidal
o Therefore, the electrons in a wire carrying a.c. move back and forth with simple
harmonic motion
• As with SHM, the relationship between time period T and frequency f of an alternating current
is given by:

Step 1:

• Peak current (I0), or peak voltage (V0), is defined as: Write down the period-frequency relation

The maximum value of the alternating current or voltage

• Peak current, or voltage, can be determined from the amplitude of the graph
Step 2:

Calculate the time period from the graph

▪ The time period is the time taken for one complete cycle
▪ From the graph, this is equal to 0.2 ms
▪ Therefore, the time period, T = 0.2 ms = 0.2 × 10-3 s

Step 3:

Substitute into frequency equation

Graph of alternating current against time with a time period of 20 ms and peak current of 2 A

• Mains electricity is supplied as alternating current

o Power stations produce alternating current
o This is the type of current supplied when devices are plugged into sockets Exam Tip

Remember to double check the units on the alternating current and voltage graphs. These are often shown in
the range of milli-seconds (ms) instead of seconds (s) on the x axis.
Using Sinusoidal Representations Step 3: Measure the time period T and peak current I0 from the graph

• The equation representing alternating current which gives the value of the current I at any The time period is the time taken for one full cycle, T = 0.10 s
time t is:
Peak current (amplitude), I0 = 17 A
I = I0 sin(⍵t)
Step 4: Substitute values into alternating current equation at time t
• Where:
o I = current (A) Using the time given in the question, t = 0.48 s
o I0 = peak current (A)
o ⍵ = angular frequency of the supply (rad s-1)
o t = time (s)
• Note: this a sine function since the alternative current graph is sinusoidal
• A similar equation can be used for representing alternating voltage:

V = V0 sin(⍵t)

• Where:
21.1.2 Root-Mean-Square Current & Voltage
o V = voltage (V)
o V0 = peak voltage (V)
Root-Mean-Square Current & Voltage
• Recall the relation the equation for angular frequency ⍵:
• Root-mean-square (r.m.s) values of current, or voltage, are a useful way of comparing a.c
current, or voltage, to its equivalent direct current, or voltage
• The r.m.s values represent the d.c current, or voltage, values that will produce the same heating
effect, or power dissipation, as the alternating current, or voltage
• The r.m.s value of an alternating current is defined as:
Example

An alternating current I varies with time t as shown in the graph below. Using the graph and the The value of a constant current that produces the same power in a resistor as the alternating current
equation for alternating current, calculate the value of the current at a time 0.48 s.
• The r.m.s current Ir.m.s is defined by the equation:

• So, r.m.s current is equal to 0.707 × I0, which is about 70% of the peak current I0
• The r.m.s value of an alternating voltage is defined as:

The value of a constant voltage that produces the same power in a resistor as the alternating voltage
Step 1: Write out the equation for alternating current
• The r.m.s voltage Vr.m.s is defined by the equation:
I = I0 sin(⍵t)

Step 2: Write out the equation for angular frequency

• Where:
 o I0 = peak current (A) 21.1.3 Mean Power
o V0 = peak voltage (V)
Mean Power
• The r.m.s value is therefore defined as:
• In mains electricity, current and voltage are varying all the time
The steady direct current, or voltage, that delivers the same average power in a resistor as the • This also means the power varies constantly, recall the equations for power:
alternating current, or voltage
𝑉2
• A resistive load is any electrical component with resistance eg. a lamp 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅

• Where:
o I = direct current (A)
o V = direct voltage (A)
o R = resistance (Ω)
• The r.m.s values means equations used for direct current and voltage can now be applied
to alternating current and voltage
• These are also used to determine an average current or voltage for alternating supplies
• Recall the equation for peak current:

𝐼0 = √2𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
Vr.m.s and peak voltage. The r.m.s voltage is about 70% of the peak voltage
• The peak (maximum) power and the mean (average) power are given by:
Example
An alternating current is I is represented by the equation 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = (𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 )2 𝑅

I = 410 sin(100πt) 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝐼0 2 𝑅

where I is measured in amperes and t is in seconds.For this alternating current, determine the r.m.s • Peak power can be written in terms of r.m.s current as
current.
Step 1: Write out the equation for r.m.s current 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = (√2𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 )2 𝑅

• Therefore, peak power is related to mean power by:

2 (𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 )2 𝑅 = 2 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Step 2: Determine the peak voltage I0
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
o The alternating current equation is in the form: I = I0 sin(⍵t) 2
o Comparing this to I = 410 sin(100πt) means the peak current is I0 = 410 A
• Therefore, it can be concluded that:
Step 3: Substitute into the Ir.m.s equation
The mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for a sinusoidal alternating current or
410 voltage
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = = 289.91 = 𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝑨 (2 𝑠. 𝑓. )
√2
 • Rectification is used in electronic equipment which requires a direct current
o For example, mains voltage must be rectified from the alternating voltage produced at
power stations
• There are two types of rectification:
o Half-wave rectification
o Full-wave rectification

• For half-wave rectification:

o The graph of the output voltage Vout against time is a sine curve with the positive cycles
and a flat line (Vout = 0) on the negative cycle
Mean power is exactly half the maximum power o This is because the diode only conducts in the positive direction
• For full-wave rectification:
o The graph of the output voltage Vout against time is a sine curve where the positive
Example cycles and the negative cycles are both curved ‘bumps’

An alternating voltage supplied across a resistor of 40 Ω has a peak voltage V0 of 240 V.Calculate the
mean power of this supply.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Resistance, R = 40 Ω

Peak voltage, V0 = 240 V

Step 2: Write out the equation for the peak power and calculate

Step 3: Calculate the mean power The difference between the graphs of full-wave and half-wave rectification

o The mean power is half of the maximum (peak) power Half-Wave Rectification

Mean power = 1440 / 2 = 720 W • Half-wave rectification consists of a single diode

o An alternating input voltage is connected to a circuit with a load resistor and diode in
series
• The diode will only conduct during the positive cycles of the input alternating voltage,
21.1.4 Rectification o Hence there is only current in the load resistor during these positive cycles
• The output voltage Vout across the resistor will fluctuate against against time in the same way as
Rectification Graphs the input alternating voltage except there are no negative cycles

• Rectification is defined as:

The process of converting alternating current and voltage into direct current and voltage
 • In both the positive and negative cycles, the current in the load resistor is the same
• Each diode pair is the same as in half-wave rectification
o Since there are two pairs, this equates to full-wave rectification overall
• The main advantage of full-wave rectification compared to half-wave rectification is that there
is more power available
o Therefore, a greater power is supplied on every half cycle

Worked Example
A bridge rectifier consists of four ideal diodes A, B, C and D as connected in the figure shown below
Half-wave rectification requires a single diode and the graph is represented by only the positive cycles

• This type of rectification means half of the time the voltage is zero
• So, the power available from a half-wave rectified supply is reduced

Full-Wave Rectification

• Full-wave rectification requires a bridge rectifier circuit

o This consists of four diodes connected across an input alternating voltage supply
• The output voltage Vout is taken across a load resistor An alternating supply is applied between the terminal X and Y
• During the positive cycles of the input voltage, one terminal if the voltage supply is positive and
the other negative State which diodes are conducting when terminal X of the supply is positive
o Two diodes opposite each other that are in forward bias will conduct
o The other two in reverse bias will not conduct • Draw path of the current direction with diodes in forward bias
o A current will flow in the load resistor with the positive terminal at the top of the • Remember that conventional current flow is from positive to negative and only travels through
resistor the paths with diodes in forward bias
• During the negative cycles of the input voltage, the positive and negative terminals of the input
alternating voltage supply will swap
o The two diodes that were forward bias will now be in reverse bias and not conduct
o The other two in reverse bias will now be in forward bias and will conduct
o The current in the load resistor will still flow in the same direction as before

Therefore, the answer is: diodes A and C

21.1.5 Smoothing

Smoothing

• In rectification, to produce a steady direct current or voltage from an alternating current or

When A is positive and B is negative, diodes 2 and 3 will conduct and 1 and 4 will not. When A is voltage, a smoothing capacitor is necessary
negative and B is positive, diodes 1 and 4 will conduct and diodes 2 and 3 will not. The current in the • Smoothing is defined as:
load resistor R will flow downwards
The reduction in the variation of the output voltage or current
• This works in the following ways: Example
o A single capacitor with capacitance C is connected in parallel with a load resistor of The graph below shows the output voltage from a half-wave rectifier. The load resistor has a
resistance R resistance of 2.6 kΩ. A student wishes to smooth the output voltage by placing a capacitor in parallel
o The capacitor charges up from the input voltage and maintains the voltage at a high across the load resistor. Suggest if a capacitor of 60 pF or 800 µF would be suitable for this task.
level
o As it discharges gradually through the resistor when the rectified voltage drops but the
voltage then rises again and the capacitor charges up again

Step 1:

Calculate the time constant with the 60 pF capacitor

τ = RC = (2.6 × 103) × (60 × 10-12) = 1.56 × 10-7 s = 156 ns

Step 2:

Compare time constant of 60 pF capacitor with interval between adjacent peaks of the output signal

o The time interval between adjacent peaks is 80 ms

A smoothing capacitor connected in parallel with the load resistor. The capacitor charges as the o The time constant of 156 ns is too small and the 60 pF capacitor will discharge far too
output voltage increases and discharges as it decreases quickly
o There would be no smoothing of the output voltages
• The resulting graph of a smoothed output voltage Vout and output current against time is a o Therefore, the 60 pF capacitor is not suitable
‘ripple’ shape
Step 3:

Calculate the time constant with the 800 µF capacitor

τ = RC = (2.6 × 103) × (800 × 10-6) = 2.08 s

Step 4:

A smooth, rectified current graph creates a ‘rippling’ shape against time Compare time constant of 60 pF capacitor with interval between adjacent peaks of the output signal

• The amount of smoothing is controlled by the capacitance C of the capacitor and the resistance o The time constant of 2.08 s is much larger than 80 ms
R of the load resistor o The capacitor will not discharge completely between the positive cycles of the half-
o The less the rippling effect, the smoother the rectified current and voltage output
wave rectified signal
• The slower the capacitor discharges, the more the smoothing that occurs ie. smaller ripples o Therefore, the 800 µF capacitor would be suitable for the smoothing task
• This can be achieved by using:
o A capacitor with greater capacitance C
o A resistance with larger resistor R
• Recall that the product RC is the time constant τ of a resistor
• This means that the time constant of the capacitor must be greater than the time
interval between the adjacent peaks of the output signal