Assessment of Water Resources and Water Demand by User Sectors in The Philippines
Assessment of Water Resources and Water Demand by User Sectors in The Philippines
Assessment of Water Resources and Water Demand by User Sectors in The Philippines
Isidra D. Peñaranda¹
Dolores S.D. Cleofas2
Abstract : The Philippines has been divided into 12 water resources regions in order to have a manageable unit for a
comprehensive planning of water resources development. The major considerations taken into account in the regionalization
are hydrological boundaries as defined by physiographic features and homogeneity of climate. The assessment of available
water resources in relation to the current and projected water demands by user sectors were made based on this
regionalization. Current issues and concerns were discussed from which conclusions and recommendations were based.
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both in Luzon. The average is 2,360 mm per year over the However, the use for hydropower is considered non-
numerous stations in the country. Precipitation is influenced consumptive.
by prevailing air streams or monsoons, tropical typhoons,
the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone, easterly waves, local Table 1. Summary of water grants by NWRB as of
thunder storms and topography. December 2012 (MCM/year)
Uses GW SW Total
1.4 Temperature and Humidity
The mean annual temperature in the Philippines is about Municipal 1,915.18 4,552.31 6,467.49
27oC, ranging from 25.5oC to 28oC. The hottest months Industrial 503.72 7,724.26 8,227.98
are May with 28.4 oC, June with 27.9oC and April with Irrigation 930.54 66,048.78 66,979.33
27.8oC. The coldest months are January with 25.5oC, Power 64.69 111,833.93 111,898.61
February with 25.8oC and December 26.1oC.
Fisheries 57.59 695.80 753.38
Relative humidity ranges from 76.4% to 85.5% with a mean Livestock 18.41 0.08 18.50
annual of 80.4% throughout the country. Recreation 88.87 166.34 255.21
Others 74.32 504.61 578.93
1.5 Surface Water Total grants 3,653.31 191,526.11 195,179.42
Of the country's mean annual rainfall of 2,360 mm, about
∑Consumptive 3,588.62 79,692.18 83,280.81
1000 to 2000 mm flows as surface runoff to numerous rivers,
lakes, swamplands and other water bodies. GW-groundwater; SW-surface water
The Philippines has 421 identified principal river basins with Table 1 shows the existing sectoral water demand allocations
drainage area of at least 40 km2 each. Eighteen of these river by NWRB. The present annual water use for the major
basins are considered as major river basins with individual sectoral uses except for hydropower, i.e., municipal,
drainage area of more than 1,400 km2. The largest is the industrial and agricultural totaled to about 83,280.81
Cagayan River which has a catchment area of 25,694 km2. MCM/year, with municipal use amounting to 6,467.49
MCM or 7.77% of the total consumptive use and industrial
There are also some 59 inland lakes with an aggregate area use amounting to 8,227.98 MCM or 9.88% of the total
of about 2,029 km2. The six largest lakes are the Laguna consumptive use. Fig 1 shows that agricultural use is the
de Bay, Lake Lanao, Lake Taal, Lake Mainit, Lake Naujan, largest water consumer in the country, excluding
and Lake Buluan. hydropower which substantially does not consume water.
Agricultural water demand was derived from irrigation,
Swamps and marshes also abound in the country with an livestock, and fisheries.
aggregate area of about 5,290 km2. Extensive swamplands
include the Candaba swamp, San Antonio swamp, and
Liguasan marsh.
1.6 Groundwater
In general, the total groundwater development potential of
a given water resources region (WRR) is considered equal to
its groundwater recharge. The future groundwater potential
of the region corresponds to the groundwater amount which
is not currently used. Groundwater recharge is estimated
using empirical method based on the annual precipitation.
In the Master Plan Study on Water Resources Management Fig. 1 Water allocation of NWRB (consumptive), 2012
in the Philippines (1998), estimates of the groundwater
potential by region were made. The groundwater recharge The total agricultural annual water demand by water
was taken to be 5% of average annual precipitation. resources region as of December 2012 was estimated at
67,751.21 MCM or 81.35% of the total water demand.
2 SECTORAL WATER USE AND DEMAND About 66,979.33 or 98.86% is shared by irrigation sub-
sector. The livestock/poultry sub-sector accounted for
2.1 Present Demand 18.50 MCM or 0.03 % of the total agricultural water
The sectoral water uses considered in this paper are those of demand. For the fishery sub-sector, the total demand as of
the legal water users who were granted rights by the 2012 was estimated at 753.38 MCM or 1.11% of the total
National Water Resources Board (NWRB) to extract water. agricultural water demand. The total annual hydropower use
was estimated at 111,898.61 MCM but is considered non-
The major water resources user sectors in the Philippines consumptive hence was not reflected in the chart.
are: municipal, industrial, agricultural and hydropower.
2
Based on the sources, the bulk of groundwater is allocated to (Table 3) which is almost equal to the present consumption.
the municipal sector as shown in Figure 2, while the bulk of Under Case 2, total water demand for the same year is about
surface water supply is allocated to agricultural particularly 60,600 MCM (Table 4) which has been realized much earlier
irrigation as shown in Figure 3. than projected. The probable reasons for this might be the
Philippine economy performing better than what was
projected or the population growing more than the projected
rate.
Fig. 3 Surface water allocation of NWRB (consumptive), Table 4 Future Water Demand, Low Economic Growth
2012 Rate Scenario: Case 2 (MCM/year)
WRR 2010 2015 2020 2025
2.2 Future Water Demand I 2,699.68 2,812.40 2,842.25 2,874.02
The Master Plan Study on Water Resources in the
Philippines prepared by Japan International Cooperation II 7,286.16 7,571.73 7,594.57 7,618.33
Agency (JICA) for NWRB in 1998 is the only master plan
III 13,430.31 14,119.66 14,378.10 14,617.80
available that predicted future water demand in the country
until 2025. IV 6,038.65 6,514.27 6,846.53 7,367.84
As shown on Table 1, present consumption for municipal, TOTAL 55,032.28 57,804.65 59,137.17 60,599.83
industrial and agricultural uses totaled to about 82,446.68 Source: Master Plan Study on Water Resources Management
MCM/year. Under Case 1, projected withdrawals by the in the Philippines, 1998
same users for the year 2025 will be about 85,401 MCM
3
3 ANALYSIS OF WATER RESOURCES under run-of-the river type is usually determined. The
AVAILABILITY AND WATER USE latter is considered to be the maximum water resources to be
The water resource is generally categorized largely into two exploited through provision of storage-type dams in the
types, namely "surface water and groundwater". The region for the purpose of regulating flow. This is shown in
groundwater is classified into "wells and springs" in Table 2.
accordance with the mode of its extraction.
Table 2 Water resources potential in each water resources
It might be advantageous for water users to develop surface region (MCM/year)
water, if it is sufficiently available in quality and quantity. Surface Water
Especially in case of large-scale municipal, industrial and Ground Total Potential
irrigation water supply, development of surface water is WRR Probability
water
preferred than groundwater due to its lower cost. On 50% 80% 50% 80%
quality (suitable as drinking water) groundwater is better
than surface water and it is distributed more widely in (1) (2) (3) (1) + (2) (1) + (3)
populated area. I 1,248 10,100 3,250 11,348 4,498
From the 2012 water rights granted by NWRB, the irrigation II 2,825 16,800 8,510 19,625 11,335
water use reaches to 66,979.33 MCM/year which is 80.43%
III 1,721 10,800 7,890 12,521 9,611
of the total water amount granted water rights for
consumptive uses. Majority of this sector utilizes surface IV 1,410 19,700 6,370 21,110 7,780
water.
V 1,085 9,960 3,060 11,045 4,145
Municipal and industrial use is only 17.65% of the total VI 1,144 19,500 14,200 20,644 15,344
water right grants. Seventy percent (70%) of municipal
water use utilized groundwater while the remaining 30% VII 879 3,770 2,060 4,649 2,939
used surface water. VIII 2,557 15,900 9,350 18,457 11,907
Majority of the sources of industrial water use are surface IX 1,082 16,200 12,100 17,282 13,182
water which accounts for 94% of the total amount X 2,116 42,100 29,000 44,216 31,116
granted for industrial use. In WRR VI, X,XI, and XII a
large proportion of the industrial surface water granted is XI 2,375 16,300 11,300 18,675 13,675
used for mining including refinery, milling and XII 1,758 25,100 18,700 26,858 20,458
manufacturing.
Total 20,200 206,230 125,790 226,430 145,990
The projected water demands in year 2025 were compared Source: Master Plan Study on Water Resources Management
with the respective water resources potentials to examine the in the Philippines, 1998
water demand and supply balances in each region. The
results are shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4 shows that there is a notable water deficit in Regions
III, IV and VII where the calculated water resources
potential has been exceeded by the 2012 water demand.
On the other hand, the 2025 demand projection has also
been exceeded in Regions 1, III, IV, VII, VIII, X and XI.
Watershed management
Management of water is usually defined by the river basin or
watershed. Several landforms compose a watershed but
these landforms are altered by human activities that are
basically intended for development. In the course of these
developments watersheds are degraded compromising
quality and quantity of water.
Fig. 4 Philippine water resources situation
The sustainability of the country’s water resources go far
The water resources potentials are assumed to be the sum of beyond mere regulation of extracting water from various
the potentials of groundwater and surface water estimated at sources. It is very much dependent on managing the entire
80% and 50% probabilities of occurrence. The former watershed. As such, the issue of degradation of our
corresponds to the probability of hydrologic conditions, watershed areas should be a primary concern to better
based on which the maximum water resources development manage our water resources. It will require a holistic,
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inter-sectoral, and inter-disciplinary approach to plan for and and Development show that, nine (9) major cities are in
manage our water resources. To this end, the integrated most critical condition in terms of water supply and demand.
water resources management (IWRM) using the river basin Metro Cebu, Bacolod City, Iloilo City, Davao City, Cagayan
or the watershed as the planning unit is the identified De Oro City, Zamboanga City, Metro Manila, Baguio City
strategy for the water resources sector in the Philippine and Angeles City are found to have the most critical water
Development Plan 2011-2016. balance conditions.
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people without access to water and sanitation by 2015 is in IPCC finding has manifested itself in the Philippines through
progress. the more frequent occurrence of severe El Niño and La Niña
events, as well as, deadly and damaging typhoons and other
Accordingly, the low investment levels and lack of financing severe storms; floods, flash floods, landslides, drought,
for waterless areas are also growing concerns. This may be forest fires, etc.
attributed to the lack of a single regulator in the water sector
who can adopt policies on effective tariff methodology and 5 WATER GOVERNANCE AND REGULATION
thereby make funds for new capital expenditures.
Legal Framework
Degradation of Major Ecosystems Fundamental principles and policies on water resources
The present status of coastal ecosystems in the country is a development and management are embodied in a number of
cause for alarm as assessed in the Philippine Summary laws.
Report in 2005. Consequently, almost all Philippine coral
reefs are at risk due to the impact of human activities; only 4 The Philippine Constitution (1987) provides the national
to 5 percent remain in excellent condition. More than 70 policy on water, as a natural resource, that all waters belong
percent of the nation’s mangrove forests have been to the State and the development and utilization shall be for
converted to aquaculture, logged, or reclaimed for other uses. the citizens of the Philippines or to corporations at least 60%
Half of the seagrass beds have either been lost or severely capital of which is owned by such citizens, It also provides
degraded, and the rate of degradation is increasing. Beaches that the beneficial use is the limit of rights to the use of
and foreshore areas are under increasing pressures from waters.
rapid population growth and uncontrolled development,
which in turn leads to erosion, sedimentation and water Presidential Decree 1067 or the Water Code of the
quality problems. Philippines (1976) consolidated the laws governing the
ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation,
The mentioned environmental degradations have significant development, conservation and protection of water resources.
economic costs. The economic loss of over-fishing is It reiterates that all waters belong to the State and cannot be
estimated at about P6.5 billion ($125 million) per year in the subject of acquisitive prescription. The State may allow
lost fish catch. Red tides, which are harmful algal blooms the use or the development of waters by administrative
largely caused by increasing pollution loads, produced concession, while the preference in the use and development
yearly losses in exports of around P1.6 billion ($30 million) of water shall consider current usages and be responsive to
during the 1990s. The human toll also is significant: the changing needs of the country. It also reiterates that the
Premature deaths among the working population due to measure and limit of appropriation of water shall be
water pollution in Manila Bay (harmful algal bloom) have beneficial use, which is defined as the utilization of water in
an immeasurable human impact and are estimated to cause the right amount during the period that the water is needed
productivity loss of P310 million annually ($6 million). for producing the benefits for which the water is
appropriated.
The summary also reported that about 140 priority
watersheds with a total area of 4.5 million hectares Presidential Decree No. 424 (1974) created the National
nationwide need to be protected and/or rehabilitated. Water Resources Council (NWRC) which was renamed
National Water Resources Board (NWRB) in 1987 through
Deforestation remains an environmental challenge in the Executive Order 124-A. It has the power to coordinate and
country. It was reported that of the country’s total forestland integrate water resources development and management
areas of 15.88 M ha, only 5.4 M has. are covered with activities.
forests and fewer than a million hectares of these are left
with old growth forests. These of course have intervened Executive Order No. 192 (1987) provides the Department of
with the hydrological conditions of the watersheds resulting Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) the mandate
to soil erosion, siltation of rivers and reservoirs, increased for the conservation, management , development and proper
incidence and severity of flooding and decreasing water use of the country’s environment and natural resources,
supply. specially forest and grazing lands, mineral resources,
including those in reservation and watershed areas, and
Extreme Climate Events lands of the public domain, as well as the licensing and
The Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on regulation of all natural resources as may be provided by law
Climate Change (IPCC) as cited by Greenpeace in 2005 in order to ensure equitable sharing of benefits derived there
indicated that extreme climate events/variability, such as, from for the welfare of the present and future generation.
floods, droughts, forest fires, and tropical cyclones have
increased in temperate and tropical Asia. The warm episodes The Environmental Code of 1977 prescribes, among other
of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena things, the management guidelines aimed to protect and
have been more frequent, persistent and intense since the improve the quality of water resources through: (a)
mid-1970s, compared with the previous 100 years. This classification of surface waters, and (b) establishment of
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water quality national strategies and fiscal direction of the government.
The Local Government Code of 1991 provides the Water resources assessment is a complementary effort of
empowerment of local executives in the delivery of basic NWRB, Bureau of Research and Standards, Metropolitan
services which includes water supply and sanitation services. Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS), Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical, Astronomical Services
Republic Act No. 9275 otherwise known as the Clean Water Administration, LWUA and National Power Corporation
Act (2004) shall apply to water quality management in all (NPC). These agencies are responsible for the collecting
water bodies in the abatement and control of pollution from evaluation and assessment of groundwater and streamflow
the land based sources. The water quality standards and data.
regulations shall be enforced irrespective of sources of
pollution. The act also provides that the DENR in Water quality and sanitation is a collaborative undertaking of
coordination with the NWRB shall designate certain areas as DOH, EMB, and Environmental Health Service (EHS) with
water quality management areas using appropriate support provided by LWUA and the MWSS concessionaires
physiographic units such as watersheds, river basins or water (Maynilad Water Services Inc. and Manila Water Company
resources regions. Inc.) . EMB monitors quality of surface water. The DOH
through its Bureau of Research and Laboratories (BRL)
Institutional Framework monitors quality of drinking water. Whereas EHS, another
In the Philippines, water management involves a two-tiered unit of DOH develop sanitation programs and strategies to
system of governance – national and local. Water resource address environmentally related diseases. MWCI and
governance is a responsibility of multiple national agencies MWSI monitor water quality of water supplied by the water
in varying capacities. Local Government Units (LGUs) districts to their customers.
and local water districts also exercise certain powers but
subject to national government decisions. Non- Watershed management is led by DENR and assisted by the
Government Organization intervention has also been National Irrigation Administration (NIA), Bureau of Soils
emerging. The Philippine Watershed Management Coalition and Water Management (BSWM), NPC and the water
is an example, which advocates the use of watershed based districts. DENR formulates and recommend policies and
approach in water resources management, and the Philippine programs to effectively nurture, protect, develop, manage
Water Partnership, among others, aim to gather various and conserve forest lands and watersheds. NIA, NPC and the
stakeholders to work toward an integrated water resource water districts are guided by DENR policies and collaborate
management strategy. with the latter to protect and preserve the watershed area in
their respective areas of responsibility. On the other hand,
There are some 30 government agencies and offices the BSWM remains responsible for the assessment,
concerned with water resources development and development and preservation of existing and potential soil
management responsible with their own sectoral concerns. and water resources for agriculture.
These agencies deal with water supply, irrigation,
hydropower, flood control, water management, and other Based on the Local Government Code (LGC), the LGUs can
water-related concerns. For administrative supervision, these also perform watershed management functions but are
agencies are distributed among executive departments of the subject to DENR supervision and control. Provinces and
national government. municipalities implement community-based forest
management, social forestry, and watershed projects, but the
The overall responsibility for coordination of water barangay’s role depends on the discretion of LGU executives.
resources development and management in the Philippines is LGUs are likewise empowered to implement Level I to
vested in the NWRB. Created in 1974, its basic mandate is Level III water supply subsystems, communal irrigation
to administer and enforce the Water Code. Apart from systems and local flood control projects.
resource regulation, it is also does economic regulation as it
regulates the operations of privately-owned water utilities 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
(i.e. subdivision water systems). It is also responsible for the From the 2012 water rights granted by NWRB, the irrigation
formulation and development of policies in water resources water use reached 66,979.33 MCM/year which is 80.43% of
management. the total water amount granted for consumptive uses.
Majority of this sector utilizes surface water.
Water resources planning is shared by the National
Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), NWRB and Municipal and industrial use are only 17.65% of the total
inter-agency committees. NEDA formulates the national water right grants. Seventy percent (70%) of municipal
policies and strategies including those on the water resources water use utilized groundwater while the remaining 30%
sector. The NWRB recommends to NEDA suitable action used surface water.
plans to address emerging issues in the water resources
sector as they evolve while coordinating committees are There is notable water deficit in Regions III, IV and VII
established to align development of water resources with the where the calculated water resources potential has been
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exceeded by the 2012 water demand. On the other hand,
the 2025 demand projection has also been exceeded in The LGUs and water service providers should be assisted in
Regions 1, III, IV, VII, VIII, X and XI. developing relevant, practical, and up-to-date management
tools that support integrated water resources management
Based on the projected demand and current exploitable and technologies. Service providers should likewise be
groundwater sources, some key cities in the country will capacitated in plan development, budgeting and operations,
need additional surface water sources in 2025. Based on among others, in order to improve coverage, efficiency and
the 1998 Master Plan Study on Water Resources sustainability of infrastructure.
Management and Development, nine (9) major cities are
identified as water stressed in terms of water supply and d) Establish a sustainable water information management
demand. Metro Cebu, Bacolod City, Iloilo City, Davao City, system
Cagayan De Oro City, Zamboanga City, Metro Manila,
Baguio City and Angeles City are found to have the most There should be an organized and systematic information
critical water balance conditions. management system in the water sector especially with the
current set-up of fragmentations. Available data that are
Based on the issues and concerns, the following regularly updated must be shared within the sector to
recommendations are formulated: support planning of future projects. Such data should be
accessible to stakeholders, project developers and policy-
a) Practice of Integrated Water Resources Management makers.
(IWRM) in the water sector to address fragmentation.
e) Promote water-efficient strategies
IWRM promotes the coordinated development and
management of water, land and related resources in order to Over-extraction that results to declining water levels and
maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an water quality degradation due to pollution reduces the
equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of amount of available groundwater. Available water supplies,
vital ecosystems. This can be implemented through the particularly from groundwater sources are under pressure as
river basin or watershed as planning unit considering water reflected in the projected deficits in 2025 with nine (9) cities
cuts across political boundaries. The different uses and already experiencing water stress. It this therefore essential
users of water need to consider the physical and biological to maximize our existing water supplies through the
make-up of the watershed or river basin. Water must be reduction of water use and the utilization of improved
managed within the natural constraints of the hydrologic technology and systems for water efficiency, re-use and
cycle and the natural ecosystems to provide for all societal recycling.
needs. Development activities need to be viewed within a
constrained optimization framework, taking into f) Adopt economic pricing of raw water
consideration the maintenance and the preservation of our
ecosystem and sustainable use of natural resources, Irrigation is the largest user of water in the country. Payment
particularly our water resources. for irrigation water is based on a per-hectare basis but the
actual water consumption is not regulated. There is currently
b) Work towards a lead agency for the water sector no incentive to conserve irrigation water. Subsidies disguise
the true cost of providing irrigation services. In order to
A lead agency for the entire water sector should be promote conservation and the sustainable use, treating water
ultimately developed. The lead agency should be able to as an economic good provides the basis for putting into
assume the functions of policy making, coordination, and place mechanisms that capture its economic value since
resource regulation for the sector. It shall be provided with water is finite and limited.
sufficient capacity and authority to implement key policies,
plans, and projects in the water resources sector. In the g) Implement strategies to raise awareness on climate
meantime, NWRB should be strengthened so it can continue change impacts and mitigation/adaptation technologies
its function as the sector’s overall economic and resource
regulator. Recognized as number three globally in terms of
vulnerability to disasters such as typhoons, floods, droughts
c) Rationalize financing in the water sector to fulfil MDG and landslides, the Philippines requires structural and non-
commitments structural mitigating measures and promotion of awareness
on climate change and its impacts on water resources. Also,
The low level of investments in the water supply and there is a need to consider effects of these disasters in
sanitation sector hinder the achievement of the MDGs of the planning future development.
sector. The lack of a coherent financing framework must be
addressed by rationalizing financing in the water sector to ACKNOWLEDGMENT
make the fullest use of limited public funds and encourage The authors wish to thank colleagues from the National
concessional financing, and private sector investments. Water Resources Board who have shared valuable inputs in
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this paper.
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