Basic Mechanical Engineering

Syllabus
Unit-1
Thermodynamics : Basic concepts, properties, equilibrium state,
Zeroth, first and second law of thermodynamics, Concept of
temperature, energy, Enthalpy and entropy, Ideal gas laws, Analysis of
thermodynamics processes, Two phase system, formation of steam,
Properties of steam, use of steam table process.
Unit-2
Steam Boilers: Introduction, classification, Boiler mountings and
accessories, working of Cochran boiler, Lanchashire, Locomotive and
Babcock-Wilcox boiler, boiler performance, efficiency Equivalent
evaporation, types of draught, calculation for chimney height
Unit-3
I.C. Engines: Classification of I.C. Engines, Air standard cycles like otto,
diesel and dual, working of two stroke petrol engines, two stroke diesel
engine, working of four stroke petrol engine and four stroke diesel
engine.
Unit-4
Engineering Materials: Classification of Engineering materials,
Mechanical properties of materials, Compositions, characteristics
application of cast iron, mild steel, Stainless steel, Stress, strain, Hook’s
law, stress-strain diagram for ductile and brittle material.
Unit-5
Foundry and Welding: Introduction, Pattern, Pattem materials. Types
of pattern, pattern allowances. Mould materials, types and properties
of moulding sand.
Welding : Introduction, types of welding, Gas welding, Gas welding
equipments, Types of flames, Arc welding AC and DC arc welding, metal
Inert gas arc welding, carbon arc welding.
 Reference Books
• Basic Mechanical Engineering by Naz. Tripathi and Panwar
• Workshop Practice by Hazra and Choudhary (Vol-I)
• Workshop Practice by B.S. Raghuvanshi
• W/S Technology by Chapman (Vol-I)
• Thermodynamics by Wan Vylen
• Heat Engine & Thermodynamics by R Yadav
• Engineering Thermodynamics by PK. Nag
 Introduction
• Boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is generated from water at high
pressure and temperature from water by the combustion of fuel.
• According to IBR (Indian Boiler Regulations), “boiler is any closed vessel
exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity which is expressly used for generating
steam under pressure and includes mountings or other fittings attached to
it, which is wholly or partly under pressure when steam is shut off.”
• The generation of steam is done by evaporating the water in boilers at
appropriate temperatures and pressures.
• The function of a steam boiler or generator is to convert chemical energy
of fuel by combustion into heat and to transfer this heat to water and thus
to produce steam.
• The vapor generated may be delivered at low-pressure for the
industrial progression work in sugar industries, cotton mills, and for
generating steaming water that can be utilized for heat up fixing at
much low-force.
• In industries the steam may be used for different purposes
1. Mechanical energy is generated in steam turbines
2. Electrical energy is generated in power plants
3. For different heating processes as heating og groundnuts in oil mills.
4. For bleaching purposes in textile industries.
 Classification of boilers
1. According to Pressure of steam created in the boiler.
(a) Low Pressure Boilers: These boilers can generate steam at
pressure less than 80 bar. For example
Cochran boiler
Lancashire boiler
Locomotive boiler
Babcock Wilcox boiler
(b) High Pressure Boilers : These boilers can generate steam at
pressure above 80 bar.
These are more efficient and reduced quantity of steam required for
same power generation, compared to low pressure boilers. For
For example
• La mont Boiler
• Benson boiler
• Loeffler boiler
• Velox boiler

2. According to the relative position of water and hot gases

(a) fire tube boilers for smoke tube boilers
(b) water tube boilers
In fire tube boilers hot gases pass through tubes which are surrounded with
water there may be a single or double tubes as in the case of lancashire
boiler are there may be a bank of tubes the heat is condensed through the
walls off the tube from the hot gases to the surrounding water.
• In water tube steam boilers the water is contained inside the tubes
which are surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside.
The examples of the fire tube boiler are the simple vertical, Cochran,
Lancashire, Cornish, Locomotive, Scotch marine, and Velcon boiler.
The examples of water tube boilers are a La-Mont, Benson, Stirling, Babcock
and Wilcox, Yarrow and Loeffler boiler.
3. According to the position of furnace.
(a) Internally Fired boilers:
In this type of boilers the furnace is located inside the boiler shell most
of the Fired tube steam boiler are internally fired.
(b) Externally Fired boiler:
The furnace is arranged underneath in a brickwork setting water tube
steam boilers are always externally fired.
4. According to the axis of the shell
(a) Vertical boilers:
In vertical steam boilers the axis of the shell is vertical. simple vertical
boiler and cochran boilers are vertical boilers.
(b) Horizontal boilers
In horizontal steam boilers the axis of the shell is also enter lancashire
boiler locomotive boiler and Babcock and wilcox boiler are horizontal
boilers.
5. According to the number of tubes
(a) Single tube boiler:
There is only one fire tube or water tube in this boile. Simple vertical
boilers and Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
(b) Multitubular boilers
There are two or more fire tubes or water tubes lancashire boiler
locomotive boiler cochran boiler babcock and wilcox boiler are some
examples
6. According to the method of circulation of Water and Steam.
(a) Natural circulation boilers:
In naturalcirculation steam boilers the circulation of water is by natural
convection currents which are set up during the heating of water.
(b) Forced circulation boilers
In forced circulation steam boilers there is a forced circulation of water
by a centrifugal pump driven by some external power.
7. According to the Use
(a) Stationary boilers:
The stationary steam boilers are used in power plants and in industrial
process work these are called stationary because they do not move
from one place to another.
(b) Mobile boilers:
The mobile steam boilers are those which move from one place to
another. These boilers are locomotive and marine boilers.

8. According to the source of heat:

the steam boilers may also be classified according to the source of
heat supplied for producing steam. These sources may be the
combustion of solid liquid or gaseous fuel, hot waste gases as by
products of other chemical processes, electrical energy or nuclear
energy etc.
 Difference b/w water tube and fire tube
boilers
• In water tube boilers Water passes through tubes and hot gases
surround the tubes. While in fire tube boilers hot gases pass through
tubes and water surrounds the tubes.
• The rate of steam generation is high upto 45000 kg/hr for Water tube
boilers. In case of fire tube boilers it is 9000 kg/hr.
• In water tube boilers Maximum temperature of steam can be
achieved upto 560 C. While in fire tube boilers it is upto 340 C.
• Overall efficiency is upto 90% in water tube and 70% in fire tube
boilers.
• Operating cost is more in water tube boilers as compared to fire tube
boilers.
• Water tube boilers are generally externally fired. While fire tube
boilers are Internally fired.
• Pressure of steam in water tube boilers is upto 225 bar. While in fire
tube boilers it is upto 25 bar.
• Size of boiler drum is small in water tube boilers and hence
transportation is easy. While in case of fire tube boilers transportation
is difficult.
• If some tube fails water tube boilers Would not get blown off. In fire
tube boilers chances of complete explosion exist
• Water tube boilers require less floor area for a given output while fire
tube boilers require more floor area for a given output.
 Boiler mountings
• Mountings are the fittings mounted on the boiler for the proper
functioning and safety of the boiler.
• These are essential part of the boiler without which boiler can not
work safely.
• Special provisions are made to mount the mountings.
Following are mountings of boiler
• Safety Valve :- it is used to safeguard the boiler in case of pressure
rises above its natural working pressure inside the boiler.
(a) Dead weight safety valve
(b) Spring loaded safety valve.
(c) Lever safety valve
(d) High steam and low water alarm.
• Water level indicator:- it indicates the exact level of water in the boiler.
• Fusible plug :- It is used to protect boiler against the damage during the
overheating.
• Pressure gauges:- The pressure gauge mounted on the front top of boiler
shell.
• Steam stop valve :- Its function is to stop or open the steam supply from
the boiler to the point of application.
• Feed check valve:- A valve placed inside the boiler to regulate the flow of
wate.
• Blow off valve:- it is used to discharge water or steam or to blow out mud.
 Boiler accessories
• These are those devices which are installed with a boiler to improve
the efficiency of boiler plant.
• These are not essential parts of the boiler and thus without installing
these devices the boiler operation can be accomplished though at
lower efficiency.
Following are the important accessories of the boiler.
• Feed water pump :- Used to force the water into the boiler.
• Economiser:- used to heat up feed water by utilising the heat of
waste flue gases.
• Air preheater:- It utilizes the waste heat to preheat the air before air
passed to furnace (combustion chamber)
• Superheaters:- used to heat up the steam above saturation
temperature
 Difference between mountings and
accessories
• Boiler Mountings
• Boiler mountings are components used for ensuring the safety of
boiler operation.
• These are generally mounted on the surface of the boiler.
• Control fluid parameters at the inside of the boiler shell.
• The mountings are an essential part of a boiler, without which boiler
operation is impossible.
• Examples: Pressure gauges, Water level indicator, Safety valves, Stop
valve, Fusible plug, Blow-off cock, etc.
• Boiler Accessories
• Accessories are the auxiliary items required for proper operation of
boiler and improve the Boiler efficiency.
• These are integral parts of the boiler, but not mounted on it.
• Control fluid parameters at outside of the boiler.
• These are not essential parts of the boiler, without which boiler can
operate through at lower efficiency.
• Examples: Superheater, Feed pump, Injector, Economizer, Steam
Separator, Air preheater, etc.
Dead weight safety valve
• In this valve, the steam pressure in the upward direction is balanced
by the downward force of the dead weights acting on the valve.
Construction
• It consists of a vertical cast iron or steel pipe through which the steam
pressure acts on the valve. At the lower end of vertical pipe, a bottom
flange is provided to bolt safety valve to the seating block on the
boiler shell.
• At the upper end of the vertical pipe, a gun metal valve seat is
screwed to it. Under normal working condition, the gun metal valve
rests on this valve seat.
• This valve is free to move in discharge pipe and secured to a large
weight carrier which hangs freely over the vertical pipe.
• To balance upward force of steam pressure, the dead weights of cast
iron rings are placed on the weight carrier.
• Further, the dead weights and weight carrier are covered by a cast
iron cover plate just to avoid any mishandling of the weights. A
discharge pipe is used to discharge the steam to the atmosphere after
the valve is lifted.
• The upward force exerted by boiler steam on the valve is balanced by
the downward force due to total weight of the valve, weight carrier,
dead weights and cover plate. Under these normal conditions, the
valve lies on its seat and the steam will not escape from the boiler.
• The upward force exerted by boiler steam on the valve is over
powered the downward force due to total weight of the valve, weight
carrier, dead weights and cover plate. Under this condition, the valve
along with weight carrier is lifted up from its seat and the steam
escapes through the discharge pipe.
 Spring loaded safety valve
• Spring loaded safety valve is a safely mounting fitted on the boiler
shell and is essentially required on the boiler shell to safeguard the
boiler against high pressure.
• It is a vital part of boiler and always be in good working condition to
protect the boiler from bursting under high pressure and so to save
life and property.
• Construction
• it consists of two openings or valve seats which are closed by two
valves attached to a single lever.
• The lever is pivoted at one end and attached to a spring at the
middle.
• The spring is fixed at the bottom end with the overall body of valve.
• Due to spring force, the lever and hence valves remain seated on the
valve seats and do not allow the steam to escape.
• When the pressure force of steam exceeds the spring pulling force,
valve & lever are lifted and steam escape thus decreasing the
pressure below the safe limit.
• On decreasing the pressure valves sit again on their seats and thus
stop the steam flow from the boiler. Sometimes, the lever may also
be lifted manually to release steam if required.
 Lever safety valve
• A lever safety valve is a boiler mounting, the purpose of which is to
keep the steam pressure in the boiler upto certain safe value and
release the steam when the pressure increases the safe limits.
• It consists of a valve resting over a gun metal seat. The valve seat is
fixed on a mounting block, fitted over the boiler shell. One end of the
level is hinged to a rod of the mounting block, while the other end
carries a weight.
• In lever safety valve, during the normal pressure inside the boiler, the
valve remains in the seat. The thrust applied by the strut made the
valve to stay in the seat until the steam pressure exceeds the safe
working pressure.
• As the steam pressure inside the boiler exceeds the safe working
pressure, the valve rises above the seat and steam blows off outside
the boiler. The valve returns back to its normal position when the
pressure inside the boiler falls back to its normal pressure.
• The valve rises in the condition when the steam pressure force
becomes greater than the thrust applied by the strut on the valve.
The thrust on the valve can be varied by varying the load attached at
one end of the lever.
 High steam and low water alarm
• This valve has a combined safety arrangement against
a) high steam pressure in the boiler and
b) low water level in the boiler.
 Water level indicator
• The function of a water level indicator is to indicate the level of water
in the boiler constantly.
• It is also called water gauge.
• It helps the operator in keeping the level constant from outside
through a glass tube.
• In case of need, if the level falls down, water will be pumped by the
operator.
• According to IBR, each boiler should be essentially fitted with two
water gauges.
• It consists of a thick hard glass tube.
• The ends are connected with two hollow blocks that are connected
with boiler end plate such that one end of the blocks is connected
with steam space and other end with water storage.
• Parallel to the glass tube, there is another metallic tube.
• In case, the gauge glass breaks, the rush of steam and water will push
the steel balls thereby blocking the passage to the position as shown
by black color stop and prevents water and steam to come out of the
boiler shell or drum.
• The broken glass tube is replaced immediately to function it as usual.
 Fusible Plug
• The main purpose of a fusible plug is to extinguish the fire in the
furnace of the boiler when the water level in the boiler falls below an
unsafe level.
• Thus, explosion is avoided which may take place due to overheating
of the tubes and shell.
• It is generally fitted over the crown of the furnace or over the
combustion chamber.
• Plugs A and B are separated by fusible metal.
• In normal case, when the boiler contains sufficient water, the plug
also remains covered by water.
• But when the water level falls, the plug is exposed to steam.
• Because the steam temperature is larger than the water temperature,
the fusible metal melts.
• Plug B drops down and the steam starts blowing to the combustion
chamber to extinguish fire.
 Feed Check Valve
• It is a one-way valve and is used to control the supply of water to the
boiler and also to prevent the escaping of water from boiler due to
high pressure inside.
• When the level of water falls down, additional water is to be supplied
by means of a centrifugal pump.
• The pressure inside boiler is high and therefore the pressure of the
feed water is raised by the pump.
• The feed water is supplied to the boiler at a high pressure through a
feed check valve by lifting the valve upward.
• If pump is not in operation, the high-pressure steam inside the boiler
keeps the valve on its position seated on the valve seat and does not
permit the steam to escape.
 Pressure Gauge (Bourdon Pressure Gauge)
• The function of the pressure gauge is to measure the pressure of
steam inside the boiler.
• The gauge is usually mounted on the front top of the shell or drum
such that it should be clearly visible to the operator.
• It consists of a Bourdon spring tube (B) of bronze metal.
• One end of this tube is connected with a hollow block (H) and the
other end is closed and attached to a connecting rod (C).
• The other end of the connecting rod is attached to a toothed sector
(T) which gears with a pinion (P).
• At the center, there is a pointer (PO). The high- pressure steam enters
the Bourdon spring tube through hollow block.
• Due to the radial pressure acting on the internal surface of the tube,
the tube becomes elliptical in shape and a force is exerted on the
connecting rod which is transferred to the toothed sector and hence
to the pinion and motion is transmitted to pointer which is fitted at
the center and pointer gets moved.
• Bourdon pressure gauge is one of the common forms of the gauge.
The pressure measured by the gauge will be the gauge pressure.
• In practice, a U-shape tube filled with water is fitted in between the
hollow block and the drum (steam stored space). It is to safe guard
the bronze metal tubes with excessive temperature of steam.
 Steam stop valve
• The function of the steam stop valve is to shut off or regulate the flow
of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe or from the steam pipe to
the engine.
• When used for the former purpose, it is called junction valve. Usually
the junction valve means a regulating valve of larger size and a stop
valve refers to a regulating valve of smaller size.
• The junction valve is mounted on the highest part of the steam space
of the boiler and is connected to the steam pipe, which carries the
steam to the engine.
• By default the valve of the steam stop valve is closed and steam is not
allowed to pass through the valve.
• When the spindle is rotated by rotating the hand wheel, the valve
move up and down according to the direction of the rotation.
• When the valve moves up the steam in the boiler is allowed to pass
through the steam stop valve and is transferred to area where it is
required.
• Steam Passage, Valve, Valve Seat, Hand Wheel, Valve Body, Spindle,
Yoke, Stud, Gland are the parts of steam stop valve.
 Blow off cock
• The function of blow-off cock is to discharge mud and other
sediments deposited in the bottom most part of the water space in
the boiler, while boiler is in operation.
• It can also be used to drain-off boiler water. Hence it is mounted at
the lowest part of the boiler. When it is open, water under the
pressure rushes out, thus carrying sediments and mud.
• When rectangular hole of plug is brought in line with casing hole by
rotating spindle, the water flow out. When the solid portion of the
plug is in front of casing hole the water cannot flow out of boiler.
• It is fitted on the boiler shell directly or through the short branch of
pipe at lowest part of the water space.
• It consists of gun metal conical plug having a rectangular hole, spindle
with yoke.
• The plug meshes accurately into the similar casing. The plug spindle is
generally rotated by mean of spanner on the top of the yoke, two
vertical slots are provided for fixing spanner.
 Economiser
• An economizer is a heat exchanger, used for heating the feed water
before it enters the boiler.
• The economizer recovers some of waste heat of hot flue gases going
to chimney.
• It helps in improving the boiler efficiency.
• It is placed in the path of flue gases at the rear end of the boiler just
before air pre-heater.
 Super heater
• It is a heat exchanger in which heat of combustion products is used to
dry the wet steam or to superheat dry steam.
• In this steam pressure remains constant, its volume and temperature
increases.
• Basically, a super heater consists of a set of small diameter U tubes in
which steam flows and takes up the heat from hot flue gases.
 Air Pre-heater
• The function of an air pre-heater is similar to that of an economizer.
• It recovers some portion of the waste heat of hot flue gases going to
chimney, and transfers same to the fresh air before it enters the
combustion chamber.
• Due to preheating of air, the furnace temperature increases. It results
in rapid combustion of fuel with less soot, smoke and ash.
• The high furnace temperature can permit low grade fuel with less
atmospheric pollution. The air pre-heater is placed between
economizer and chimney.
 Feed Pump
• A feed pump supplies feed water to the boiler as and when required.
• An essential part of the Boiler feed water system, a boiler feed pump
is selected according to the quantity and the amount of pressure
required by the boiler.
• The feed pump raises the pressure of the feed water to a level high
enough for the water to enter the boiler.
 Lancashire boiler
• Lancashire Boiler is a horizontal type stationary internally fired fire
tube low pressure natural circulation boiler.
• The size is approximately 7-9 meters in length and 2-3 meters in
diameter.
• It has high thermal efficiency of about 80 to 90 percent.
• Lancashire Boiler was invented in the year 1844 by William Fairbairn.
• The boiler also consist other necessary mountings and accessories like
economizer, super heater, safety valve, pressure gauge, water gauge,
etc. To perform better.
• Construction
• This boiler is similar to a shell and tube type heat ex-changer. It
consist a large drum of diameter up to 4-6 meter and length up to 9-
10 meter. This drum consist two fire tube of diameter up to 40% of
the diameter of shell. The water drum is placed over the bricks works.
• Three spaces created between the drum and the bricks, one is at
bottom and two are in sides as shown in figure.
• Flue gases passes through the fire tubes and side and bottom space.
The water level inside the drum is always above the side channels of
flue gases, so more heat transfer to the water.
• The drum is half filled with water and the upper half space for steam.
• The Furnace is located at one end of the fire tubes inside the boiler.
The low brick is situated at the grates (space where fuel burns) which
does not allow to un-burned fuel and ash to flow in fire tubes.
• Working:-
• The Lancashire boiler is a shell and tube type heat ex-changer.
• The fuel burnt at the grate. The water is pumped into the shell
through the economizer which increases the temperature of water.
• Now the shell is half filled with water. The fire tube is fully immersed
into the water.
• The fuel is charged at the grate which produces flue gases. These flue
gases first passes through the fire tube from one end to another. This
fire tubes transfer 80-90% of total heat to the water.
• The backward flue gases passes from the bottom passage where it
transfer 8-10% heat to water.
• The remaining flue gases passes from the side passage where it
transfer 6-8% of heat to water.
• The brick is the bad conductor of heat, so work as heat insulator. The
steam produces in drum shell it taken out from the upper side where
it flows through super heater if required. So the steam produced is
taken out for process work.
 Advantages
• Lancashire Boiler is an Economical boiler
• It can be easily operated
• Compactness
• Portability
• Simple design
• Easy construction
• Have low maintenance cost
• High overall efficiency (80% to 85%)
• Steam produce have excellent quality
• Due to the large quantity of water available, it can easily overcome the
load fluctuation
 Disadvantages
• Corrosion in water legs
• It is difficult to clean inside
• Low steam production rate (9000kg/hr)
• Horizontal structure cover more ground space
• Maintenance of brick work is tedious.
• Have limited grate area because the fire tubes have small diameter.
• It’s a low pressure Boiler maximum limit is only 20 bars.
 Application
• Lancashire Boilers are used in industries as processing agent
• textile industry
• paper industry
• sugar industry
• tyre industry
• chemical industry
• breweries industry
• Lancashire boilers are also used to drive steam turbine.
 Babcock and wilcox boiler
• Babcock and Wilcox Boiler was discovered by George Herman
Babcock and Stephen Wilcox in the year 1967.
• This is a horizontal axis, natural circulation, multitube, stationary, high
pressure, Externally Fired and water tube boiler.
• This boiler is the most common type used in thermal power plants for
generation of steam in large quantities.
• It consists of a high pressure steel drum mounted at the top . from
each end of the drum, connections are made with the uptake header
and a down take header.
• The headers are joined to each other by a large number of water
tubes which are kept inclined at an angle of about 15 degree to the
horizontal.
• The water tubes are straight, solid drawn steel tubes about 10 cm in
diameter and are expanded into the bored holes of the headers.
• The furnace is located below the uptake header.
• The coal is fed to the chain grate stoker through the fire door.
• baffles are provided across the water tubes to act as deflectors to the
flue gases.
• The hot gases rise upwards, go down and then rise up again and
finally escape to chimney through the smoke chamber.
• To maintain a uniform velocity of flue gases throughout their travel,
the passage of the gases is decreased from furnace to exit.
• The circulation of water is maintained by convective currents. The
cold water flows from the drum to the rear header and thus cycle is
repeated.
• For getting superheated steam, the steam accumulated in the steam
space is sent to the superheated tubes which are arranged above the
water tubes.
• The super heated steam is finally supplied through a steam stop valve
and steam pipe.
• Evaporative capacity of such boiler rages from20, 000 to 40,000
kg/hour and operating pressures of 11.5 to 17.5 bar are quite
common.
• The inspection of boiler can be carried out even when the boiler is in
operation, draught loss is minimum and replacement of defectives
tubes can be made readily.
 Advantages
• Steam generation capacity is high. It is about 2000 to 40000 kg/hr.
• It occupies less space.
• Replacement of defective tubes is easy.
• It is the only boiler that is used to generate a large quantity of heat in
power stations.
• The draught loss is minimum.
• Inspection of this types of boiler can be done anytime during its
working.
 Disadvantages
• High maintenance cost.
• It is not much suitable for impure and sedimentary water. In the case
of impure and sedimentary water, the scale may deposit in the tubes
and this leads to overheating and bursting of tubes. That’s why water
treatment is must before feeding into the boiler.
• A continuous supply of feed water is required for working. In the case,
if feed water is not continuously supplied even for a short period of
time, the boiler gets overheated. The water level must be carefully
watched during the operation of the Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
 Application
• The Babcock and Wilcox boiler are generally used to produce high-
pressure steam in power generation industries. The high-pressure
steam so generated is used to produce electricity.
 Boiler Performance
• Performance of the boiler reduces with time, due to poor
combustion, heat transfer fouling and poor operation and
maintenance. Deterioration of fuel quality and water quality also
leads to poor performance of boiler.
• The performance of the boiler is measured in terms of its evaporative
capacity and its efficiency.
 Boiler efficiency
• The boiler efficiency is the ratio of heat absorbed by the steam from
the boiler per unit time to the heat liberated by the combustion of
fuel in the furnace during the same time.
• “The percentage of the total absorption heating value of outlet steam
in the total supply heating value.”
• The initial value of boiler efficiency for Z Boiler is depending on the
boiler type, but it is normally
• 80-88%. In short, 80-88% in the generated heating value after the fuel
is burnt by the burner regenerates into the steam heating value, the
remain of 12-20% is loss
• If the boiler, economiser and superheater are considered as a single unit
then the boiler efficiency is termed as overall efficiency of the boiler plant.
 Evaporative Capacity
• Evaporative capacity of boiler is measured in terms of steam
generated per unit time i.e. In an hour. or mass of steam generated
per unit grate area or mass of steam generated per unit furnace
volume.
• Evaporative capacity = ms/Area of grate Kg/m2 of per unit grate
area/hr.
 Equivalent Evaporation of boiler
• Two boilers can not be compared on the basis of their evaporative
capacity because different boilers have different evaporative Capacity
at different pressure.
• Therefore a base for comparing the performance of two boilers is
their equivalent Evaporation.
• It is defined as ‘The quantity of dry saturated steam that could be
generated by the boiler per unit time from water at 1000 C to steam
at 1000 C. (at a Pressure corresponding to 1000 C Saturation
temperature) is known as Equivalent Evaporation
• The quantity of heat supplied by the boiler to each kg of steam is
2257 KJ under the above mentioned conditions.
 Locomotive boiler
• Locomotive boiler is a horizontal fire tube type machine boiler.
• It is made of cylindrical shell fitted with fire box at one end and smoke
box at the other end. Coal is burnt on grate in the fire box and flue
gases pass through number of small fire tubes surrounded by water in
the shell.
• The flue gases after passing through the tubes enter into smoke-box
from where they escape into atmosphere through chimney at the top
of the smoke box.
• The steam generated in the shell is collected over the water surface. A
dome shaped chamber known as steam dome, is fitted on the top of
the shell.
• The steam in the shell flows through a pipe mounted in the steam
dome into the steam header, which is divided into two parts.
• One part of the steam header is known as saturated steam header
and other part is known as superheated steam header.
• The superheated steam coming out of superheated tubes is collected
in the superheated header and then fed to the steam engine.
• A stop valve is provided on steam dome and is called regulator. Also,
on the shell or dome, safety valve, stop valve, pressure and water
level indicator are mounted .
• It is very compact and its efficiency is about 70 %.
• The pressure of steam is limited to 20 bar.
• Large rate of steam Generation per square metre of heating surface.
The following data were taken during the test on a
boiler for a period of one hour.
Steam generated – 5000 kg
Coal burnt – 700 kg
C.V. Of coal – 31402 KJ/kg
Quality of steam – 0.92
If the boiler pressure is 1.2 Mpa and the boiler feed
water Temperature is 45 degree Celsius Find the
efficiency and equivalent Evaporation of boiler.
Calculate the equivalent Evaporation of the boiler
per kg of coal fired If the boiler produces 50,000 kg
of wet steam/hour with a dryness fraction of 0.95
and operating at 10 bar. The coal burnt per hour in
the furnace is 5500 kg and feed water temperature
is 40 degree Celsius.
5000 kg of steam is produced per hour at a
Pressure of 700 KN/m2 in a boiler. The
temperature of feed water is 40 degree
Celsius. Dryness fraction is 0.98. The mass of
coal burnt Per hour is 700 kg. And C.V. Is 31000
KJ/Kg. Determine equivalent Evaporation and
boiler efficiency.
The following readings are taken during the test on a boiler for one hour :
Steam generated = 6000 kg
Coal burnt = 700 kg
C.V. of coal = 31,500 kJ/kg.
Dryness fraction of steam entering the superheater = 0.92
Rated pressure of the boiler 12 bar
Temperature of steam leaving the superheater = 2500C
Temperature of hot well = 45°C.
Determine:
(i) Equivalent evaporation with and without superheater. (ii) Thermal
efficiency with and without superheater.
 Draught
• Draught is the pressure difference which is necessary to flow fresh air into
the combustion chamber of the boiler and to remove the flue gases from
the combustion chamber of the boiler.
• This is only possible if a difference of pressure is maintained above and
below the fire grate.
• The main object of producing draught in a boiler is
• To provide sufficient quantity of fresh air for combustion.
• To exhaust the flue gases from the combustion chamber of the boiler.
• To discharge these gases to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Generally draught (pressure difference) is measured in millimeter (mm) of
water column by a U-tube manometer, at the grate level.
• In a chimney (see Fig.), the gases inside are hot and lighter in
comparison to cool and dense outside air.
• At the level of the great, where fire burns, the pressure of hot, light
gases due to a column of height equal to chimney height is less than
the column of cool, dense air outside the chimney.
• The difference of pressure is the cause of flow of hot gases through
the chimney, known as draught. The more the draught, the more the
flow of hot gases through chimney, which comes out through
chimney top.
Classification of draught
• Natural or Chimney draught
• It is produced by means of chimney alone. It is a natural draught. In
this case the amount of draught directly depends upon the height of
chimney. It is produced due to the difference between the pressure of
a column of hot gases inside the chimney and a similar column of cold
air outside the chimney.
• As we know that,
• Density (p) of cool air > Density (p) of hot gases
• At grate level.
• (P2 + pressure due to cold column H) > (P2 + pressure due to hot
column H
• (Total pressure at grate level due to cold column H) > (Total pressure
at the chimney base due to hot column H)
• Due to difference in hot and cold air we can say that the pressure at
the grate due to cold column is greater than pressure at the chimney
base due to hot column H. This pressure difference ‘draught’ is
responsible for air flow through the furnace into the chimney. It will
push the hot gases to pass through the chimney. It is equivalent to
height ‘h’ of the hot gas column expressed in mm of water column.
• Advantages of Natural Draught :
• 1. No power is required to produce this draught.
• 2. Easy to produce this draught.
• 3. Chimney life is longer.
• 4. No maintenance.
Disadvantages of Natural Draught:
1. Efficiency is very less.
2. Tall chimney is required.
3. Depends on outside temperature, as outside temperature increases
it decreases
4. No flexibility to create more draught during peak load.
• Artificial Draught
• Large steam power plants requiring very large quantity of steam per
hour So high draught (300 mm of water) required.
• For producing this much draught. The chimney height has to be
increased, which is neither convenient nor economical. So this much
draught can be achieved by mechanical equipments or steam jet
known as artificial draught.
• Artificial draught is more economical. If the draught is produced by a
fan, it is known as fan (mechanical) draught and if the draught is
produced by a steam jet, the draught is known as steam jet draught.
• Forced Draught
• Forced draught fan forces ambient air through the chimney creating
the required draught.
• A fan or blower is installed near the base of the boiler.
• Atmospheric air is forced to pass through boiler furnace, economiser,
air Pre-heater and chimney. This draught system is known as positive
draught system because the pressure throughout the system is above
the atmospheric pressure.
• The function of the chimney is only to discharge the gases high into
atmosphere to reduce air pollution.
• It is to be noted that the chimney is not designed to produce draught,
the height of the chimney may not be large. (Refer to Fig.).
• Induced draught
• In this system, the blower or induced draught fan is installed near the
base of the chimney.
• The air is sucked into the system by reducing the pressure through
the system below the atmospheric pressure.
• The gases from the furnace are sucked by the induced draught fan.
• These gases pass through economiser. Air preheater, induced fan and
discharged through the chimney to the atmosphere.
• The temperature of gases is reduced as they pass through the
economiser and air preheater. (Refer to Fig.).
• Advantages of Forced Draught over Induced Draught
1. The size and power required by the induced draught fan is more
than forced draught fan. The forced draught fan handles cold air
(more dense air than hot air) therefore the fan size and power
required for the same capacity of draught and nearly half that of
the induced draught system.
2. Water cooled or air cooled bearings are required by induced
draught fan because it bandles hot gases.
3. In induced draught system there is leakage of air into the furnace as
the pressure inside the furnace is below the atmosphere. But in
forced draught system there is no chance of leakage as the pressure
inside the furnace is above atmosphere.
• Balanced Draught
• The balance draught is a combination of the induced and forced draught
system.
• It is always preferable to use combination of induced draught and forced
draught system instead of forced or induced draught alone.
• If only the forced draught is used, the furnace cannot be opened for firing
or inspection. Because the high pressure air/gases inside the furnace will
try to blow out.
• If only the induced draught is used the furnace cannot be opened for firing
or inspection. Because the cold air will try to rush into the furnace, which
reduces the effective draught.
• Considering the above difficulties a balanced draught system is always
preferred.
• System jet draught
• It is an artificial type draught. It may be Forced or Induced type (Refer
to fig.).
• The steam nozzle is located near the smoke box, the air is sucked
through the system, into the smoke box. If the steam nozzle is located
near grate, air is forced through the system.
• Induced draught is produced by steam jet in case of locomotive boiler.
The exhaust steam from the steam engine is passed through the
nozzle to the smoke box to produce draught,
Advantages of Steam Jet Draught
1. It is very simple and economical.
2. It occupies minimum scale.
3. No maintenance cost,
Disadvantages of Steam Draught
1. The only disadvantage of this system is that it cannot be started until
high pressure steam is available.
 Height of chimney
• Natural draught is obtained by the use of chimney. A chimney is a
vertical tubular structure of brick, masonary, steel or reinforced
concrete for the purpose of Enclosing a cloumn of hot gas, to produce
draught. The life of brick or concrete chimney may be as high as 50
years.
A chimney is 35 m high and the temperature
of the hot gases in the chimney is 300°C. The
temperature of outside air is 25°C and the
furnace, supplied with 180 kg of air per kg of
coal burnt. Calculate the draught in mm of
water.
Calculate the height of chimney required to
produce a draught equivalent to 1.7 cm of
water if the flue gas temperature is 270°C and
ambient temperature is 22°C and minimum
amount of air per kg of fuel is 17 kg.
A boiler uses 18 kg air per kg of fuel.
Determine the minimum height of chimney
required to produce a draught of 25 mm of
water. The mean temperature of chimney
gases is 315°C and that of outside air 27°C.
Find the minimum temperature of the flue
gases required to produce a draught of 1.5 cm
of water by a chimney of 30 m high when the
air fuel ratio required in the combustion is 19.
Ambient air temperature is 27°C.