EXOGENIC PROCESSES

 Also called Gradational Processes, they comprise degradation and aggradation – they modify relief
 Are external processes that occur at or near the surface of the Earth.
→ a continuum of processes – Weathering → Mass Wasting → Erosion → Transportation → Deposition
→ these processes are carried through by Geomorphic Agents: gravity, flowing water (rivers),
moving ice (glaciers), waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind, plants, organisms, animals
and humans
 1. Degradation Processes → Also called Denudation Processes
a. Weathering , b. Mass Wasting and c. Erosion and Transportation
2. Aggradation Processes
a. Deposition – fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal

WEATHERING

Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called weathering. Weathering is the process of
breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.

Different Types of Weathering

All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different types of rock weathering:
mechanical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.

1. MECHANICAL WEATHERING is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces without
changing its chemical composition due to different temperatures and water. Rocks in the highway
develop cracks and small fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This activity is an example of
mechanical weathering.
A. Block Disintegration – a successive heating and cooling which causes the expansion and
contraction of rocks
B. Exfoliation/ Insolation Weathering – this result because of the intense heating of rock’s outer
layers, the outer layers of the rock subsequently peel off from the main mass of the rock
C. Frost wedging or frost weathering (Freeze Thaw Cycle) – occurs in regions where
temperature fluctuates above and below freezing points that results in Freeze Thaw-cycle.

2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other substances that
have different physical and chemical compositions.
A. Oxidation – the process in which atmospheric oxygen reacts with the rock to produce oxides.
Reddish-brown rust will appear on the surface of iron-rich minerals which easily crumbles and
weakens the rock.
B. Hydrolysis - change in the composition of minerals when they react with water
C. Carbonation – the process by which various types of carbonates are formed.

3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING is a process when living things, such as insects and roots of the trees,
contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses and fungi that grow on rocks
produce weak acids that can destroy or dissolve the rocks.

Factors that Affects the type, extent and rate at which weathering takes place:

FACTORS How does it affect weathering?

CLIMATE: If you go back to the chemical weathering
Cold and dry = slow rate of chemical weathering processes, most if not all are chemical reactions
High temperature and high rainfall = high rate of involving water. Hence, the presence of water which
chemical weathering is an important chemical weathering agent
increases the rate of weathering. High temperature
enhances chemical reactions.
ROCK TYPE: The susceptibility of minerals (from high to low)
the minerals that constitute rocks have different roughly follows the inverse of the order of
susceptibilities to weathering crystallization of minerals in the Bowen’s reaction
series. Thus, olivine which crystallizes first is the
least resistant whereas; quartz which crystallizes
last is the most resistant.
 ROCK STRUCTURE: These cracks/structures facilitate the entry of
The presence of cracks where agents of weathering agents.
weathering (water, plant roots, etc.) can enter
enhances weathering
TOPOGRAPHY: Physical weathering
Physical weathering occurs more quickly on a occurs faster when the slope is steep due to the
steep slope than on a gentle one higher slope’s susceptibility to mass wasting and
the higher rate at which new materials are exposed
to agents of mass wasting (rainwater can easily
wash away weathered materials downslope).
However, in gentle slopes, the rate of chemical
weathering may be higher. This is due to the fact
that water which is an agent of weathering may stay
longer in the gentle slopes.
TIME: Longer time of exposure to weathering agents could
Longer time of exposure to agents of weathering mean higher degree of weathering processes have
means higher rate of weathering. occurred. The rock has been weakened, therefore
easier to be break.

EROSION

Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater,
wave currents, and glaciers contribute to erosion.

Types of Erosion

• Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to different parts of the bodies
of water such as rivers.
• Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are carried by wind to
different places.
• Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out chunks of rocks and causes
scraping between the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the development of other
landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.
• Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil infertile. This is caused by wind
or flood in an area.

Deposition
Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final destination. The depositional
environment can be continental, coastal, or marine.

• Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.

• Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
• Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal zone.

Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is the mass movement or rocks, soil and regolith. It is the step that follows weathering and is also
a degradation process. The driving force of mass wasting is GRAVITY.

FACTORS THAT TRIGGER MASS WASTING:

1. Over Steeped slope – rapid movements are commonly found in steeped slopes while slow movements
are found in gentle slopes.
2. Water – rainwater adds weight and acts as lubricant to weathered materials
3. Earthquake – a vibration that triggers mass wasting
4. Vegetation removal – the lack of vegetation cover to hold the loose particles
TYPES OF MASS WASTING

A. Slope failures- sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris downhill by rolling, sliding, and
slumping.
1. Slump – type of slide wherein downward rotation of rock or regolith occurs along a curved surface
2. Rock fall and debris fall– free falling of dislodged bodies of rocks or a mixture of rock, regolith, and
soil in the case of debris fall
3. Rock slide and debris slide- involves the rapid displacement of masses of rock or debris along an
inclined surface
B. Sediment flow- materials flow downhill mixed with water or air; Slurry and granular flows are further
subdivided based on velocity at which flow occurs
1. Slurry flow – water-saturated flow which contains 20-40% water; above 40% water content, slurry
flows grade into streams
• Solifluction – common wherever water cannot escape from the saturated surface layer by
infiltrating to deeper levels; creates distinctive features: lobes and sheets of debris
• Debris flow – results from heavy rains causing soil and regolith to be saturated with water;
commonly have a tongue-like front; Debris flows composed mostly of volcanic materials on
the flanks of volcanoes are called lahars.
• Mud flow – highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water; can start as a muddy
stream that becomes a moving dam of mud and rubble; differs with debris flow in that fine-
grained material is predominant;
2. Granular flow - contains low amounts of water, 0-20% water; fluid-like behavior is possible by mixing
with air
• Creep – slowest type of mass wasting requiring several years of gradual movement to have a
pronounced effect on the slope ; evidence often seen in bent trees, offset in roads and fences,
inclined utility poles. Creep occurs when regolith alternately expands and contracts in
response to freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, or warming and cooling.
• Earth flow – involves fine-grained material such as clay and silt and usually associated with
heavy rains or snowmelt; tend to be narrow tongue-like features that that begin at a scarp or cliff
• Grain flow – forms in dry or nearly dry granular sediment with air filling the pore spaces such
as sand flowing down the dune face
• Debris avalanche – very high velocity flows involving huge masses of falling rocks and debris
that break up and pulverize on impact; often occurs in very steep mountain ranges. Some studies
suggest that high velocities result from air trapped under the rock mass creating a cushion of
air that reduces friction