POLITICAL SCIENCE

NATIONAL TESTING AGENCY (NTA)

Paper 2 – Volume 1

Political Theory & Thought, Indian

Political Thought and Comparative
Political Analysis
 UGC NET PAPER – 2
Political science
S.N. Content P.N.
UNIT – I
Political Theory
1. 1. Political Theory and Its key Concepts 1
 Liberty 12
 Equality 14
 Justice 15
 Rights 17
 Democracy 21
 Power 23
 Citizenship 24
26
2. Political Ideologies
28
 Classical Political Ideologies
o Liberalism
o Conservatism
o Socialism
o Marxism
 Contemporary Political Ideologies 36
o Ecologism
o Feminism
o Multiculturalism
o Postmodernism
3. Previous Year Questions 44
UNIT – II
Political Thought
2. 1. Ancient Political Thought 53
 Confucius 53
 Plato 54
 Aristotle 57
2. Modern Political Thoughts 61
 Machiavelli 61
 Hobbes 63
 Locke 64
 Rousseau 66
 Hegel 68
 Mary Wollstonecraft 69
 John Stuart Mill 70
 Karl Marx 72
 Gramsci 75
 Hannah Arendt 77
 Frantz Fanon 78
 Mao Zedong 79
  John Rawls 80
 MK Gandhi 81
3. Previous Year Question 85
UNIT – III
Indian Political Thought
3. 1. Indian Political Thought 94
 Dharamshastra 94
 Kautilya 95
 Barani 98
 Kabir 99
 Pandita Ramabai 100
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak 102
 Swami Vivekanand 104
 Rabindranath Tagore 107
 Sri Aurobindo 108
 Periyar E. V. Ramasamy 111
 Muhammad Iqbal 112
 M.N.Roy 114
 V D Savarkar 116
 Dr. B.R.Ambedkar 118
 J L Nehru 120
 Ram Manohar Lohia 122
 Jaya Prakash Narayan 124
 Deendayal Upadhyaya 125
2. Practice Questions 127
UNIT – IV
Comparative Political Analysis
4. 1. Approaches 132
 Comparative Methods 132
 Institutional 133
 Political Culture 133
 Political Economy 134
 New Institutionalism 136
2. Colonialism and Decolonization 139
 Forms of Colonialism 139
 Anti-Colonial Struggles 140
 Decolonization 141
3. Nationalism 142
 European and Non-European 142
4. State theory: 145
 Debate Over the Nature of State in Capitalist and Socialist Societies 145
 Post-Colonial State 146
 Welfare State 147
 Globalization and Nations-States 147
5. Political Regimes: 150
 Democratic (Electoral, Liberal, Majoritarian and Participatory) 150
 Non-Democratic Regimes (Patrimonialism, Bureaucratic authoritarianism, 152
Military dictatorship, Totalitarianism, and fascist).
6. Constitutions and Constitutionalism: 155
 Forms of Constitutions 155
 Rule of Law 156
 Judicial Independence 156
 Liberal Constitutionalism 157
 Emergency Powers 158
 Crisis of Constitutionalism 158
7. Democratization: Democratic Transition and Consolidation 159
8. Development: 160
 Underdevelopment 160
 Dependency 160
 Modernization 161
 World Systems Theory 162
 Development and Democracy. 163
9. Structures of Power: 164
 Ruling Class 164
 Power Elites 165
 Democratic Elitism 165
10. Actor and Processes: 166
 Electoral Systems 166
 Political Parties and Party System 167
 Interest Groups 170
 Social Movements, Social movements, Both Old and New 172
 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Civil Society Campaigns 173
 Revolutions. 173
11. Practice questions 175
 1 Political Theory
Unit
Political Theory and Its key Concepts
What is Political theory?
● The word theory refers to a body of logically collected and analyzed the body of knowledge and politics.
● David Weld sees political theory as a network of concepts and generalizations about political life
involving ideas, assumptions, and statements about the nature, purpose, and key features of
government, state, and society, and about the political capabilities of human beings.
● Andrew Hacker defines it as a combination of a disinterested search for the principles of a good state
and good society on the one hand, and a disinterested search for knowledge of political and social
reality on the other.
● Gould and Kolb defined political theory as a sub-field of political science that includes:
○ the political philosophy-a moral theory of politics and a historical study of political ideas,
○ a scientific criterion,
○ linguistic analysis of political ideas,
○ the discovery and systematic development of generalizations about political behavior.
● Political theory is concerned basically with the study of the phenomenon of the state both in
philosophical as well as empirical terms. An attempt is made to provide explanations, descriptions,
and prescriptions regarding the state and political institutions.
● The thinker Weinstein put it very succinctly when he suggested that political theory is an activity,
which involves posing questions, developing responses to those questions, and creating imaginative
perspectives on the public life of human beings.
● Political thought is a generalized term that comprises all thoughts, theories, and values of a person
or a group of persons, or a community on the state and questions related to the state. Political
thought is always of persons or groups while political theory is a self-contained and self-standing
explanation or speculation or theory attempting to answer questions and explain history and predict
likely events in the future.

Political Theory as Philosophy

● Philosophy is all thinking really on anything and everything in search of truth and wisdom. When this
search is on political topics we call it political philosophy. Political theory is a part of political
philosophy mostly political philosophy is much wider and need not necessarily be comprised of any
theories”
● “Political Philosophy" means a general view, or specific ethic, belief, or attitude, about politics that
does not necessarily belong to the whole technical discipline of philosophy.
● Political philosophy is not concerned with contemporary issues but with the more universal issues in
the political life of man. But a political theorist is looking at contemporary political life, the actual
relations between state and citizens, and the role of power in society. While studying political science
one gets the feeling political theory has to be supplemented by political philosophy. Otherwise, it
appears barren and irrelevant.

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Political Theory and Political Science
● Political Science is a comprehensive subject or field of study of which political theory is only a sub-
field.
● Political Science includes everything: political thought, political theory, political philosophy, political
ideology, institutional or structural framework, comparative politics, public administration,
international law, organization, etc.
● Some thinkers have stressed the science aspect of political science and they suggest that political
science is studied as a science with scientific methods. Political theory to the extent it is a part of
political philosophy cannot be regarded as political science because there is no room for abstract
intuitive conclusions or speculations in political science, political philosophy relies on exactly those
un-exact methods. Political theory is neither pure thought, nor pure philosophy, nor pure science.

Basic Characteristics of Political Theory

1. A political theory is generally the creation of an individual thinker. The theory may or may not be
accepted as true but it always can be regarded as one more theory. Generally, we find the political
theory of an individual thinker is put forward in a classic work of the thinker like Plato did in his
Republic or Rawls in A Theory of Justice.
2. A political theory attempts to provide explanations on questions relating to mankind, the societies
formed, and history and historical events generally. It suggests ways of resolving conflicts and
sometimes even advocates revolutions. There are also often predictions made about the future.
3. Political theory actively influences and participates in historical events particularly when they
propose political action of a particular kind. Harold Laski commented that the “task of political
theorists is not merely of description but also of prescription of what ought to be.”
4. Political theory is discipline-based and thought political philosophy.
5. Political theories are the basis for a whole political ideology.

Issues in Political Theory

● Classical and early political theory was mainly concerned with the search for a morally perfect
political order and focused on questions like the nature and purpose of the state, the basis on which
political authority should be used, and the problem of political disobedience.
● The rise of the modern nation-state and changes in the economic structure and the industrial
revolution gave rise to new priorities and the focus shifted to individualism and liberty of the
individual and his relationship to society and the state.
● Issues like rights, duties, liberty, equality, and property became more important.
● Behavioral scholars created new issues for study often borrowed from other disciplines. Some of
these issues are political culture and legitimacy, political systems, elites, groups, parties, etc. In the
last two decades, several different issues have emerged like identity, gender, environmentalism,
ecology, community, etc. Also, there has been a resurgence of value-based political theory with a
new focus on the basic issues of freedom, equality, and justice.

Relevance of Political Theory

● The process of organizing state and society, therefore, becomes important to maximize harmony and
prosperity and to allow the circumstances for individual self-realization.

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● To facilitate the unity and integrity of human societies or the collective needs of society political
theory becomes important it tries to study and find solutions to problems in this process.
● The relevance lies in evolving various approaches regarding the nature and purpose of the state, the
basis of political authority and the best form of government to practice, and relations between the
state and the individual in the context of his basic rights.
● The relevance of political theory is:
○ In providing an explanation and description of the political phenomenon,
○ Helping select the political goals and actions for a community and
○ Helps in providing the basis for making moral judgments.
● Political Theory seeks to study the present and future problems of the political life of society and to
suggest solutions for dealing with those problems.
● David Held has commented that the task of the political theorist is very great in its complexity
because in the absence of systematic study,
● There is a danger that politics will be left to the ignorant and self-seeking people who are in pursuit
of power.
● Political theory is relevant at the individual level, it makes one aware of one's rights and duties and
helps one understand and appreciate the socio-political realities and problems like poverty, violence,
corruption, etc.
● Political theory is also important because it can go forward basing itself on the theories and proposing
the means and directions for changing society to establish an ideal society.
● Marxist theory for instance is an example of a theory that not only proposes the direction but also
goes so far as to advocate a revolution for establishing an egalitarian state.
● If the political theory is sound and it can be transmitted and communicated to people then it can
become a very powerful force for the advancement of society and mankind.

The Important Schools of Political Theory

The most important schools of political thought that have lasted in importance and have stood the test
of time so to say are as follows:
1. Classical Political Theory
2. Liberal Political Theory
3. Marxist Political Theory
4. Empirical Scientific Political Theory
5. Behavioral Political Theory
1. Classical Political Theory
● The political theories emerged starting from the 6th century B.C. and evolved through the Greeks.
● Classical political theory was deeply dominated by philosophy and the whole focus was on taking
a holistic gaze searching for the most general of truths.
● There was no clear distinction between philosophical, theological, and political issues, and
political science or thought was not separately recognized as a discipline as such.
● Political theory was concerned with probing into issues, asking important questions, and serving
as a sort of conscience keeper of politics.
● The underlying quest was to arrive at the best possible form of government. The state and
government were also viewed as a tool for realizing the moral goals of man and society and for
promoting the good. Thus the state was to serve as some sort of promoter to foster high moral
standards among the members of the community.

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 ● The common good was required as more complete than the private good of the individual.
● The classical tradition also sought to search ways for to an ideal state and a stable system.
● The main question that the classical tradition was asked was what is the best form of
government? And who should rule and why? Also, how should conflict situations be resolved?
2. Liberal Political Theory
● With the Renaissance and Reformation in Europe followed by the Industrial Revolution, the
dominance of the classical tradition came to an end.
● The new philosophical wave was led by thinkers like Hobbes, Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas
Paine, Jeremy Bentham, J.S. Mill, Herbert Spencer
● The main thrust of the liberal tradition was the individual's rights and the state was merely
regarded as a contract between individuals to benefit from the conflict resolution mechanism
that a system of rule of law provides.
● The main aim of the state in the liberal tradition is to help individuals realize their fundamental
inalienable rights. Social control is best secured by law.
● The new liberal theories dismissed the idea of the common good and an organic community and
instead advocated that the government should govern as less as possible for individual rights to
reign supreme and free him from political, social, and economic restraints as far as possible.
3. Marxist Political Theory
● The fundamental changes that the industrial revolution brought about caused inequality and a
large class of impoverished industrial workers emerged.
● The basic liberal position that supported total economic freedom was challenged by Karl Marx
and Engles in the latter half of the nineteenth century who proposed “scientific socialism.
● Marx offered a new way of looking at history up to that time and suggested that the task of
knowledge is not just to understand the world but to change the social life of mankind for the
better Marx suggested a revolutionary path.
● Marx saw societies that liberal capitalism helped create as fundamentally unequal as a
consequence of property concentration with a few
● He wanted to create a society where "man shall not be exploited by man" and where each
individual will have the full opportunity to develop his or her personality and potential.
● He also was the first major thinker to stress the historical exploitation of the female gender and
the need for women's liberation.
● The most important themes of Marxist political theory are class division, class struggle, property
relations, modes of production, the state as an instrument of class domination, and revolution
by the proletariat.
● Marxism also suggests that rights, liberty, equality, justice, and democracy in a capitalist liberal
democracy are only enjoyed by the rich and property classes because the state is controlled by
the upper classes who use the institutions of the state as a tool for class exploitation.
● He believed real liberty and equality can only be achieved in a classless and stateless society.
● Marxist political theory provided the basis for the establishment of a socialist state through
revolutionary action.
4. Empirical-Scientific Political Theory
● In America, a new kind of political theory was developed particularly in the post second world
war period that suggested relying on the scientific method (instead of philosophical) and basing
theories upon facts (rather than on values).

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 ● Charles Merriam, Harold Lasswell, Gosnell, David Easton, and Stuart Rice focused on studying
politics in the context of the behavior of individual human beings as members of a political
community.
● The task of the political theory according to this new school of thought is to formulate and
systematize the concept of the science of political behavior in which emphasis is placed on
empirical research than on political philosophy.
● Behavioral scientists suggested a political theorist should clarify and criticize “systems of
Concepts” which have empirical relevance to political behavior.
5. Behavioral Political Theory
● It suggested that the job of political theory is to explain political phenomena and extrapolate
from that and predict the future.
● Political theory is not to question or propose who rules, should rule, and why but rather who
does rule and how?
● Or in other words, it should not question the basis of the state but should be happy with the
status quo, stability, equilibrium, and harmony in the society.
● It should focus attention on the study of the political behavior of men, groups, and institutions
irrespective of their good or bad character. Practical political theory is not only concerned with
the study of the state but also with the political process.
● Since 1970 the sole focus of the empiricists and behavioral scholars on science, value-free politics,
and methods came under criticism and lost popularity because they failed to address pressing
political and social issues.
● So there has been a revival of interest in political theory in the USA, Europe, and other parts of
the world.
● Thinkers like John Rawls, Robert Nozick, Habermas made noteworthy contributions and took up
basic issues like liberty, equality, and justice, etc.
● Theory again regained the status of a legitimate form of knowledge and inquiry.
● Further many scholars expressed that social sciences throw up distinctive problems that cannot
be grasped by scientific models. (This is because perceptions and resulting actions of men vary
and the same phenomenon can be viewed differently by different minds who may interpret the
social issues differently).
● So, it is difficult to do an objective scientific analysis of social issues and events with scientific
rigor.
● John Rawls's book: “A Theory of Justice” was important because he examined basic issues like
rights, duties, and obligations with great brilliance and offered a justification of civil disobedience,
and with an original inquiry into intergenerational justice.
● Scholars like Peter Laslett, John Pocock, Quentin Skinner, and John Dunn were called the 'new
historians' of political thought.
● Juergen Habermas and the Frankfurt School gave important theories and Ronald Dworkin focused
on the philosophy of law.
● David Held has opined that contemporary political theory has four distinct tasks:
○ Philosophical: to focus on the fundamental philosophical positions of the normative and
conceptual framework;
○ Empirical: to empirically understand and explain the concepts;
○ Historical: to examine the important concepts in the historical context;
○ Strategic: to assess the feasibility of moving from where we are to where we might like to be.

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Nature and scope of political science
Political Theory as science
● "Science is a systematic body of knowledge, the facts of which have been accurately and impartially
collected, arranged, and classified through the use of various scientific methods of observation,
comparison, and experimentation."
● Various arguments are forwarded for and against the discipline being a science.

Arguments that it is not a science

● Political Scientists like Maitland, Burke, and Gettel do not think that Politics is a Science. Their
arguments are as follows:
1. Disagreement in Definition, Terminology, and Methods: There is no general agreement among
Political thinkers regarding definition, scope, terminology, etc. There is no exactness or precision
in political science, as a result, they cannot be accepted and applied universally. This does not
happen in the case of natural sciences like physics and chemistry.
2. Lack of Precision: Principles of Political Science are not precise and clear and they lead to many
controversies. Whereas a formula in physics or chemistry is clear and universally accepted.
However, Political Science like pure and natural sciences such as Physics and Mathematics does
not possess such universally relevant principles.
3. Human Beings: Politics deals with human beings whose minds are unpredictable. Political
scientists have to deal with men who are not under their control. Human behavior is
unpredictable and not always logical. Whereas physics and chemistry deal with the matter or
inanimate objects. Natural scientist work in laboratories and the objects are perfectly under their
control. Hence their rules and laws are absolute and universal.
4. Limited Experimentation: Experimentation in the laboratory or an isolated environment is not
possible in politics like natural sciences.
5. Lack of Objectivity: Political Science lacks objectivity but the subjective element is very strong.
Political science is subjective and relative because the political scientist has to deal with human
beings about society, State, the Government, etc.
6. Difficult to Predict Future: Political phenomena do not follow a proper sequence like an exact
science. At times, the effects are contrary and therefore the results cannot be predicted.

Arguments that it is a Science

1. Political Science is not a pure science but a Social Science-Politics is a systematized body of
knowledge. Its facts are collected and organized through proper observation, comparison,
experimentation, etc. e.g., Studies on elections. Science is a systematic and formulated knowledge
of a specified subject. In that sense, Political Science is certainly a science.
2. Political Experiments are not completely ruled out: The government itself is a continuous experiment.
The application of Marxist principles in the USSR was one such experiment.
3. Broad conclusions can be drawn in Political Science e.g., an Independent impartial judiciary, and a
free press is essential for democracy.
4. Empirical studies are based on careful observation and classification: Political Science puts hypothesis
to empirical verification. Theories are not built on speculation. Political Scientists today employ
survey methods, graphs, charts, etc. to arrive at their research conclusions. Thus, political science is
not a pure science, but a social science.

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Is Politics an Art?
● The term 'Art' refers to the practical application of knowledge. Political Science applies knowledge
about political events for creating a good social and political order. Hence, it is an art.
● Robert Dahl states that "Political Science is both Science and Art. Whenever students of Political
Science test their theories against the data of experience by observation, political analysis can be
regarded as scientific. When this political analysis is applied to the working of political institutions it
is an art"

The Scope of Political Science

1. Political Science is The Study of Political Theories:
 Over the centuries, Political scientists have concerned themselves with formulating political
theories and political ideas e.g., Plato explained the theory of the Ideal State,
 Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau explained the theory of the origin of the state. These theories
enable us to organize their observations and offer a foundation on which future observations and
analyses can be based.
2. Political Institutions:
 Study of Political Science includes the study of various constitutions, various systems of
government and their merits, demerits, etc. e.g., whether it is a parliamentary, presidential,
dictatorial, democratic, or coalition form of government.
 Such a study helps us to reform our political institutions to realize our goals.
3. Political Parties and Pressure Groups:
 It studies the various systems of political parties, their role, and their importance. Pressure groups
and interest groups are becoming more important. Political science studies their role, methods,
etc. in a given political system. This makes the study of Political Science more realistic.
 The opposition, political parties, pressure groups, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
do not directly form the government. They indirectly influence governmental policies and
decisions. Hence the study of governance (the act of governing) is incomplete if it is limited to
the study of government.
4. International Relations: It includes the study of international organizations, and policies. States do
not live in isolation. Domestic Policy and Foreign Policy are interrelated. Hence the study of
international relations becomes more significant in the times of globalization.
5. Political Science is the study of the relationship between government and civil society:
 The state is comprised of two entities: government and civil society. Both entities influence
governance in different ways.
 Civil society includes citizens, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), pressure groups, and
opposition political parties. Civil society influences governance indirectly, by influencing the
government and convincing it to adopt certain policies.
 Whereas the government possesses the power and authority to influence governance directly.
Hence the relationship between government and civil society is an important determinant of
governance in the state. Political Science studies this relationship to better understand the nature
of the state and the efficacy of governance.

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6. It is the study of Power, Authority, Influences, Political activities, and Political Processes: Political
Science is normative as well as empirical. The normative approach of Political Science studies norms,
ideals, morals, principles, and philosophy of political science e.g., What should be the nature of the
state etc. The empirical approach of political Science observes and analyses political activities and
institutions as they are scientific.
7. Master Science: Aristotle called political science the 'Master Science' because Politics determines the
environment within which every person will organize his life. No one can claim that he has nothing
to do with politics. No one can escape from the parameters set by politics. Politics is the total study
of Man, Society, State, Morality, etc.
8. Study of Political system and its environments: Varied political systems exist and function in
different environments. Political science studies them concerning the response given and feedback
secured. The policies of one system have an impact on the other systems. Also, political decisions are
not made in vacuums. These are influenced by economic structure, social institutions, and the whole
environment in which the state functions.

Decline and Resurgence of Political Theory

● Since the Second World War, there have been a steady decline, decay, and death of political theory.
● On account of several factors, it could not remain an innovative, integrative and invigorating
enterprise. It stood as a passive or spineless spectator to the two world wars and failed to save
humanity from senseless devastation.

Reasons for Decline of Political Theory

1. The unwillingness of political thinkers to mold their ideology:
● Easton described the contemporary writers were:
(i) Living parasitically on century-old ideas, and
(ii) Remained unable to develop a new political synthesis.
● They loved and believed in speculation which again was found to be a by-product of history. They
concentrated their minds on analyzing the meaning, logical consistency, and historical
development of prevailing ideas.
● Easton puts thinkers of that time into four groups:
o Institutionalists,
o Interactionists,
o Materialists, and
o Value-writers.
● Institutionalists, like McElwain, go into the history of ideas for past rationalization or justification
of particular political interests and institutions Interactionists.
● Allen and Carlyle, analyze the interaction between ideas and institutions, resulting in the process
of social change.
● The materialists, such as Easton, Sabine, and others look into the cultural and historical milieu
which produced the particular political thinking.
2. Rigidness in Political Theory, strong connection with ideals, and neglecting the facts:
● Easton wants a political theory containing reformulation of values suitable to the present age;
and theorization about political behavior and institutions. Apart from historicism, forces of moral
relativism, hyper-factionalism, and lack of renovation have frustrated this goal and it acted as one
of the important factors on the decline.

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 ● Hume, Max Weber, Comte, and Marx, detached values from facts and regarded political theory
as merely individual or group preferences.
(i) These preferences were related, not to certain metaphysical or moral realities, but to one's
own life experiences. Europe had evolved a common set of values like capitalism, nationalism,
and democracy, from 1848 to 1918, and could afford 'moral relativism. It continued to bask
in the dreamland oblivious of the rise of a new value system in Russia, Fascism in Italy, and
Nazism in Germany.
(ii) Excessive concentration on the study of facts, structures, processes, motives, attitudes, etc
led to hyper-factionalism or crude empiricism resulting in an avalanche of facts that was
swaying away the whole discipline.
3. Expansion of state power, bureaucracy, and huge military establishments and failure in building
democracy:
● Alfred Cobban looked at the expansion of state power, bureaucracy, and huge military
establishments as a danger to the growth of political theory.
● The Communist world suffered from the concentration of power and the party machine, whereas
the western world failed to reform its democracy as a living tool'.
● Abstraction of the state as an engine of power keeps moral values away from politics. All this has
resulted in the consequential decline of political theory.
4. Lack of creative ideas and blind adoption of the scientific method:
 Cobban opines that political thinking itself has become directionless, and lacking in the past.
Worried about the fate of society, and seriously wanted to reform it through their creative ideas.
● The historical approach led to power as the standard of success. In order to gain power theorists
blindly adopted scientific methods. Blind adoption of the scientific method, borrowed from
natural sciences, resulted in the loss of criteria of judgment and merely produced cold-blooded
passionless scholars who made vague theories that lacks a humanitarian approach.
5. Ideological Reductionism:
● Dante Germino discovers 'ideological reductionism' as the cause of the decline of political theory.
By this, he means reducing political theory to merely an ideology, such as Marxism.
● Positivisation of social science or a mad rat race to become 'science' and political upheavals of
democracy, nationalism, imperialism, etc.. have destroyed the environment necessary for the
growth of political theory.
● The positivism of Auguste Comte gave birth to a 'science of society or sociology by discovering
laws governing human behavior. It was patterned on natural sciences. Marx claimed that he had
discovered the laws of human development. With such laws in hand or with the Marxist ideology
of society, the existing class could be transformed into a classless and stateless society. The lack
of scientifically ideological practice reduced the trend of theory and thus made political theory a
utopian idea to practice
6. The strict distinction between empirical knowledge and value judgments:
● Another cause of decline found by Germino is the rigid separation of “ought to be and fact” and”
value and being (reality”)
● Max Webber made a sharp distinction between empirical knowledge and value judgments. Based
on this separation, he challenged the Marxian view.

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 ● Although, he accepted the role and importance of values but put it beyond the purview of
scientific treatment.
○ As a social scientist, he stood for ethical neutrality which makes a political (value) theory
difficult to grow.
○ Therefore, Germino is convinced that a full recovery of critical political theory within the
positivist universe of discourse cannot be achieved.
○ He regards Easton, Cobban, and Waldo as axiological positivists who unsuccessfully tried to
unite values with factual studies, and visualize the making of political theory.
7. Consensus regarding the values and objectives of society in the West and success in achieving them
in practice has also weakened the desire to have any new political theory. People have got
everything.
Partridge observes, 'If the classical political theory has died, perhaps it has been killed by the triumph
of democracy.

Revival of Political Theory

● It is considered some scholars that the traditional sense was never dead and continuity can be traced
out.
● Plamenatz, Weldon, and others do not accept that it has even declined or dwindled. It has merely
changed its form. Even speculative theories, except spurious or Utopian ones, are important as they
have affected thinking, events, and happenings. Formerly, political theories were embedded in
philosophy, ethics, or religion. Now, they are carving out their fields, rather than looking at the whole
array of problems from their perspective.
● Germino finds a resurgence of traditional political theory, particularly, in the writings of Michael
Oakeshott, Hannah Arendt, Bertrand de Jouvenal, Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin, and others.
● Isaiah Berlin observes that without some general outlook or philosophy, there can be no human
activity: the political theory of some kind is never dead. It is flourishing in newer forms with newer
engagements.
● With the advancement of society, they say, people will need more theories to organize, justify and
rationalize their actions. If there is no theory, they will invent it: beg, borrow or even steal. Man will
always advocate some theory for himself and others.
● Revival of traditional theory has appeared in many forms. There are classical political theorists like
Leo Strauss, Michael Oakshott, Hannah Arendt, Bertrand de Jouvenel, and Eric Voegelin. John Rawls
in his Theory of Justice (1971) revolutionized political thinking in the United States and outside.
Besides liberals like Karl R. Popper and Isaiah Berlin, there are libertarians like F.A. Hayek, Milton
Friedman, and Robert Nozick.
● On the other side, communitarian political thinkers such as Alasdair Macintyre, Michael Walzer,
Charles Taylor, Benjamin Barber, and Michael Sandel.
● Neo-Marxism has appeared in form of postmodernism or critical theory. Originating from Frankfurt
School (1923), it appears in the writings of Antonio Gramsci, George Lukacs, Theodor Adorno, Max
Horkheimer, Louis Althusser, Eric Fromm, Jean-Paul Sartre, Che Guevara, Herbert Marcuse, and
Jurgen Habermas. Most of these political philosophers are rather concerned with philosophical issues
than with political crises and problems of today. One can regard their theories as non-political, even
anti-political. They appear to reject basic and applied aspects of modern political theory.

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● The critical theory challenges our common sense assumptions about the world and poses
controversial questions. It is a way of thinking that encourages us to critically approach our
assumptions about ourselves and the world. The Frankfurt School version of critical theory from the
beginning focused on the role of false consciousness and ideology in the perpetuation of capitalism
and analyzed works of culture, including literature, music, art, both 'high culture and ' or 'mass
culture. popular culture
● In the late 1960s, Jurgen Habermas of the Frankfurt School redefined critical theory in a way that
freed it from a tie-in with Marxism or the prior work of the School. In Habermas' epistemology, critical
knowledge was conceptualized as the knowledge that enabled human beings to emancipate
themselves from forms of domination through self-reflection and took psychoanalysis as the
paradigm of critical knowledge. Social sciences, included such approaches as world systems theory,
feminist theory, postcolonial theory, critical race theory, queer theory, social ecology, the theory of
communicative action, structuration theory, and neo-Marxian theory.

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 Chapter - 1
Concepts
A concept is a general idea about something usually expressed in a short phrase. Political concepts are
political thought’s basic units of meaning

Liberty:
● Modern political and social philosophy views liberty as a key idea and a basic democratic virtue. The
idea of liberty developed at the beginning of contemporary civil society and political power.
● The most popular definition of liberty, which is a fundamental tenant of liberal philosophy, is "lack
of restrictions." The idea of liberty came into being when contemporary Europe began to form new
socioeconomic and political ties.
● ‘Licence’ means the abuse of freedom; it is the point at which freedom becomes‘ excessive’. Whereas
liberty is usually thought to be wholesome, desirable, and morally enlightening, the license is
oppressive, objectionable, and morally corrupt.
● Libertarians aim to minimize the scope of permissible behavior and increase the domain of personal
freedom. Libertarianism has occasionally drawn support from both liberals and socialists, but in the
latter half of the 20th century, it came to be more closely associated with the promotion of free-
market capitalism and the defense of private property rights.
● Right-wing libertarians like Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick view freedom primarily in economic
terms and support the greatest degree of consumer choice.
● J.S. Mill suggested a different way to discern between liberty and license. Mill advocated that people
should have the broadest possible scope of liberty since he was a libertarian who thought that
individual freedom was the foundation for moral self-development.
● Professor Ernest Barker discusses legal liberty, which is never total but always conditional. Lawful
liberty, he asserts, "is not absolute or unqualified liberty just because it is legal. The need for liberty
for everyone must inevitably qualify and condition the need for liberty for each individual”
● Isaiah Berlin’s (1909-1997) theory of liberty written Four Essays on Liberty (1969) contains the
following essays: Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century, Historical Inevitability, Two Concepts of
Liberty, and J. S. Mill and the Ends of Life. He advocates two types of liberty: Negative liberty And
Positive Liberty:
○ It is acknowledged that the positive idea of freedom goes beyond just defining freedom as non-
interference and does not presume that people have predetermined wishes. It examines the
process of developing an individual's selfhood, which serves as the foundation for that person's
freedom as self-determination, as it defines freedom as adhering to self-given rational principles.
“Positive liberty“, refers to the act of taking control over one’s life and realizing its fundamental
purposes.
○ “Negative liberty” revolves around the existence of a private sphere where an individual can do
as he or she pleases, free from the interference of any kind, whether from other individuals,
communities, the State, or by oppressive social forces. The individual is free of any external
barriers or constraints. Berlin defined "freedom" as "Not having my rights violated by others,"
adding that "the larger the region of non-interference, the greater my freedom."

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Negative Liberty:
● Negative freedom proponents often support the smallest state. It had a sympathetic view of
capitalism. The notion of negative freedom has often been portrayed in the form of ‘freedom of
choice.
● The notion of privacy is strongly linked to freedom when it is thought of negatively, as the lack of
outside intrusion. A "private" or personal domain of existence and a "public" universe of some sort
is suggested by the concept of privacy.
● For Hobbes, “a free man, is he, that in those things, which he by his strength and wit he can do, is
not hindered to do what he has a will to.”
● Although there is a fine line dividing self-regarding from other-regarding behavior, Mill argued that
the idea of liberty precluded any interference with one's self-regarding activities. According to Mill,
there is essentially no other justification for interfering with someone's liberty other than to prevent
"direct substantial injury" to others.

Positive Liberty:
● The goal of proponents of positive liberty is to widen this range of self-determined behavior. The
democratic processes of shared decision-making broaden the scope of self-determined behavior
according to the philosophy of positive liberty. Instead of trying to live as law-free a life as possible, the
emphasis is on making sure that everyone has a voice in the creation of the rules they must abide by.
● The antithesis of freedom, in Rousseau's view, is being subjected to one's irrational instincts or
inclinations. Rousseau said that giving in to our desires and giving in to the desires of others are
fundamentally similar. We must consciously and rationally decide to fulfill our wants. In "The Social
Contract," he claims that following one's self-prescribed laws is liberty while following the urge of
one's sheer desire is enslavement.
● According to Rousseau, each person has control over his or her desires when laws are jointly crafted
by the people and the common good is kept in mind. He saw the imposition of collectively created
laws as a type of freedom.
● In a similar vein to Rousseau, Kant contends that one's freedom can't be demonstrated by actions
that are the product of one's environment operating through them. To be free, one must be able to
select or decide amongst their choices based on some logical idea they have agreed upon.
● T.H. Green was a significant proponent of positive liberty after Rousseau. "We shall probably all agree
that freedom, correctly understood, is the greatest of benefits; that its pursuit is the true purpose of
all our labor as citizens, However, we should carefully evaluate what we mean when we talk of
freedom in this way.” said by Green in this essay on Positive Liberty

Tolerance and Liberty

● The idea of Liberty is derived from Freedom of all kinds whereas tolerance is the ability to bear with
others' acts or beliefs that we disagree with. It can be supported based on privacy, personal growth,
and the conviction that it would foster development and societal peace.
● The idea of liberation as the defeat of an all-pervasive oppressive system offers the possibility of total
human fulfillment is a radical conception of freedom. Liberation movements have struggled in the
twentieth century against colonial control, sexual and racial oppression, and against the ubiquitous
manipulation that is allegedly present in industrialized industrial countries.

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Equality
● Political science has grappled with the issues of equality and inequality for centuries. According to
Aristotle, human revolution is primarily motivated by inequity, whether it is actual or imagined.
● Equality integrates the concept of capacity building, the modern conception of the welfare state is
still focused on equality. The idea of "full" or "absolute" equality is problematic for those who adhere
to this definition since it would go against the assumption that there are differences.

The principle of equality may be considered at two levels:

1. Equality as foundation Principal: Shared humanity serves as a common foundation for equality.
Human dignity is categorically necessary and hence inviolable, according to Kantian tradition.
2. Distributive Equality: Aristotle and Plato, at one extreme, believed in inherent inequality. Aristotle
wishes to protect the existing quo, whereas Plato promotes his "myth of metals" and therefore limits
any opportunity for equality. Liberals advocate equality of opportunity, creating a level playing field
and then leaving it to individuals to determine how they make use of such opportunities. Social
liberals like Amartya Sen, just equality of opportunity is not enough but the disadvantaged section
needs extra support. Socialists talk about artificial equality. Huge interference of the state in personal
as well as a political sphere to ensure equality.

Evolution of concept equality:

1. Equality before law: This idea is purely juridical. It promotes equal treatment of all people before
the law, irrespective of their political, social, or economic standing. i.e., Lex Rex, the law is king.
2. An equal opportunity/Proportional equality: It is a key principle of social liberalism. All people have
equal social and political rights, according to social liberals. According to them, the fundamental rule
of public life is equality. It promotes the idea that the state's job is to provide everyone an equal
chance of success, it is up to the individual how they employ the circumstances that have been
established.
3. Equality of outcomes – (Marxism) – Mute equality: The idea was put out by Marxists or extreme
egalitarians. Equal distribution of rewards, such as money, wealth, and other social benefits, is
advocated by the equality of outcomes "From everyone according to his abilities, to everyone
according to his needs," Marx once said everyone has unique skills, talents, and abilities. Equal results
will undermine the incentives for highly skilled people. Those who are privileged will feel unfairly
treated as a result. The lower output would follow from this, which would also have an impact on
the condition of poverty. As a result, it is still a utopian ideal.

Schools of thought of equality

1. Liberalism
2. Feminism
3. Marxism
4. Communitarian
5. Multiculturalist – differentiated equality and differentiated system. (Proposed by Will Kymlicka,
Bhiku Parekh.)

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Views of various thinker on Equality
1. Equality in Liberalism: Dworkin has emphasized that equality is more important than liberty.
Therefore, liberalism is predicated on equality rather than being opposed to it. According to Isaiah
Berlin, human dignity and equality are the foundation of liberalism since freedom is meaningless
without them.
Dworkin is a critic of Nozick’s theory and is inspired by Rawls’s theory. Dworkin supports the idea of
‘just initial distribution’. In the "A political portion" of his book “SOVEREIGN VIRTUE”, Dworkin
outlines his idea of justice.
2. Amartya Sen / Equality of capabilities: He goes beyond the concept of resource equality. The idea
of human dignity is connected to the idea of equality. Even if we allocate equal resources, equality
may not yet be attained.
There are two distinctive features of the capability approach:
● It is based on social choice.
● It is a realization-focused approach.
3. Communitarian View of equality / Complex equality:
● This term is given by Michael Walzer in Sphere of Justice. He asserts that equality is not a simple
concept but rather a complicated one. People can sometimes be made equal through differences.
Complex equality suggests ‘block the exchanges’.
● Affirmative Actions are important steps suggested by Walzer in maintaining welfarism in society
and in practicing complex equality in society.

Affirmative Actions:
The notion of "affirmative action" was first used in the United States. Affirmative action programs may
be required of countries that ratified the convention, to rectify systematic discrimination. The goal of
affirmative action is to promote societal equality.

Mikhail Bakunin "Political freedom without economic equality is a pretense, a fraud, a lie and the
workers want no lying".
Theodore Bikel "I am a universalist, passionately devoted to the cause of equality within the human
family".
Feagler "Equality of opportunity is freedom, but equality of outcome is repression".
Fromm "Men are born equal, but they are born different as well".

Justice
● The preservation of justice has been a constant battle for man. Justice is given the top priority in
democratic regimes. The Latin term jus, which means to bind or enter into a contract, is where the
word justice originated. Justice is referred to as Dike in Greek. It connotes becoming closer to virtue.
Justice entails abiding by rules (customs). Justice is defined as righteous behavior, fairness, or the
exercise of power to uphold or protect a right.
● John Rawls of Harvard University, “justice is the first virtue of social institutions.”
● Aristotle, who had defined justice as the treating of equals equally and unequally in proportion to
their inequalities. He also distinguished three types of justice: distributive justice, corrective justice,
and commutative justice

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