Electrical Systems-2

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ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Dr Rachel CUNLIFFE
School of Physics, Engineering & Computer Science
r.cunliffe@herts.ac.uk

1
INTRODUCTION

• Aircraft require a considerable amount of power


• Batteries are heavy and inefficient i.e. electrical
power has to be generated en-route
• Large aircraft have systems that are quite different
to small aircraft.
• In both cases, the primary source of power is the
aircraft engine.
• In both cases, back-up and emergency systems are
required – battery/RAT.
INTRODUCTION - Small Aircraft DC Generation

• Piston engines have wide


speed range

• DC Generators not effective


at lowest speeds

• Alternators (AC generators)


can produce power over a
wide range of speeds

• Use alternator, then rectify


using diodes Image: Continental piston motor for aircraft showing
alternator at arrow position.
INTRODUCTION - Large Aircraft AC & DC Generation

• Large aircraft have multiple


generators driven by each
engine & APU (for starting
& back-up).

• Each generator supports


multiple loads at different
voltages – AC & DC.
Image: Airbus training information for A320
SYSTEM COMPONENTS

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SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Self-Excited Shunt Wound Generator

Typical of type used in turboprop


aircraft.
Generator driven at speeds
between 4500-8500rpm.
(Note ventilation holes in casing).
Electromagnets housed in stator
(typical arrangement).
Electromagnets preferable to
permanent magnets because: -
• They produce a stronger field
• The strength of the magnetic
field can be controlled.

SECTIONED VIEW OF DC GENERATOR

Source : E.H.J. Pallett “Aircraft Electrical Systems”


SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Constant Speed Drive Unit (CSDU)

• Aircraft engine does not have constant


speed.
• Loads in electrical system are sensitive to
operating frequency
• Hydraulic motor and pump back-to-back
• Control system
• Constant-delivery pump
• Variable-angle swash-plate motor
• Unreliable, heavy, expensive, high
maintenance, inefficient
• When integrated into generator becomes
IDG (Integrated Drive Generator)

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SYSTEM COMPONENTS - Generators Image: Airbus training information for A320

• CSDU combined with


generator becomes
Integrated Drive Generator

• Emergency generator is
driven by hydraulic system
SYSTEM COMPONENTS – DC Sources Image: Airbus training information for A320

• CSDU combined with


generator becomes
Integrated Drive Generator

• Emergency generator is
driven by hydraulic system
Basic Electrical Principles

• Both DC & AC systems required


• DC – low voltage - 28V
Power = volts x current - hence power is low if
current is low. Safe in cockpit.
• AC – 400Hz, 115/200V 3-phase
Lethal
• Both require a circuit.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Distribution System

Distribution system provides multiple routes to supply power: -


• Buses (busbars) are central lines of power distribution
• Just a large copper strip
• One for DC, one (three) for AC, at least
• Most aircraft use multiple buses
• Supplies then distributed from buses in rings
• Advantages of ring system
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SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Distribution System

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE FOR A
TYPICAL CIVIL AIRLINER APU Constant
speed engine

Engine GEARBOX Engine


1 2
Direct Drive
120kVA
24,000rpm
GEARBOX GEARBOX
Backup
Backup
alternator 25kVA IDG 120kVA IDG 120kVA
alternator 25kVA
14-28,000rpm 24,000rpm 24,000rpm
14-28,000rpm

ELECTRONIC LEFT 115/200V 400Hz AC BUSBAR RIGHT 115/200V 400Hz AC BUSBAR ELECTRONIC
CONVERTER CONVERTER

LEFT 28V 400Hz AC BUSBAR RIGHT 28V 400Hz AC BUSBAR


From Right
28V AC
RECTIFIER busbar
BATTERY TRU TRU TRU
UNIT

BATTERY BUSBAR LEFT 28V DC BUSBAR RIGHT 28V DC BUSBAR


SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Distribution System

• Split bus system (frequency wild) – buses


powered by separate engines are not linked
i.e. they do not have to be synchronised

• Parallel bus system (fixed frequency) – buses


can be supplied from either engine - improves
reliability

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SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Distribution System

Contactors Vs Circuit Breakers


……………don’t get them muddled up!
Contactors: -
• Electrical switch (= relay)
• May have other functions, e.g. reverse-current contactors, current-limiting
contactors
• Changeover contactors – switching between two different circuits
28V DC

Electro-magnet
AC circuits
115/200V
Schematic circuit
400Hz
diagram of a relay.

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SYSTEM COMPONENTS – Distribution System

CIRCUIT PROTECTION
• Required to protect
circuits from too much
current – fire risk
• Circuit breaker (not
contact breaker) = fuse
• Normally collected
onto breaker panels
• Can be manually
disconnected (pulled)

15
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS

16
GENERATION OF AN AC SIGNAL
Fundamental principle upon which
electrical generation is based: -
An electron experiences a force
when it passes through a magnetic
field. That force is called the
Electromotive Force and is usually
denoted by “E”.

E = Blv
Where: -
B = the strength of the magnetic
field
l = the length of the wire
v = the velocity of the wire
GENERATION OF AN AC SIGNAL
Variation of Induced Current in a Wire Rotating in a Magnetic Field
VOLTAGE

TIME
OPERATION OF A DC GENERATOR

Commutator
OPERATION OF A DC GENERATOR
Variation of Induced Current via a Commutator in a Wire Rotating in a
Magnetic Field
Red and green dots included to show position of rotor.
VOLTAGE

TIME
DC Power Generation
• Voltage limits +/-10%
• Generator produces AC internally
• Commutator rectifies the voltage
“Rippled” DC Current
Voltage

Zero 90° 180° 270° 360°


¼ ½ ¾ One Revolution
AC Generation
• Circuits can be more complex than DC
• 400Hz, 115V/200V three-phase
• Voltage (amplitude) varies continuously
with time Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

115
Voltage

Time (ms)
0

1.25 2.5

-115
AC Generation
The power derived in an AC circuit IS NOT
V(peak) x I(peak)
……………………………Why???

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

115
Voltage

Time (ms)
0

1.25 2.5

-115
EXERCISE TO FIND THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF A SIGNAL
A voltage signal is given by the data in the table below. Process the data
to find the Root Mean Square (RMS) value of the signal by following these
steps: -
1. Plot the signal data on the graph.
Time Signal Signal^2 2. Calculate the square of each of the signal values and plot this data on
0 0.0000
the graph.
2 0.7654
4 1.4142
3. Calculate the mean of all the squared values and draw a line on the
6 1.8477 graph representing this value.
8 2.0000 4. Now calculate the square root of the mean value you got from step 3
10 1.8478 and put this value on the graph.
12 1.4143
5.0000
14 0.7654
16 0.0001 4.0000
18 -0.7653 3.0000
Voltage Signal (Volts)

20 -1.4141
22 -1.8477 2.0000

24 -2.0000 1.0000
26 -1.8478
0.0000
28 -1.4143
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
30 -0.7655 -1.0000
32 -0.0002
-2.0000
Mean:
Square Root of -3.0000
Time (milliseconds)
Mean:
EXERCISE TO FIND THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF A SIGNAL
Basic Signal Signal^2 Mean of Squares RMS

Time Signal Signal^2 5.0000


0 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.7654 0.5858
4.0000
4 1.4142 2.0000
6 1.8477 3.4142
8 2.0000 4.0000 3.0000
10 1.8478 3.4143
12 1.4143 2.0001
2.0000
14 0.7654 0.5859
16 0.0001 0.0000
18 -0.7653 0.5856 1.0000
20 -1.4141 1.9998
22 -1.8477 3.4140
0.0000
24 -2.0000 4.0000 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
26 -1.8478 3.4144
28 -1.4143 2.0003 -1.0000
30 -0.7655 0.5860
32 -0.0002 0.0000
-2.0000
Mean: 1.8824
Square Root of
Mean: 1.3720 -3.0000
EXERCISE TO FIND THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF A SIGNAL
Basic Signal Signal^2 Mean of Squares RMS True RMS

5.0000
Time Signal Signal^2
0 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.7654 0.5858 4.0000
4 1.4142 2.0000
6 1.8477 3.4142 3.0000
8 2.0000 4.0000
10 1.8478 3.4143 2.0000
12 1.4143 2.0001
14 0.7654 0.5859
1.0000
16 0.0001 0.0000
18 -0.7653 0.5856
0.0000
20 -1.4141 1.9998 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
22 -1.8477 3.4140
24 -2.0000 4.0000 -1.0000
26 -1.8478 3.4144
28 -1.4143 2.0003 -2.0000
30 -0.7655 0.5860
32 -0.0002 0.0000 -3.0000
Mean: 1.8824
Square Root of
Root Mean Peak Value
Mean: 1.3720 Squared value of =
a signal √2
AC Generation
True (Real) Power Vs. Reactive Power
True (Real) Power = I2 x R where R = resistance
The power is dissipated as heat in the resistive
component.
True power is measured in Watts (symbol W)
N.B Power (W) is NOT equal to peak volts x peak amps

Reactive Power = I2 x X where X = reactance of circuit


The power is used in the creation of magnetic fields
around the reactive components (zero heat)
Reactive power is measured in VAR (volts-amps-reactive)
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AC Generation
Reactive Power Vs. True (Real) Power
The two types of power are
related by the “power triangle”

REACTIVE POWER (kVAR)


(i.e. mathematically we can
consider them as the “real” and
imaginary parts of a complex
number).

The power triangle gives us the


POWER FACTOR of the circuit: ∅
Real power = cos Φ x Apparent Power REAL POWER (kW)

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Why are 2 voltages quoted for aircraft AC supplies?

The electrical supply is provided by an AC


generator. In a large commercial aircraft
like an Airbus A330, the main generator
is mounted in the engine compartment.
The photo on the right shows the
generator mounted on the engine in the
darker coloured housing. The cables with
the electrical supply are clearly visible
coming from the generator: there are 3
cables and one earth connection.
Image source: Tooley
Why are 2 voltages quoted for aircraft AC supplies?
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝𝑘 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 120°)
Loads can be supplied either by one phase
or two, (or three).

LOAD
Single phase voltage = 115VAC

Two phase voltage = 115{cos(30)-cos(150)}


= 115 x { 3 - (- 3)}/2 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝𝑘 sin(𝜔𝑡)
= 115 x {2 x 3}/2
= 115 x 3 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝𝑘 sin(𝜔𝑡)

= 200VAC
Line-To-
Ground

LOAD
Voltage
Where would you place these
electrical loads?

APU Constant 1. Flight controls – required to


speed engine

be powered from any


Engine
1
GEARBOX

Direct Drive
Engine
2 source.
120kVA
24,000rpm
GEARBOX GEARBOX
Backup
alternator 25kVA IDG 120kVA IDG 120kVA
Backup 2. Flight instruments –
alternator 25kVA
14-28,000rpm 24,000rpm 24,000rpm
14-28,000rpm
required to be powered by
ELECTRONIC
ELECTRONIC
CONVERTER
LEFT 115/200V 400Hz AC BUSBAR RIGHT 115/200V 400Hz AC BUSBAR
CONVERTER all but back-up generators
LEFT 28V 400Hz AC BUSBAR RIGHT 28V 400Hz AC BUSBAR
From Right A
RECTIFIER
BATTERY TRU
28V AC
busbar
TRU B TRU
3. Important supplies: -
UNIT
• Fuel booster pumps,
BATTERY BUSBAR LEFT 28V DC BUSBAR RIGHT 28V DC BUSBAR
• cabin temperature
controls,
C D • pilots window heat.

4. Non-essential services:
lavatory water heaters,
galleys (automatically shed
if 1 engine fails.)
Swiss Air Flight 111 (MD11 Sept 1998)
Very basic summary of incident: -
1. Crew noticed smell of fire in cockpit
2. Warned ATC but thought had time to land
3. They implemented emergency procedures which made the
problem worse
4. Fire quickly escalated and pilots lost control of aircraft

Various factors cited in investigation, but


initial cause was Swiss Air modification to
put IFE on cockpit electrical bus. Drew too
much power. Couldn’t be switched out.
“MORE ELECTRIC / ALL
ELECTRIC” ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS

33
“ALL-ELECTRIC” AND “MORE ELECTRIC” AIRCRAFT
“All Electric” Aircraft
The aircraft is propelled by engines powered by electricity
alone.

“More Electric” Aircraft


The non-propulsive systems previously driven by hydraulic and
pneumatics are replaced by electrically powered systems.

EasyJet announced concept airliner to


accommodate 180-seater driven by motor
powered propellers. 300nm range.
LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES
• Highest specific energy of
other current batteries
• Popular with RC aircraft
• Electrons move between 2
lithium plates
• No “memory effect” i.e. can be
charged to maximum voltage
over lifetime if handled
correctly
• Discharged to 80% (deep cycle)
• Overcharging or
overdischarging can be fire
hazard – requires electronic
regulation of lifecycle
Electrically Driven Actuators : EMA versus EHA MPD = Multi-
Phase Driver
Conventional hydraulic systems supplied
with hydraulic fluid from centralised
source.

“More Electric” solutions “fly-by-wire”


pioneered by Airbus on A380.
• Electrical signals transmitted to local
hydraulic source.
• Requires local small reservoir and
filter (not shown)
• Increases maintenance
• Reduces overall weight of system
• Reliability maintained

“All Electric” solution (jamming/sticking)


SUMMARY
• Real (Effective) power (kW) = actual power dissipated as
heat in the resistive component
• Apparent power (kVA) = voltage(rms) x current(rms)
• Power factor = Real power (kW)/Apparent power (kVA)
• PF < 1
• When supplying large loads from 3-phase system, can use 2
of the 3 phases together - 3 × 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• An aircraft AC supply is quoted as 115/200V 400Hz where
115 x 3 = 200.
• Electrical supplies seen as “greener” - becoming more
important

37
QUESTIONS

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