Joining of Materials

1. Introduction

Joining such as welding is important for the following reasons:

- Many parts are impossible to manufacture as a single piece.

- The product is easier and more economical to manufacture individual

component, which are then assembled.

- Different properties may be required for the functional purposes of the

product.

- Transporting the product as individual components and then

assembling may be easier and less costly.

The choice of particular welding process depends on several factors

such as its application, joint design, the material involved, dimension and
the shape.

2. The oxyacetylene welding process

Referred as gas welding (oxyacetylene process). This process depends

on the combustion of oxygen and acetylene. When mixed together in
correct proportions within a hand-held torch, a relatively hot flame is
produced with a temperature about 3200 °c.

The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by

changing the ratio of oxygen to acetylene.

Chemical reactions stages:

The primary combustion process occurs in the case of the flame is:

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat 1

This primary combustion produces about one-third of the total heat
generated in the flame.

The second stage of the chemical reaction

2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat 2

This second stage uses oxygen from air and produces about two-third of
the total flame.

The mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used as it is the only gas

combination with enough heat to weld steel.

Other gases such as propane, hydrogen and coal gas can be used for
joining lower melting point non-ferrous metals and for brazing and silver
soldering.

Filler metal is used in oxyacetylene welding. Filler metals are made of

metal compatible with those to be weld.

Oxyacetylene welding equipment

Backhand (rightward) welding Forehand (leftward) welding

Principle of oxyacetylene welding process

Types of oxyacetylene flames

 Temperature distribution on the oxyacetylene flame

Equipment:

Oxyacetylene equipment is portable and easy to use. It comprises

oxygen (at pressure 150 bar) and acetylene gas (stored under pressure
15 bar) steel cylinders.

The cylinders are fitted with regulators and flexible hoses which lead to
welding torch.

Operating characteristics:

The principle technique is leftward and rightward. The rightward

technique finds application on plate thickness above 3 mm, while
leftward technique is applied up to 3 mm thickness.

Distribution of temperature from torch shows that the maximum

temperature (3200°c) is obtained 3-4 mm from the beginning of the
torch.
3. Arc welding

The basic arc-welding circuit is an AC or DC power source connected by

a work cable to the workpiece and by a "hot" cable to an electrode
holder which contact with the welding electrode.

The arc produces a temperature of about 3500 ºC at the tip. This heat
melts both the base metal and the electrode end, producing a pool of
molten metal sometimes called a "crater." The crater solidifies behind
the electrode as it is moved along the joint.

When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air, the strength
and toughness of the weld joint are decreased. Therefore, a protective
shield of gas or slag should be created. This is called arc shielding.

Arc welding equipment and principle

3.1 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding:

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) is an arc welding process that uses a non-
consumable tungsten electrode and an externally supplied inert gas
required for arc shielding. Tungsten is a good electrode material due to
its high melting point temperature. The filler metal is supplied from an
outer filler wire because the tungsten electrode is not consumed.
Selection of gases (and mixtures of gases) depends on the metal being
welded. Inert gases such as argon and helium are used for welding
aluminum alloys and stainless steels, while CO2 is commonly used for
welding low and medium carbon steels.

3.2 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding:

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding

In Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding, a consumable bare wire is fed
continuously and automatically from a spool through a nozzle into the
welding by a wire feed drive motor. The welding area is shielded by an
effective atmosphere as argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or various other
gas mixtures.

MIG process is suitable for welding most ferrous and non-ferrous metals
and is used extensively in the metal-fabrication industry.

Advantages of TIG and MIG welding:

1- No flux* is required
2- High welding speed
3- Increased corrosion resistance
4- Welding can be automated
5- Welds all metals
6- Protected molten weld pool from oxygen

* A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and other

unwanted contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.

3.3 Submerged arc welding process (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

In submerged arc welding (SAW), a continuous, consumable bare

electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc and the weld
arc is shielded by a cover of granular flux. The flux is fed into the weld
zone from a hopper by gravity through a nozzle.

The blanket of granular flux completely covers the molten metal. The
portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted, mixing with the molten
weld metal to remove impurities and then solidifying on top of the weld
joint to form a slag. The unfused flux remaining after welding can be
recovered (using vacuum system) and reused.

This process is automated and is used to weld a variety of carbon and

stainless steel sheets, plates, large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels. Because of the gravity feed of the granular flux, the parts must
always be in a horizontal orientation.

Advantages of submerged arc welding

1- Clean weld
2- High welding speed
3- Automatic process
4- High quality weld

Disadvantages of submerged arc welding

1- Tilted work-piece more than 5° is not suitable
2- Used only for straight welding

Types of Joints
There are five basic types of joints for bringing two parts together for joining.

(a) Butt joint (b) Corner joint (c) Lap joint (d) Tee joint (e) Edge joint
3.4 Solid state welding (resistance welding)

Resistance welding covers a number of processes in which the heat

required for welding is produced by means of the electrical resistance
between the two members to be joined. These processes have major
advantages, such as not required consumable electrodes, shield of
gases, or flux.

The heat generated in resistance welding is given by the general

expression

H = I2 x R x t
Where:

H . . . . . . Heat generated in Joules (Watt . seconds)

I . . . . . . . current in Amperes

R . . . . . . Resistance in Ohms

t . . . . . . .Time of current flow in seconds

3.4.1 Types of resistance welding

There are four basic methods of resistance welding, which are spot,
seam, projectile and flash welding. Lap joints are used in the first three
processes and the butt joint is used in the last two. Only spot and seam
welding processes are considered here.

3.4.1.1 Resistance spot welding

Parameters of
spot welding
In this process overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or
more spots, by the concentration of current flowing between two
electrodes. It is the most widely used resistance welding process.

The main parts of spot-welding machine

The resistance spot welding machine essentially consists of two

electrodes, one of which is fixed. The other electrode is fitted to a rocker
arm (to provide a mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical
force from a pneumatic cylinder.

In spot welding, a satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current

density is maintained. The current density depends on the contact area
between the electrode and the work-piece. With the continuous use, the
tip becomes upset and the contact area increases, the current density
will be lowered and consequently it would not be able to melt the metal,
and hence there would be proper fusion.

A resistance welding schedule is the sequence of events that normally

takes place in each of welding cycle.
The steps in a spot welding cycle are:

(a) Steps in a spot-welding cycle,

(b) Plot of squeezing force and current during cycle.

The sequence is:
(1) Parts inserted between open electrodes,
(2) Electrodes close and force is applied,
(3) Weld time-current is switched on,
(4) Current is turned off but force is maintained or increased,
(5) Electrodes are opened, and the welded assembly is removed.

It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, aircraft industries

and other products made of sheet metal. This process is used to join
sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm or less. Many assemblies of two or
more sheet metal stampings that do not require gas tight or liquid tight
joints can be more economically joined by spot welding than by
mechanical methods.
3.4.1.2 Resistance seam welding

Principle of resistance seam welding process

In resistance seam welding, the electrodes in spot welding are replaced

by rotating wheels, and a series of overlapping spot welds are made
along the lap joint. This process is capable of producing air-tight joints,
and its industrial applications include the production of various fabricated
sheet metal containers.

3.5 Brazing and soldering

Brazing and soldering are two joining processes similar to welding in

certain respects. They use filler metals to join and bond two (or more)
metal parts to provide a permanent joint.

3.5.1 Brazing
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is placed on the
surfaces to be joined (or at their periphery) and the temperature is raised
sufficiently to melt the filler metal (but not the components – base
metals).

Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal, a strong joint is

obtained. The filler metals used for brazing typically melt above 450 °C,
which is below the melting point of the base metal to be joined.
The use of the flux is essential in brazing in order to prevent oxidation
and then remove oxide films from work-piece surface.

The materials used in brazing filler rod

Metals are typically alloys such as:
a- Brazing brass (60% cu , 40% zn)
b- Manganese bronze
c- Nickel silver
d- Copper silicon
e- Silver alloys
f- Copper phosphorous

Brazing methods:

There are various methods used in brazing. Referred to as brazing

processes, they are differentiated by their heating sources. The heating
methods used in brazing are: Torch brazing, Furnace brazing, Induction
brazing, or resistance brazing.

Torch brazing

Basic steps in brazing:

(1) Good fit and proper clearance: during brazing operation, take care
to maintain a clearance between the base metals to allow flowing
the molten filler metal throughout the entire interface by the
capillary action.

(2) Cleaning the metals: capillary action will work properly only when
the surfaces of the metals are clean from oil, grease, rust or scale.
 (3) Fluxing the parts: flux on the joint area will shield the surface from
the air, preventing oxide formation. Also dissolve and absorb any
oxides that form during heating.

(4) Assembly for brazing: to hold them in position for brazing so that
capillary action can do its job. The simplest way to hold parts is by
gravity.

(5) Brazing the assembly: heating to brazing temperature, and flowing

the filler metal through the joint.

(6) Cleaning the brazed joint: cleaning is usually a two-step operation.

First, remove the flux residues. Second, remove any oxide scale
formed during the brazing process.

3.5.2 Soldering

Soldering has the same definition as brazing except for the fact that the
filler metal (solder) used has a melting temperature below 450 °C.
Soldering and brazing involve melting a filler material that flow into a
narrow gap and solidify. The base materials should not be melt.

Soldering is considered a simple and fast mean for joining sheet metals
and electrical connections. It is suitable for gaps from 0.03 – 0.2 mm and
an appropriate flux must be applied to the faying surfaces. Surfaces
must be sanded and cleaned to ensure closely fitting parts.

Advantages of soldering

(1) Low energy input relative to brazing and fusion welding

(2) Variety of heating methods
(3) Good electrical and thermal conductivity in the joint
(4) Capability to make air-tight and liquid-tight seams for containers
(5) Easy to repair and rework

Disadvantages of soldering:

(1) Low joint strength unless reinforced by mechanical means

(2) Possible weakening or melting of the joint in elevated temperature
service.
The materials used in filler metal (solder)
Solder is often an alloy combination of two of tin, lead, silver, zinc or
antimony

Mechanical interlocking in soldered joints for increased strength:

(a) Flat lock seam; (b) Bolted or riveted joint; (c) Copper pipe fittings-lap
cylindrical joint; (d) crimping (forming) of cylindrical lap joint.

Soldering methods:

Many of the methods used in soldering are the same as those used in
brazing, except that less heat and lower temperatures are required for
soldering.

The main difference between brazing and soldering

Brazing is done at higher temperature with oxyacetylene or gas torches.

These bonds tend to be with higher strength and can be used for
mechanical parts.

Soldering is done at lower temperature, either with propane torch, or an

electric heater. It is intended for bonds with less required strength such
as electrical and plumbing applications.
 Questions

1. Show with drawing the principle of oxyacetylene welding process?

2. For oxyacetylene (gas) welding:

(a) Write down the equations of chemical reactions for heat
generation.
(b) Identify the main parts of welding equipment
(c) Explain with drawing the main types of flames

3. Explain using drawing the principles of arc welding.

4. Explain using drawing the principles of tungsten inert gas (TIG)

welding.

5. Explain using drawing the principles of metal inert gas (MIG)

welding.

6. Explain using drawing the principles of submerged arc welding

(SAW).

7. Show with drawing the main types of welded joints.

8. What are the steps in a spot welding cycle? Show it with drawing.

9. Explain using drawing the principle of resistance seam welding

process.

10. What are the basic steps in brazing process?

11. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of soldering

process?

12. Explain the main difference between brazing and soldering

processes.