UNIT 1: Welding

gas/flame welding
Gas welding is the process in which a gas flame is used to raise the temperature of the
metals to be joined. The metals are heated up to melting. The flame has a temperature of
about 3200oC. The metal flows and on cooling it solidifies. A filler metal may be added
to the flowing molten metal to fill up cavity made during the end preparation. The
most common gas welding technique is called oxy-acetylene welding; which uses a
mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas. The acetylene gas is supplied in either a high
(pure acetylene) or low (a production of reaction of calcium carbide and water) pressure
system.

The acetylene cylinder and horse are coloured maroon while the oxygen cylinder and
horse are coloured black and blue respectively. The flow of the burning gas in the torch
is regulated by use of pressure regulators and the needle valves. Depending on the ratio
of the burning gases three flames can be produced:
a. Carburising Flame: The volume of acetylene higher than that of oxygen. This
flame is used for welding nickel, monel, high carbon steels and hard facing.
b. Neutral Flame: Oxygen and acetylene gases are mixed in equal volumes. Neutral
flame is used for normal welding of steel, cast iron etc.
c. Oxidizing Flame: When the volume of oxygen gas is more than the volume of
acetylene mixed into the torch. This flame is used for welding brass and is also
used for cutting the metals.

Filler rod provides additional metal in completing the weld. Its composition should be
the same as that of the work pieces being welded.
40o-50o

Flux contains the chemicals which deoxidize the metal surface and provide inert
atmosphere around the molten metal. It removes and prevents formation of oxides on
the hot surfaces and reduces viscosity of the molten metal. Fluxes are available as
liquid, powder, paste and gas. Powder flux is sprinkled on the surfaces to be welded or
the filler rod is dipped into the powder. Liquid & paste fluxes are sprayed on the
surfaces to be welded. Gas fluxes are used to form inert atmosphere around the joint to
be welded
There are two types of gas welding techniques:
a. Left ward welding: Here the torch tip is held at 60 to 70°C to the plates whilethe
filler rod is inclined at 30 to 40°C in opposite direction. In this method, the plate
edges are heated immediately after the molten metal. The torch tip and filler rod
are moved slowly in the direction towards left.
b. Right Ward Welding: In right ward welding the torch is kept at 40 to 50°C to the
job to be welded. Torch is moved towards right. Right ward welding is done for
heavy sections only.
Oxy-acetylene welding is particularly used for sheet metal work. However, most
metals can be welded with proper filler metals. Same equipment may be used for
cutting purposes.
Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Welding include:
 Equipment is cheap as compared to other welding process.
 It can be used for welding most metals.
 Maintenance of equipment is very less.
 It is a portable process.
  It can be used for cutting of metals of small thickness. 6. It is specially used
for sheet metal work. (e)
Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Welding include:
 It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding.
 The heat affected area is more.
 The joint is prone to corrosion and brittleness.
 Gases are expensive and dangerous to store.
ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded manual metal arc welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding
(MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding or informally as stick welding, is a
manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay
the weld.

An electric current, in form of either alternating current or direct current from a

welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the
metals to be joined. The workpiece and the electrode melts forming a pool of molten
metal (weld pool) that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the
electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a
layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece by
a very light touch of the electrode to the base metal. The electrode is then pulled back
slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable
electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the
weld pool.
The flux melts together with the electrode metallic core, forming a gas and latter slag
which shield the arc and the weld pool respectively. The flux cleans the metal surface,
supplies some alloying elements to the weld, protects the molten metal from oxidation
and stabilizes the arc. The slag is removed after Solidification.

Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

 Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
 Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
 Suitable for outdoor applications.
Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
 The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
 Weld may contain slag inclusions;
 Fumes make difficult the process control.

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding utilizes a bare consumable metallic electrode producing an
arc between itself and the work piece within a granular shielding flux applied around
the weld. The arc heats and melts both the work piece edges and the electrode wire. The
molten electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the welded pieces, fills the weld
pool and joins the work pieces. Since the electrode is submerged into the flux, the arc is
invisible.  The flux melts partially to form a slag that protects the weld pool from
oxidation and other atmospheric contaminations.
Advantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):
– Very high welding rate;
– The process is suitable for automation;
– High quality weld structure.
Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):
– Weld may contain slag inclusions;
– Limited applications of the process - mostly for welding horizontally located
plates.

Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding is a welding process, in which heat is generated by
an electric arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and the work piece.

Process
– The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium, Nitrogen)
protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contamination.
– The heat produced by the arc melts the work piece edges which join upon
cooling
– Filler rod may be used, if required. Flux is not used in the process.
– Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of
metals.
Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG):
 Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;
 High quality weld structure
  Slag removal is not required (no slag);
 Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat
in small zone.
Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG):
 Low welding rate;
 Relatively expensive;
 Requires high level of operator’s skill

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG) or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Principle
Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is an arc welding process, in
which the weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or
other gas mixtures).
Process
 Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to that of the
parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone.
 The arc heats and melts both the work piece edges and the electrode wire.
 The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills
the weld pool and forms joint.
 Due to automatic feeding of the filler wire (electrode) the process is referred to
as a semiautomatic.
 The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.
Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG):
 Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions)
 High level of operator’s skill is not required;
 Slag removal is not required (no slag);
Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG):
 Expensive and non-portable equipment is required;
 Outdoor applications are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the
shielding gas.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat generated by a constricted
arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and either the work piece
(transferred arc process) or water cooled constricting nozzle (non-transferred arc
process).
Plasma (ionized gas) is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and neutral gas
molecules. The gas can be argon or helium. Transferred arc process produces plasma jet
of high energy density and may be used for high speed welding and cutting of
Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys.

Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low energy density. It is

used for welding of various metals and for plasma spraying (coating). Since the work
piece in non-transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of electric circuit, the plasma
arc torch may move from one work piece to other without extinguishing the arc.

Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding:

 Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to misalignments;
 High welding rate;
 High penetrating capability (keyhole effect);
Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding:
 Expensive equipment;
 High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input; 33,000oC (in
transferred arc process).

RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESSES

Resistance welding processes include Spot welding, Seam welding, Projection

welding, Resistance Butt welding, Flash Butt welding, Percussion welding and High
frequency resistance welding processes
Resistance welding is a thermo-electric process in which heat is generated at the
interface of the parts to be joined by passing an electrical current through the parts for a
precisely controlled time and under a controlled pressure (force). The name “resistance”
welding derives from the fact that the resistance of the work piece and electrodes are
used in combination or contrast to generate heat at their interface.

Spot welding
It is one type of electrical resistance welding processes. Spot welding is used for
welding lap joints on metal sheets ranging from 0.025 mm to 1.25 mm. The work pieces
are assembled and placed between two copper electrodes under pressure and then
switching on the current. The parts are heated at their area of contact by electrical
resistance for a set duration of time. Pressure is removed once the joint cools.
Process
The electrodes are made a material with high electrical, high thermal conductivity
and they retain strength at high temperature. So, they are made of pure copper for a
limited amount of service. Alloys of copper or tungsten or molybdenum alloys give
extended service life.
The electrode pressure can be in the range of up to 2 kN. Electrodes are cooled by
water during the operation to prevent overheating. Electrodes seated in a weld head are
brought to the surface of the parts to be joined and force (pressure) is applied
Current is applied through the electrodes to the workpiece to melt the material.
Current is switched while electrodes remain under pressure to allow the material to
cool and solidify.
Advantages:
1. Spot welding is quick and easy.
2. There is no need to use any fluxes or filler metal to create a joint by spot welding
and there is no dangerous open flame.
3. Spot welding can be performed without any special skill.
4. Automated machines can spot weld in factories to speed up production.
5. The rate of production is high.
6. Spot welding can be used to join many different metals and it can join different
types to each other.
7.Sheets as thin as 1/4 inch can be spot welded and multiple sheets may be joined
together simultaneously.
8. The procedure involves less amount maintenance cost.
9. Ability of the worker does not influence the quality of spot welds obtained by this
procedure
10. The process is usually free from burn and splash.
11. Spot welding is more economical.
12. No edge preparation is required.
13. Small heat affected zone is produced.
14. It eliminates warping and distortion of parts.
Limitations:
1. It can create only localized joins which may not be particularly strong.
2. The electrodes have to be able to reach both sides of the pieces of metal that being
joined together.
3. Warping and a loss of fatigue strength can occur around the point where the metal
has been spot welded.
4. It is suitable for thin sheets only
5. Equipment used in spot welding is costly.
Applications:
1. Is used in joining killed carbon steel, low alloy steel, high alloy steel,etc.
2. It is frequently used in the creation of auto body components with a robot moving
the spot welding device about the stationary auto frame. Typical car body has
about 10,000 spot welds.
 3. It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances, metal furniture
and other products made of sheet metal.
4. It is used in manufacture of sheet metal goods.
5. It is used in assembling sheet metal to steel structures
6, It is used in making cookware and muffler.
7. Other applications include appliances and metal furniture i.e. virtually anything
involving the joining of sheet metal.

Seam Welding or Resistance Seam Welding (RSW)

Principle
Seam welding is a variation of resistance spot welding where by the electrodes are
replaced by rotating wheels. The motor driven wheels produce a rolling resistance weld
or non-hermetic seam weld. A continuous joint is produced between two overlapping
pieces of sheet metal.

Process
In seam welding, overlapping sheets are gripped between two wheels or roller disc
electrodes and current is passed to obtain either the continuous seam overlapping weld
nuggets or intermittent seam having equally spaced weld nuggets.
Welding current may be continuous or in pulse form. The electrically conducting
rollers produce spot weld when the current reaches a high Value.
The workpiece is placed between the two rotating wheel electrodes. When electric
current is passed through electrodes high heat is produced on the workpiece between
wheels. At the same time, the pressure is applied to complete the weld. The workpiece
continuously moved in between the wheels. A leak proof continuous seam is achieved
by supplying coolant to the electrodes.
Resistance seam welding can be inappropriate where sharp corners are required in
the seam.
The following four types of resistance seam welding are possible.
(a) Conventional resistance seam-welding
(b) Overlapping spot seam weld
(e) Roll spot welds
(d) Mash-seam welding.
Advantages
1. Gas tight as well as liquid tight joint has been made.
2. The overlap is less than spot or projection welding.
3. The production of single seam weld and parallel seams can be got
simultaneously
4. This method is efficient energy use.
5. Filler materials are not required and hence, there are no associated gases and
fumes.
6. It produces clean welds.
Limitations:
1. The welding process is restricted to a straight line or uniformly curved line.
2. The metals sheets having thickness more than 3mm can cause problems while
welding
3. The design of the electrodes may be needed to change to weld metal sheets
having obstructions.
4. It requires complex control system to regulate the travel speed of electrodes as
well as the sequence of current to provide satisfactorily overlapping welds.
The welding speed, spots per inch and timing schedule are all dependent on
each other
5. Relatively higher current is thus required for seam welding than for spot
welding.
6. The workpieces to be welded should overlap sufficiently to prevent metal
flowing out from the edges of the pieces during welding under pressure
Applications:
1. It is used to make tin cans, leak proof tanks, automobile mufflers, gasoline
tanks drums, mediators, household utensils, transformers, refrigerators,
evaporators and condensers, automobile bodies to. It is also used for welding
thin sheet.
2 Circumference weld is possible in rectangular or square or even in circular
shapes.
3. Most of the metals can be welded.
4. Butt welding can be done for producing seam welded pipes and tubes.

Projection Welding
Principle
Projection welding is an electric resistance welding process that uses small
projections, embossments or intersections on one or both components of the weld to
localize the heat and pressure.
Procedure
Projection welding is one kind of resistance welding which is developed from spot
welding. In this type of welding, a series of spots are welded at a time. The metal pieces
to be welded are placed between two metal arms which act as electrodes. One
workpiece has projections on its surface while the other one is plain. The workpieces
are clamped between arms. When AC power is supplied, the welding current
passes through these projections. The heat is produced at the contact point of the base
metal because of high electrical resistance. Now, the workpieces are pressed together by
bringing down the upper electrode. The projections are flattened under pressure and
the two pieces are joined together by a strong weld at all points of contact.

The surface at the projection must be clean before welding. There should not be any
scale, dirt and grease on the surface. A dirty surface will reduce the resistance to the
current flow. So, the joint will be weaker.
Projection welding is used for joining thin sheet metals of thickness up to 3 mm. It is
used in automobile industries. A wire or rod may be easily welded on its length on a
flat surface. This welding process is used in mass production.
Advantages:
1. More than one weld can be made simultaneously.
2. It can weld metals of thickness which is not suitable for spot welding.
3. Projection welding electrodes have a longer life when compared to spot welding
electrodes because the projection welding electrodes have to withstand less wear
and less heating
4. Resistance projection Welding is not limited to sheet to sheet joints.
5. Projection welding can be done at specific points which are desired to be welded.
6. In difficult welding work, projection welding gives a better heat balance.
7. Projection welding saves electricity because it needs less current to produce heat.
So. it reduces the shrinkage and distortion detects.
8. Heat treated parts can be easily welded without affecting the heat treatment.
9. Parts with different thermal conductivities and mass can also be welded.
10. Welds can be varied without producing flash or upset at the joint.
11. Welding current and pressure required is less.
12. It is more suitable for automation
 13. Filler metals are not used. Therefore, clean weld joints are produced.
Limitations:
1. All types of metals cannot be welded using projection method. Metal thickness
and composition are the challengeable task.
2. Projections cannot be made in thin workpieces.
3. All the metals are not strong enough to support the projections. Some brasses
and coppers cannot be welded satisfactorily using projection welding,
4. There is an extra operation required called forming of projection.
5. Projections need to have same heights for an appropriate welding.
6. The area which is less than 650 n cannot be welded by projection welding
process
7. Projections cannot be made in thin workpieces.
8 Thin workpieces cannot withstand the electrode pressure.
9. Equipment is costly.
Applications:
1. It is used to make press-tools.
2. This process is more suitable for cross welding of a number of wires or rods
which is commonly used to make wire fencing, shopping carts and stove grills.
3. Projection welding is mainly used in automobile sector.
4. Fasteners can be welded to surfaces when the fastener has machined or formed
projections on its head.
5. It is used in reintegration works such as condensers, gratings, racks etc.

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Electron Beam Welding is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high velocity
electrons is used for producing high temperatures and melting the workpiece to be
welded. The electrons strike the workpiece and their kinetic energy is converted into
thermal energy by releasing heat which is used to heat the metal so that the edges of
workpiece are fused and joined together forming a weld.
If a filament of tungsten or tantalum is heated to high temperature in a vacuum
either directly by means of an electric current or indirectly by means of an adjacent
heater, a great Number of electrons are given off from the filament. The electrons carry
a negative charge which is passed through the anode hole. The greater is the filament
current, the higher will be the temperature and greater will be the electron emission. If
a metal disc with a central hole is placed near the filament and charged to a high
positive potential relative to the filament, the emitted electrons are attracted to the disc
because of their kinetic energy pass through the hole as a divergent beam.
So, the filament is the cathode and the disc is the anode. The electron beam is
focused by the focusing lens. The focus is done electrostatically or magnetically by
means of coils situated adjacent to the beam and through which a current is passed.
The beam is now convergent and it can be spot focused.
The basic arrangement of an electron ‘gun' is done which is similar to television tubes
 and electron microscopes. When the focused electron beam strikes the workpiece, the
kinetic energy of this electron beam is converted into heat energy. The heat energy is
used to weld the metals. The kinetic energy of an electron E=mv2, where m is the mass
of an electron (9.1 x 10 8), V is the velocity.

The electron mass m is small but increasing the emission from the filament by raising
the filament current increases the number of electrons and hence, it produces the mass
effect because the kinetic energy varies directly as the square of the velocity,
accelerating the electrons up to velocities comparable with the velocity of light by
using anode voltages (up to 200KV), greatly increases the beam energy.
The smaller the spot into which the beam is focused greater will be the energy
density. So, it is possible to weld holes. The beams are focused about 0.25 mm to 1 mm
diameter and the power density is of 10 kW/mm. Aluminium material has focusing
length of about 40mm and steel has about 30 mm.
Accelerating voltage is in the range of 20-200 kV and welding current is about a few
milli amperes. As the accelerating voltage is increased, the intensity of X-rays emitted
from anode increases. Focusing coils can concentrate the beam on a spot of a few
microns in diameter. With this concentrated spot, there is a threshold voltage angle
which the beam penetrates the metal and when the work is traversed-relative to the
beam.
When the beam strikes a metal surface X-rays are generated, adequate precautions
must be taken for screening personnel from rays.
 If the beam emerges into the atmosphere, energy is reduced by collision of electrons
with atmospheric molecules and focus is impaired. Hence the operation is carried out in
vacuum. The vacuum may be created either in the gun chamber or in a separate steel
component chamber fixed to the gun chamber. Welding in non-vacuum atmospheric
conditions requires much greater power than the vacuum method because of the effects
of the atmosphere on the beam and greater distance from gun to work. A shielding gas
may be required around the weld area.
Welds made with this process on thicker sections are narrow with deep
penetration with minimum thermal disturbance.
At present, welds are performed in titanium, niobium, tungsten, tantalum,
beryllium, nickel alloys (eg. nimonic), Inconel, aluminium alloys and magnesium,
mostly in the air and space research industries.
The variables which are controlled in the electron beam welding include voltage,
speed and distance between the beam gun and workpiece.
Advantages
1. High quality weld is produced.
2. Deep and narrow weld is possible.
3. Clean and bright weld can be obtained.
4. High speed operation can be achieved.
5. Dimensional accuracy is good.
6. Energy loss is very less.
7. Very small part can be welded.
8. There is no need of using electrodes and filler metal.
9. It has limited heat affected zone and low thermal distortion.
10. Accurate control over welding conditions is possible by control of electron
emission and beam focus
11. No flux or shielding gases is needed.
12. Because of the vacuum conditions, it is possible to weld more reactive metal
successfully
13. This type of Weld is more suitable for welding dissimilar materials.
14. Tight continuous weld can be produced.
Limitations:
1. The welding cost is high.
2. Skilled persons are required.
3. It is limited to small size welding.
4. Welding should be carried out in vacuum seal only
5. It is a time consuming process.
6. The weld suffers from contamination if it is performed in atmospheric condition
7. Precise joint preparation and alignment are required.
8. X-ray irradiation occurs.
9. As EBW generates X-rays there must be protection against radiation hazards.
Applications:
1. Dissimilar metals can be welded.
 2. Refractory and reacting metals can be welded.
3. It is used in aircrafts, missile, nuclear component, gears and shafts.
4. It is suitable for large scale.
5. It is used in cams.

LASER BEAM WELDING (LBM)

The word laser stands for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of
Radiation (LASER). It is stronger coherent monochromatic beam of light which can be
highly concentrated with a very small beam divergence. The focused laser beam has the
highest energy concentration of any known source of energy. The laser beam is a source
of electromagnetic energy or light that can be projected without diverging and it can be
concentrated to a precise spot.
The beam is coherent which is of a single frequency. The coherent light emitted by
the laser can be focused and reflected in the same way as a light beam. The focused spot
size is controlled by a choice of lenses and the distance from it to the base metal. The
spot can be made as small as 0.076 mm to large areas 10 times as big.
A sharply focused spot is used for welding and cutting operations. The large spot is
used for heat treating. Laser welding is suitable for welding deep in narrow joints with
depth-to-width ratio ranging from 4 to 10.
Laser beam welding is a welding process which produces coalescence of materials
with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent light
beam impinging upon the surfaces to be joined. It is a non-contact process that requires
access to the weld zone from one side of the parts being welded. It is also a
thermoelectric process accomplished by material evaporation and melting.

Laser-beam welding utilizes a laser beam as the heat source. Light energy is
converted into heat energy. Here, the light energy is produced from the laser source
such as ruby rod in the form of monochromatic light: If the beam can be focused onto
small area, it has high energy for deep penetrating capability. Beam focusing is
achieved by various lens arrangements because this focusing ensures high density
which can be achieved by laser beam. LBW does not require a vacuum chamber.
So, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is smaller aid thermal damage to the adjacent part is
negligible.
An intense green light is made to fill on a special man-made ruby (extremely hard
aluminium oxide) of 10 mm in diameter having 0.05% by weight of aluminium oxide.
The green light pumps the chromium atoms to a higher state of energy. Each excited
atom emits red light which is in phase with colliding red light wave. The red light gets
continuously amplified. The parallel ends of the rod are mirrored to enhance and
bounce the red light back and forth within the run. After reaching the critical intensity,
the chain reaction of collisions becomes strong enough to cause a burst of red light. The
mirror at the front of the rod is only a partial reflector which allows the burst of
light to escape through it. Due to electrical discharge from capacitors, the flash tube
converts the electrical energy into light flashes. When ruby rod is exposed to intense
light flash, the chromium atoms of crystal excited and pumped to a high energy level
beam. This high energy level is immediately reduced to intermediate and dropped to
original state with the evolution of red Fluorescent light.

The laser light is not only intense but also can be readily focused without loss of
intensity. The laser light is focused by the focusing lens to the workpiece in the form of
coherent monochromatic light. When this light energy is impacted to the workpiece, it
will convert into heat energy. This heat energy is sufficient to melt the materials to be
welded.
Advantages
1. There is no need of electrodes and power.
2. Even very small holes can also be welded
3. There is no vacuum requirement such as electron beam.
4. Accuracy is greater
5. There is no heat loss
6.Neat and clean surface finish can be obtained.
7. Laser beam welding can be used to weld dissimilar metals which are difficult
to weld
8. X-rays are not generated by the beam and hence it is safe.
9. Laser beam can be manipulated using the principles of optics to permit easy
automation
10. Cooling rates are high due to low energy inputs per unit weld length. Also,
the problems associate with welding can be rectified by pre- or post-heat
treatment processes
11. Ruby lasers are used for spot welding of thin gauge metals.
12. Electrical efficiency of the process is 10-20% only
13. Better quality weld can be produced. It produces fewer tendencies for
incomplete fusion, spatter, porosity and distortion.
14. It ensures precise working with exact placing of the energy spot welding of
complicated joint geometry
15. It produces low thermal distortion.
16. It produces cavity-free welds.17. It heeds low post weld operation times
18 Large working distances is possible
19. No filler metals are necessary
20. Works with high alloy metals without difficulty
Limitations:
1. Welding process is slow.
2. Limited depth of weld can be done.
3. It is not suitable for large production,
4. Capital cost for equipment is high.
5. Optical surfaces of the laser are easily damaged.
6. Maintenance cost is high
7. Rapid cooling rate may cause cracking in some metals.
Applications:
1. Thin metals about 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm thick can be welded. It includes welding of
foils, stents, sensor diaphragms and surgical instruments.
2. It can joint dissimilar metals such as copper, nickel, chromium, stainless steel,
titanium and columbium.
3. It is very much useful in electronic components welding
4. It is used in aircraft components joining
5. In automotive industry, it is mostly used for welding transmission components
6. It is very much useful in joining metal alloy
 7. Laser beam welding of high strength aluminium alloys is used for aerospace
and automotive applications
8. With slight modification the process can be used for gas-assisted cutting and
surface heat treating and alloying applications

Weld Joints
Welded joints are classified according to the relative position of two components to
be jointed. There are five basic types of welded joints.
Butt joint
It is used to join the ends or edges of two plates. The surface of plates is located in
the same plane. The edges of the plates are beveled depending on their thickness.

Lap joints:
In a lap joint, the two plates overlap each other for a certain distance. Then the edge
plate is welded to the surface of the other surface. Such a weld is also called fillet weld.
A fillet weld consists of approximately triangular cross section joining two surfaces at
right angle to each other. Sometimes, it may also be reinforced to increase the load
capacity of the weld per unit length as shown in figure.
Tee joint
The two plates are arranged to form “T” shape. located at right angle to each other
and the overlapping edges are welded by fillet weld as shown in figure.

Corner joint:
In this type of joint, two plates are arranged at right angle in such a manner that it
forms an angle (L Shape). The adjacent edges are joined by a fillet weld.
Edge joint
For a plate of thickness less than 6mm, the ends of the overlapping plates can be
directly welded at the edges. Such joints are called edge joint.

DEFECTS IN WELDING
A welding defect is anything that compromises the usefulness of a weldment. The
defects may arise from improper welding parameters, chemistry of base metal and the
selected method. So, the defective weld causes failure of the joint and damages the
properties the material. Effects of the defect depending on thickness, load, environment
and size of the weld.
The major weld defects include: lack of fusion, lack of root penetration, cracks,
cavity, porosity, undercut, distortion, slag inclusion, lamellar tearing, overlapping and
imperfect shape or unacceptable contour.
1. Lack of fusion:
Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal. It is mainly
by very low welding current and poor design of the weld joint.
2. Lack of root penetration:
It is caused by poor fusion throughout the cross section of joint due to improper
penetration of the joint. Incomplete penetration forms channels and crevices in the root
of the weld which can cause serious issues in pipes because corrosive substances can
settle in these areas. Other causes include under size root gap, over size electrode, high
welding speed.
3.Cracks
Fracture-type interruptions are cither in weld or base metal adjacent to weld. It is a
serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal that significantly reduces
strength. It is due to embrittlement or low ductility of weld and base metal combined
with high restraint during contraction. The cracks are mainly due to either hot cracking
or cold cracking. Hot cracking occurs at high temperature and cold cracking occurs at
room temperature. Hot cracking also known as solidification cracking can occur in all
metals and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this
type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided and a proper filler material
should be utilized. A heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack forms a short distance away from
the fusion line. Crater cracks occur when the welding arc is terminated prematurely.
Crater cracks are normally shallow, and usually form a single or star crack. These cracks
usually start at a crater pipe and extend longitudinal in the crater.
The main causes of cracks are: speed, ductility, solidification rate and temperature.
Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material; and hence, lead to
catastrophic failure through cold cracking.
Cold cracking is limited to steels and it is associated with the formation of
martensite as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base
material.
4. Cavity:
There are two types of cavity defects, that may be present in the weldment;
porosity and shrinkage voids. Porosity is composed of small voids in weld formed by
gases entrapped during solidification. It is caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
Sulphur and surface contaminants in the weld. The gases include: oxygen, nitrogen and
hydrogen. Weld parameters including Arc speed, electrode Coating, Incorrect welding
technique and Base metal composition also cause porosity. The sources of hydrogen
formed on the weld pool are electrode coatings. Oxygen originates from oxides and
water in the pool. Nitrogen enters in the form of atmospheric nitrogen. Shrinkage voids
are cavities formed by shrinkage during solidification.

5. Undercut:
Undercut is a groove gets formed in the parent metal along the sides of the weld as
shown in Figure. The main causes of the undercut are: High current, Arc length,
Electrode diameter and Inclination of electrode.

6. Distortion
Distortion is defined as the change in shape and difference between positions of
two plates during the welding. The base metal under the arc melts and already welded
base metal starts cooling; and thus creating a temperature difference in the weld that
results into a distortion. The factors which are causing distortion are: arc speed, no of
passes, stresses in plates, joint type and order of welding.

7 slag inclusions
During solidification of weld, any foreign materials present in the molten metal
will not float. It will be trapped inside the metal. So, it will lower the strength of the
joint. Mostly slag inclusions are generated during arc welding processes that use Linux;
globules of slag become encased during solidification, instead of floating to top of weld
pool. Other inclusions arise from metallic oxides that are formed during welding of
metals such as aluminium which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3.

8. Spatter
Spatter is small droplets of electrode material which have been ejected from the arc
which may or may not have fused to the parent plate. The main causes of spatter are
high welding current, excessive arc length, damp electrodes, incorrect electrode angle,
incorrect polarity and poor gas shielding.

Testing and inspection of welded joints.

Radiographic Inspection
Radiography (X-ray) is an NDT method used to inspect material and components
using the concept of differential adsorption of penetrating radiation. Each specimen
under evaluation will have differences in density, thickness, shapes, sizes or absorption
characteristics. Thus, the different amount of radiation is absorbed. The unabsorbed
radiation that passes through the part is recorded on film, fluorescent screens or other
radiation monitors. Indications of internal and external conditions will appear as
variants of black/white/gray contrasts on exposed film or variants of colour on
fluorescent screens.

This technique is suitable for the detection of internal defects in ferrous and
nonferrous metals, and other materials. Radiography has an advantage over some of the
other processes in that it provides a permanent reference for the internal soundness of
the object that is radiographed.
X-rays and gamma rays are used in the radiographic test. The x-ray emitted from a
source has ability to penetrate metals as a function of the accelerating voltage in the X-
ray emitting tube. If a void present in the object being radiographed, more X-rays will
pass in that area and film under the void will have more exposure than non-void areas.
Hence, the voids show as darkened areas on a background.
This test is used to detect the internal defects such as cracks, porosity, blow holes,
inclusions. In this test, a film or a photographic plate is placed behind and in contact
with weld surface. The portion is exposed to a beam of X-rays. X-rays are produced in
an X-ray tube. During exposure, X-rays penetrate through the weldment and then affect
the X-ray film. After developing the film, a radiograph is obtained. The radiograph
shows the nature of defect. Blow holes, cracks, cavities and porosity appear darker than
the surrounding area. This is a quicker method but the cost of test is high. The
radiograph is used as a permanent record. The radiation may affect human beings.

Advantages:
1. It can be used to inspect virtually all materials.
2. Detects both surface and subsurface defects can be identified.
3. It has the ability to inspect complex shapes and multi-layered structures without
disassembly.
4. Minimum part preparation is required.
5. Information is presented pictorially.
6. A permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a time and place
distant from the test.
7. It can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not
required).
Limitations:
1. Extensive operator training and skill are required.
2. Access to both sides of the structure is usually required
3. Orientation of the radiation beam to non-volumetric defects is critical
4. Field inspection of thick section can be time-consuming.
5. Relatively expensive equipment investment is required.
6. Possible radiation hazard for personnel occurs.
7. Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
8. Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary as is an exposure
compound.
9. It is not suitable for automation unless the system incorporates fluoroscopy with
an image intensifier or other electronic aids.

Ultrasonic Inspection
This method is used to find internal defects by using ultrasonic sound waves.
Very minute defects such as cracks, porosity, blowholes etc. can be accurately detected
in castings. Sound wave can pass through solids without any absorption. It can also be
reflected from a surface. Hence, ultrasonic waves are used in this test.
These ultrasonic waves are produced by a transducer. The transducer can change
the high frequency electrical energy into ultrasonic sound waves. Then afterward, a
transmitter changes the ultrasonic sound waves into electrical energy. High frequency
sound waves are sent into a material by the use of a transducer. The sound waves travel
through the material and they are received by the same transducer or a second
transducer. The amount of energy transmitted or received and time to receive the
energy is analyzed to determine the presence of flaws. Changes in material thickness
and properties can also be measured. If the work is defect free, the wave will strike the
bottom of the work and return to the receiver. The striking of waves at the bottom
surface and top surface are indicated in the form of pip (echo) in CRT as I and 3 as
shown in Figure. If there is any defect in between top and bottom surfaces, the wave is
reflected back from that spot and it is indicated as a pip in CRT as 2.

Two basic ultrasonic inspection techniques are employed such as pulse-echo and
through-transmission. Pulse-Echo inspection uses a transducer to both transmit and
receive the ultrasonic pulse. The received ultrasonic pulses are separated by the time. It
takes the sound to detect the different surfaces from which it is reflected. The size
(amplitude) of a reflection is related to the size of the reflecting surface. The pulse-echo
ultrasonic response pattern is analyzed on the basis of signal amplitude and separation.
Through-transmission inspection employs two transducers. The first one generates the
wave while the second one receives it. A defect in the sound path between two
transducers will interrupt the sound transmission. The magnitude (the change in the
sound pulse amplitude) of the interruption is used to evaluate test results. Through
transmission inspection is less sensitive to small defects than pulse echo inspection.
Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect surface and subsurface discontinuities such
as cracks, shrinkage cavities, bursts, flakes, pores, delaminations and porosity.
The following steps should be applied during the inspection:
(a) The couplant should be applied on the inspected area.
 (b) For the circular test specimen, the prop will be placed in the corresponding
space in the supporting fitting tool. Enough couplant should be used between
probe and tool.
(c) For the flat specimen, no tool is needed and couplant is only applied between
inspected surface and probe.
(d) Special attention should be paid on the location where the possible cracks
exist.
(e) A discontinuity like a crack produces a peak on the screen.
(f) Attention should also be given to the movement of the possible peak caused
by the cracks on the specimen.

Advantages:
1. It is a fast and reliable process.
2, Minimum part preparation is required.
3. This method can be used for much more than just flaw detection.
4. It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities
5. The depth of penetration for flaw detection of measurement is superior to other
NDT methods.
Limitations:
1. Surface must be accessible to transducer and couplant so that ultrasound can be
transmitted.
2. Surface finish and roughness can interfere with inspection.
3. Thin parts may be difficult to inspect.
4: Skill and training are more extensive than with some other methods.
5. It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
6. Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or
not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
7. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
8. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws