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 TABLE OF
CONTENTS
Preface ix
To the Instructor xii
To the Student xiv
Thematic Table of Contents for the Core Course xvi

Part 1 The Core Course 1

CHAP TER 1 Arithmetic in Z Revisited 3
1.1 TheDivisionAigorithm 3
1.2 Divisibility 9
1.3 Primes and Unique Factorization 17

CHAP TER 2 Congruence in Z and Modular Arithmetic 25

2.1 Congruence and Congruence Classes 25
2.2 ModularArithmetic 32
2.3 The Structure of Zp (p Prime) and Zn 37

CHAPTER 3 Rinos 43
3.1 Definition and Examples of Rings 44
3.2 Basic Properties of Rings 59
3.3 Isomorphisms and Homomorphisms 70

CHAPTER 4 Arithmetic in f[x] 85

4.1 Polynomial Arithmetic and the DiVision Algorithm 86
4.2 Divisibility in fix] !li
4.3 lrreducibles and Unique Foctorization 100
v
vi Table of Contents

4.4 Polynomial Functions, Roots, and Reducibility 105

4.5* Irreducibility in Q[x] 112
4.6* Irreducibility in R[x] and qx] 120

CHAPTER 5 Congruence in F[x] and Congruence-Class Arithmetic 125

5.1 Cong-uence in F[x] and Congruence Classes 125
5.2 Congruence-Class Arithmetic 13)
5.3 The Structure of F[xlf{p(x)) When p(x) Is Irreducible 1.35

CHAPTER 6 Ideals and Quotient Rings 141

6.1 Ideals and Congruence 141
6.2 Quotient Rt ngs and Homomorphisms 152
6.3* The Structure of Rj I When /Is Prime or Maximal 162

CHAPTER 7 &roups 169

7.1 Defmition and Examples of Groups 169
"7.1.A Definition and Examples of Groups 183
7.2 Basic Properties of Groups 196
7.3 Subgroups ro3
7.4 Isomorphisms and Homomorphisms 214
7.5* The Symmetric and Alternating Groups 227

cHAPTER 8 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups 2'!7

8.1 Congruence and lagrange's Theorem 237
8.2 Normal Subgroups 248
8.3 Quotient Groups 255
8.4 Quotient Groups and Homomorphisms 263
8.5* The Sim p!ic ity of A, 273

Part 2 Advanced Topics 279

CHAPTER 9 Topics In Group Theory 281
9.1 Direct Products 281
9.2 Finite Abelian Groups 289
9.3 The Sylow Theorems 298
9.4 Conjugacy and the Proof oft he Sylow Theorems 304
9.5 The Structure of Finite Groups 312

-sections in the Core Course marked e may be omitted or postponed. See the beginning of e<H:h
sue h section for sp!!(:ifics.
 Tabla of Contents vii

CHAPTER tD Arithmetic in Integra I Domains 321

10.1 Euclidean Domains 322
10.2 Pri ncipa! ldeal Domains and Unique
Factorfzation Domains 332
10.3 Factorization of Quadratic ! ntege rs 344
10.4 The Field of Quotients of an Integral Domain 353
10.5 Unique Factorization in Polynomial Domains 359

CHAPTER 11 Field Extensions 365

11.1 Vector Spaces 365
112 SimpleExtensions 376
11.3 Algebraic Extensions 382
11.4 Splitting Fields ~
11.5 Separability 394
11.6 Finite Aelds 399

CHAPTER 12 Galois Theory 407

12.1 The Galois Group 407
122 The FundamentaiTheoremofGaloisTheory 415
12.3 Solvability by Radicals 423

Part 3 Excursions and Applications 435

CHAP TER 13 Pub Iic· Key Cryptography 437
Prerequisite: Section 2.3

CHAP TER 14 The Chinese Remainder Theorem 443

14.1 Proofofthe Chinese Remainder Theorem 443
Prerequisites: Section 2.1, Appendix C
14.2 Applications oft he Chinese Remainder Theorem 450
Prerequisite: Section 3.1
14.3 The Chinese Remai nderTheorem for Rings 453
Prerequisite; Section 6.2

CHAP TER 15 Geometric Constructions 459

Prerequisites: Sections 4.1, 4.4, and 4.5

CHAP TER 16 Algebraic Coding Theory 471

16.1 Unear Codes 471
PrereqJisites: Section'7.4, Appendix F
viii Table of Contents

16.2 DecodingTechniques 463

Prerequisite: Section &4
16.3 BCH Codes 492
Prerequ isitrJ; Section 11.6

Part 4 Append ices 499

A. Logic and Proof 500
B. Sets and Functions !i09
C. Well Ordering and Induction 523
0. Equivalence Relations 531
E. The Binomial Theorem 537
F. Matrix Algebra 540
S. Polynomials 545

Bibliography 553
Answers and Suo oestions for Selected Odd-Numbered
Exercises 55&
Index 589
 PREFACE
This book is intended for a first undergraduate course in modem abstract algebra.
Linear algebra is not a prerequisite. The flexible design makes the text suitable for
courses of various lengths and different levels of mathematical sophistication, in-
cluding (but not limited to) a traditional abstract algebra course, or one with a more
applied flavor, or a course for prospective secondary school teachers. As in previous
editions, the emphasis is on clarity of exposition and the goal is to prodooe a book that
an average student can read with minimal outside assistance.

New in the Third Edition

Groups First Option Those who believe (as I do) that covering rings before groups
is the better pedagogical approach to abstract algebra can use this edition exactly as
they used the previous one&.
Nevertheless, anecdotal evidence indicates that some instructors have used the sec-
ond edition for a "groups first'' course, which pnzwnably means that they liked other
aspects of the book enough that they were willing to take on the burden of adapting it to
their needs. To make life easier for them (and for anyone else who prefers "groups first'')
lt is now possible (though not necessary) to use this text for
a course that corers groups before rings.
See the TO THE INSTRUCTOR section for details.
Much of the rewriting needed to make this option feasible also benefits the "rings
first" users. A number of them have suggested that complete proofs were needed in
parts of the group theory chapters instead of directions that said in effect "adapt the
proof of the analogous theorem for rings". The full proofs are now there.
Proofs for Beginners Many students entering a first abstract algebra course have
had little (or no) experience in reading and writing proofs. To assist such students (and
better prepared students as well), a number of proofs (especially in Chapters l and 2)
have been rewritten and expanded. They are broken into several steps, each of which
is carefully explained and proved in detail. Such proofs take up more space, but I think
it's worth it if they provide better understanding.
So that students can better concentrate on the essential topics, various items from
number theory that play no role in the remainder of the book have been eliminated
from Chapters l and 2 (though some remain as exercises).
x Pref~:~ce

More Examples and Exercises In the core course (Chapters 1-8), there are 35%
more examples than in the previous edition and 13% more exercise& Some older exer-
cises have been replaced, so 18% of the exercises are new. The entire text has about 350
examples and 1600 exercises. For easier reference, the examples are now numbered.
Coverage The breadth of coverage in this edition is substantially the same as in
the preceding ones, with one minor exception. The chapter on Lattices and Boolean
Algebra (which apparently was rarely used) has been eliminated. However, it is avail-
able at our website (www.CengageBrain.com) for those who want to use it.
The coverage of groups is much the same as before, but the first group theory chapter
in the second edition (the longest one in the book by fur) has been divided into t....u chap-
ters of more manageable size. This arrangement has the added advantage of making the
parallel development of integers, polynomials, groups, and ring:> more apparent,
Endpapers The endpapers now provide a useful catalog of symbols and notations.
Website The website (www.CengageBrain.com) provides several downloadable
programs for TI graphing calculators that make otherwise lengthy calculations in
Chapters 1 and 14 quite easy. It also contains a chapter on Lattices and Boolean
Algebra, whose prerequisites are Chapter 3 and Appendices A and B.

Continuing Features
Thematic Development The Core Course (Chapters 1--S) is organized around two
themes: Arithmetic and Congruence. The themes are developed for integers (Chapters 1
and 2), polynomials (Chapters 4and 5), rings (Chapters 3 and 6), and groups (Chapters 7
and 8). See the Thematic Table of Contents in the TO THE STUDENT section for a
fuller picture.
Congruence The Congruence theme is strongly emphasized hi the development of
quotient rings and quotient groups. Conseqnently, students can see more clearly that
ideals, normal smgroups, quotient rings, and quotient groups are simply an extension
of familiar concepts in the integers, rather than an unmotivated mystery.
Useful Appendices These contain prerequisite material (e.g., logic, proof, sets,
functions, and induction) and optional material that some instructors may wish to
introdnce (e.g., equivalence relations and the Binomial Theorem).

Acknowledgments
This edition has benefited from the comments of many students and mathematicians
over the years, and particularly from the reviewers for this edition. My warm thanks to

Ross Abraham, South Dakota State University

George DeRise, Thol114s Nelson Community College
Kimberly Eke, California State University, Sacramento
Sherry Ettlich, Southern Oregon University
Lenny Jones, Shippensburg University
Anton Kau~ California Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo
Wojci~:Ch Komornicki, Hamline University
 Preface xi

Ronald Merritt, Athens State University

Bogdan Nita, Montclair State University
Tara Smith, University of Cincinnati

It is a particular plea~~ure to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of the Cengage

staff, especially Molly Taylor, Shaylin Walsh, Cathy Brooks, and Alex Gontar. I also
want to express my appreciation to my copyeditor, Martha Williams, whose thorough
reading of the manuscript significantly improved the final text. Charu Khanna and the
MPS Limited production staff did an excellent job.
John Oprea (Cleveland State University), Greg Marks (Saint Louis University),
and David Leep (University of Kentucky) provided assistance on several poin'tl!, for
which I am grateful.
Finally, a very special thank you to my wife Mary Alice for her patience, under~
standing, and support during the preparation of this revision.

T.W.H.
 TO THE INSTRUCTOR
Here are some items that will assist you in making up your syllabus..

Course Planning
Using the chart on the opposite page, the Table of Contents (in which optional !illCtions
are marked), and the chapter introductions. you can easily plan courses of wrying length,
emphasis, and order of topics. If you plan to cover groups bdme ringli, please note that
Section 7.1 should be replaced by Section 7.1.A (which appears immediately after 7.1).

Appendices
Appendix A (Logic and Proof) is a prerequisite for the entire text Prerequisites for
various parts of the text are in Appendices B-F. Depending on the preparation of
your students and your syllabus, you may want to incorporate some of this material
into your course. Note the following.
• Appendix B (Sets and Functions): The middle part (Cartesian
products and binaiY operations) is first used in Section 3.1 [7.1.A].* The last
five pages (injective and surjective functions) are first used in Section 3.3 [7 .4].
• Appendix C (Induction): Ordinary induction (Theorem C.1) is lint used
in Section 4.4. Complete Induction (Theorem C2) is first used in Section 4.1
[9.2]. The equivalence of induction and wellMordering (Theorem C.4) is not
needed in the body of the teJrt.
• Appendix D (Equivalence Relations): Important examples of
equivalence relations are pn:sented in Sections 2.1, 5.1, 6.1, and 8.1, but the
formal definition is not needed until Section 10.4 [9.4].
• Appendix E (The Binomial Theorem): This is used only in Section
11.6 and oa;asional exercises earlier.
• Appendix F(Matrix Algebra): This is a prerequisite for Chapter 16 but
is not needed by students who have had a linear algebra course.
Finally, Appendix G presents a formal development of polynomials and indetermi-
nates. I personally think it's a bit much for beginners, but some people like it.

Exercises
The exercises in Group A involve routine calculations or short straightforward proofs.
Those in Group B require a reasonable amount of thought, but the vast maJority
should be aocessible to most students. Group C consists of difficult exercises.
Answers (or hints) for more than half of the oddMnumbered exercises are given
at the end of the book. Answers for the rmnaining exercises are in the Instructor's
Manual available to adopters of the text.

Xii •The section numbers in brackets are for groups-first courses.

 To the Instructor xiii

CHAPTER INTERDEPENDEN(;E;

13.
PubJio.Key
Cryptography

•••. (~ Nr11t below)

4.
Arithntetic
in Ffx)

s.
Congrwmce
inF[x]

14.3 8. 16.1, 16.2

The CRT Normal Algebraic
for Rilly Subgroup:t - - - - - - - · Coding
&Quotient Theory
Group~~

10.
Arithmetic
in Integral
Domains

NOTE: To go quickly from Chapter 3 to Chapter 6, first cover Section 4.1 (except the
proof of the Division Algorithm), then proceed to Chapter 6. If you plan to cover
Chapter 11, however, you will need to cover Chapter 4 first.

~A solid arrow A-.S means that A is a prereq uisitefor 8; 11 d!ls hed arrow A-'>-8 means that Bdepends
only on pe~rts of A (see the Table of Contents for specifics), For the dotted arrow S >6, see the Note
at the bot 1om of the chllrt.
 T0 THE STUDENT

Overview
This book begins with grade-school arithmetic and the algebra of polynomials from
high school (from a more advanced viewpoint, of course). In later chapters of the
book, you will see how these familiar topics fit into a la.tger framework of abstract
algebraic systems. This presentation is organized aro1md these two themes:
Arithmetic You will see how the familiar properties of division, remainders, factor-
ization, and primes in the integers carry over to polynomials, and then to more general
algebraic systems.
Congruence You may be fumiliar with "clock arithmetic".* This is an example of
congruence and leads to new finite arithmetic systems that provide a model for what
can be done for polynomials and other algebraic systems. Congruence and the related
concept of a quotient object are the keys to understanding abstract algebra.

Proofs
The emphasis in this course, much more than in high-school algebra, is on the rigor-
ous logical development of the subject. If you have had little experience with reading
or writing proofs, you would do well to read Appendix A 1 which summariz.es the basic
rules of logic and the proof techniques that are used throughout the book.
You shouki first concentrate on understanding the proofs in the text (which is quite
different from constructing a proof yourself). Just as you can appreciate a new build-
ing without being an architect or a contractor, you can verify the validity of proofs
presented by others, even if you tXII{t see how anyone ever thought of doing it this way
in the first ploce.
Begin by skimming through the proof to get an idea of its general outline before
worrying about the details in each step. It's easier to understand an aiglllllent if you
know approximately where it's headed Then go back to the beginning and read the
proof carefully, line by line. If it says "such and such is true by Theorem 5.18", check
to see just what Theorem 5.18 says and be sure you understand why it applies here. If
you get stuck, take that part on faith and finish the rest of the proof. Then go back and
see if you can figure out the sticky point.

•when the hour hand of a clock moves 3 hours or 15 hours from 12, it ends in the same position, so
3 = 15 on the clock. If the hour hand starts at 12and moves 8hoors, then moves an addilional
9 hours, it finishes at 5; so 8 + 9 = 5 on the clock.
xiv
 To the Student xv

When you're really stuck, ask yoW' instructor. He or she will welcome questions that
arise from a serious effort on your part.

Exercises
Mathematics is not a spectator sport. You can't expect to learn mathematics without
doing mathematics, any more than you could learn to swim without getting in the
water. That's why there are so many eJrei"cises in this book.
The exercises in group A are usually straightforward. If you can't do almost all of
them, you don't really understand the material. The exercises in group B often require
a reasonable amount of thought----and for most of us, some trial and error as well. But
the 'Ia& majority of them are within your grasp. The exercises in group C are usually
difficult ... a good test for strong students.
Many exercises will ask you to prove something. As you build up your skill in un-
derstanding the proofs of others (as discussed above), you will find it easier to make
proofs of your own. The proofs that you will be asked to provide will usually be much
simpler than proofs in the teK.t (which can, nevertheless, serve as models).
Answers (or hints) for more than half of the odd-numbered exercises are given at
the back of the book.

Keeping It A II Straight
In the Core Course (Chapten 1-8), students often have trouble seeing how the various
topics tie together, or even ifthey do. The Thematic Table of Contents on the next two
pages is arranged according to the themes of arithmetic and congruence, so you can
see how things fit together.
 THEMATIC TABLE OF
CONTENTS FOR THE
CORE COURSE

TOPICS .... INTEGERS POLYNOMIALS

THEMET
ARITHMETIC 1. Arithmetic in Z Revisited 4. Arithmetic in FJxJ
DiviSion Algorithm 1.1 The Division Algorithm 4.1 Polynomial Arithmetic
and the Division Algorithm

DiviSibility 1.2 Divisibility 4.2 Divisibility in F[x]

Primes and 1.3 Primes and Unique 4.3 Irreducibles and Unique
Factorization Factorization Factorization
Primality Testing 1.3 Theorem 1.10 4.4 Polynomial Functions,
Roots, and Reducibility
4.5 Irreducibility in O[x]
4.6 Irreducibility in R[x] and Qx]
CONGRUENCE 2. Congruence in Z and 5. Congruence in FJxJ and Congruence
Congruence Modular Arithmetic Cla&'i Arithmetic
2.1 Congruence and 5.1 Congruence in F[x] and
Congruence dasses Congruence Classes

Congruence-Class 2.2 Modular Arithmetic 5.2 Congruence-dass Arithmetic

Arithmetic

Quotient Structures 2.3 The Structure of z, 5.3 The Structure of F[x]jp(x)

When p Is Prime When p(x) Is Irreducible
OTHER
IsomorphiSm and
HomomorphiSm

xvi
 Thematic Table of Contents for the Core Course xvii

Directions: Reading from left to right across these two pages shows how the theme or
subtheme in the left-hand column is developed in the four algebraic systems listed in the
top row. Each vertical column shows how the themes are carried out for the system listed
at the top of the column.

RINGS* GROUPS*

3. Rings 7. Groups
3.1 Rings 7.1 Definition and Examples of Groups
7.5 The Symmetric and Ahernating Groups
3.2 Basic Properties of Rings 7.2 Basic Properties of Groups
7.3 Subgroups

6. Ideals and Quotient Rings 8. Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups

6.1 Ideals and Congruence 8.1 Congruence
8.2 Normal Subgroups
8.5 The Simplicity of A,
6.2 Quotient Rings and 8.3 Quotient Groups
Homomorphisms 8.4 Quotient Groups and Homomorphisms
6.3 The Structure of Rj/When lis
Prime or Maximal
3.3 Isomorphisms and 7.4 Isomorphisms and Homomorphisms
Homomorphisms

*In the Arithmetic Theme, the sections of Chapters 3 (Rings) and 8 (Groups) do not correspond to the individual
subthemes (as do the sections of Chapters 1and 4). For integral domains, however, there is a correspondence, as
you will see in Chapter 10 (Arithmetic in Integral Domains).
P A RT 1
THE CORE COURSE
 CHAPTER 1
Arithmetic in 7L Revisited

Algebra grew out of arithmetic and depends heavily on it. So we begin our study of
abstract algebra with a review of those facts from arithmetic that are used frequently
in the rest of this book and provide a model for much of the woril. we do. We stress
primarily the underlying pattern and properties rather than methods of c amputation,
Nevertheless, the fundamental concepts are ones that you have seen before,

Ill The Division Algorithm

Our starting point is the set of all integers Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ... } . We assume that you
are familiar with the arithmetic of integers and with the usual order relation ( <) on
the set Z. We also assume the

WELL-ORDERING A XI 0 M Every nonempty subset of the set of nonnegative

Integers contains a smallest ekment.

If you think of the nonnegative integers laid out on the usual number line, it is
intuitively plausible that each subset contains an element that lies to the left of all the
other elements in the subset-that is the m~allest element. On the other hand, the Well-
Ordering Axiom does not hold in the set Z of all integers (there is no smallest ne~e
integer). Nor does it hold in the set of all nonnegatiw rational numbers (the subset of
all positiw rationals does not contain a smallest element because, forany positive ratio-
nal number r, there is always a smaller positiw rational-for instance, r/2).

NOTE: The rest of this chapter and the next require Theorem 1.1, which
is stated below. Unfortunately, its proof is a bit more complicated than
is desirable at the beginning of the course, since some readers may not
have seen many (or any) formal mathematical proofs. To alleviate this
3
4 Chapter 1 Arithmetic in Z Revisited

situation, we shall first look at the origins of Theorem 1.1 and explain the
idea of its proof. Unless you have a strong mathematical background, we
suggest that you read this additional material carefully before beginning
theproo£
To ease the beginner's way, the proof itself will be broken into several
steps and given in more detail than is customary in most books. Ho~
because the proof does not show how the theorem is actually used in prac-
tice, some instructors may wish to postpone the proof until the class has
more experience in proving results. In any case, all students should at least
read the outline of the proof (its first three lines and the statements of
Steps 1-4).

So here we go. Consider the following grade-school division problem:

Quotient ~· 11 Check: 11 +---- Quoti.enJ

Di'iisor
Di'iidend
~· X1~DMsor
77
12 +5 +--- kmainder
7 82 +--- Di'iidend
Remainder~ 5

The division process stops when we reach a remainder that is less than the divisor.
All the essential facts are contained in the checking procedure, which may be verbally
summarized like this:

dividend = (divisor) (quotient)+ (remainder).

Here is a formal statement of this idea, in which the dividend is denoted by a, the
divisor by b1 the quotient by q, and the remainder by r:

Theorem 1.1 The Division AI go rith m

Let a, b be Integers with b > o. Then there exist unique Integers q and r such
that
a=bq+r and 0s r <b.
Theorem 1.1 allows the possibility that the dividend a might be negative but re-
quires that the remainder r must not only be less than the divisor b but also must be
~gative. To see why this last requirement is necessary, suppose a = -14 is divided
by b = 3, so that -14 = 3q + r. If we only require that the remainder be less than
the divisor 3, then there are many possibilities for the quotient q and remainder r,
including these three:

-14 = 3(-3) + (-5), with -5 < 3 [Here q = -3 and r = --S.]

-14 = 3(-4) + (-2), with -2 < 3 [Here q = -4 and r = -2.]
-14 = 3(-5) + 1, with 1 < 3 [Here q .= -sand r .= 1.].
Another random document with
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and subsequently enlarges it by additions from its own body. The
beautiful Insects of the genus Cryptocephalus, which is fairly well
represented in Britain, belong to this division. The exotic group
Megalopodes is incorrectly placed in Camptosomes; the side pieces
of the prothorax meet in it behind the middle coxae, as they do in
Rhynchophora. The species of Megalopodes stridulate by means of
an area on the base of the meso-scutellum rubbed by a ridge inside
the pronotum, as in the Cerambycidæ.

iii. The division Cyclica includes the great majority of Chryomelidae;

we have not less than 170 species in Britain. The larvae live, like
those of Lepidoptera, at the expense of foliage, and the species
frequently multiply to such an extent as to be injurious. Some of
them are destroyed in great numbers by Hymenopterous parasites,
the Braconid genus Perilitus being one of the best known of these; in
some cases the parasite deposits its eggs in either the larva or
perfect Insect of the beetle, and the metamorphoses of the parasites
in the latter case are sometimes, if not usually, completed, the larvae
emerging from the living beetles for pupation.

iv. The Cryptostomes, though comparatively few in number of

species, include some very remarkable beetles. There are two
groups, Hispides and Cassidides. The former are almost peculiar to
the tropics and are not represented by any species in the British
fauna. The head in this group is not concealed; but in the Cassidides
the margins of the upper surface are more or less expanded, so that
the head is usually completely hidden by the expansion of the
pronotum. Both the groups are characterised by the antennae being
inserted very near together, and by the short claw-joint of the feet.
Hispa is one of the most extensive of the numerous genera of
Hispides, and is remarkable from the imago being covered on the
surface with long, sharp spines. But little is known as to the
metamorphosis, beyond the fact already alluded to, that the larvae of
several species mine the interior of leaves. The larva of Hispa
testacea, according to Perris,[147] makes use of the leaves of Cistus
salvifolius in Southern Europe; it is broad and flat, and possessed of
six short legs. The eggs are not deposited by the parents inside the
leaves, but are probably attached to various parts of the plant. After
hatching, the young larva enters a leaf, and feeds on the
parenchyma without rupturing the epidermis; but when it has
consumed about three-fourths of the soft interior of the leaf it
ruptures the epidermis of the upper surface, and seeks another leaf;
this found, it places itself on the midrib, tears the upper epidermis,
and lodges itself in the leaf. In the case of this second leaf it attacks
the parenchyma in the neighbourhood of the petiole, and so forms
an irregular tube which has an open mouth, the point of entry. In this
tube it undergoes its metamorphosis. Each larva, it is said, always
makes use of two leaves, and of two opposed leaves. A knowledge
of the habits of some of the larger of the exotic Hispides would be of
much interest.

Fig. 144—Pupa of Cassidid beetle (? Aspidomorpha sp.). A, With

appendage extended; B, with the appendage reposing on the
back. New Britain.

The Cassidides, in addition to the curious marginal expansion of

their upper surface, have the power of withdrawing the head into the
thorax, and hence they are often called shield or tortoise-beetles.
They exhibit considerable variety in form and colour, and some of
them display a peculiar metallic reflection of great delicacy and
beauty; this disappears entirely after death, but it may be restored by
thoroughly moistening the dead Insect. The colour, therefore,
probably depends on the presence of water in the integument. The
larvae of Cassidides are notorious on account of their habit of
covering their bodies with dried excrement, for which purpose they
are provided with a forked process at the posterior extremity; this
serves to place the protecting matter in a proper position and to
retain it there. The excrement assumes in various species forms so
peculiar that they cannot be considered merely incidental. In several
species this covering-matter is like lichen. This is the case with
Dolichotoma palmarum, the larva of which has, in place of the usual
fork, a more complex appendage on the back for the purpose of
preparing and retaining its peculiar costume. The pupae, too,
sometimes retain the larval skin. An extremely remarkable pupa of a
Cassidid—possibly of the genus Aspidomorpha—was recently found
by Dr. Arthur Willey in New Britain (Fig. 144). The back of the pupa is
covered with a complex appendage, so that the creature has no
resemblance to an Insect; this appendage is perhaps capable of
being moved, or even extended (Fig. 144, A), during life. Whether it
may be formed by the retention of portions of the moulted skins of
the larva we cannot say with certainty.

Fig. 145—Nest of intestinally-made filaments under which the larva of

Porphyraspis tristis lives.

The most remarkable of the Cassidid coverings yet discovered are

those formed by certain small beetles of the tropical American genus
Porphyraspis. P. tristis is apparently a common Insect at Bahia,
where it lives on a cocoa-palm. The larva is short and broad, and
completely covers itself with a very dense coat of fibres, each many
times the length of the body, and elaborately curved so as to form a
round nest under which the larva lives. On examination it is found
that these long threads are all attached to the anal extremity of the
Insect, and there seems no alternative to believing that each thread
is formed by small pieces of fibre that have passed through the
alimentary canal, and are subsequently stuck together, end to end.
The process of forming these long fibres, each one from scores of
pieces of excrement, and giving them the appropriate curve, is truly
remarkable. The fibres nearest to the body of the larva are abruptly
curled so as to fit exactly, and make an even surface; but the outside
fibres stand out in a somewhat bushy fashion. The construction is
much like that of a tiny bird's nest. Señor Lacerda informed the writer
that the larva makes a nest as soon as it is hatched. Another
Porphyraspis—P. palmarum—has been recorded as forming similar
nests on a species of Thrinax in St. Domingo. Candèze says[148]
that when it has completed its growth the larva ejects on to the leaf a
quantity of semi-liquid matter, and this, on drying, sticks the nest to
the leaf, so that the metamorphosis is effected under shelter.

Fam. 79. Cerambycidae (Longicorns).—Form usually oblong, not

much curved in outline at the sides; surface very frequently rendered
dull by a very minute hairiness, which often forms a pattern;
antennae usually long, and their insertion much embraced by the
eyes. This great family of beetles includes some 12,000 or 13,000
known species. The elegance and variety of their forms and the
charm of their colours have caused them to attract much attention,
so that it is probable that a larger proportion of the existing species
have been obtained than is the case in any other of the great
families of Coleoptera. Still it is not likely that one-half of the living
forms are known. It is not possible at present to point out any one
character of importance to distinguish Cerambycidae from
Chrysomelidae, though the members of the two families have, as a
rule, but little resemblance in external appearance. Most of them live
on, or in, wood, though many are nourished in the stems of
herbaceous plants. The larvae live a life of concealment, and are
soft, whitish grubs with powerful mandibles, and usually with a
comparatively small head, which is not much exserted from the
thorax. Most of them are without legs, but a good many have three
pairs of small legs, and there are numerous cases in which the
surface of the body is furnished above or below with swellings
believed to act as pseudopods (Fig. 84), and help the larvae to move
about in their galleries; but this is probably not the sole function of
these organs, as their surface is varied in character, and often not of
a kind that appears specially adapted to assist in locomotion. There
is a slight general resemblance between the larvae of Cerambycidae
and those of Buprestidae, and when the thorax of a Longicorn larva
is unusually broad, e.g. Astynomus, this similarity is very
pronounced.

Fig. 146—Saperda populnea. Britain.

The modes of life of Cerambycid larvae exhibit considerable variety,

and much perfection of instinct is displayed by the larvae, as well as
by the mother beetles. The larvae of Saperda populnea, are
common in certain woods in the South of England in the stems of
aspen; they consume only a small quantity of the interior of the stem,
and are probably nourished by an afflux of sap to the spot where
they are situated. Elaphidion villosum is called the oak-pruner in
North America. The parent beetle lays an egg near the axilla of a
leaf-stalk or small stem, and the young larva enters this and feeds on
the tender material; as it grows it enters a larger limb, and makes an
incision within this in such a manner that the wood falls to the ground
with the larva within it, the dead wood serving subsequently as
pabulum and as a shelter, within which the metamorphosis is
completed. The species of the American genus Oncideres are called
girdlers, because the parent beetle, after laying an egg in a small
branch, girdles this round with a deep incision, so that the portion
containing the larva sooner or later falls to the ground. The growth of
a Longicorn larva frequently takes more than a year, and under
certain circumstances it may be enormously prolonged.
Monohammus confusus has been known to issue from wooden
furniture in a dwelling-house when the furniture was fifteen years old.
Individuals of another Longicorn have issued from the wood of a
table, twenty and even twenty-eight years after the felling of the tree
from which the furniture was made. Sereno Watson has related a
case from which it appears probable that the life of a Longicorn
beetle extended over at least forty-five years.[149] It is generally
assumed that the prolongation of life in these cases is due to the
beetle resting quiescent for long after it has completed the
metamorphosis. Recent knowledge, however, renders it more
probable that it is the larval life that is prolonged; the larva continuing
to feed, but gaining little or no nutriment from the dry wood in these
unnatural conditions. Mr. C. O. Waterhouse had for some years a
Longicorn larva under observation, feeding in this way in the wood of
a boot-tree;[150] the burrows in the wood contained a great deal of
minute dust indicating that the larva passed much matter through the
alimentary canal, probably with little result in the way of nutriment.

There are numerous Longicorns that bear a great resemblance in

form and colour to Insects to which they are not related.
Haensch[151] has noticed that species of the genus Odontocera
resemble various Hymenoptera, one species being called O.
braconoides; he also observed that these Hymenoptera-like
Longicorns, instead of withdrawing their underwings under the elytra
as beetles generally do, vibrate them rapidly like Hymenoptera. A
large number of Longicorns stridulate loudly by rubbing a ridge
inside the pronotum on a highly specialised, striate surface at the
base of the scutellum, and therefore covered up when the Insect is
contracted in repose. A few produce noise by rubbing the hind
femora against the edges of the elytra, somewhat after the fashion of
grasshoppers. In this case there appears to be comparatively little
speciality of structure, the femora bearing, however, more or less
distinct small granules. The species of the Hawaiian genus
Plagithmysus produce sound in both these manners, the thoracic
stridulating organ being beautifully developed, while in some species
the margin of the elytra and base of the femora are also well adapted
for the purpose of sound-production, and in a few species of the
genus there are also highly-developed stridulating surfaces on the
hind and middle coxae. This is the only case in which a beetle is
known to possess more than one set of sound-organs in the imago
state.

Three divisions of this family are distinguished, viz.—

 1. Front coxae large and transverse; prothorax with distinct side margins.
.......... Sub-fam. 1. Prionides.
2. Front coxae not greatly extended transversely, thorax not margined; last
joint of maxillary palpus not pointed, usually broader (more or less) than
the preceding joint. .......... Sub-fam. 2. Cerambycides.
3. Front coxae usually round and deeply embedded; last joint of maxillary
palpus pointed; front tibiae with a more or less distinct, slanting groove
on the inner side. .......... Sub-fam. 3. Lamiides.

The Prionides are on the average considerably larger in size than

the members of the other divisions, and they include some of the
largest of Insects. The Amazonian Titanus giganteus and the Fijian
Macrotoma heros are amongst the most gigantic. Some of the
Prionides have a great development of the mandibles in the male
sex analogous to that we have already noticed in Lucanidae. The
larvae of the large Prionides appear in various parts of the world to
have been a favourite food with native tribes, and Lumholz states
that they are really good eating. In consequence of the destruction of
forests that has progressed so largely of late years these gigantic
Prionides have become much rarer.

Several aberrant forms are included in Prionides. The genus

Parandra has five-jointed tarsi; the third joint being much smaller
than usual, so that the fourth joint is not concealed by it. The
Brazilian Hypocephalus armatus was for long a subject of dispute as
to its natural position, and was placed by different authorities in
widely-separated families of Coleoptera. The structure of this
aberrant Longicorn seems to be only explicable on the hypothesis of
warfare amongst the males.[152] Nothing is, however, known as to
the habits and history of the Insect, and only one or two specimens
of the female have yet been obtained.

The family Spondylidae has been proposed for some of these

aberrant Longicorns, but as it includes but very few, and highly
discrepant, species, it is neither natural nor of much use for
systematic purposes.
The Lamiides are the most highly specialised division of the
Longicorns, and includes the larger number of the species. The front
of the head is usually placed at right angles to the vertex, and in
some cases (groups Hippopsini, Spalacopsini) it is strongly inflexed,
so that the mouth is placed on the under side of the head. The
extension of the eyes round the antennae is accompanied by very
curious shapes of those organs, and not infrequently each eye is
divided into two more or less widely-separated parts, so that the
Insect has, on the external surface, four eyes.

Series VI. Rhynchophora.

Head more or less prolonged in front to form a snout or beak,

called rostrum. Tarsi four-jointed, usually at least the third joint
broad and densely pubescent beneath.

This enormous series includes about 25,000 species, and as may

well be imagined shows a great variety of structure amongst its
forms. The vast majority may, however, be readily recognised by the
two characters mentioned above. There are some cases in which the
beak is indistinct, and others in which the tarsi are five-jointed
(Dryophthorus), and even slender (Platypides). In these cases a
close examination shows that the gular region on the middle of the
back of the under surface of the head cannot be detected, and that
the back of the prosternum is very strongly consolidated by the side-
pieces of the thorax meeting together and being very firmly joined
behind the coxae. The beak is in the great majority perfectly distinct,
though it varies so extremely in form that it can only be briefly
described by saying that it is a prolongation of the head in front of
the eyes, or that the antennae are inserted on its sides near to, or far
from, the tip. It has been ascertained in many cases that the rostrum
is used by the female to assist in placing the eggs in suitable places,
a hole being bored with it; in some cases it is also used to push the
egg far into the hole in which it has previously been placed by the
ovipositor; but there are many forms in which it is fairly certain that it
is not so used. What purpose it serves in the male is totally
unknown. In many members of the series, the rostrum differs in form
in the two sexes, and in most, if not in all, these cases it is clear that
the distinctions tend in the direction of making the beak of the female
more efficient for the mechanical purpose we have mentioned.

Fig. 147.—Eugnoristus monachus ♀. Madagascar. A, The imago; B,

front of pronotum, head, and rostrum.

It was proposed by Leconte and Horn to separate this series from all
the other Coleoptera as a primary division, and they looked on it as
of lower or more imperfect structure. Packard has very properly
protested against this interpretation; and there seems to be no
reason whatever for considering the Rhynchophora as "lower" than
other beetles; indeed we should be inclined to place such forms as
Calandrides amongst the most perfect of Insects; their external
structure (as shown by Eugnoristus monachus, Fig. 147) being truly
admirable.

Only four families of Rhynchophora can be at present accepted as

satisfactory; one of these—Curculionidae—includes an enormous
majority of the whole series. Though it is probable that it will
ultimately be divided into several families, the attempts to that end
that have already been made are not satisfactory.
Fam. 80. Anthribidae.—Palpi usually not covered, but distinct and
flexible. Antennae often long, not elbowed, the first joint not very
long. Third joint of tarsus small, usually much concealed by being
embraced by the second joint. Pygidium exposed; propygidium
deeply grooved in the middle. This family includes 800 or more
species, which are mostly tropical; it is very sparsely represented in
the faunas of Europe and North America. It is quite distinct from
Curculionidae with which it was formerly associated. It contains
many graceful Insects having a certain resemblance with Longicorns
on account of the large development of the antennae. The habits
and metamorphoses are but little known. It seems probable that
many species find their nutriment in old wood or boleti The larvae of
some genera (Cratoparis and Araeocerus) have legs, but in others
the legs are wanting, and the larvae are said to completely resemble
those of Curculionidae. In the larva of our tiny British species,
Choragus sheppardi, the legs are replaced by three pairs of thoracic,
sac-like pseudopods. This Insect makes burrows in dead branches
of hawthorn. The larvae of the genus Brachytarsus have been
ascertained to prey on Coccidae.

Fig. 148—Platyrhinus latirostris, Anthribidae. Britain. A, the perfect

Insect; B, tarsus and tip of tibia.

Fam. 81. Curculionidae (Weevils).—The beak of very variable

length and thickness; the palpi small, nearly always concealed within
the mouth, short, and rigid. Labrum absent. Antennae of the majority
elbowed, i.e. with the basal joint longer, and so formed that when it is
laterally extended the other joints can be placed in a forward
direction. This enormous family includes about 20,000 known
species, and yet a large portion of the species yearly brought from
the tropics still prove to be new. The rostrum or beak exhibits
excessive variety in form, and is in many cases different in the
sexes; in this case it is usually longer and thinner in the female. As
the rostrum is one of the chief characters by which a member of the
family may be recognised, it is necessary to inform the student that
in certain forms (the Australian Amycterides, e.g.) the organ in
question may be so short and thick that it is almost absent. In these
cases the Insect may be identified as a Curculionid by the gular area
being absent on the under side of the head, and by the concealment
of the palpi. The tarsi are usually of the same nature as those of
Phytophaga, already described, but the true fourth joint is less
visible. In the Brachycerides this joint is not present, and the third
joint is not lobed. The palpi are flexible and more or less exserted in
a very few species (Rhynchitides); in Rhinomacerides there is also
present a minute labrum. The front coxae are deeply embedded, and
in many forms the prosternum is peculiar in structure; the side-
pieces (epimera) meeting at the back of the prosternum in the middle
line. This, however, is not universal in the family, and it occurs in
some other beetles (e.g., Megalopodides of the Phytophaga). The
larvae are without legs. They are vegetarian, the eggs being
deposited by the mother-beetle in the midst of the food. These larvae
may be distinguished from those of Longicorns by the general form,
which is sub-cylindric or rather convex, not flattened, and more
particularly by the free, exserted head, the mouth being directed
downwards; the attitude is generally a curve, and the anterior part of
the body is a little the thicker. No part of plants is exempt from the
attacks of the larvae of Curculionidae; buds, twigs, leaves, flowers,
fruits, bark, pith, roots and galls may each be the special food of
some Curculionid. Certain species of the sub-families Rhynchitides
and Attelabides prepare leaves in an elaborate manner to serve as
food and dwelling for their young. If young birches, or birch bushes
from 5 to 10 feet in height, be looked at in the summer, one may
often notice that some of the leaves are rolled so as to form, each
one, a little funnel. This is the work of Rhynchites (or Deporaus)
betulae, a little Curculionid beetle (Fig. 149). An inspection of one of
these funnels will show that it is very skilfully constructed.
 Fig. 149.—The leaf-rolling of Rhynchites betulae. Britain. A, Female
beetle, magnified; B, the beetle forming the first incision on a leaf;
C, the completed roll. (B and C after Debey.)

The whole of a leaf is not used in the formation of a funnel, cuts

being made across the leaf in suitable directions. The beetle
standing on a leaf, as shown in the figure, proceeds to cut with its
mandibles an incision shaped like an erect S, commencing at a
certain part of the circumference, and ending at the midrib of the
leaf; the beetle then goes to the other side of the midrib, and
continues its incision so as to form another S-like curve considerably
different from the first; being prostrate and less abrupt. Thus the
blade of the leaf is divided into two halves by certain curved
incisions, the midrib remaining intact. The little funnel-twister now
commences to roll up the leaf to form the funnel; and this part of the
work is greatly facilitated by the shape of the incisions. Going back to
the spot where it commenced work, by the aid of its legs it rolls one
side of the leaf round an ideal axis, somewhat on the same plan as
that adopted by a grocer in forming a paper-funnel for sugar. The
incisions are found to be just of the right shape to make the overlaps
in the rolling, and to retain them rolled-up with the least tendency to
spring back. After some other operations destined to facilitate
subsequent parts of its task, the beetle enters the rolled-up part of
the leaf and brings it more perfectly together; it again comes out and,
pursuing a different system, holds on with the legs of one side of the
body to the roll, and with the other legs drags to it the portion of the
leaf on the other side of the midrib so as to wrap this part (i.e. the
result of its second incision) round the part of the funnel already
constructed. This being done the Insect again enters the funnel,
bites three or four small cavities on the inside of the leafy wall and
deposits an egg in each. Afterwards it emerges and fits the overlaps
together in a more perfect manner so as to somewhat contract the
funnel and make it firmer; then proceeding to the tip, this is operated
on by another series of engineering processes and made to close
the orifice; this part of the operation being analogous to the closing
by the grocer of his paper-funnel after the sugar has been put in. The
operation of the beetle is, however, much more complex, for it
actually makes a sort of second small funnel of the tip of the leaf,
bends this in, and retains it by tucking in some little projections. The
work, which has probably lasted about an hour, being now
completed, the creature takes a longer or shorter rest before
commencing another funnel. We have given only a sketch of the
chief points of the work, omitting reference to smaller artifices of the
craft master; but we may remark that the curved incisions made by
the beetle have been examined by mathematicians and duly extolled
as being conducted on highly satisfactory mathematical principles. It
is impossible at present for us to form any conception as to the
beetle's conceptions in carrying out this complex set of operations.
Our perplexity is increased if we recollect its life-history, for we then
see that neither precept or example can have initiated its
proceedings, and that imitation is out of the question. The eggs
hatch in their dark place, giving rise to an eyeless maggot, which
ultimately leaves the funnel for the earth. The parts of this maggot
subsequently undergo complete change to produce the motionless
pupa of entirely different form, from which emerges the perfect
Insect. Hence the beetle cannot be considered to have ever seen a
funnel, and certainly has never witnessed the construction of one,
though, when disclosed, it almost immediately sets to work to make
funnels on the complex and perfect system we have so imperfectly
described. More general considerations only add to the perplexity we
must feel when reflecting on this subject. Why does the Insect
construct the funnel at all? As a matter of protection it appears to be
of little use, for the larvae are known to suffer from the attacks of
parasites as other Insects do. We have not the least reason for
supposing that this mode of life for a larva is, so far as utility is
concerned, better than a more simple and usual one. Indeed,
extraordinary as this may appear, it is well known that other species
of the same genus adopt a simple mode of life, laying their eggs in
young fruits or buds. We think it possible, however, that a knowledge
of the mode of feeding of this larva may show that a more perfect
nutrition is obtained from a well-constructed cylinder, and if so this
would to a slight extent satisfy our longing for explanation, though
throwing no light whatever on the physiology or psychology of the
artificer, and leaving us hopelessly perplexed as to why a beetle in
ages long gone by should or could adopt a mode of life that by long
processes of evolution should, after enormous difficulties have been
overcome, attain the perfection we admire.[153]

Fam. 82. Scolytidae.—Rostrum extremely short, broad; tibiae

frequently denticulate externally; antennae short, with a broad club.
This family is not at all sharply distinguished from certain groups of
Curculionidae (from Cossonides e.g.), but as the species have
somewhat different habits, and in the majority of cases can be
readily distinguished, it is an advantage to separate the two families.
About 1400 species are at present known. Most of them are wood-
and bark-feeders; some bore into hard wood; a few mine in twigs or
small branches of trees, but the majority live in the inner layers of the
bark; and this also serves as the nidus of the larvae. A small number
of species have been found to inhabit the stems of herbaceous
plants, or to live in dry fruits. Owing to their retiring habits they are
rarely seen except by those who seek them in their abodes, when
they may often be found in great profusion. The mother-beetle bores
into the suitable layer of the bark, forming a sort of tunnel and
depositing eggs therein. The young larvae start each one a tunnel of
its own, diverging from the parent tunnel; hence each batch of larvae
produces a system of tunnels, starting from the parents' burrow, and
in many species these burrows are characteristic in form and
direction, so that the work of particular Scolytids can be recognised
by the initiated.

The Platypides bore into the wood of trees and stumps; they are
chiefly exotic, and little is known about them. They are the most
aberrant of all Rhynchophora, the head being remarkably short, flat
in front, with the mouth placed on the under surface of the head,
there being no trace of a rostrum: the tarsi are elongate and slender,
the third joint not being at all lobed, while the true fourth joint is
visible. Hence they have not the appearance of Rhynchophora.
Some authorities treat the Platypides as a distinct family.

Some of the members of the group Tomicides also bore into the
wood. Recent observations have shown that there is an important
feature in the economy of certain of these wood-borers, inasmuch as
they live gregariously in the burrow, and feed on peculiar fungi that
develop there, and are called ambrosia. According to Hubbard[154],
some species cultivate these fungi, making elaborate preparations to
start their growth. The fungi, however, sometimes increase to such
an extent as to seal up the burrows, and kill the Insects by
suffocation.

Scolytidae sometimes multiply to an enormous extent, attacking and

destroying the trees in wooded regions. Much discussion has taken
place as to whether or not they are really injurious. It is contended by
one set of partisans that they attack only timber that is in an
unhealthy, dying, or dead condition. It may be admitted that this is
usually the case; yet when they occur in enormous numbers they
may attack timber that is in a sort of neutral state of health, and so
diminish its vigour, and finally cause its destruction. Hence it is of
great importance that they should be watched by competent
foresters.

The larvae of Scolytidae are said to completely resemble those of

Curculionidae: except in the group Platypides, where the body is
straight and almost cylindrical, and terminates in an oblique
truncation bearing a short hard spine.[155]

Fam. 83. Brenthidae.—Form elongate; rostrum straight, directly

continuing the long axis of the body, often so thick as to form an
elongate head; antennae not elbowed. The Brenthidae form a family
of about 800 species, remarkable for the excessive length and
slenderness of some of its forms, and for the extreme difference in
the sexes that frequently exists. It is well represented in the tropics
only, and very little is known as to the natural history and
development. These beetles are stated to be wood-feeders, and no
doubt this is correct in the case of the majority of the species; but Mr.
Lewis observed in Japan that Zemioses celtis and Cyphagogus
segnipes are predaceous, and enter the burrows of wood-boring
Insects to search for larvae as prey: they are very much modified in
structure to permit this; and as the other members of the group
Taphroderides are similar in structure, it is probable that they are all
predaceous. Nothing whatever is known as to the larval history of
these carnivorous forms. Indeed an uncertainty, almost complete,
prevails as to the early stages of this family. Riley has given a sketch
of a larva which he had no doubt was that of Eupsalis minuta, the
North American representative of the family; if he is correct the larva
differs from those of Curculionidae by its elongate form, and by the
possession of thoracic legs: these, though small, are three-jointed.
Descriptions, supposed to be those of Brenthid larvae, were formerly
published by Harris and Motschoulsky; but it is now clear that both
were mistaken.

Fig. 150—Eupsalis minuta. North America. A, Larva; B, pupa; C,

female imago; D, head of male. (After Riley.)

In the higher forms of Brenthidae the rostrum of the female is

perfectly cylindrical and polished, and the mandibles are minute,
hard, pointed processes placed at its tip. This organ is admirably
adapted to its purpose; it being used for boring a hole in wood or
bark, in which an egg is subsequently deposited. The males in these
cases are extremely different, so that considerable curiosity is felt as
to why this should be so. In some cases their head is thick, and there
may be no rostrum, while large powerful mandibles are present.

In other cases the rostrum is slender, but of enormous length, so that

it may surpass in this respect the rest of the body, although this itself
is so drawn out as to be quite exceptional in the Insect world:[156] the
antennae are inserted near the tip of the rostrum instead of near its
base, as they are in the female. The size of the males is in these
cases usually much larger than that of the female.[157] The males of
some species fight; they do not, however, wound their opponent, but
merely frighten him away. In Eupsalis it appears that the rostrum of
the female is apt to become fixed in the wood during her boring
operations; and the male then extricates her by pressing his heavy
prosternum against the tip of her abdomen; the stout forelegs of the
female serve as a fulcrum and her long body as a lever, so that the
effort of the male, exerted at one extremity of the body of the female,
produces the required result at the other end of her body. The New
Zealand Brenthid, Lasiorhynchus barbicornis, exhibits sexual
disparity in an extreme degree: the length of the male is usually
nearly twice that of the female, and his rostrum is enormous. It is at
present impossible to assign any reason for this; observations made
at the request of the writer by Mr. Helms some years ago, elicited the
information that the female is indefatigable in her boring efforts, and
that the huge male stands near by as a witness, apparently of the
most apathetic kind.

Coleoptera of uncertain position.

There are three small groups that it is impossible at present to place

in any of the great series of beetles.

Fam. 84. Aglycyderidae.—Tarsi three-jointed, the second joint

lobed; head not prolonged to form a beak. The two most important
features of Rhynchophora are absent in these Insects, while the
other structural characters are very imperfectly known, many parts of
the external skeleton being so completely fused that the details of
structure are difficult of appreciation. Westwood considered the tarsi
to be really four-jointed, but it is not at all clear that the minute knot
he considered the third joint is more than the articulation of the
elongate terminal joint. The family consists only of two or three
species of Aglycyderes, one of which occurs in the Canary Islands,
and one or two in New Zealand and New Caledonia. The former is
believed to live in the stems of Euphorbia canariensis; a New
Zealand species has been found in connection with the tree-ferna.
Cyathea dealbata

Fig. 151—Aglycyderes setifer. Canary Islands. A, Imago; B, tarsus

according to Westwood; C, according to nature; D, maxilla; E,
labium.

Fam. 85. Proterhinidae.—Tarsi three-jointed, the second joint lobed;

head of the male scarcely prolonged, but that of the female forming a
definite rostrum; maxillae and ligula entirely covered by the mentum.
As in the preceding family the sutures on the under side of the head
and prosternum cannot be detected. The minute palpi are entirely
enclosed in the buccal cavity. There is a very minute true third joint
of the tarsus, at the base of the terminal joint, concealed between
the lobes of the second joint. The family consists of the genus
Proterhinus; it is confined to the Hawaiian Islands, where these
Insects live on dead wood in the native forests. The genus is
numerous in species and individuals.
 Fig. 152—Proterhinus lecontei. Hawaiian Islands. A, Male; B, female;
C, front foot, more magnified.

Strepsiptera (or Rhipiptera, Stylopidae).—Male small or minute;

prothorax extremely small; mesothorax moderate, the elytra reduced
to small, free slips; metathorax and wings very large; nervuration of
the latter radiating, without cross nervules. Female a mere sac, with
one extremity smaller and forming a sort of neck or head.

Fig. 153.—Sexes of Strepsiptera. A, Male of Stylops dalii (after Curtis);

B, female of Xenos rossii (after von Siebold).

These curious Insects are parasitic in the interior of other Insects, of

the Orders Hymenoptera and Hemiptera. Their structure and their
life-histories entitle them to be ranked as the most abnormal of all
Insects, and entomologists are not agreed as to whether they are
aberrant Coleoptera or a distinct Order. The newly-hatched larva is a
minute triungulin (Fig. 154), somewhat like that of Meloe; it fixes
itself to the skin of the larva of a Hymenopterous Insect, penetrates
into the interior, and there undergoes its metamorphoses, the male
emerging to enjoy a brief period of an abnormally active, indeed
agitated, existence, while the female never moves. It is important to
note that these Strepsiptera do not, like most other internal
parasites, produce the death of their hosts; these complete their
metamorphosis, and the development of the parasite goes on
simultaneously with that of the host, so that the imago of the
Strepsipteron is found only in the imago of the host.[158] After the
young Stylops has entered its host it feeds for a week or so on the
fat-body (apparently by a process of suction), then moults and
assumes the condition of a footless maggot, in which state it remains
till growth is completed. At the latter part of this period the history
diverges according to sex; the female undergoes only a slight
metamorphic development of certain parts, accompanied apparently
by actual degradation of other parts; while the male goes on to
pupation, as is normal in Insects. (We may remark that the great
features of the development of the sexes are parallel with those of
Coccidae in Hemiptera.) When the Hymenopterous larva changes to
a pupa, the larva of the Strepsipteron pushes one extremity of its
body between two of the abdominal rings of its host, so that this
extremity becomes external, and in this position it completes its
metamorphosis, the male emerging very soon after the host has
become an active winged Insect, while the female undergoes no
further change of position, but becomes a sac, in the interior of which
young develop in enormous numbers, finally emerging from the
mother-sac in the form of the little triungulins we have already
mentioned. This is all that can be given at present as a general
account; many points of the natural history are still obscure, others
have been merely guessed; while some appear to differ greatly in
the different forms. A few brief remarks as to these points must
suffice.

Bees carrying, or that have carried, Strepsiptera, are said to be

stylopised (it being a species of the genus Stylops that chiefly infests
bees); the term is also used with a wider application, all Insects that
carry a Strepsipterous parasite being termed stylopised, though it
may be a Strepsipteron of a genus very different from Stylops that
attacks them. The development of one or more Strepsiptera in an
Insect usually causes some deformity in the abdomen of its host,
and effects considerable changes in the condition of its internal
organs, and also in some of the external characters. Great difference
of opinion prevails as to what these changes are; it is clear, however,
that they vary much according to the species, and also according to
the extent of the stylopisation. Usually only one Stylops is developed
in a bee; but two, three, and even four have been observed:[159] and
in the case of the wasp, Polistes, Hubbard has observed that a
single individual may bear eight or ten individuals of its Strepsipteron
(Xenos, n. sp.?).