REPORT ON

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

CREATED BY
PARAMESWARAN S
 INDEX
PAGE
SI.NO NAME NO

1. Introduction to Power System Analysis 1

2. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 3

3. POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS BASICS 6

4. INTRODUCTION TO ETAP 8

5. TRANSMISSION LINE MODELLING 23

6. TRANSFORMER MODELLING 28

7. ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL TRANSFORMER 35

8. GENERATOR 43

9. LOAD MODELLING 64

10. CONCLUSION 78
 Introduction to Power System
Analysis
Overview:
Power system analysis is a crucial discipline within electrical engineering that
focuses on the study and optimization of electrical power systems. These systems play a
fundamental role in delivering reliable and efficient electrical energy to homes, industries,
and various applications. Power system analysis encompasses a range of techniques and
tools to understand, design, and operate these complex networks.

Importance of Power System Analysis:

Reliability and Stability:

Ensuring the reliability and stability of a power system is paramount. Power
system analysis helps in identifying potential issues such as voltage instability, transient
disturbances, and faults that could lead to system failures. By analyzing these factors,
engineers can implement measures to enhance system reliability.

Optimization and Efficiency:

Power system analysis aids in optimizing the performance of electrical networks,
improving overall efficiency, and minimizing energy losses. This involves designing
transmission and distribution systems that deliver power with minimal losses and ensuring
effective utilization of resources.

Planning and Expansion:

Proper planning is essential for the growth and expansion of power systems to
meet increasing demand. Power system analysis tools help in forecasting load requirements,
determining the optimal location for new generation facilities, and planning transmission
and distribution networks.

Key Components of Power System Analysis:

Load Flow Analysis:

Load flow analysis, also known as power flow analysis, is a fundamental tool
for examining the steady-state operation of a power system. It helps determine the voltage
and power flow across various components, ensuring the system operates within acceptable
limits.

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 Short Circuit Analysis:
Short circuit analysis evaluates the effects of faults in the power system,
providing valuable information for the design of protective devices and systems.
Understanding short circuit conditions is crucial for minimizing equipment damage and
maintaining system reliability.

Stability Analysis:
Stability analysis assesses the dynamic behavior of a power system under
various operating conditions. This includes transient stability, small-signal stability, and
voltage stability analysis, all of which contribute to maintaining a secure and reliable power
system.

Static Motor Starting Analysis:

Static motor starting analysis is the evaluation of the electrical system's
response during the initiation of large motors. It ensures that the inrush current generated
during motor startup does not adversely impact the power system, addressing issues like
voltage sags and stability.

Relay Coordination:
Relay coordination involves setting protective relays in a way that ensures
selective and discriminating operation during faults. It is crucial for minimizing downtime
by allowing the nearest relay to operate without unnecessarily tripping other non-faulted
devices.

Arc Flash:
The primary objective of an arc flash hazard analysis is to identify potential
hazards associated with electrical arcs, determining incident energy levels and arc flash
boundaries. One key measure to mitigate arc flash hazards is the implementation of
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for workers.

Harmonic analysis:
Harmonic analysis is the assessment of harmonic distortion in the power
system. An example of a negative impact is that harmonics can lead to increased losses,
overheating, and reduced efficiency in electrical equipment.

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 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
Load Flow Analysis: Understanding the Power System's Operation

Introduction:
Load flow analysis is a crucial aspect of power system studies that focuses on
determining the steady-state operating conditions of an electrical network. It plays a key
role in ensuring the optimal performance, reliability, and efficiency of power systems.

Purpose of Load Flow Analysis:

Voltage and Power Flow Determination:
Load flow analysis helps in calculating the voltage magnitudes and phase angles
at various buses within the power system. Additionally, it evaluates the power flow through
transmission lines, transformers, and other components.

System Stability Assessment:

By examining the voltage profiles and power flows, load flow analysis
contributes to assessing the stability of the power system. This includes identifying potential
voltage instability, ensuring secure and reliable system operation.

Key Components of Load Flow Analysis:

Bus Classification:
Load flow analysis categorizes buses into different types, such as generator
buses, load buses, and slack buses. Each type has specific characteristics and requirements
in the analysis.

Power Injections and Withdrawals:

Understanding the power injections from generators and power withdrawals
from loads is essential for accurate load flow calculations. This involves considering the
active and reactive power contributions at each bus.

Iterative Solution Methods:

Load flow analysis employs iterative numerical methods, such as the Gauss-
Seidel or Newton-Raphson methods, to converge to a solution. These methods ensure
accuracy in determining bus voltages and power flows.

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 Practical Applications:

System Planning:
Load flow analysis aids in system planning by predicting the power system's
behaviour under various operating conditions. This is crucial for designing an efficient
and reliable network that can meet future demand.

Voltage Profile Improvement:

Identifying and mitigating voltage violations through load flow analysis
contributes to maintaining a stable voltage profile, preventing overvoltage or undervoltage
conditions.

Transmission Line Loading:

Load flow analysis helps assess the loading conditions of transmission lines,
ensuring that they operate within their thermal and voltage limits.

Various networks available in power system:

• Radial system
• Ring main system
• Closed ring system
• Interconnected system

 RADIAL SYSTEM:
This system is used only when substation or generating station is located at the
centre of the consumers. In this system, different feeders radiate from a substation or a
generating station and feed the distributors at one end. Thus, the main characteristic of
a radial distribution system is that the power flow is in only one direction. Single line
diagram of a typical radial distribution system is as shown in the figure below. It is the
simplest system and has the lowest initial cost.

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  RING MAIN SYSTEM:
A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel feeders can be
achieved by using ring distribution system. Here, each distribution transformer is fed
with two feeders but in different paths. The feeders in this system form a loop which
starts from the substation bus-bars, runs through the load area feeding distribution
transformers and returns to the substation bus-bars. The following figure shows a
typical single line diagram of a ring main distribution system.

 INTER CONNECTED SYSTEM:

When a ring main feeder is energized by two or more substations or generating
stations, it is called as an interconnected distribution system. This system ensures
reliability in an event of transmission failure. Also, any area fed from one generating
stations during peak load hours can be fed from the other generating station or
substation for meeting power requirements from increased load.

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 Power System Analysis Basics
Introduction:
Power system analysis is a critical discipline within electrical engineering that
focuses on understanding and optimizing the operation of electrical power systems. It
encompasses various techniques and tools to analyse the behaviour of these complex
networks, ensuring their reliable and efficient performance.

Key Components of Power System Analysis:

Load Flow Analysis:

Definition:
Load flow analysis, also known as power flow analysis, studies the steady-state
behaviour of a power system by determining the voltage and power flow across its
components.

Purpose:
It ensures that the power system operates within acceptable voltage limits and
identifies potential issues such as overloads and voltage instability.

Short Circuit Analysis:

Definition:
Short circuit analysis assesses the effects of faults in the power system, determining
fault currents and the impact on equipment.

Purpose:
It aids in designing protective devices and systems to minimize equipment damage
and maintain system reliability.
Stability Analysis:

Definition:
Stability analysis assesses the dynamic behaviour of the power system under different
operating conditions, including transient stability, small-signal stability, and voltage
stability.

Purpose:
It ensures that the power system can recover and maintain stable operation after
disturbances.
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 Tools and Methods:

Mathematical Models:

 Node and Branch Models:

Power system components are represented using mathematical models, with nodes
representing buses and branches representing transmission lines.

 Equations:
Kirchhoff's laws and power equations are used to develop the mathematical
framework for analysing power systems.

Numerical Methods:

Iterative Techniques:
Methods such as Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson are employed to iteratively
solve the nonlinear equations derived from the power system models.

Computer Software:
Specialized software, such as Power World and PSS/E, facilitates efficient and
accurate power system analysis.

Importance of Power System Analysis:

Reliability and Security:

Preventive Measures:
Power system analysis helps identify potential issues before they lead to system
failures, ensuring a reliable and secure power supply.

Planning and Expansion:

Load Forecasting:
Load flow and other analyses aid in forecasting future demand and planning for the
expansion of power systems to meet growing needs.

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 INTRODUCTION TO ETAP
Benefits of using ETAP:

• Improved accuracy and reliability: Precise modelling leads to better decision-

making.
• Enhanced efficiency: Optimizes system design and operation for cost savings.
• Reduced risks: Identifies and mitigates potential safety hazards.
• Increased productivity: Streamlines engineering workflows with automation
features.

Key Features of ETAP:

• Modular design: Comprised of various modules like CYME Dist. For

distribution systems, CYME TDYNA for transient stability, RELAY for
protection systems, and POWERLINK for power quality analysis, allowing
users to choose specific modules based on their needs.
• User-friendly interface: Provides a graphical user interface with one-line
diagrams for easy model creation and visualization.
• Comprehensive libraries: Includes extensive libraries of equipment models and
industry standards for accurate simulations.
• Advanced analysis capabilities: Offers in-depth analysis tools for various
scenarios, including motor starting, harmonic studies, and arc flash analysis.
• Customization options: Enables users to define custom models, reports, and
settings for tailored studies.

What can ETAP do?

ETAP's capabilities span a wide range, including:

• Load flow analysis: Studying the flow of power through a system under normal
conditions.
• Short circuit analysis: Simulating the system's behaviour during faults like
short circuits.
• Transient stability analysis: Assessing the system's stability during sudden
changes like generator loss.
• Protection system analysis: Evaluating the performance of protective devices
like relays and circuit breakers during faults.
• Power quality analysis: Analysing the quality of power delivered to customers.

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 Step 1: Enter name to the project and check the unit system what do you need and
if you need change the directory and Set password if required.

Step 2: provide user name to Step 3: Chose the access level

know who created the project. as per the need.

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After creating new project
 Project information shows the
information about the project and engineer
in the output of the created project.

The project standards are

given before starting the project. It
will give the toolbar as per the
standards we choosing.

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 RUN LOAD FLOW:
ETAP Load Flow calculates bus voltages, branch power factors, currents,
system losses, power generation versus loading, and simulates control voltages
throughout the system using the ETAP Electrical Digital Twin model.

AUTO RUN ON/OFF:

An "auto run on/off" feature could refer to the ability to automate certain
simulations or analyses in ETAP. It might allow users to schedule simulations to start
or stop automatically at specific times or under certain conditions, providing
convenience and efficiency in power system analysis.

Alert view:
The Alert View provides a real-time display of alarms, warnings, and other
critical information related to the power system. It allows users to monitor and
respond promptly to any issues or abnormal conditions.

DISPLAY OPTION:
Display Options allow users to customize the visual representation of the
power system model. This includes adjusting colours, symbols, and other visual
elements to enhance clarity and make it easier to interpret the information.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSER:

Load Flow Analysis helps determine the steady-state operating conditions
of a power system. It calculates and analyses voltage magnitudes, phase angles,
active and reactive power flows, and other electrical parameters to assess the
system's performance under normal operating conditions.

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 EDIT:
Model Configuration: The "EDIT" function in ETAP is often used to modify the
configuration of power system elements such as generators, transformers,
transmission lines, and loads. Users can edit parameters such as ratings,
characteristics, and other settings to accurately represent the power system under
analysis.

Data Input Modification: The "EDIT" function allows users to modify input data for
various power system studies. This includes adjusting load profiles, updating
equipment data, or changing system configurations. This capability is crucial for
refining the model and ensuring accurate simulation results.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS:

Steady-State Power System Assessment: Load Flow Analysis helps engineers
analyse and understand the steady-state behaviour of a power system. It calculates and
examines key electrical parameters such as voltage magnitudes, phase angles, active
power, and reactive power flows under normal operating conditions.

Voltage Profile Evaluation: Load Flow Analysis is essential for assessing the voltage
profile throughout the power system. It identifies areas with potential voltage issues,
such as voltage drops or excessive voltage levels, helping engineers optimize the
system to ensure voltage stability and compliance with operational constraints.

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 SCENARIO WIZARD:
Guided Scenario Creation: The Scenario Wizard might assist users in creating
scenarios for different power system conditions, configurations, or events, providing a
step-by-step interface for scenario setup.

Analysis Automation: It could automate the process of running multiple scenarios,

allowing users to efficiently assess the impact of various factors on the power system
without manually configuring each scenario.

STUDY WIZARD:
Study Wizard automates various power system studies, including load flow,
short circuit, motor starting, and transient stability analysis. This saves time and effort
compared to manually setting up each study. It also helps ensure consistency in study
settings and reduces the risk of errors.
Study Wizard provides guidance and recommendations throughout the study
process. It suggests appropriate study settings based on the selected equipment and
network configuration. It also highlights potential problems and suggests corrective
actions. This helps engineers make informed decisions about their power system design
and operation.

PROJECT WIZARD:
Project Wizard lets you group these study macros into "Project Macros,"
essentially creating master control panels for running a series of analyses across different
projects. This saves you the hassle of manually opening and closing project files,
launching individual study macros, and waiting for each scenario to complete.
Project Wizard streamlines your workflow by automating repetitive tasks
and enabling parallel execution of studies across multiple projects. This frees up your
time for more critical tasks like analysing results and interpreting data. Plus, it fosters
collaboration by allowing colleagues to easily run pre-defined analysis sequences,
ensuring consistency and reducing the risk of errors.

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 STUDY CASE:

Creating study cases: This involves defining the initial conditions and settings for a
power system analysis, such as load levels, generator dispatch, and equipment
configuration.

Running studies: This means launching specific analysis algorithms like load flow,
short circuit, or transient stability on the defined study case.

Managing study results: This includes storing, comparing, and visualizing the output
data from various studies for analysis and decision-making.

Sharing study cases: This allows engineers to collaborate by exporting and importing
study cases for further analysis by colleagues or external parties.

SYSTEM DUMPSTER:

Cut, copy, and paste elements efficiently: Imagine working on a complex one-line
diagram in ETAP and needing to rearrange or duplicate elements. The System Dumpster
lets you select and "cut" or "copy" elements (like buses, transformers, or loads) from the
one-line. These copied elements then reside in the Dumpster, accessible for pasting back
onto the one-line at any desired location. This eliminates the need to manually move or
duplicate elements individually, saving you time and effort.

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 Organize and reuse elements across projects: The System Dumpster is not just for
temporary storage within a single project. You can also "paste" elements from the
Dumpster into different ETAP projects, essentially reusing components across your
work. This is particularly useful for frequently used elements or standardized sub-
circuits, promoting consistency and efficiency in your power system analysis workflow.

ENABLE ONE LINE AUTO BUILD:

Auto-Build Tool in the Single-Line Diagram (SLD) Editor:

Reduces manual effort and saves time: Instead of manually placing and connecting
every element on your one-line, Auto-Build can automatically arrange and connect
buses, transformers, loads, etc., based on your chosen configuration and rulebook. This
can significantly speed up the process of creating complex one-line diagrams.

Ensures consistency and adherence to standards: The rulebook defines spacing,

alignment, and connection rules for various elements in your one-line. This helps
maintain a consistent and professional look for your diagrams, while also ensuring they
adhere to industry standards and best practices.

Enable One-Line Auto Build in Project Wizard:

Streamlines workflow for repetitive tasks: If you have standard types of projects with
similar one-line configurations, you can create project templates containing pre-defined
elements and connections. By enabling auto build in the Project Wizard, you can quickly
generate complete one-line diagrams for similar projects based on these templates,
saving you the time and effort of manually recreating them each time.

Improves consistency and reduces errors: Using project templates with auto build
ensures a consistent layout and element selection for similar projects, minimizing the
risk of errors or omissions in your one-line diagrams.

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 EDIT TOOLBAR:
AC ELEMENTS:

• AC elements represent power system components

like buses, lines, transformers.
• Crucial for ETAP studies like load flow, short
circuit, and stability analysis.

DC ELEMENTS:

• DC elements: Buses, lines, converters, loads,

protection devices for DC power systems.
• Used for DC load flow, short circuit, converter, and
stability analysis.

INSTRUMENT DEVICES:
• CTs, PTs, meters, relays: monitor current, voltage,
trigger alarms in ETAP.
• Data for studies, real-time, fault investigation.

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 Generators:
Generators are fundamental components in power systems, responsible for
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. They play a crucial role in
electricity generation and contribute significantly to the overall performance of a power
system.
Types of Generators:
• Synchronous Generators
• Asynchronous or Induction Generators
• DC Generators Generator

Synchronous Generators:
• Operate at a constant speed synchronized with the grid frequency.
• Commonly used in large power plants for bulk electricity generation.

Asynchronous or Induction Generators:

• Do not operate at a fixed speed and are often used in renewable energy systems.
• Suitable for variable-speed applications like wind and small hydroelectric power
plants.

DC Generators:
• Convert mechanical energy into direct current (DC).
• Historically used but now less common due to the prevalence of AC power
systems.

Operating Characteristics
• Voltage Regulation
• Synchronization
• Governors
• Efficiency
• Cooling System

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 • Control System

POWER GRID:

An electric grid is a network of synchronized power providers and consumers that are
connected by transmission and distribution lines and operated by one or more control
centres. When most people talk about the power "grid," they are referring to the
transmission system for electricity.

BUS:

Bus & Bus Node:

• Connecting point & voltage reference for multiple power system elements.

Bus Duct & Busway:

• Protected channels for high-current busbars, alternative to cables.

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 TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between

two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It typically consists of
two coils (windings) that are magnetically coupled but electrically isolated. When
an alternating current (AC) flows through one winding (the primary), it produces
a changing magnetic field, inducing a voltage in the other winding (the
secondary), allowing energy to be transferred from one circuit to another with a
change in voltage and current levels. Transformers are fundamental components
in electrical power systems for voltage transformation, distribution, and
transmission.

• Two-Winding Transformer (ETAP): Simple model with primary and

secondary windings for basic voltage transformation.

• Three-Winding Transformer (ETAP): More flexibility with an additional

tertiary winding, useful for complex network configurations.

TRANSMISSION LINE:

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 • Modelling: ETAP allows users to model and analyse transmission lines,
considering factors like line parameters, length, and configuration.

• Transient Analysis: ETAP is equipped for transient analysis of transmission

lines, helping assess dynamic behaviours such as fault transients and system
stability.

Lumped load:

• Modelling Efficiency:
Lumped loads in ETAP enable efficient modeming by consolidating multiple
loads into a single point, simplifying the analysis process and reducing
computational complexity.
• Load Flow Impact:
Lumped loads are particularly useful in load flow analysis within ETAP,
allowing engineers to assess steady-state conditions and optimize voltage levels
in power systems.

Wind Turbine:

Renewable Generation:
In ETAP, a wind turbine serves as a renewable energy source, harnessing
wind power to generate electricity and promoting sustainable energy integration
within the power system.
Dynamic Simulation:
ETAP allows dynamic modelling of wind turbines, enabling engineers to
simulate and analyse the transient responses of these renewable sources, ensuring
the stability and reliability of the power system under varying wind conditions.

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 PV ARRAY:

• Renewable Integration:
In ETAP, a PV array facilitates the integration of renewable energy
sources, contributing to a more sustainable power system by converting sunlight
into electrical power.
• Dynamic Modelling:
ETAP allows dynamic modelling of PV arrays, enabling engineers to
analyse the transient behaviour and impact of these renewable sources on the
overall stability and performance of the power system.

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 TRANSMISSION LINE MODELLING
Transmission line modelling is a crucial aspect of electrical engineering
and telecommunications. It involves representing the behavior of transmission lines,
which are used to transmit electrical signals over long distances. These lines can be
used for various applications, including power distribution, data communication, and
RF (radio frequency) signal transmission. The modelling of transmission lines helps
engineers analyses and design systems accurately.

Distributed Parameters:
A distributed-parameter system is a system whose state space is infinite-
dimensional. Such systems are therefore also known as infinite-dimensional systems.
Typical examples are systems described by partial differential equations or by delay
differential equations.

Transmission Line Equations:

At a distance x into the line, there is current I(x) travelling through each
wire, and there is a voltage difference V(x) between the wires. If the current and
voltage come from a single wave (with no reflection), then V(x) / I(x) = Z0, where
Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the line.

Propagation Constant:
The measure of the change in amplitude and phase per unit distance is
called the propagation constant. Denoted by the Greek letter 𝜸. The terminologies
like Transmission function, Transmission constant, Transmission parameter,
Propagation coefficient, and Propagation parameter are synonymous with this
quantity.

Characteristic Impedance:
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance of a uniform transmission
line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave
propagating along the line; that is, a wave travelling in one direction in the absence
of reflections in the other direction.

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients:

Reflection is the process by which electromagnetic radiation is returned
either at the boundary between two media (surface reflection) or at the interior of a
medium (volume reflection), whereas transmission is the passage of
electromagnetic.
radiation through a medium.
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 Smith Chart:
A Smith chart is developed by examining the load where the impedance must
be matched. Instead of considering its impedance directly, you express its reflection
coefficient ΓL, which is used to characterize a load (such as admittance, gain, and
transconductance). The ΓL is more useful when dealing with RF frequencies.

Lossy Transmission Lines:

A lossy transmission line consists of an appreciable value of series resistance
and shunt conductance where different frequencies travel at different speeds. This
is opposite to a lossless transmission line, where the speed of wave propagation is
the same for all frequencies.

Numerical Methods:
The Numerical methods are widely used in computer engineering for various
applications. Some examples include Simulation and modelling: Numerical
methods are used to simulate and model complex systems and processes in
computer engineering, such as circuit design, signal processing, and
communication systems.

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 Ferranti effect:
The Ferranti effect is an electrical engineering phenomenon that describes
the increase in voltage at the receiving end of a long transmission line. This effect
is more prevalent when the load is very small, or no load is connected. he Ferranti
effect occurs primarily in long transmission lines due to the capacitance and
inductance effects of the transmission line.

The Ferranti effect is more likely to occur when:

• The transmission line is very long (over 200 km)
• The receiving end is open-circuited or lightly loaded
• The transmission line is charging
This effect can be controlled by placing the shunt reactors at the receiving end of
the lines

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 Surge Impedance Loading:
Surge impedance loading (SIL) is a concept used in electrical power
transmission systems to determine the maximum power that can be transferred
through a transmission line. Surge impedance loading is defined as the power load
in which the total reactive power of the lines becomes zero. The reactive power
generated by the shunt capacitance is consumed by the series inductance of the
line.
What is the value of surge impedance?
An impedance which renders the line as the infinite line is known as surge
impedance. It has a value of about 400 ohms and phase angle varying from 0 to -
15 degrees for overhead lines and around 40 ohms for underground cables.

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 Adding Shunt Reactor:
Adding a shunt reactor to a power system is a common practice in electrical
engineering to improve the system's voltage stability and control. Shunt reactors
are essentially inductive devices connected in parallel (shunt) withthe
transmission lines or substations. They are used to compensate for capacitive
reactive power and help maintain a stable voltage profile in the electrical grid.

The shunt reactor standard power rating are 50, 63,80,125, 300Mvar . IEC
60076 – 6 Reactor.

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 TRANSFORMER MODELLING
Transformer modelling involves representing the behaviour of electrical
transformers, which are crucial components in power systems for voltage
transformation and power distribution. Transformers operate based on the
principles of electromagnetic induction. The primary and secondary windings of a
transformer are magnetically coupled, allowing for efficient transfer of electrical
energy.

APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMERS:

• To step up or step down the voltage without any change in frequency.

• Inverter transformer

• Provides electrical isolation.

• Conversion of 3 phase 3 wire system to 3 phase 4 wire system.

• Impedance matching transformers (amplifier applications)

• Instrument transformer

• Phase shifting transformers to control power flow

• To reduce the imbalance in the system

• 12 pulse rectifier (HVDC) applications

• Centre tapped transformers

• single phase full wave rectifier applications

• Cathodic applications

• Welding transformer

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 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:

Resistances and reactance of transformer, which are described above, can be

imagined separately from the windings (as shown in the figure below). Hence, the
function of windings, thereafter, will only be the transforming the voltage.

The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing

components Iμ) and non-induction resistance R0 (taking working component Iw)
which are connected into parallel across the primary. The value of E 1 can be
obtained by subtracting I1Z1 from V1. The value of R0 and X0 can be calculated
as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ. But using this equivalent circuit does not simplify
the calculations. To make calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer current,
voltage and impedance either to primary side or to the secondary side. In that case,
we would have to work with only one winding which is more convenient.

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 From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,
E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K
Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary. Z2 can be referred to
primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2 ...................where K= N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2) equating real and imaginary parts, R2' = K2R2
and X2' = K2X2 And V2' = KV2

The equivalent circuit of transformer with secondary parameters referred to the

primary.

Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small
that, V1 and E1 can be assumed to be equal. Therefore, the exciting current
drawn by the parallel combination of R0 and X0 would not affect significantly,
if we move it to the input terminals as shown in the figure below.

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 let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:

If only voltage regulation is to be calculated, then even the whole

excitation branch (parallel combination of R0 and X0) can be neglected. Then
the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in the figure below

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 ETAP Simulation on transformer

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 Consider a 132 kV grid connected to a transformer of 132/11 kV the power rating is
22.5 MVA atONAN and 30 MVA at ONA

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 %Z value of different types of rated power in transformer:

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 ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL
TRANSFORMERS
The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the transformers is
more than its capacity. The reliability is increased with parallel operation than to
have single larger unit. The cost associated with maintaining the spares is less when
two transformers are connected in parallel.

When the load on one transformer exceeds its capacity, it poses a serious threat to
the power system and the equipment itself.

Immediate effects:
• Increased temperature: The windings of the overloaded transformer experience
higher currents, leading to increased heat generation. This can cause hot spots
within the transformer, exceeding its safe operating temperature.
• Decreased E f f i c i e n c y : Overloading reduces the transformer's
efficiency, resulting in more energy wasted as heat. This can further contribute
to temperature rise and higher operating costs.
• Voltage instability: An overloaded transformer may struggle to maintain the
desired voltage output. This can lead to voltage fluctuations on the
receiving side, affecting connected equipment and potentially causing device
malfunctions.
• Increased risk of failures: Overheating and stress on the transformer's insulation
can accelerate its degradation and increase the risk of short circuits, faults, and
even catastrophic transformer failures.

Long-term effects:
• Reduced lifespan: Operating at or above capacity significantly reduces the life
expectancy of the transformer. Frequent overloads can cause permanent
damage to the insulation and core materials, eventually requiring costly
replacement.
• Reduced system reliability: If the overloaded transformer fails, it can disrupt
power supply to the connected loads, leading to outages and disruptions. This
can impact critical infrastructure, industries, and households.
• Monitor transformer loading: It's crucial to continuously monitor the load on
each transformer in real-time. This allows for early detection of overloads and
timely intervention.
• Reduce the load: The most immediate action is to reduce the load on the
overloaded transformer. This can be achieved by shifting some of the load to
other transformers, if available, or by temporarily shedding non-critical loads.

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 • Investigate the cause: Identifying the root cause of the overload is essential to
prevent future occurrences. This could involve analysing system demand.
patterns, identifying faulty equipment, or addressing inefficiencies in the power
distribution network.
• Consider alternatives: In some cases, adding an additional transformer to the
system or upgrading the existing one might be necessary to handle increased
demand and prevent future overloads.
Ultimately, addressing an overloaded transformer situation requires a swift and
strategic response to ensure the safety and reliability of the power system.

Transformer Paralleling in ETAP

Looking to enhance your knowledge in power systems? I recently delved
into the world of parallel transformers and simulated a fascinating setup using 3
transformers, 1 grid, and 2 bus connections, with 1 load. Join me in an upcoming
educational post as I explain the principles behind this configuration and how it
improves reliability and efficiency in power distribution.

What is parallel transformer?

When the primary windings of two or more transformers are connected to

a common voltage supply and their secondary windings are connected to a common
load. Then, the transformers are said to be connected in parallel, i.e., parallel
operation of the transformers.

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37 | P a g e
 THREE WINDING TRANSFORMER:

The term 3-winding means a transformer with 3 sets of bushings labelled H for the
primary, X for the secondary, and Y for the tertiary, see fig. 2. Impedances are then
specified from the H-X, H-Y and X-Y terminals in percent on a chosen winding
(typically the X winding) kVA base.

Definition: Sometimes in high rating transformer, the third winding is constructed

in addition to the primary and the secondary windings. The third winding is called
the tertiary winding, and because of the three windings, the transformer is called
the three-winding transformer.
The voltage ratings of all the three windings of the transformer are usually unequal.
The primary winding has the highest voltage rating; the tertiary has the lowest
voltage rating, and the secondary has the intermediate voltage rating.

The chief advantages of the three winding transformers is an economy of

construction and their great efficiency. The schematic diagram of a three-phase
transformer is shown in the figure below.

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 Three Winding Transformers can offer enhanced flexibility and efficiency
in power distribution? In my latest project, I have successfully designed and
implemented a Three Winding Transformer, exploring the benefits and differences
between those with parry and those without parry. Join me as we dive into the
fascinating world of transformer technology and discover how it can revolutionize
the way we transmit electrical energy.

what is 3 winding transformers?

A 3 winding transformer is a form of single-phase setup that requires
primary, secondary, and tertiary winding. Unlike the more common
transformers with only the primary and secondary winding, the former has a
tertiary winding for low-voltage output.

what is pv array?
Several Photovoltaic panels connected in a string configuration is
typically known as a Photovoltaic array. Current versus voltage (I-V)
characteristics of the PV module can be defined in sunlight and under dark
conditions.

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 OLTC ON-LOAD TAP CHANGER:

The On-load tap changers (LTC or OLTC) regulate the turns ratio and thus the
voltage ratio of an electrical transformer. Unlike its no-load counterpart, on-load
tap changers do this without interrupting the load current.

"In the realm of power systems, on load tap changers play a pivotal role in
achieving peak performance. By enabling seamless adaptability of voltage levels,
this essential component ensures your generator, capacitor bank and static var
controller operate athirst most capacity

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 Imagine a dimmer switch for a giant transformer. That's essentially what
an OLTC does. By adjusting the number of turns in the transformer windings, it
regulates the output voltage to match the ever-changing needs of the grid. This is
crucial because even slight voltage variations can wreak havoc on sensitive
equipment and disrupt power supply.

Unlike their off-load counterparts, OLTCs perform their magic without

taking the transformer offline. This is a game-changer for grid stability and
efficiency. Imagine the chaos if every time the voltage dipped, entire towns or
cities plunged into darkness while engineers scrambled to adjust transformers
manually! OLTCs prevent these disruptive blackouts, keeping the power flowing
seamlessly.

What is the difference between RTCC and OLTC?

RTCC stands for Remote Tap Changer Control. It is used to control the
transformer output voltage by controlling the OLTC unit of the transformer. As
we know the OLTC (On Load Tap Changer) is responsible to change the
transformer output voltage.

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42 | P a g e
 GENERATOR

MODES OF OPERATION:
• Swing mode
• Voltage control
• Mvar control
• Power factor control
SELECTION OF GENERATORS:
In selection of load, based on power factor, pf has to be higher so that the load
will consume low reactive power. While in case of generators, pf has to be lower so
that it will have higher reactive power capability.

In generator selection, it is technically best choice to go with lower power

factor. On the commercial perspective, it is better to go for higher power factor. Mostly
diesel generators (DG) have a power factor of
0.8. the DG is used in low voltage stand-alone mode where it has to support all the loads.
In general, generators below 0.8 pf is not available in the market, but technically it is
possible to design generators at 0.5 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 pf. Whereas, synchronous condensers
have a power factor of zero. It only produces reactive power and no real power.
Small capacity generators like 3MW, 4MW, 8MW, 10MW, 20MW, 25MW
etc. will not be connected at 400 kV. Up to 50 MW generators will be connected to a
voltage of up to 66 kV. Say 5 MW is connected at 11 kV, 10 MW at 33 kV and 25 MW at
66 kV, at these levels, the system might be weak and whenever the generator capacity is
less and it is being connected to a low voltage or medium voltage and where the power
factor of the system is low then its good to go with 0.8 pf.

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 Consider a 50 MW to 500 MW generator connected to a strong system of 110
kV to 400 kV where there is no voltage fluctuations and reactive power requirements then
it a good choice to go from 0.8 pf to 0.85 pf or 0.9 pf. This is based on the studies
performed for a state or a country and evaluating the point at which the generator is to be
connected, voltage fluctuation level at that point and whether the chosen power factor has
the potential for reactive power capability and support the grid voltage not just
momentarily but for 10 years down the line. if the grid has a strong reactive power
support, then it’s a good option to go for 0.85 pf or 0.9 pf.
If the voltage level is increased, the insulation cost will increase while current
reduces for the same power and so conductor cost reduces. The optimal voltage is chosen
as for what voltage the total cost (conductor cost + insulation cost) is minimum will be
the chosen voltage level.
Note: When the voltage level increases, the insulation cost increases and current reduces
for the same power and so conductor size will also reduce.

ETAP SIMULATIONS:
Consider a 400 kV grid source. A 1000 MVA, 400/28 kV transformer is connected
to 800 MW generator at
0.8 pf.

LFA result of the SLD

The generator is in voltage control mode and it is set to produce 800 MW real power. in
order to maintain the voltage at 100%, it has to generate 22.3 Mvar of reactive power.

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 Grid voltage is 102%
When the grid voltage is increased to 102%, the generator starts to consume 138.2
Mvar of reactive power. This is because when the grid voltage increases, the
generator consumes reactive power to maintain the generator bus voltage at 28 kV
i.e., 100%.

Grid voltage is 98%

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 When the grid voltage reduces to 98%, the generator generates 182.8 Mvar to
maintain the generator bus voltage at 100%.

Note: When the generator is operated in voltage control mode, the voltage that is
set, will be maintained by generating or consuming reactive power. This is the
reactive power supported by the generator. It depends upon the grid voltage, real
power generation and transformer impedance.

In the above example, the grid is in swing mode, an infinite source and so the
grid bus voltage is fixed. But in real time there might be many components
upstream which will alter the bus voltages when the generator voltage changes.

Consider a transmission line of 100 km is connected between the grid and

transformer. The grid voltage is 100% and generator voltage is 102%.

Gen bus voltage @ 102% Gen bus voltage@ 100%

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 The grid voltage is fixed at 100% so the grid bus voltage is 100%. The
generator maintains the bus voltage at 102% by generating 107.7 Mvar of reactive
power. The voltage of bus above the transformer is 100.9%. when the generator
parameters change, the trafo bus voltage changes correspondingly.
The grid is considered as a swing source or an infinite source, so the grid
bus voltage is always fixed. Also, generator maintains the bus voltage at its end.
But in real time there will be several equipment on the upstream. So, any changes
in the generator terminal voltage will impact the other components.
Consider a 100 km transmission line is connected between the grid and
transformer. The grid voltage is 98% and generator voltage is 102%.

Gen voltage is 100% Gen voltage is 102%

When generator bus voltage is 102%, the reactive power supplied by

generator changes and the trafo bus voltage will be altered. The change in generator
voltage, impacts the trafo bus voltage depending on the system strength. If the short
circuit current at trafo bus is high, then the system is said to be strong or the source
impedance is less. If the short circuit current is less, the source impedance is high
and the system is weak and voltage fluctuation will be more.
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 If the system is strong, the generator voltage change will not have much influence
on the tarof bus voltage. But if the system is weak, the generator voltage change
will highly impact the tarof bus voltage. So it is preferrable to opt 0.8 pf for weak
system and 0.9 pf for strong system.

Analysis of a strong system with generator @ 0.8 pf generator

In case of a strong system, the changes in grid voltage or generator voltage does
not impact the trafo bus voltage much.

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 ANALYSIS OF A WEAK SYSTEM:

Analysis of a weak system

The above system is considered as a weak system because the transmission line
length is increased and the voltage fluctuation is high. When the generator voltage
is varied as 92%, 100% and 102%, the generator voltage remains constant at 100%.
But the reactive power injected by generator varies in order to maintain the voltage.
It also highly impacts the trafo bus voltage.
Having the generator at 0.8 pf, for grid voltage of 92%, the generator supplies 291.4
Mvar reactive power to maintain the bus voltage at 100%.

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 In reference to the above table, if the generator has 0.95 pf, it will only have the
capacity to inject 262.947 Mvar reactive power. But when the grid voltage is 92%,
generator has to supply 291.4 Mvar to maintain the voltage at 100%. This is the
condition for transformer impedance at 18%.

Generator is @ 0.95 pf and trafo Z is 18%

The increase in transformer impedance reduces the generator bus voltage to
96.61% and the generator reactive power is also restricted and so it is not able to
boost the voltage.

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 Analysis of a strong system with generator @ 0.95 pf generator
When the generator pf is 0.95 in a weak system, the reactive power injected by
generator is 141.6 Mvar, whereas in a weak system, the generator supplies 262.9
Mvar.

GENERATOR IN VOLTAGE CONTROL MODE:

• While having a large capacity generator in voltage control mode, for a small
change in the grid voltage say 0.1% or 0.2%, there will be a huge change in
the reactive power injected by the generator.
• The generator can be operated in voltage control mode, but with a dead band.
For example, if the dead band is 0.5%, the voltage is between 99.5% and
100.5% there will be no change in the reactive power injection by the
generator. If the voltage goes out of these limits, then the reactive power will
be generated or consumed to maintain the voltage at 100%.

GENERATOR IN MVAr CONTROL MODE:

Strong System in MVAr Control Mode

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 Weak System in MVAr Control Mode

In MVAR control mode, the generator terminal voltage is uncontrollable which is

practically not feasible since the voltage tolerance allowed is only 5%.

Consider a system with grid source and generator. The system is configured such that
when the grid fails, the generator gets connected and starts supplying power to the
load.

SLD of the system

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 Normal Grid Connected Condition

Go to Configuration Manager → Copy → Enter Grid Failure as New Configuration → Ok

→ Ok.

Grid Failure Condition

When there is a grid failure, the grid is disconnected and the generator comes in to
service and it is in swing mode. This is called as Isochronous Mode or V/F mode,
where both voltage and frequency are maintained. In isochronous mode, when the load
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 changes from 1.6 MW to 1.3 MW, the generator also supplies only 1.3 MW. As the
load changes, the generator output also correspondingly changes.

Generator in Isochronous Mode

For standalone systems, the generator has to be operated only in swing mode.

The controller at the grid continuously communicates with the AVR of

generator, so that always the power factor at the grid is maintained and the power drawn
from the grid does not exceed the contract demand. The controller activates the AVR
such that the generates injects or consumes reactive power to maintain the grid power
factor. When the power drawn from the grid is about to reach the contract demand, the
generator starts to generate and inject real power into the system.

GENERATOR IN PF CONTROL MODE:

The generator in MVAr control mode or PF control mode will behave in the
same way when the generator is supplying same amount of real power. The voltage
regulation is not done in PF control mode. The difference between the Mvar control and
PF control mode arises when there is a change in the real power and power factor is
unity.

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 In the above systems 800 MW generator at 0.8 pf is used in MVAr and PF control
modes. In MVAr control generator the reactive power limit is set as zero and in PF
control generator, the pf is controlled to unity. With zero reactive power generation and
unity pf, the generators inject the rated real power and no reactive power.

55 | P a g e
 In the above system, the generators are set to supply 500 MW of real power. In MVAr
control generator, the power factor is fixed and the reactive power limit is set at 262.9
MVAr. In PF control generator, the reactive power is fixed and PF is set at 88%. It is
observed that MVAr control generator supplies the rated reactive power and PF control
generator maintains the power factor.

When the generator supply increases from 500 MW to 800 MW, in MVAr control mode
it generates the rated reactive power and in PF control mode, to maintain the pf it injects
more reactive power. in both cases the bus voltage is uncontrollable.

Note: The change between MVAr and PF control modes arises when the pf is not unity
and real power generation changes.

In real time, the generator in MVAr and PF control mode is not used in case of large
generators due to lack of capability to regulate the generator terminal voltage.

56 | P a g e
 The generator has AVR and Governor.
AVR – controls the field voltage Vf, thereby the field current If, hence the reactive
power generation Q and eventually the voltage Vt.
Modes of operation – Voltage control mode, MVAr control mode and power factor
control mode.
GOVERNOR:
• Constant Power Mode – Irrespective of the voltage and frequency, the generator
supplies the rated power.
• Droop Mode – if all generators in a power system are operating in constant
power mode, the loads change with respect to time. So as the load changes, the
generation also has to change simultaneously. Eg: Consider a 500MW
generator at 50Hz is reducing its power output to zero at 52Hz.
Change in power output – 100%
Change in frequency – 2Hz = ( 2/50 ) * 100 = 4%
Droop defines how much % change in frequency makes the power output
change by 100%.
All the generators in the grid, operate in droop mode to share the load and so
the frequency is maintained by increasing the generation when load increases.
• Constant Frequency Mode.
Shall we operate the generator in isochronous mode if they are grid connected?
Isochronous mode is typically used when a generator is the largest unit on a
grid or stands alone. It can also be used for grid-connected sites, allowing for rapid
changes in power and response.
In isochronous mode, the energy admitted to the prime mover is tightly
regulated in reaction to load changes. This allows generators to pick up or reject
loads quickly to maintain a constant frequency.
Isochronous control mode is generally used in applications where
maintaining a constant frequency is critical. Droop control mode is more commonly
used in power systems with multiple generators where sharing the load is important
for reliability.
Isochronous Generator Control Mode.
This is done by adjusting the speed of the generator in response to changes in the
load demand. The speed governor of the generator is designed to respond quickly
to changes in the load demand, ensuring that the frequency remains constant.

57 | P a g e
 How is the frequency brought back to its rated value?
The load dispatch center (LDC) provides the secondary control after the system
settles down at a different frequency. Say the system settles at 49.8Hz, then the LDC
identifies the least possible cost of generation which can increase its power output and
the command is sent to the selective generators to make up for the demand so that the
frequency can be brought back to its rated value. Again the load changes and the entire
process continues.

Generator in Isochronous mode

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 Isochronous load sharing mode causes all generators in a system to operate at the
same percentage of load. Generators in this mode can quickly pick up and reject loads
to maintain a constant frequency.
In isochronous generator control modes, the generator output is controlled to
maintain a constant frequency. This is done by adjusting the speed of the generator in
response to changes in the load demand.
Isochronous load sharing applications can be used for islanded or grid connected
sites. They allow for rapid changes in power and response, and help to stabilize the
grid.
Isochronous load sharing systems generally require that all the gensets have a
common load sharing control system. All the load sharing controls should be of the
same type and from the same manufacturer.

Generators Operate in Isochronous Load Sharing Mode

When there are more number of generators supplying to a common load, the
generators operate in isochronous load sharing mode to share the load equally.

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 Load increased to 4 MW

When the load increases from 2 MW to 4 MW, the generators supply 1 MW

each. As per the load changes the generation also varies.

Generator Capability Curve:

What is a generator capability curve?

The curve represents a boundary of all operating points in the MW/MVAr plane; it is
typically drawn with the real power on the horizontal axis, and, for the synchronous
generator, resembles a letter D in shape, thus another name for the same curve, D-
curve.

The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by three considerations:

• Armature current limit,
• Field current limit, and
• End region heating limit.

Information derived from the Generator Capability Curve:

• Maximum generation limit.
• Determine the operating limit of the generator’s steady-state stability.
• Limitation of the constraints on the various elements of the generator.

60 | P a g e
 • To improve the active power pricing mechanism by considering the reactive power
component.
• Determine the settings of the protection system by knowing the safe operating limits
of the generator.
• Minimum limit in under-excitation conditions.

Generator Characteristics:
• Synchronous generators are rated in terms of the maximum MVA at a specified
voltage and power factor (usually 0.85 or 0.9 lagging).
• The active power output is limited by the prime mover.
• The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by three considerations:
Armature current limit, Field current limit, and End region heating limit.

Capability Curve of Generator defines the boundaries within which it can deliver
reactive power continuously without overheating. Generator rating is specified in terms
of MVA and power factor at a particular terminal voltage.

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 Earthing transformer:
What is the earthing of transformers?
Earthing directs the excess current to the ground and thus provides
protection. Earthing for transformer is extremely important for the safety of
personnel and normal functioning of the system.
Some of the main advantages of earthing a transformer system are listed
below.
• The low magnitude of transient over voltages.
• Greater protection from lightning.
• Reduction in frequency of faults.
• Improved fault protection
• Lesser maintenance requirements.
• Higher safety for personnel.

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 Type of Earthing for Transformers:
Earthing for a transformer is done in two ways to ensure safety.
• Body Earthing
• Neutral earthing

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 LOAD MODELLING
Basic Load Modelling:
Load modeling refers to the representation of electrical loads within a power
system. Electrical loads encompass the consumption of electricity by various devices,
industries, and households connected to the grid. Accurate load modeling is essential for
maintaining the stability and reliability of the power system.

TYPES OF LOADS:
The device which converts some other form of energy to the electrical energy
is known as source whereas the device which converts electrical energy into other
form of energy is called load. The classifications of load in ETAP is based on the
changes in power consumption with respect to voltage.
They are,
• Constant Impedance Load
• Constant Current Load
• Constant Power Load
• Exponential Load
• Polynomial Load

GENERAL FORMULA FOR LOAD MODELLING:

The real power is given by,

Where, P, Q = actual real, reactive power consumption at actual voltage V

Po, Qo = rated real, reactive power consumption at rated voltage Vo
V = instantaneous voltage
Vo = rated voltage
Then, a, b = 2 ; constant impedance load
a, b = 1 ; constant current load
a, b = 0 ; constant power load

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 Loads used in ETAP are,
• Static load – non-rotating loads
• Lumped load – rotating loads + static loads
These two loads are specifically present in ETAP software alone.

CONSTANT IMPEDANCE LOAD:

The load impedance remains same irrespective of applying different voltages.
Current flowing through the load is directly proportional to the voltage power
consumption of load is proportional to square of voltage. The formula for constant
impedance load is derived as,
P = V2 / R, when R is constant P α
V2 ; a = 2
P = Po (V / Vo)2
Examples: Heater, Incandescent lamps, pure R, L, C and combination loads.

Consider a 11kV grid connected to a bus to which 800kVA static load (constant
impedance load) at UPF is connected. The voltage is stepped down to 400V by a
1000kVA transformer and the secondary side is connected to a bus. There is another
800kVA static load at UPF connected to this bus.

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 Given Data: P0 = 800kW,
For load 1: V = 11 kV, V0 = 11 kV For load 2: V = 395.36 V, V0 = 400V
Solution:
For Load 1: P = P0 (V / V0 )2
P = 800 (11 / 11)2

P = 800kW
For Load 2: P = P0 (V / V0 )2
P = 800 (395.36 / 400)2
P = 781.547kW

Now let the grid voltage be reduced to 90% of its rated value.

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 Given Data: P0 = 800kW,
For load 1: V = 9.9 kV, V0 = 11 kV
For load 2: V = 356 V, V0 = 400 V
Solution:
For Load 1:
P = P0 (V / V0 )2
P = 800 (9.9 / 11)2
P = 648 kW
For Load 2:
P = P0 (V / V0 )2
P = 800 (355.84 / 400)2
P = 633.68 kW

CONSTANT CURRENT LOAD:

Load current remains constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Power consumed by
the load is directly proportional to the voltage. The formula for constant impedance
load is derived as,
P = VI , when I is constant
P α V; a = 1
P = Po (V / Vo)
Examples: Charger, UPS, arc furnace, power electronic devices.
Consider a UPS of 800kW rated at 230V. Find the power consumed by the lamp at
210V.
Given Data: P0 = 800kW, V0 = 230V, V = 210V
Solution:
P = P0 (V / V0)
P = 800 (210 / 230)
P = 730.4347W

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 Case 2: Consider the grid voltage is increased by 5%.
Given Data: P0 = 800kW, V0 = 230V, V = 241.5V
Solution:
P = P0 (V / V0)
P = 800 (241.5 / 230)
P = 840 kW

P = P0 (V / V0)
P = 800 (11.55 / 11)
P = 840 kW

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 P = P0 (V / V0)
P = 800 (410 / 400)
P = 820 kW

CONSTANT POWER LOAD:

Load power remains same irrespective of applied voltages. Current flowing
through the load is inversely proportional to the voltage. Whatever may be the
environment changes such as voltage dip it will achieve constant power. Change in
voltage will affects the current only, but the power consumed is a constant. The formula
for constant power load is derived as,

I = P / V , when P is constant
I α 1/V ; a = 0
P = Po
Example: Motor.

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 Real time example:
• Induction motor

The grid voltage is set to 11kV and a 800kVA constant power load is added to the
11kV bus and it is observed that the load draws 800kW of real power.

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 When the grid voltage is reduced to 95% of its rated value i.e., 10.45kV, it is observed
that the constant power load consumes the same amount of real power.

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 To the same 10.45kV grid voltage, the constant power load properties are
altered as the real power behaves as constant power load and reactive power
behaves as constant current load

Q = 760 kVAR

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF ZIP LOADS:

The voltage vs load current characteristics for constant impedance,constant current

and constant power loads is shown in figure

Voltage vs Load current graph of ZIP loads

In constant impedance load, considering the equation
V = I.Z,
where Z is constant
VαI
In constant current load, considering the equation
V = I.Z, where Z is constant
VαI
Hence V is directly proportional to I. As the voltage increases, current also increases
In constant current load, considering the equation
V = I.Z, where I is constant
IConstant α VConstant

Hence I is directly proportional to V. As the current remains constant then the

voltage also remains constant.

73 | P a g e
 In constant power load, considering the equation
V = P / I, where P is constant
Vα1/I
Hence I is inversely proportional to V. As the voltage increases then the
corresponding current decreases due to the inversely proportional of I and V.

EXPONENTIAL LOAD:
Exponential loads are classified as constant power, constant current andconstant
impedance loads. The values of ‘a’ can vary 0, 1, 2 and decimal values. For simulation,
considering the above system and changing the exponential load parameters.

Name plate detail for exponential load

Load flow for exponential load

74 | P a g e
 Real power calculation Reactive power calculation
P = Po (V/Vo)^a Q = Qo (V/Vo)^b
a = 2.5 b=1
Po = 800 kW Qo = 700 kW
Vo = 1 Vo = 1
V = 1.005 V = 1.005
P = 810 kW Q = 703.5 kW

Real and reactive power calculation for exponential load

Thus, in exponential load for each real and reactive power consumption, load
may have any combinations of constant impedance, constant current, constant power
load and it may take decimal values also depending upon the load.

POLYNOMIAL LOAD:
The combination of constant current, constant power and constant impedance
loads in one load is known as polynomial load. The formula for polynomial load is given
by,

Where, p = constant power load component

i = constant current load component
z = constant impedance load component
z+i+p=1

Design a system having power grid operating in 105% of rated voltage, transformer
of rating 1000 kVA, 11/0.4 kV, 5% Z supplying 800 kVA load out of which 25% is
constant current load, 30% is constant power load. Find the actual power
consumption. Perform load flow and state the inference for the case of 105% of
grid voltage. Verify the simulation results manually.

Soln:
For setting polynomial load, lumped load is selected in ETAP. In that
polynomial type model of load is selected and value are given as per the problem. Here
p1 = impedance load component, p2 = current load component and p3 = power load
component.

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 Given, i = 0.25, p = 0.3. Determining z component.
z+i+p=1
z + 0.25 + 0.3 = 1
z = 1 – 0.25 – 0.3 = 0.45
Giving these inputs in exponential load.

Name plate detail of polynomial load

Load flow for polynomial load

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 Manual Calculation:
Po = 800 kW, z = 0.45, i = 0.25, p = 0.3, V = 1.038, Vo = 1
Real power calculation
P = Po [ p + i (V/Vo)^1 + z(V/Vo)^2 ]
= 800 [ 0.3 + 0.25(1.038)^1 + 0.45(1.038)^2 ]
= 800 [ 0.3 + 0.2595 + 0.4848 ]
= 800 [ 1.0443 ]
P = 835.48 kW

Thus, in polynomial load for real power consumption, load may have
combinations of constant impedance, constant current and constant power load. The
manually calculated real power matches with the simulated values.
Frequency dependent loads having no impact in ETAP. For performing load flow
slack bus based method is used. So on changing any of the operating parameters, the
system will maintain the constant rated frequency. For these frequency dependent loads,
frequency dependent load flow has to be done which is impossible in ETAP.

77 | P a g e
 CONCLUSION

ETAP software serves as a powerful and versatile tool for performing load
flow analysis in power systems. Here's a summary of its key strengths and areas for
consideration.

Strengths:

• Accurate and reliable calculations: ETAP boasts proven algorithms and a robust
digital twin model for precise analysis of bus voltages, branch currents, power
flows, system losses, and other crucial parameters.
• Comprehensive functionality: It caters to various analysis needs, including three-
phase and single-phase systems, voltage drop calculations, power factor correction,
automatic device evaluation, and simulating control voltages.
• User-friendly interface: The intuitive interface simplifies data input, result
visualization, and report generation, making it accessible to engineers of all skill
levels.
• Extensive analysis features: Beyond basic load flow, ETAP offers advanced
capabilities like simulating multiple loading and generation conditions, per-phase
graphical analysis, and violation alerts for proactive system management.
• Customization options: ETAP allows users to define custom alerts, reports, and
result displays to cater to specific project requirements.
Areas for consideration:

• Cost: ETAP may require a significant investment compared to some open-source

or simpler software options.
• Learning curve: Mastering the full potential of ETAP's extensive features may
require dedicated training and familiarity with power system engineering concepts.
• System compatibility: Ensure your system hardware and operating software meet
the requirements for smooth functioning of ETAP software.

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