Radiation: Processes and Properties

CHAPTER 12

Incropera F. P., DeWitt D. P., Bergman T. L., Lavine A. S. Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer, 7th Ed., Wiley, 2013 1
 Introduction related to Ch 1
• Consider a solid that is initially at a higher temperature Ts than that of its surroundings Tsur, but
around which there exists a vacuum. The presence of the vacuum prevents energy loss from
the surface of the solid by conduction or convection. However, our intuition tells us that the
solid will cool and eventually achieve thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
• This cooling is associated with a reduction in the internal energy stored by the solid and is a
direct consequence of the emission of thermal radiation from the surface.
• In turn, the surface will intercept and absorb radiation coming from the surroundings.
However, if Ts < Tsur the net heat transfer rate by radiation qrad,net is from the surface, and the
surface will cool until Ts reaches Tsur.
• Recall that the case discussed in Ch 1 was if the solid has temperature of Ts and the
surroundings is isothermal surface (Tsur is fixed):

   E b T s   G   T s4 T sur4 
q rad 1.7 

2
 Main Goals of Ch. 12 & Ch. 13
1. Identify the main characteristics of thermal radiation.
◦ define the irradiation, “define” and “compute” the emissive power
◦ describe the characteristics of a blackbody, Sketch the Planck distribution

2. “compute” the band emission

3. “define” emissivity and compute it

4. “define” absorptivity, and compute it

◦ Define a diffuse surface
◦ Define a gray surface

5. Define & compute the view factor

6. Compute net radiative heat exchange between surfaces.

3
 General Considerations

General Considerations

• Attention is focused on thermal radiation, whose origins are associated with emission from matter at an absolute temperature T < 0K.
• The mechanism of emission is related to energy released as a result of oscillations and transitions of the many electrons that comprise
matter.
• Radiation may also be intercepted and absorbed by matter, resulting in increase in thermal energy.
• The nature of radiation:
- One theory states that the physical manifestations of radiation may be explained by viewing it as particles (aka photons or quanta).
- In other cases, radiation behaves as an electromagnetic wave.
- Wave–particle duality
But, in all cases, radiation can be characterized by a wavelength λ and frequency ν which are related through the speed at which radiation
propagates in the medium of interest,

c In vacuum: c  co  2.998 x 108 m/s



4
 Electromagnetic
Spectrum

Thermal radiation is confined to the infrared, visible and ultraviolet Spectral ~ function of (λ)
regions of the spectrum (0.1 > λ > 100 µm).

Physicist, Electrical engineer

Nuclear engineer

Directionality ~ function of (ϴ)

(Not included)

5
 Radiation Heat Fluxes: Definitions

12.2 Radiation Heat Fluxes and Material Properties

reflected Radiation G ref

r 
incidint Radiation G
absorbed Radiation G abs
 
incidint Radiation G
transmitted Radiation G tr
t 
incidint Radiation G

When an irradiation (G) fall onto a surface, part of this radiation is reflected, part is absorbed, and part is transmitted.

r +  + t = 1 for any medium. r +  = 1 for an opaque medium.

6
 Directional Considerations

12.3 Directional Considerations and Radiation Intensity

Directional emissivity
• In general, radiation fluxes can be determined only from knowledge of
the directional and spectral nature of the radiation.
• Radiation emitted by a surface will be in all directions associated with a
hypothetical hemisphere about the surface and is characterized by a
directional distribution.
• The term “Hemispherical” = integrated over all angles Hemispherical emissivity

2 / 2
E      0 0 I  ,e   , ,   cos sin d d 

Directional effects are not

considered in this course

7
 The Blackbody

12.4 Blackbody Radiation and Its Intensity

• The Blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.

I. For a prescribed temperature and wavelength no surface can emit more radiation than a blackbody (ideal
emitter,  = 1).
II. Also, blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction ( = 1)

• A blackbody is a diffuse emitter which means it emits radiation

uniformly in all direction.

• The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area can be determined
from the Stefan-Boltzmann Law: (also called blackbody emissive power)

Eb   T4  W m 2  where   5.67  108  2W 4 

 m .K 

8
 Planck Distribution

The Spectral (Planck) Distribution of Blackbody Radiation

The spectral distribution of the blackbody emissive power

(determined theoretically and confirmed experimentally) is
C1
E  ,b   ,T    I  ,b   ,T   5
 exp C 2 / T   1
First radiation constant: C 1  3.742 x 108 W   m 4 / m 2
Second radiation constant: C 2  1.439 x 104  m  K

• As the temperature increases, more radiation appears at shorter

wavelengths.
• The wavelength at which the peak emissive power occurs for a given
temperature can be obtained from Wien’s displacement law: (dashed line)
 T max.power  2898 m.K
• In contrast, for T < 800 K, emission is mostly in the infrared region of the
spectrum and is not visible.

9
 Total blackbody emissive power; Eb
• Integrating Plank’s distribution over all wavelengths; gives

E b  T    E  ,b   ,T  d 
0
 C1
 5 d
0   exp  2
C / T  
 1
 T 4

• Where Eb is the total blackbody emissive power.

• The Stefan-Boltzmann law gives the total radiation emitted by a Note that E ,b corresponds to
any value on the curve,
blackbody at all wavelengths from 0 to ∞. However sometimes, we are whereas Eb corresponds to the
area under the entire curve for
interested in finding the amount of radiation emitted over specified
a specified temperature
wavelength interval or band in order to account for the spectral effect.

11
 Band Emission from 0 to 
To avoid numerical integration, the fraction of the total emission from a blackbody in
the wavelength band from 0 to  is determined by the ratio of the shaded section to
the total area under the curve. Hence


F(0 ) 

0
E  ,b d 
T 4

Note, thr ability to determine Iλ,b and

its relation to the maximum intensity E  ,b   I  ,b
from the 3rd and 4th columns.

12
 Example on Band Emission
The temperature of the filament of a light bulb is 2500 K. Assuming the filament to be a blackbody,
• Determine the fraction of the radiant energy emitted by the filament that falls in the visible range.
• Determine the wavelength at which the emission of radiation from the filament peaks.

Assume the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from 0.4 to 0.76 μm.

which means only about 5% of the radiation emitted by the filament of

the light bulb falls in the visible range. The remaining 95% appears in
the infrared region or the “invisible light”.

  max.power  2898  m.K = 1.159 m

2500K

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14
Emissivity
Surface Emissivity
• A blackbody (ideal emitter & absorber ) is the reference in describing the emission
and absorption characteristics of real surfaces.
• The emissivity of a real surface depends on directional and spectral features of the
emitted radiation, ε = function (θ, ϕ, λ, T)

E  E
     ,b
E ,b E ,b

• The total, hemispherical emissivity (a directional and spectral average):


E  T   0    T  E  ,b  T  d 
 T    Emissivity is strongly related to temperature
Eb T  T4

Diffuse surface: is a surface which its properties are independent of direction.

Gray surface: is a surface which its properties are independent of wavelength.

15
Example 12.6: A diffuse surface at 1600 K has the spectral, hemispherical emissivity shown
as follows.
• Determine the total, hemispherical emissivity
and the total emissive power.

16
Abs, Ref & Trans

Response to Surface Irradiation: Absorption, Reflection

and Transmission

Irradiation, G
Reflection, Gref = ρG
Absorption, Gabs = αG
Transmission, Gtr = τG

• 1st law of thermodynamics :

G  G ref  G abs  G tr Hence; 1 = ρ + α + τ

• For opaque (nontransparent) material, Gtr = τ = 0

G  G ref  G abs Hence; 1 = ρ + α
These are for total hemispherical properties (over all direction and all frequencies),
however, we can rewrite these equations for the spectral irradiation as follows;
Gλ in [W/m2.μm] α λ (T,λ) spectral absorptivity
G   rG    G   t G 
ρλ (T,λ) spectral reflectivity τ λ (T,λ) spectral transmissivity

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 Absorptivity Reflectivity Transmissivity

 
 G  d 

G     G     d  G  r   G     d  G
Total, hemispherical   abs  o  r  ref  0  t  tr  0  ,tr
G 0 G  d  G  0 G    d  G 0 G   d 

The source temperature

strongly dependent ------- -------
where G came from.
almost independent on surface on G direction and also on Gref
Dependency Strong dependent on λ
temperature, λ direction (bidirectional)
For example, α of the concrete roof No surface is perfectly diffuse or
is about 0.6 for solar radiation with specular. However; e.g. glass or water, are
source temperature of 5762 K but - Rough surface ~ diffuse Semitransparent ~ short λ
Remarks Opaque ~ longer λ.
0.9 for radiation originating from - Polished (mirror) surface ~ specular
the surroundings with temperature The assumption of diffuse reflection is systems.
300 K mostly used in engineering application

Note that the transmissivity

of glass is affected by its iron
content. These factors have an
important behavior on the
selection of cover plate
materials for
- solar collector applications,
- design of windows for
energy conservation,
- optical components of
infrared imaging.

18
Kirchhoff’s Law Kirchhoff’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s law equates the total, hemispherical emissivity of a surface to its
total, hemispherical absorptivity:
 

However, conditions associated with its derivation are highly restrictive:

Irradiation of the surface corresponds to emission

from a blackbody at the same temperature as the
surface.

• But, Kirchhoff’s law may be applied to the spectral,

directional properties without restriction:
  ,    ,

 The Kirchhoff’s law makes the radiation analysis easier (ε = α), especially for
opaque surfaces where ρ = 1 – α.

19
Problem 12.57:
The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity of an opaque surface and the spectral distribution of
radiation incident on the surface are as shown.
Use:

G   G d
  abs  o   
G  0 G d 

(a) What is the total, hemispherical absorptivity of the surface?

20
(b) If it is assumed that ελ = αλ and that the surface is at 1000 K, what is its total,
hemispherical emissivity?

(c) What is the net radiant heat flux to the surface?

21
Solar Radiation (Extra info)
• The solar energy reaching the edge of the earth’s atmosphere is called the solar constant:
Gs = 1353 W / m2
Owing to the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit, the actual solar constant changes throughout the year within +/- 3.4%. This
variation is relatively small; thus Gs is assumed to be a constant.
• The effective surface temperature of the sun can be estimated from the solar constant (by treating the sun as a
blackbody).
• The solar radiation undergoes considerable attenuation as it passes through the atmosphere as a result of absorption
and scattering:
• The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths below λ = 0.3 μm almost completely and radiation in
the range of 0.3 – 0.4 μm considerably.
• Absorption in the infrared region is dominated by water vapor and carbon dioxide. Dust/pollutant particles also
absorb radiation at various wavelengths.
• As a result the solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface is about 950 W/m2 on a clear day and much less on a
cloudy day, in the wavelength band 0.3 to 2.5 μm.

22
23
Greenhouse effect

24
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

CHAPTER 13

25
 https://youtu.be/ljAmXU5UUk0
The View Factor (or configuration factor)
• Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on:
(1) the orientation of the surfaces relative to each other

(2) and, their radiation properties and temperatures.

• So, it is a geometrical parameter that accounts for the

effects of orientation on radiation between surfaces.

• View factor is defined as the fraction of radiation

leaving a surface i and incident on surface j

radiation reaching j from i

Fi  j 
radiation leaving i
• Calculating view factors between surfaces are usually
a very complex and difficult to perform. cos i cos  j
1
Fi  j 
Ai 
Ai A J
R 2
dAi dA j
This method could involve complex (13.1)
integration to be performed 1 cos i cos  j
Fj i 
Aj 
Ai A J
R 2
dAi dA j
26
Why do we need to evaluate Fij?
To calculate the net radiative exchange between two surfaces that can be
approximated as blackbodies;

 
q ij  Radiation leaving surface i  Radiation leaving surface j
and directly strikes surface j and directly strikes surface i 
q ij  Ai Fij E b ,i  A j Fji E b , j

How?

I. Analytical method: II. With some relations & rules:

- Reciprocity Rule
By performing the double integral of eq. 13.1,
- Summation Rule
Table 13.1, 13.2 and Figs. 13.4, 13.5 and 13.6 are
- Symmetry Rule
produced for several common geometries.
- Superposition Rule

27
https://youtu.be/fYBpQadsTOE

28
 View Factor Relations
I- Reciprocity Rule:
The view factor Fij is not equal to Fji unless the areas of the two surfaces (areas) are equal. It can be
shown that:
Ai Fij  A j Fji

II- Summation Rule:

In radiation analysis, we usually form an enclosure. The conservation of energy principle requires that
the entire radiation leaving any surface i within the enclosure be intercepted by all surfaces of
enclosure. Therefore,
N

F
j 1
ij 1

III- Symmetry Rule:

Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have
identical F from that surface.

N
From summation: F
j 1
ij  F11  F12  F13  F14  F15  1

From symmetry:  F12  F13  F14  F15  0.25

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 https://youtu.be/lUYYZ2w06Rc

Problem 13.1
Determine 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 for the following configurations using the reciprocity
theorem and other basic shape factor relations. Do not use tables or charts.

𝐹12 = 1
𝐷1
𝐹21 =
𝐷2 𝐹12 = 1

𝐹21 = 0.125

𝐹12 = 0.5
𝐹12 = 0.5
𝐹21 = 0.707
𝐹21 = 0.25

30
 F12  1 F13  0.172
F12  F13  0.5
 F12  0.828
F21  F21  0.71
6 F21  0.207
Example 13.2

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IV- Superposition Rule: https://youtu.be/1fC-UAUy2RI

Example
Consider the rectangular surfaces shown in the
Figure. Determine the view factor F32

Answer:

(a) F31 = 0.24

(b) F 3(1+2) = 0.29

(c) F32 = 0.05

•

Here, we use the superposition Rule

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 https://youtu.be/kxAgjq0LvbA

Blackbody Radiation Exchange

 
q ij  Radiation leaving surface i  Radiation leaving surface j
and directly strikes surface j and directly strikes surface i 
q ij  Ai Fij E b ,i  A j Fji E b , j
σT4

• Net radiation transfer from surface i due to exchange with all (N) surfaces of an
enclosure (all black surfaces):

q i   A i Fij  T i 4 T j4 
N

j 1

• This is if we have blackbodies within the enclosure.

• How about real surfaces?
• Reflection… Reflection … Reflection make the radiation exchange between non-
black surfaces complicated!.

33
 https://youtu.be/ojLegTHSwVg

Example from old exams: Consider coaxial, parallel, black disks separated by 0.20 m. The lower
disk of diameter 0.40 m is maintained at 500 K and the surroundings (surface 3) are at 300 K.

Ai Fij  Aj Fji
- Determine the view factors F12, F13, and F23 F11  F12  F13  1
A1  0.03142m 2
A1  0.1257m 2  R  r / L,
i i R j  rj / L 
F12  0.469 F21  0.117
1  R 2j
F11  0 F22  0 S 1
Ri2
F13  1  0.469  0.531 F23  0.883
Fij 
1
2
 S  [ S 2  4(rj / ri )2 ]1/2 

- What temperature will the upper disk of diameter 0.20 m achieve if electrical power of 17.5 W is
supplied to the heater on the back side of the disk?

 T1  456K
34
 Radiation Exchange between Surfaces (Opaque, Diffuse, Gray)
within an Enclosure (Isothermal and no Transmission, τ = 0)
  i   i  1  ri 
• Radiosity J is the total radiation energy outflowing from a surface, per unit area per unit
time. It is the summation of the reflected and the emitted radiation.
• For a surface i that is gray and opaque (εi = αi & αi + ρi = 1), the Radiosity can be
expressed as Ji = εiEbi + ρiGi
= εiEbi + (1 - εi)Gi

• Solve for Gi and substituted in

q i  Ai  J i  G i 
• For blackbody (εi = 1);
Ji = Ebi = σT4

• Surface radiative resistance (Ohm’s law analogy) of the form:

qi
 E  J i  , where R
 bi 
1 i qi
Ri
i
 i Ai
I surface resistance 35
 Net Radiation between Two Surfaces
Consider two diffuse, gray, and opaque surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained at uniform
temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface i to surface j can be
expressed q ij  Ai Fij J i  A j F ji J j

Applying reciprocity; q ij  Ai Fij  J i  J j 

Thermal resistance analogy: (considered as a space resistance) q ij 

 J i J j 
, where R ij  1
R ij Ai Fij

E b1 q12  q 21
J1 J2
Eb 2
 T14 T 24 
q1  q12 
1  1 1 2 1  1 1 2
R1 
1A1
R12  1 R2 
 2A 2
 1 
A1F12 1A1 A1F12  2 A 2
II surfaces and space resistances

36
Two-Surface Enclosure

37
Method of Solving Radiation Problem
• In radiation problems, either the temperature or the net rate of heat transfer must be given
for each of the surfaces to obtain a unique solution for the unknown surface temperature and
heat transfer rates.
• We use the network method which is based on the electrical network analogy.
• The following steps should be taken:
1. Form an enclosure; consider dummy surface(s) for openings, room, and approximate
these openings as blackbody of area, temperature, and properties,
2. Draw a surface resistance associated with each surface of the enclosure.
3. Connect the surface resistances with space resistances.
4. Solve the radiations problem (radiosities) by treating it as an electrical network
problem.

38
Problem 13.43

39
Extra Example Two parallel plates 0.5 by 1.0 m are spaced 0.5 m apart. One plate is maintained at 1000°C
and the other at 500°C. The emissivities of the plates are 0.2 and 0.5, respectively. The plates are located in a
very large room, the walls of which are maintained at 27°C. The plates exchange heat with each other and
with the room, but only the plate surfaces facing each other are to be considered in the analysis.
Find the net heat transfer rate to each plate and the room; neglect other modes of heat transfer, i.e.,
conduction and convection.

𝑞1 𝑞2

𝑞3

40
𝑞1

𝑞2

𝑞3

41